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Diverse applications of biotechnology

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Scientific Research and Essays Vol. 5(9), pp. 826-831, 4 May 2010
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/SRE
ISSN 1992-2248 © 2010 Academic Journals

Review

Diverse applications of biotechnology

Nyerhovwo J. Tonukari1, 2*, Oghenetega J. Avwioroko2 and Theresa Ehwerhemuepha2
1
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria.
2
African Research Laboratories, Otorho Agbon (Isiokolo), Ethiope East LGA, Delta State, Nigeria.
Accepted 12 May, 2010

The exciting discipline of biotechnology has drawn the interests of traditional biologists, biochemists,
microbiologists, medical and agricultural scientists into applying mathematical and engineering models
to understanding biology. Also, the biopharmaceutical, biochemical and agricultural industries are
rapidly drawing from and applying the research results of biotechnology. Still, new industries relying on
genomics are springing up daily to challenge the way things have been done.

Key words: Biotechnology, bioremediation, biochemicals, biopharmaceuticals, genomics.

INTRODUCTION

The term biotechnology refers to the technical example, genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture,
applications of biological systems for the production of molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology,
natural substances (antibiotics, biogas, enzymes, etc) etc) and, in many instances, is also dependent on
and involves manipulation of living organisms for the knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of
benefit of man (Soetan, 2008). This technology employs biology such as chemical engineering, bioprocess engi-
power-ful but simple procedures to identify, isolate, purify neering, information technology, and biorobotics (United
and study the regulation of genes and their products. It Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, 2006).
also enables the transfer of genes from one organism to Karl Ereky coined the word “biotechnology” in Hungary
another and can be used to design new genes (Osuntoki, during 1917 to describe a technology based on con-
2005). Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field encom- verting raw materials into a more useful product. The
passing microbiology, chemistry, biochemistry, genetics, discovery of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick in
molecular biology, immunology, cell and tissue culture 1953 provided the basis for modern biotechnology.
and physiology, as well as engineering (Tonukari, 2004). Against a belief that new techniques would entail
Proponents around the world project a positive future in unmentionable and uncontrollable consequences for
which biotechnology overcomes food shortages, humanity and the environment, a growing consensus on
improves the environment, heals or eliminates disease the economic value of recombinant DNA emerged (Bud,
and leads to a prosperous and healthy society (Tonukari 1993). Presently, biotechnology has advanced greatly
et al., 2003). Modern use of the term refers to genetic and has found applications in almost every sphere of life.
engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture However, while biotechnology depends on so many
technologies. However, the concept encompasses a pure biological science for its operation, some modern
wider range and history of procedures for modifying living biological sciences (including even concepts such as
organisms according to human purposes, going back to molecular ecology) are now intimately entwined and
domestication of animals, cultivation of plants and dependent on the methods developed through biotech-
"improvements" of these through breeding programs that nology for their functionalities (Tonukari et al., 2003). In
employ artificial selection and hybridization. Biotech- fact, biotechnology is at the moment playing a ‘’saviour’’
nology draws on the pure biological sciences (for role in almost all facets of life both in the developing and
developed world due to its wide range of application. For
example, biotechnology is directed at the use of
microorganisms for the manufacture of organic products
*Corresponding author Email: [email protected]. such as beer and milk products. It is also applied by
 Tonukari et al. 827

mining industries in the use of naturally present bacteria improved by simply modifying such proteins (Daini,
for bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, 2000). Proteins in legumes and cereals may be trans-
treat waste, clean-up sites contaminated by industrial formed to provide the amino acids needed by human
activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological beings for a balanced diet (Bruce and Bruce, 1999).
weapons, etc.

Improved taste, texture or appearance of food

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE
Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the
Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the
two genes may be transferred to a highly developed crop plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still
variety to impart a new character that would increase its reasonable shelf life (ADB, 2001). This alters the taste,
yield (ADB, 2001). However, while increases in crop yield texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it
are the most obvious applications of modern could expand the market for farmers in developing
biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult countries due to the reduction in spoilage. However,
one (Iwalokun, 2005). Current genetic engineering there is sometimes a lack of understanding by
techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a researchers in developed countries about the actual
single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics needs of prospective beneficiaries in developing count-
associated with yield (for example, enhanced growth) are ries. For example, engineering soybeans to resist
controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has spoilage makes them less suitable for producing tempeh
a minimal effect on the overall yield (Bruce and Bruce, which is a significant source of protein that depends on
1999). There is, therefore, much scientific work to be fermentation. The use of modified soybeans results in a
done in this area. Discussed below are various ways in lumpy texture that is less palatable and less convenient
which agriculture has benefitted from biotechnology: when cooking.

Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental

Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and
stresses
other agrochemicals
Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand
biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For Most of the current commercial applications of modern
example, drought and excessively salty soil are two biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the
important limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotech- dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example,
nologists are studying plants that can cope with these crops have been genetically engineered to acquire
extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. The lack of
enable them to do so and eventually transfer these genes herbicides with broad-spectrum activity, but not causing
to the more desirable crops. One of the latest develop- crop injury, was a consistent limitation in crop weed
ments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from management. Presently however, transgenic crops that
Arabidopsis thaliana, a tiny weed that is often used for express tolerance to glyphosate, glufosinate and
plant research because it is very easy to grow and its bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can
genetic code is well mapped out. When this gene was now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting
inserted into tomato and tobacco cells (Flintoft, 2009; damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds
Licatalosi and Darnell, 2010), the cells were able to (Gianessi et al., 2002). Similarly, many crops have been
withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold genetically modified to express resistance to toxins or
and heat, far more than ordinary cells. If these pesticides used in farm lands (Iwalokun, 2005). Bacillus
preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then thuringiensis (Bt), for instance, is a soil bacterium that
At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can produces a protein with insecticidal qualities.
better withstand harsh environments (Abdulla, 2002). Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to
Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this
are resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa, form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which
this virus destroys majority of the rice crops and makes requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are
the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target
(NAS, 2001). insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to
contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they
produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect
Increased nutritional qualities ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt
protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a
The nutritional qualities of proteins in foods may be result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now
828 Sci. Res. Essays

commercially available in a number of countries to control genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the
corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the
controlled by spraying (a more difficult process) (James, mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct
2002). the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases
in a patient’s gene to disease in healthy individuals or
their progeny. Some genetic tests are already available,
Production of novel substances in crop plants although most of them are used in developed countries
(Soetan , 2008). The tests currently available can detect
Biotechnology is being applied for novel uses other than mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like
food. For example, oilseed can be modified to produce cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s
fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect
petrochemicals. Potatoes, tomatoes, ricererere tobacco, mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such
lettuce, safflowers, and other plants have been as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. Cross and
genetically-engineered to produce insulin and certain Burmester (2006) however, reported that gene tests may
vaccines (Murray et al., 2000). If future clinical trials not detect every mutation associated with a particular
prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and
would be enormous, especially for developing countries. the ones they do detect may present different risks to
The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. different people and populations.
Home grown vaccines would also avoid logistical and
economic problems posed by having to transport
traditional preparations over long distances and keeping Parasitology
them cold while in transit. And since they are edible, they
will not need syringes, which are not only an additional The essential tools to help overcome the difficulties
expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also a encountered in development of vaccines for protozoan
source of infections, if contaminated (Pascual, 2007). In and helminth parasites of livestock could be provided by
the case of insulin grown in transgenic plants, it is well- the use of monoclonal antibody and genetic engineering
established that the gastrointestinal system breaks the technologies (Soetan, 2008). According to Gamble and
protein down; therefore this could not currently be Zarlenga (1986), the inability to identify antigens which
administered as an edible protein. According to Somia induce protective immune responses and in obtaining
and Verma (2000), it might be produced at significantly sufficient quantities of vaccine trials is likely the difficulty
lower cost than insulin produced in costly bioreactors. encountered. Hence, biotechnology is helping a lot in the
control of malaria parasites and other infectious diseases
through the discovery of their pathogenesis. Medical
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND MEDICINE fields like veterinary parasitology can provide promising
avenues for significant break-throughs in vaccine
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising production if biotechnology is applied to their researches.
applications in such areas as drug production, pharmaco-
genomics, gene therapy, genetic testing, parasitology,
immunology, etc. Gene therapy and virology

Gene therapy simply refers to a technique used in

Genetic testing correcting defective genes. It could also be defined as the
transfer of therapeutic genes to target cells. The
Genetic testing is now used for carrier screening, or the technique employs the use of some vehicles called
identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy vectors such as adenoviruses, simplex virus, liposomes,
of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the polyethylene glycol (PEG), gene gun, etc. A new gene is
disease to manifest: forensic/identity testing, sex deter- inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to
mination, confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the
individuals, newborn screening, etc (Mulligan, 1993; treatment is successful, the new gene will make a
Somia and Verma, 2000). The test involves the direct functional protein.
examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing
a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences. Two genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by
major types of gene tests exist. In the first type, a using normal genes to supplement or replace defective
researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity
whose sequences are complementary to the mutated (Mulligan, 1993). It can be used to target somatic (that is,
sequences. These probes bind to their complementary body) or gametes (that is, egg and sperm). In somatic
DNA strands among the base pairs of an individual’s gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed,
 Tonukari et al. 829

but this change is not passed along to the next and phenolic glycosides and are usually identified by
generation. In contrast, germline gene therapy involves chromatographic techniques. Chemical fingerprinting has
an alteration or mutation in the egg and sperm cells of the been increasingly applied in the past few years to
parents for the purpose of passing on the changes to determine the ancestry of most plants. Studies have
their offspring. reported the genotyping of several medicinal plants and
As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy have made available their DNA fingerprints (Milahov et
trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified al., 2001).
worldwide (Cross and Burmester, 2006). Around 78% of Biotechnology is used in the production of recombinant
these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. pharmaceuticals. Gene cloning is used to obtain large
These trials focus on various types of cancer, although amounts of recombinant human and animal proteins
other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. (Murray et al., 2000). Production of recombinant insulin
Recently, two children born with severe combined has been used in the management of diabetes. Other
immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to examples include synthesis of human growth hormones
have been cured after being given genetically engineered like somatostatin and somatotropin to manage growth
cells. disorders, production of recombinant factors VIII and IX
At the moment, gene therapy is facing many challenges to treat haemophilia and Christmas disease respectively,
such as viral toxicity, immune and inflammatory production of erythropoietin to control anaemia, relaxing
responses, gene control and targeting issues, multigene to aid child birth, serum and albumin used as plasma
disorder, effect of environment, and the high cost of gene supplement, interferon , , and interleukins used in the
therapy amongst others, which reduce its use as a management of cancers (Soetan and Abatan, 2007).
practical approach for treating disease (Somia and
Verma, 2000). However, it is believed that these
obstacles will soon be overcome as on-going ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS OF
biotechnological researches are still being directed to this BIOTECHNOLOGY
aspect of medicine.
Environmental biotechnology can be defined as a
discipline that studies the application of biotechnology to
PRODUCTION OF BIOCHEMICALS AND solve environmental problems. It involves the processes
BIOPHARMACEUTICALS of portable water production, waste water purification,
solid waste management and soil and sediment clean-up.
Biotechnology has enhanced the production and manipu- It also includes newer developments such as the use of
lation of enzymes for the benefit of mankind in biopesticides, bioremediation of recalcitrant pollutants
biochemistry and chemistry (Soetan, 2008). Although and biosensors for environmental monitoring (Soetan,
enzymes may cause deterioration of foods, they can also 2008).
be used in food processing to produce particular products Environmental sanitation has now been made easy
or to modify the characteristics of particular products through the use of biotechnology. Microorganisms are
(Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). In food and drink engineered and adapted by this renowned technology in
industries, a number of enzymes are utilized. For an effort to find sustainable ways to clean- up contami-
example, enzymes are used in bread making, cheese nated environments. Biological processes generally play
production, meat tenderizing, syrups and sugar a major role in the removal of contaminants from plants
production, confectionary, production of alcoholic drinks, and animals. Biotechnology therefore mimics the biologi-
tea, chocolate and coffee production, protein hydro- cal processes by taking advantage of the astonishing
sylates and condiments, etc. Biotechnology techniques catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert
are also used to fix and immobilize enzymes because of such compounds.
the advantages it provides like capability of repeated use Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation that uses
of the enzymes, ease of precise control, increased fungi to reduce the level of contamination in a given
stability, reduction of product inhibition, control of environment. Fungi can release specific enzymes and
proteolysis, reduced possibility of immunological acids that break down the major components of plant
reactions, operation of altered pH optima, etc. Several fiber. The accumulation of waste is directly proportional to
phytomedicines have been discovered in plants such as population and as our population grows, scientists will be
Vernonia amygdalina, Allium sativum, Mormodica under more pressure to find ways to eliminate
balsamina, Hyperidium spp, Occimum gratissimum etc contaminants from our environment. Similarly, in an
following preliminary studies which revealed their anti- attempt to return our polluted environments to their
bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, antioxidant and anti- original state, the use of legumes such as beans or
inflammatory properties (Adesanoye and Farombi, 2009; cowpea has also been investigated and huge success
Iwalokun et al., 2001, 2004; Smith et al., 2002). The recorded. At the moment, new methodological break-
phytomedicines occur as flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids throughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics,
830 Sci. Res. Essays

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