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CHAPTER 19

TEXTILE PROCESSING PLANTS

Terminology .................................................................................................................................. 19.1
Fiber Making................................................................................................................................. 19.1
Yarn Making.................................................................................................................................. 19.2
Fabric Making............................................................................................................................... 19.3
Air-Conditioning Design............................................................................................................... 19.4
Energy Conservation..................................................................................................................... 19.7

T HIS chapter covers (1) basic processes for making synthetic

fibers, (2) fabricating synthetic fibers into yarn and fabric, (3)
relevant types of HVAC and refrigerating equipment, (4) health
Pick. A single filling thread carried by one trip of the weft inser-
tion device across the loom. Picks interface with the warp ends to
form a woven fabric.
considerations, and (5) energy conservation procedures. Reed. A comblike device on a loom that separates the warp yarns
Most textile manufacturing processes may be placed into one of and also beats each succeeding filling thread against those already
three general classifications: synthetic fiber making, yarn making, woven. The space between two adjacent wires of the reed is called
or fabric making. Synthetic fiber manufacturing is divided into sta- a dent. The fineness of the reed is calculated by the number of dents
ple processing, tow-to-top conversion, and continuous fiber pro- per inch: the more dents, the finer the reed.
cessing; yarn making is divided into spinning and twisting; and Selvage. The narrow edge of woven fabric that runs parallel to
fabric making is divided into weaving and knitting. Although these the warp. It is made with stronger yarns in a tighter construction
processes vary, their descriptions reveal the principles on which air- than the body of the fabric, to prevent raveling. A fast selvage
conditioning design for these facilities is based. encloses all or part of the picks; a selvage is not fast when the filling
threads are cut at the fabric edge after each pick.
TERMINOLOGY Shuttle. A boat-shaped device usually made of wood with a
metal tip that carries filling yarns through the shed in the weaving
The following is a only partial glossary of terms used in the textile process.
industry. For more complete terminology, consult the sources in the Tex. The mass, in grams, of 1000 m (3281 ft) of fabric. Used pri-
Bibliography or the Internet search engine of your choice. marily outside the United States. See also Denier.
Air permeability. Porosity, or ease with which air passes Warp. The set of yarn in all woven fabrics, running lengthwise
through material. Air permeability affects factors such as the wind and parallel to the selvage, interwoven with the filling.
resistance of sailcloth, air resistance of parachute cloth, and effi-
ciency of various types of air filtration media. It is also a measure of FIBER MAKING
a fabric’s warmness or coolness. Processes preceding fiber extrusion have diverse ventilating and
Bidirectional fabric. A fabric with reinforcing fibers in two air-conditioning requirements based on principles similar to those
directions: in the warp (machine) direction and filling (cross- that apply to chemical plants.
machine) direction. Synthetic fibers are extruded from metallic spinnerets and solid-
Calender. A machine used in finishing to impart various surface ified as continuous parallel filaments. This process, called continu-
effects to fabrics. It essentially consists of two or more heavy rollers, ous spinning, differs from the mechanical spinning of fibers or tow
sometimes heated, through which the fabric is passed under heavy into yarn, which is generally referred to as spinning.
pressure. Synthetic fibers may be formed by melt-spinning, dry-spinning, or
Denier. The weight, in grams, of 9000 m (29,528 ft) of yarn. wet-spinning. Melt-spun fibers are solidified by cooling the molten
Denier is a direct numbering system in which lower numbers repre- polymer; dry-spun fibers by evaporating a solvent, leaving the poly-
sent finer sizes and higher numbers the coarser sizes. Outside the mer in fiber form; and wet-spun fibers by hardening the extruded fil-
United States, the Tex system is used instead. aments in a liquid bath. The selection of a spinning method is affected
Heddle. A cord, round steel wire, or thin flat steel strip with a by economic and chemical considerations. Generally, nylons, polyes-
loop or eye near the center, through which one or more warp threads ters, and glass fibers are melt-spun; acetates dry-spun; rayons and
pass on the loom, so that thread movement may be controlled in aramids wet-spun; and acrylics dry- or wet-spun.
weaving. Heddles are held at both ends by the harness frame. They For melt- and dry-spun fibers, the filaments of each spinneret are
control the weave pattern and shed as the harnesses are raised and usually drawn through a long vertical tube called a chimney or
lowered during weaving. quench stack, within which solidification occurs. For wet-spun
Lubricant. An oil or emulsion finish applied to fibers to prevent fibers, the spinneret is suspended in a chemical bath where coagu-
damage during textile processing, or to knitting yarns to make them lation of the fibers takes place. Wet-spinning is followed by wash-
more pliable. ing, applying a finish, and drying.
Synthetic continuous fibers are extruded as a heavy denier tow
Machine direction. The long direction within the plane of the
for cutting into short lengths called staple or somewhat longer
fabric (i.e., the direction in which the fabric is being produced by the
lengths for tow-to-top conversion, or they are extruded as light
machine).
denier filaments for processing as continuous fibers. An oil is then
applied to lubricate, give antistatic properties, and control fiber
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 9.2, Industrial Air cohesion. The extruded filaments are usually drawn (stretched) both
Conditioning. to align the molecules along the axis of the fiber and to improve the

19.1
Copyright © 2007, ASHRAE
19.2 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications

crystalline structure of the molecules, thereby increasing the fiber’s fiber arrangement. The combed lap is then attenuated by drawing
strength and resistance to stretching. rolls and again condensed into a single sliver.
Heat applied to the fiber when drawing heavy denier or high- Drawing. Drawing follows either carding or combing and
strength synthetics releases a troublesome oil mist. In addition, the improves uniformity and fiber parallelism by doubling and drafting
mechanical work of drawing generates a high localized heat load. If several individual slivers into a single composite strand. Doubling
the draw is accompanied by twist, it is called draw-twist; if not, it averages the thick and thin portions; drafting further attenuates the
is called draw-wind. After draw-twisting, continuous fibers may be mass and improves parallelism.
given additional twist or may be sent directly to warping.
Roving. Roving continues the processes of drafting and parallel-
When tow is cut to make staple, the short fibers are allowed to ing until the strand is a size suitable for spinning. A slight twist is
assume random orientation. The staple, alone or in a blend, is then inserted, and the strand is wound on large bobbins used for the next
usually processed as described in the Cotton System section. How- roving step or for spinning.
ever, tow-to-top conversion, a more efficient process, has become
more popular. The longer tow is broken or cut to maintain parallel ori- Spinning. Mechanical spinning simultaneously applies draft and
entation. Most of the steps of the cotton system are bypassed; the par- twist. The packages (any form into or on which one or more ends
allel fibers are ready for blending and mechanical spinning into yarn. can be wound) of roving are creeled at the top of the frame. The
In the manufacture of glass fiber yarn, light denier multifilaments unwinding strand passes progressively through gear-driven drafting
are formed by attenuating molten glass through platinum bushings rolls, a yarn guide, the C-shaped traveler, and then to the bobbin.
at high temperatures and speeds. The filaments are then drawn The vertical traverse of the ring causes the yarn to be placed in pre-
together while being cooled with a water spray, and a chemical size determined layers.
is applied to protect the fiber. This is all accomplished in a single The difference in peripheral speed between the back and front
process prior to winding the fiber for further processing. rolls determines the draft. Twist is determined by the rate of front roll
feed, spindle speed, and drag, which is related to the traveler weight.
YARN MAKING The space between the nip or bite of the rolls is adjustable and
The fiber length determines whether spinning or twisting must be must be slightly greater than the longest fiber. The speeds of front
used. Spun yarns are produced by loosely gathering synthetic staple, and back rolls are independently adjustable. Cotton spindles nor-
natural fibers, or blends into rope-like form; drawing them out to mally run at 8000 to 9000 rpm but may exceed 14,000 rpm. In ring
increase fiber parallelism, if required; and then twisting. Twisted
(continuous filament) yarns are made by twisting mile-long mono- Fig. 1 Textile Process Flowchart and Ranges of Humidity
filaments or multifilaments. Ply yarns are made in a similar manner
from spun or twisted yarns.
The principles of mechanical spinning are applied in three dif-
ferent systems: cotton, woolen, and worsted. The cotton system is
used for all cotton, most synthetic staple, and many blends. Woolen
and worsted systems are used to spin most wool yarns, some wool
blends, and synthetic fibers such as acrylics.

Cotton System
The cotton system was originally developed for spinning cotton
yarn, but now its basic machinery is used to spin all varieties of sta-
ple, including wool, polyester, and blends. Most of the steps from
raw materials to fabrics, along with the ranges of frequently used
humidities, are outlined in Figure 1.
Opening, Blending, and Picking. The compressed tufts are
partly opened, most foreign matter and some short fibers are
removed, and the mass is put in an organized form. Some blending
is desired to average the irregularities between bales or to mix dif-
ferent kinds of fiber. Synthetic staple, which is cleaner and more
uniform, usually requires less preparation. The product of the picker
is pneumatically conveyed to the feed rolls of the card.
Carding. This process lengthens the lap into a thin web, which
is gathered into a rope-like form called a sliver. Further opening and
fiber separation follows, as well as partial removal of short fiber and
trash. The sliver is laid in an ascending spiral in cans of various
diameters.
For heavy, low-count (length per unit of mass) yarns of average
or lower quality, the card sliver goes directly to drawing. For lighter,
high-count yarns requiring fineness, smoothness, and strength, the
card sliver must first be combed.
Lapping. In sliver lapping, several slivers are placed side by side
and drafted. In ribbon lapping, the resulting ribbons are laid one on
another and drafted again. The doubling and redoubling averages
out sliver irregularities; drafting improves fiber parallelism. Some
recent processes lap only once before combing.
Combing. After lapping, the fibers are combed with fine metal
teeth to substantially remove all fibers below a predetermined
length, to remove any remaining foreign matter, and to improve Fig. 1 Textile Process Flowchart and Ranges of Humidity
Textile Processing Plants 19.3

twisting, drawing rolls are omitted, and a few spindles run as high as FABRIC MAKING
18,000 rpm.
Preparatory Processes
Open-end or turbine spinning combines drawing, roving, lap-
ping, and spinning. Staple fibers are fragmented as they are drawn When spinning or twisting is complete, the yarn may be prepared
from a sliver and fed into a small, fast-spinning centrifugal device. for weaving or knitting by processes that include winding, spooling,
In this device, the fibers are oriented and discharged as yarn; twist creeling, beaming, slashing, sizing, and dyeing. These processes
is imparted by the rotating turbine. This system is faster, quieter, and have two purposes: (1) to transfer the yarn from the type of package
less dusty than ring spinning. dictated by the preceding process to a type suitable for the next and
(2) to impregnate some of the yarn with sizes, gums, or other chem-
Spinning is the final step in the cotton system; the feature that icals that may not be left in the final product.
distinguishes it from twisting is the application of draft. The amount Filling Yarn. Filling yarn is wound on quills for use in a loom
and point of draft application accounts for many of the subtle dif- shuttle. It is sometimes predyed and must be put into a form suitable
ferences that require different humidities for apparently identical for package or skein dyeing before it is quilled. If the filling is of rel-
processes. atively hard twist, it may be put through a twist-setting or condition-
Atmospheric Conditions. From carding to roving, the loosely ing operation in which internal stresses are relieved by applying
bound fibers are vulnerable to static electricity. In most instances, heat, moisture, or both.
static can be adequately suppressed with humidity, which should not Warp Yarn. Warp yarn is impregnated with a transient coating
be so high as to cause other problems. In other instances, it is nec- of size or starch that strengthens the yarn’s resistance to the chafing
essary to suppress electrostatic properties with antistatic agents. it will receive in the loom. The yarn is first rewound onto a cone or
Wherever draft is applied, constant humidity is needed to maintain other large package from which it will unwind speedily and
optimum frictional uniformity between adjacent fibers and, hence, smoothly. The second step is warping, which rewinds a multiplicity
cross-sectional uniformity. of ends in parallel arrangement on large spools, called warp or sec-
tion beams. In the third step, slashing, the threads pass progres-
Woolen and Worsted Systems sively through the sizing solution, through squeeze rolls, and then
around cans, around steam-heated drying cylinders, or through an
The woolen system generally makes coarser yarns, whereas the air-drying chamber. As much as several thousand pounds may be
worsted system makes finer ones of a somewhat harder twist. Both wound on a single loom beam.
may be used for lighter blends of wool, as well as for synthetic fibers Knitting Yarn. If hard-spun, knitting yarn must be twist-set to
with the characteristics of wool. The machinery used in both sys- minimize kinking. Filament yarns must be sized to reduce strip-
tems applies the same principles of draft and twist but differs greatly backs and improve other running qualities. Both must be put in the
in detail and is more complex than that used for cotton. form of cones or other suitable packages.
Compared to cotton, wool fibers are dirtier, greasier, and more Uniform tension is of great importance in maintaining uniform
irregular. They are scoured to remove grease and are then usually package density. Yarns tend to hang up when unwound from a hard
reimpregnated with controlled amounts of oil to make them less package or slough off from a soft one, and both tendencies are
hydrophilic and to provide better interfiber behavior. Wool fibers aggravated by spottiness. The processes that require air condition-
are scaly and curly, so they are more cohesive and require different ing, along with recommended relative humidities, are presented in
treatment. Wool, in contrast to cotton and synthetic fibers, requires Figure 1.
higher humidities in the processes prior to and including spinning Weaving
than it does in the processes that follow. Approximate humidities are
given in Kirk and Othmer (1993). In the simplest form of weaving, harnesses raise or depress
alternate warp threads to form an opening called a shed. A shuttle
Twisting Filaments and Yarns containing a quill is kicked through the opening, trailing a thread of
filling behind it. The lay and the reed then beat the thread firmly
Twisting was originally applied to silk filaments; several fila- into one apex of the shed and up to the fell of the previously woven
ments were doubled and then twisted to improve strength, unifor- cloth. Each shuttle passage forms a pick. These actions are repeated
mity, and elasticity. Essentially the same process is used today, but at frequencies up to five per second.
it is now extended to spun yarns, as well as to single or multiple fil- Each warp thread usually passes through a drop-wire that is
aments of synthetic fibers. Twisting is widely used in the manufac- released by a thread break and automatically stops the loom.
ture of sewing thread, twine, tire cord, tufting yarn, rug yarn, ply Another automatic mechanism inserts a new quill in the shuttle as
yarn, and some knitting yarns. the previous one is emptied, without stopping the loom. Other
Twisting and doubling is done on a down- or ring-twister, which mechanisms are actuated by filling breaks, improper shuttle boxing,
draws in two or more ends from packages on an elevated creel, and the like, which stop the loom until it is manually restarted. Each
twists them together, and winds them into a package. Except for the cycle may leave a stop mark sufficient to cause an imperfection that
may not be apparent until the fabric is dyed.
omission of drafting, down-twisters are similar to conventional
Beyond this basic machine and pattern are many complex varia-
ring-spinning frames.
tions in harness and shuttle control, which result in intricate and
When yarns are to be twisted without doubling, an up-twister is novel weaving effects. The most complex loom is the jacquard,
used. Up-twisters are primarily used for throwing synthetic monofil- with which individual warp threads may be separately controlled.
aments and multifilaments to add to or vary elasticity, light reflection, Other variations appear in looms for such products as narrow fab-
and abrasion resistance. As with spinning, yarn characteristics are rics, carpets, and pile fabrics. In the Sulzer weaving machine, a
controlled by making the twist hard or soft, right (S) or left (Z). Qual- special filling carrier replaces the conventional shuttle. In the rapier,
ity is determined largely by the uniformity of twist, which, in turn, a flat, spring-like tape uncoils from each side and meets in the mid-
depends primarily on the tension and stability of the atmospheric con- dle to transfer the grasp on the filling. In the water jet loom, a tiny
ditions (Figure 1). Because the frame may be double- or triple- jet of high-pressure water carries the filling through the shed of the
decked, twisting requires concentrations of power. The frames are warp. Other looms transport the filling with compressed air.
otherwise similar to those used in spinning, and they present the same High humidity increases the abrasion resistance of the warp.
air distribution problems. In twisting, lint is not a serious problem. Weave rooms require 80 to 85% humidity or higher for cotton and
19.4 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications

up to 70% humidity for synthetic fibers. Many looms run faster • Large water chillers
when room humidity and temperature are precisely controlled. • Cooling towers
In the weave room, power distribution is uniform, with an aver- • Industrial piping systems
age concentration somewhat lower than in spinning. The rough
• Pumping
treatment of fibers liberates many minute particles of both fiber and
size, thereby creating considerable amounts of airborne dust. In this • Corrosion-resistant metallurgy
high-humidity area, air changes average from four to eight per hour. • Large centrifugal air compressors
Special provisions must be made for maintaining conditions during • Programmable logic controllers and supervisory control and data
production shutdown periods, usually at a lower relative humidity. acquisition (SCADA) systems
• Water treatment in open sump systems
Knitting
Typical knitted products are seamless articles produced on circu- Consultation with mechanical contracting companies experi-
lar machines (e.g., undershirts, socks, and hosiery) and those knitted enced with building and installing textile-related systems provides
flat (e.g., full-fashioned hosiery, tricot, milanese, and warp fabrics). great insight to these attributes. Thorough understanding of the pro-
Knitted fabric is generated by forming millions of interlocking cesses to be conditioned; precise calculations; familiarity with
loops. In its simplest form, a single end is fed to needles that are actu- codes, regulations, and current industry standards; as well as rea-
ated in sequence. In more complex constructions, hundreds of ends sonable owner/engineer/contractor relationships and adherence to
may be fed to groups of elements that function more or less in parallel. the owner’s budget are necessary for successful projects.
Knitting yarns may be either single strand or multifilament and Air washers are especially important in textile manufacturing and
must be of uniform high quality and free from neps or knots. These may be either conventional low-velocity or high-velocity units in
yarns, particularly the multifilament type, are usually treated with built-up systems. Unitary high-velocity equipment using rotating
special sizes to provide lubrication and to keep broken filaments eliminators, although no longer common, is still found in some plants.
from stripping back. Contamination of air washers by airborne oils often dictates the
The need for precise control of yarn tension, through controlled separation of air washers and process chillers by heat exchangers,
temperature and relative humidity, increases with the fineness of the usually of the plate or frame type.
product. For example, in finer gages of full-fashioned hosiery, a 2°F
change in temperature is the limit, and a 10% change in humidity Open Sump Chilled Water Systems
may change the length of a stocking by 3 in. For knitting, desirable
room conditions are approximately 76°F db and 45 to 65% rh. It is common practice to use open sumps in textile processing
with air washer air-handling units. Open sumps present a unique
Dyeing and Finishing problem for the removal of lint from the basins. Many systems
Finishing, which is the final readying of a mill product for its return the air from spinning areas, and this air carries lint and free
particular market, ranges from cleaning to imparting special char- fibers from the spinning process. These fibers are typically not com-
acteristics. The specific operations involved vary considerably, pletely removed by central collectors (see Figure 3). In older facil-
depending on the type of fiber, yarn, or fabric, and the end product ities, the central collectors may be totally ineffective or nonexistent.
usage. Operations are usually done in separate plants. These areas A rotating drum filter is commonly used to remove lint fibers from
need not only normal heating, ventilation, and fog removal systems, the sumps of air washers to prevent clogging of spray nozzles and
but also removal of hot, dusty, and toxic fumes from continuous fouling of spray media. The rotating drum filters are semisub-
ovens and tenters. Packaged chilling equipment is sometimes used merged in the sump and are fitted with a vacuum system that
to control temperatures of preshrink chemicals, dyes, and coatings traverses the part of the drum that is exposed to air, removing the lint
that are applied to textiles and yarns before finishing. Some of these from the drum surface and transporting it through a high-pressure
processes require corrosive-resistant materials and equipment. blower to a bag house, where water is separated and the lint col-
Inspection is the only finishing operation to which air condi- lected for future disposal.
tioning is regularly applied, although most of the others require Many textile plants have an open sump for return of chilled water
ventilation. Finishing operations that use wet processes usually from the air washers (see A in Figure 2). The chilled water pumps
keep their solutions at high temperatures and require special ven- draw out of these sumps through a screened inlet, C, for return of
tilation to prevent destructive condensation and fog. Spot cooling chilled water to the chillers. In designing the inlet screen, care must
of workers may be necessary for large releases of sensible, latent, be taken to avoid a configuration that might lead to pump cavitation.
or radiant heat. Rotating drum filters should also be considered for these sumps to
prevent fouling of chiller tubes by lint that passes the screens. These
AIR-CONDITIONING DESIGN sumps must be carefully sized to receive the volume of water con-
tained in the system when the air washers are shut off and their
There are many diverse and special needs of specific areas of the sumps drain down.
textile process. Generally, a meeting with the owner’s representa-
tive(s), local code officials, and the owner’s insurance company is Integrated Systems
helpful in satisfying the particular requirements of the process,
insurance companies, and local officials. HVAC engineers design- Many mills use a refined air washer system that combines the
ing textile projects need to have a thorough understanding of the fol- air-conditioning system and the collector system (see the section on
lowing HVAC system elements: Collector Systems) into an integrated unit. Air handled by the col-
lector system fans and any air required to make up total return air
• Psychrometric process in spray systems are delivered back to the air-conditioning apparatus through a cen-
• Humidification and dehumidification tral duct. The quantity of air returned by individual yarn-processing
• Draft-free air distribution machine cleaning systems must not exceed the air-conditioning
• Fog control supply air quantity. Air discharged by these individual suction sys-
• Water and air filters tems is carried by return air ducts directly to the air-conditioning
• Dust collectors system. Before entering the duct, some of the cleaning system air
• Industrial ductwork passes over the yarn-processing machine drive motor and through a
• Large built-up air handlers special enclosure to capture heat losses from the motor.
Textile Processing Plants 19.5

Fig. 2 Mechanical Spinning Room with Combined Air-Conditioning and Collector System

Fig. 2 Mechanical Spinning Room with Combined Air-Conditioning and Collector System

When integrated systems occasionally exceed the supply air • Maximum cleaning use is made of the air being moved. A guide
requirements of the area served, the surplus air must be reintroduced for cleaning air requirements follows:
after filtering. Pickers 2500 to 4000 cfm per picker
Individual suction cleaning systems that can be integrated with Cards 700 to 1500 cfm per card
air conditioning are available for cards, drawing frames, lap wind- Spinning 4 to 8 cfm per spindle
ers, combers, roving frames, spinning frames, spoolers, and warp- Spooling 40 cfm per spool
ers. The following advantages result from this integration:
Collector Systems
• With a constant air supply, the best uniform air distribution can be A collector system is a waste-capturing device that uses many ori-
maintained year-round. fices operating at high suction pressures. Each piece of production
• Downward airflow can be controlled; crosscurrents in the room machinery is equipped with suction orifices at all points of major lint
are minimized or eliminated; drift or fly from one process to generation. The captured waste is generally collected in a fan and fil-
another is minimized or eliminated. Room partitioning between ter unit located either on each machine or centrally to accept waste
from a group of machines.
systems serving different types of manufacturing processes fur-
A collector in the production area may discharge waste-filtered
ther enhances the value of this integration by controlling room air
air either back into the production area or into a return duct to the
pattern year-round.
air-conditioning system. It then enters the air washer or is relieved
• Heat losses of the yarn-processing frame motor and any portion of through dampers to the outdoors.
the processing frame heat captured in the duct, as well as the heat Figure 2 shows a mechanical spinning room with air-conditioning
of the collector system equipment, cannot affect room conditions; and collector systems combined into an integrated unit. In this case,
hot spots in motor alleys are eliminated, and although this heat the collector system returns all of its air to the air-conditioning sys-
goes into the refrigeration load, it does not enter the room. As a tem. If supply air from the air-conditioning system exceeds the max-
result, the supply air quantity can be reduced. imum that can be handled by the collector system, additional air
• Uniform conditions in the room improve production; conditioned should be returned by other means.
air is drawn directly to the work areas on the machines, minimiz- Figure 2 also shows return air entering the air-conditioning sys-
ing or eliminating wet or dry spots. tem through damper T, passing through air washer H, and being
19.6 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications

Fig. 3 Central Collector for Carding Machine In melt spinning, the solvent concentration in the chimney air
must be maintained below its explosive limit. Care is still required
to prevent vapors from being ignited by a spark or flame. The air-
conditioning system must be reliable, because interruption of the
spinning causes the solution to solidify in the spinnerets.
Wind-Up or Take-Up Areas of Continuous Spinning. A heavy
air-conditioning load is developed. Air is often delivered through
branch ducts alongside each spinning machine. Low-velocity, low-
aspiration diffusers must be sized not to agitate delicate fibers.
Draw-Twist or Draw-Wind Areas of Fiber Manufacture. A
heavy air-conditioning load is developed. Distribution, diffusion,
Fig. 3 Central Collector for Carding Machine and return systems are similar to those for the continuous spinning
take-up area.
Opening and Picking. Usually, opening and picking require
delivered by fan J to the supply duct, which distributes it to maintain only a uniform distribution system. The area is subject to shutdown
conditions within the spinning room. At the other end of each spin- of machinery during portions of the day. Generally, an all-air system
ning frame are unitary filter-collectors consisting of enclosure N, with independent zoning is installed.
collector unit screen O, and collector unit fan P. Carding. A uniform distribution system is generally installed.
Collector fan P draws air through the intake orifices spaced along There should be little air movement around the web in cotton card-
the spinning frame. This air passes through the duct that runs length- ing. Central lint collecting systems are available but must be incor-
wise to the spinning frame, passes through screen O, and is then dis- porated into the system design. An all-air system is often selected
charged into the enclosure base (beneath the fan and screen). The air for cotton carding.
quantity is not constant; it drops slightly as material builds up on the In wool carding, there should be less air movement than in cotton
filter screen. carding, not only to avoid disturbing the web, but also to reduce
Because the return air quantity must remain constant, and the air cross-contamination between adjacent cards. This is because differ-
quantity discharged by fan P is slightly reduced at times, relief open- ent colors of predyed wool may be run side by side on adjacent
ings are necessary. Relief openings also may be required when the cards. A split system (i.e., separate systems for each card) may be
return air volume is greater than the amount of air the collector suc- considered for wool carding to reduce air movement. The method of
tion system can handle. returning air is also critical for achieving uniform conditions.
Drawing and Roving. Generally, a uniform distribution all-
The discharge of fan P is split, so part of the air cools the spinning
air system works well.
frame drive motor before rejoining the rest of the air in the return air
tunnel. Regardless of whether the total return air quantity enters the Mechanical Spinning Areas. A heavy air-conditioning load
return air tunnel through collector units, or through a combination is generated, consisting of spinning frame power uniformly dis-
of collector units and floor openings beneath spinning frames, tributed along the frame length and frame driver motor losses
return air fan R delivers it into the apparatus, ahead of return air concentrated in the motor alley at one end of the frame.
damper T. Consideration should be given to filtering the return air Supply air ducts should run across the frames at right angles.
prior to its delivery into the air-conditioning apparatus. Sidewall outlets between each of the two adjacent frames then direct
the supply air down between the frames, where conditions must be
Mild-season operation causes more outdoor air to be introduced
maintained. Where concentrated heat loads occur, as in a double
through damper U. This air is relieved through motorized damper S,
motor alley, placement of a supply air duct directly over the alley
which opens gradually as outdoor damper U opens, while return
should be considered. Sidewall outlets spaced along the bottom of
damper T closes in proportion. All other components perform as
the duct diffuse air into the motor alley.
typical central station air-washer systems.
The collecting system, whether unitary or central, with
A system having the general configuration shown in Figure 2 intake points distributed along the frame length at the working
may also be used for carding; the collector system portion of this level, assists in pulling supply air down to the frame, where
arrangement is shown in Figure 3. A central collector filters the maintenance of conditions is most important. A small percent-
lint-laden air taken from multiple points on each card. This air is age of the air handled by a central collecting system may be
discharged to return air duct A and is then either returned to the used to convey the collected lint and yarn to a central point,
air-conditioning system, exhausted outside, or returned directly to thus removing that air from the spinning room.
the room. A central collector filter may also be used with the spin- Machine design in spinning systems sometimes requires in-
ning room system of Figure 2. terfloor air pressure control.
Air Distribution Winding and Spooling. Generally, a uniform distribution,
all-air system is used.
Textile plants served by generally uniform air distribution may Twisting. This area has a heavy air-conditioning load. Dis-
still require special handling for areas of load concentration. tribution considerations are similar to those in spinning. Either
Continuous Spinning Area. Methods of distribution are diverse all-air or split systems are installed.
and generally not critical. However, spot cooling or localized heat Warping. This area has a very light load. Long lengths of
removal may be required. This area may be cooled by air condition- yarn may be exposed unsupported in this area. Generally, an all-
ing, evaporative cooling, or ventilation. air system with uniform distribution is installed. Diffusers may
Chimney (Quench Stack). Carefully controlled and filtered air be of the low-aspiration type. Return air is often near the floor.
or other gas is delivered to the chimneys; it is returned for condi- Weaving. Generally, a uniform distribution system is necessary.
tioning and recovery of any valuable solvents present. Distribution Synthetic fibers are more commonly woven than natural fibers. The
of the air is of the utmost importance. Nonuniform temperature, lower humidity requirements of synthetic fibers allow the use of an
humidity, or airflow disturbs the yarn, causing variations in fiber all-air system rather than the previously common split system.
diameter, crystalline structure, and orientation. A fabric made of When lower humidity is coupled with the water jet loom, a high
such fibers streaks when dyed. latent load results.
Textile Processing Plants 19.7

Health Considerations present safety criteria. For procedures to analyze and correct the
For detailed information on control of industrial contami- noise from ventilating equipment, see Chapter 46.
nants, see Chapter 25 of the 2004 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Safety and Fire Protection
Systems and Equipment.
Control of Oil Mist. When textiles coated with lubricating oils Oil mist can accumulate in ductwork and create a fire hazard.
are heated above 200°F in drawing operations in ovens, heated Periodic cleaning reduces the hazard, but provisions should be made
rolls, tenterframes, or dryers, an oil mist is liberated. If the oil mist to contain a fire with suppression devices such as fire-activated
is not collected at the source of emission and disposed of, a slightly dampers and interior duct sprinklers.
odorous haze results.
Various devices have been proposed to separate oil mist from the ENERGY CONSERVATION
exhaust air, such as fume incinerators, electrostatic precipitators, The following are some steps that can be taken to reduce energy
high-energy scrubbers, absorption devices, high-velocity filters, consumption:
and condensers. • Applying heat recovery to water and air
Spinning operations that generate oil mist must be provided with • Automating high-pressure dryers to save heat and compressed air
a high percentage (30 to 75%) of outside air. In high-speed spinning, • Decreasing hot-water temperatures and increasing chilled-water
100% outside air is commonly used. temperatures for rinsing and washing in dyeing operations
Operations such as drum cooling and air texturizing, which could • Replacing running washes with recirculating washes where practical
contaminate the air with oil, require local exhausts. • Changing double-bleaching procedures to single-bleaching where
Control of Monomer Fumes. Separate exhaust systems for practical
monomers are required, with either wet- or dry-type collectors, • Eliminating rinses and final wash in dye operations where practical
depending on the fiber being spun. For example, caprolactam nylon • Drying by “bump and run” process
spinning requires wet exhaust scrubbers. • Modifying drying or curing oven air-circulation systems to pro-
Control of Hazardous Solvents. Provisions must be made for vide counterflow
the containment, capture, and disposal of hazardous solvents. • Using energy-efficient electric motors and textile machinery
Control of Cotton Dust. Byssinosis, also known as brown or • For drying operations, using discharge air humidity measure-
white lung disease, is believed to be caused by a histamine-releasing ments to control the exhaust versus recirculation rates in full
substance in cotton, flax, and hemp dust. In the early stages of the economizer cycles
disease, a cotton worker returning to work after a weekend experi-
ences difficulty in breathing that is not relieved until later in the BIBLIOGRAPHY
week. After 10 to 20 years, the breathing difficulty becomes contin- Hearle, J. and R.H. Peters. 1960. Moisture in textiles. Textile Book Publish-
uous; even leaving the mill does not provide relief. ers, New York.
The U.S. Department of Labor enforces an OSHA standard of Kirk and Othmer, eds. 1993. Kirk-Othmer encyclopedia of chemical tech-
lint-free dust. The most promising means of control are improved nology, 4th ed., vol. 9. Wiley-Interscience, New York.
exhaust procedures and filtration of recirculated air. Lint particles Nissan, Q.H. 1959. Textile engineering processes. Textile Book Publishers,
New York.
are 1 to 15 µm in diameter, so filtration equipment must be effective
Press, J.J., ed. 1959. Man made textile encyclopedia. Textile Book Publish-
in this size range. Improvements in carding and picking that leave ers, New York.
less trash in the raw cotton also help control lint. Sachs, A. 1987. Role of process zone air conditioning. Textile Month (Octo-
Noise Control. The noise generated by HVAC equipment can be ber):42.
significant, especially if the textile equipment is modified to meet Schicht, H.H. 1987. Trends in textile air engineering. Textile Month (May): 41.

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