Emergency Care

Institute

Common Hand Conditions

Emergency Guidelines
Acknowledgements

This guide would not have been possible without the contribution of the working party

Lilian Wong - Senior Emergency Physiotherapist

Jade Wong - Senior Hand Therapist
Dr Una Nic Ionmhain - Emergency Physician
Dr Louisa Ng - Emergency Advance Trainee
Dr Mark Rider – Hand Surgery Specialist

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 2

Introduction

This document is for all Emergency clinicians managing common hand injuries or hand conditions in the
Emergency Department (ED).

It is designed as a quick reference guide to assist Emergency clinicians with the diagnosis and emergency
management of common hand presentations to the ED. It is NOT intended as a comprehensive guideline
for each condition and should not replace clinical reasoning.

This guide does not include wrist, hand or finger fractures which are covered in the ECI’s
orthopaedic/musculoskeletal guideline.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 3

Table of Contents

CLOSED HAND INJURIES Page

Acute Carpal Tunnel Syndrome 5
Bony Mallet 7
Central Slip Rupture 9
Closed Pulley Injuries 11
Jersey Finger 13
Radial Nerve Palsy 15
Scapholunate Dissociation 17
Simple Subungual Haematoma 19
Skier’s Thumb 21
Tendinous Mallet 23
Triangular Fibrocartilaginous Complex Injury (TFCC) 25
Trigger Finger 27
Ulna Tunnel Syndrome 29
Volar Plate Injuries 31

DISLOCATIONS
Distal Interphalangeal Joint (DIPJ) – Digits 2-5 33
Interphalangeal Joint (IPJ) – Thumb 35
Proximal Interphalangeal Joint (PIPJ) Dorsal Dislocation – Digits 2-5 37
Proximal Interphalangeal Joint (DIPJ) Volar Dislocation – Digits 2-5 39
Metacarpal-Phalangeal Joint (MCPJ) – Digits 2-6 41
Metacarpal-Phalangeal Joint (MCPJ) – Thumb 43
Carpometacarpal Joint (CMCJ) – Digits 2-5 45
Carpometacarpal Joint (CMCJ) - Thumb 47
Lunate Dislocation 49
Peri-lunate Dislocation 52

INFECTIONS
Deep Palmar Space Infections 55
Felon 57
High Pressure Injection Injury 59
Infectious Tenosynovitis 61
Paronychia 63

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 4

Acute Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

Definition

Rapid onset of median neuropathy caused by sudden increase in carpal tunnel pressure

Different to chronic idiopathic carpal tunnel syndrome

Mechanism
Most common cause is trauma resulting in wrist or hand fractures or dislocations
Less common causes include secondary to inflammatory diseases (eg: gout, rheumatoid arthritis), tumours and
coagulopathy

Clinical Assessment

 Patients often report acute sensory changes (pain, numbness, pins and needles) in median nerve distribution

Look

 May have mild swelling over wrist

 No muscle atrophy is present with acute carpal tunnel syndrome

Feel

 Reduced sensation in median nerve distribution

 2 point discrimination test >15mm is abnormal

Move

 Motor movements usually preserved in acute carpal tunnel syndrome

 As neuropathy progresses, may be weakness of the long finger flexors and abductor pollicus brevis

Radiology
Standard wrist-series X-ray useful to rule out underlying fracture or masses

Differentials

 Chronic carpal tunnel syndrome

 Ulna tunnel syndrome
 Cervical radiculopathy
 Forearm or hand compartment syndrome

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 5

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Short-arm backslab or removable wrist splint
 Elevate
 Immediate referral to hand specialist for surgical decompression

Disposition and Follow-up

 This is a surgical emergency and should be referred immediately to a hand specialist for decompression
 >36hour delay in surgical decompression can result in permanent damage to the median nerve

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Essential to differentiate between acute and chronic (idiopathic) carpal tunnel syndrome. Acute carpal tunnel
requires surgical management whereas chronic carpal tunnel syndrome can be managed conservatively
 Key differential is history of trauma, assessment of risk factors (coagulopathy, systemic inflammatory
conditions) and time to onset of symptoms
 Physical examination tests for carpal tunnel syndrome such as Tinel’s and Phalen’s should be avoided as can
cause progression of acute neuropathy

Further Reading
Gillig, J., White, S., & Rachel, J. (2016). Acute carpal tunnel syndrome a review of the current literature. Orthopaedic
Clinics of North America. 47, 599-607

Tosti R., & Ilyas, A. (2012). Acute Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. Orthopaedic Clinics of North America. 43, 459-465

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 6

Bony Mallet

Definition
Bony injury to terminal extensor mechanism at distal phalanx

https://litfl.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/anatomy-mallet-300x246.jpg

Mechanism
Forced flexion to extended DIPJ such as ball hitting fingertip

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Deformity at DIPJ - extensor lag

 Localised swelling of distal phalanx and DIPJ

Feel

 Maximal tenderness over dorsal DIPJ

Move

 There is NO active extension of DIPJ

 Flexion of DIPJ is preserved

Radiology
Standard finger-series X-rays, lateral view crucial for identifying bony avulsion

Standard finger-series X-ray showing bony

mallet to left little finger, visible only on the
lateral view

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 7

Associated Injuries

 Volar subluxation of DIPJ

 Swan neck deformity

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Dorsal digital zimmer splint with finger straight, keeping PIPJ free. Beware to not apply tape too tightly and
risk causing digital ischaemia

Disposition and Follow-up

 Avulsion fractures involving >1/3 joint surface with DIPJ subluxation will require surgery and should be
referred to hand surgeon for follow-up
 Avulsion fractures involving <1/3 joint surface with no DIPJ subluxation can be managed conservatively with
strict splinting for 6-8 weeks guided by a hand therapist.

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Lateral X-ray is crucial for diagnosing bony mallet

 Lateral X-ray is the only way to differentiate between bony and tendinous mallet
 Untreated mallet injuries can lead to osteo-arthritis of the DIPJ and persistent swan neck deformity

Further Reading
Bassett, R. (2019). Extensor tendon injury of the distal interphalangeal joint (mallet finger) in UptoDate.

Lamaris, G., & Matthew, M. (2017). The diagnosis and management of mallet finger injuries. Hand (NY). 12(3), 223-
228.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 8

Central Slip Rupture

Definition

Rupture of extensor mechanism at its insertion site at the base of middle phalanx (digits 2-5)

Mechanism
Direct blow onto middle phalanx causing forced PIPJ flexion (jammed finger)
Secondary to volar PIPJ dislocation
Laceration over PIPJ

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Swollen digit
 Extensor lag at level of PIPJ
 May present with boutonniere deformity

https://www.startradiology.com/internships/emergency-medicine/hand-fingers/x-hand-fingers/

Feel

 Maximal tenderness over dorsal PIPJ

 May have some tenderness along dorsal proximal phalanx

Move

 There may be reduced or no active extension at PIPJ. This may be a subtle finding.
 Finger flexion of both PIPJ and DIPJ is preserved
 Elson’s test – bend PIPJ at 90 degrees over table and extend middle phalanx against resistance. A positive
test is weak PIPJ extension and the presence of DIPJ extension (images below)

https://musculoskeletalkey.com/diagnostic-and-therapeutic-approaches-to-the-boutonniere-deformity/

A positive test is weakness of PIPJ

extension and presence of DIPJ extension
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wyHSKgAZ1eA

Position for Elson’s Test

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 9

Radiology
Standard finger series X-ray, lateral view crucial to assess for avulsion fracture at base of middle phalanx dorsal
aspect (images below)

Associated Injuries

 Avulsion fracture at base of middle phalanx, dorsal aspect

 Can occur concurrently with volar PIPJ dislocation
 Can progress to boutonniere deformity (image)

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Dorsal digit zimmer splint with MCPJ free. Beware to not apply tape too tightly and risk causing digital
ischaemia

Disposition and Follow-up

 All suspected central slip ruptures should be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up
 Central slip ruptures without avulsion fracture are managed conservatively with splinting. Central slip ruptures
with a bony component may require surgery
 Missed central slip injuries or delay in treatment can result in boutonniere deformity. This is much harder to
treat and can result in long-term impaired function of the affected digit

Pearls and Pitfalls

 In acute central slip rupture, weakness of PIPJ extension may not be apparent as the lateral bands will
temporarily act as secondary PIPJ extensors. Elson’s test isolates the central slip and should be used to
assist diagnosis
 Presence of boutonniere deformity should raise suspicion of underlying central slip injury

Further Reading
Leggit, J., & Meko, C., (2006). Acute finger injuries: part 1 tendons and ligaments. American Family Physician. 73,
810-816.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 10

Closed Pulley Injuries

Definition

Injury to the pulley/s anchoring the long finger flexor tendons to phalanxes

Can be pulley strain or pulley rupture

A = Annular pulley Picture showing crimp

grip position in rock-
C – Cruciate pulley climbing

Mechanism

Sudden overload of pulley system with fingers in crimp grip position (eg: foot slip off wall whilst climbing)

Common in rock climbers and rare in general population

Clinical Assessment

 Patients typically report a “snapping” or “popping” sound at time of injury

Look

 Swollen digit
 May have bruising over volar digit

Feel

 Focal tenderness over the affected pulley

Move

 Active finger flexion of affected digit is limited by pain

 Resisted flexion of affected finger can cause bowstringing if multiple sequential pulleys are ruptured

Radiology

Standard finger-series X-ray to rule out avulsion fractures

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 11

Associated Injuries

 Rupture of collateral ligaments of the IPJs

 Phalanx fracture

Emergency Management

 Analgesia

 Dorsal digital zimmer splint to affected digit leaving MCPJ free. Beware to not apply tape too tightly and risk
causing digital ischaemia

Disposition and Follow-up

 All closed pulley injuries should be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up

 Pulley strains and rupture of a single pulley can usually be managed conservatively with splinting and
exercises guided by a hand therapist
 Multiple pulley ruptures usually require surgical management

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Clinically it is hard to differentiate between a pulley strain, partial tear or complete rupture. All suspected
closed pulley injuries should be referred to hand specialist for follow-up.
 Closed pulley injuries rarely occur outside the rock-climbing population
 The thumb also has a pulley system although closed thumb pulley injury is extremely rare

Further Reading

Elizabeth, A., & John, R. (2017). Flexor tendon pulley injuries in rock climbers. Hand Clinics. 33, 141–148.

Zafonte, B., Rendulic, D., & Szabo, R. (2014). Flexor Pulley System: Anatomy, Injury and Management. Journal of
Hand Surgery America. 39(12), 2525-32.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 12

Jersey Finger

Definition
Avulsion of Flexor Digitorium Profundus (FDP) tendon from base of distal phalanx

Mechanism
Sudden hyperextension of actively flexed finger (eg: finger caught in jersey)

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Swollen finger
 Bruising may be present over volar DIPJ and distal phalanx
 Affected finger usually held in extension

Feel https://www.aafp.org/afp/2006/0301/p810.pdf

 Maximal tenderness over volar DIPJ and volar surface of distal phalanx
 May be tender along volar aspect of digit if tendon retraction

Move

 There is NO isolated active flexion of DIPJ. This should be tested with the affected finger held in extension,
and all unaffected digits in flexion to eliminate adjacent FDP involvement (image below)

https://www.aafp.org/afp/2006/0301/p810.pdf

Radiology
Standard finger series X-ray, lateral view crucial to assess for avulsion fracture and evidence of tendon retraction

Lateral finger x-ray Lateral finger x-ray with

showing FDP avulsion bony fleck over volar
fracture base of distal middle phalanx (black
phalanx arrow), suggesting FDP
tendon retraction

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Lateral-radiograph-showing- https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.7863/jum.2009.28.3.389
a-Leddy-and-Packer-Type-III-FDP-avulsion-fracture-at-
the_fig2_47542811

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 13

Associated Injuries

 Avulsion fracture at base of distal phalanx, volar aspect

 Pulley injury

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Dorsal POSI plaster
 Elevate

Disposition and Follow-up

 All FDP injuries require surgery and must be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up
 Referral within 48hrs to hand specialist is essential as tendon retraction and time from injury both adversely
affect prognosis.

Pearls and Pitfalls

 When assessing for DIPJ flexion of one digit, ensure all other digits are straight to eliminate FDP involvement
from other digits
 Sometimes there may be minimal pain or tenderness with this injury
 Dorsal POSI plaster reduces risk of further tendon retraction compared to the traditional volar POSI

Further Reading
Bachoura, A., Ferikes, AJ., & Lubahn., JD. (2017). A review of mallet finger and jersey finger injuries in the athlete.
Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine. 10(1), 1-9.

Bassett, R. (2019). Flexor tendon injury of the distal interphalangeal joint (jersey finger) in UptoDate.

Lapegue, F. et al. (2015). Traumatic flexor tendon injuries. Diagnostic and Interventional Imaging. 96, 1279-1292.

Leggit, J., & Meko, C., (2006). Acute finger injuries: part 1 tendons and ligaments. American Family Physician. 73,
810-816

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 14

Radial Nerve Palsy

Definition

Compression neuropathy of radial nerve at either forearm or humeral shaft following fracture

Mechanism

Prolonged direct pressure on forearm eg: falling asleep on forearm

Secondary to humeral shaft fracture

Clinical Assessment

Look

 Classic “wrist drop” presentation

 May have swelling in forearm or wrist

Feel

 Reduced sensation in radial nerve distribution

Move

 No active wrist, thumb or MCPJ extension of digits 2-5

 Weakness with forearm supination https://www.orthobullets.com/anatomy/10105/superficial-radial-nerve

Radiology

X-rays are not required for diagnosis of radial nerve palsy

Differentials

 Cervical radiculopathy, particularly C6-C7

 Mixed brachial plexus neuropathy

Emergency Management

 Removable wrist “cock-up” splint (wrist in slight extension) or short-arm backslab

Example of wrist “cock-up” splint

https://www.spshangerstore.com/manu-forsa-volar-wrist-orthosis-left-medium.html

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 15

  Encourage use hand within splint

 Encourage passive finger extension and thumb abduction stretches

Disposition and Follow-up

 All radial nerve palsy should be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up
 Most cases of radial nerve palsy are transient and will self-resolve
 Supportive therapies such as splinting and passive wrist/finger/thumb stretches are important during the
recovery stage to prevent secondary problems like contractures developing.

Pearls and Pitfalls

 When placed in a wrist cock-up splint, patients with radial nerve palsy are able to use their lumbricals and
intrinsic muscles to grip, enabling some level of daily function
 Contractures, particularly of the thumb webspace, can develop very quickly. Encouraging patients to passively
stretch their fingers into extension and thumb into abduction will assist in preventing this
 Neurological examination is key to differentiate between ulna tunnel syndrome, cervical radiculopathy and
mixed brachial plexus neuropathy

Further Reading

Carlson, N. & Logigian, E. (1999). Radial neuropathy. Neurological Clinics. 17(3), 499-523.

Rutkove, S. (2019). Overview of upper extremity peripheral nerve syndromes in UptoDate.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 16

Scapholunate Dissociation

Definition
Complete rupture to the scapholunate ligament (SLL) in wrist

Mechanism
Typically fall onto hyperextended wrist

Clinical Assessment

 Patients often complain of subjective wrist instability, wrist weakness or clicking and catching with movement

Look

 Swollen wrist, especially dorsally

Feel

 Maximal tenderness at scapho-lunate joint, particularly dorsal surface just distal to lister’s tubercle
 Can also be tender at proximal anatomical snuffbox

Move

 Wrist extension and radial deviation are limited by pain

 Movement can be associated with “clunk”

Radiology
Standard wrist series X-ray

 >3mm widening between scaphoid and lunate (Terry-Thomas sign) indicates rupture of SLL
 Inclusion of “clenched-fist” view can highlight interval between scaphoid and lunate

Normal wrist (ap) x-ray Wrist (ap) x-ray showing widened

interval between scaphoid and lunate

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 17

Associated Injuries

 Distal radius fracture

 Scaphoid fracture
 Concurrent tears of adjacent carpal ligaments

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Short-arm volar backslab or removable wrist splint
 Elevate

Disposition and Follow-up

 All scapholunate dissociation injuries require surgical management and should be referred to a hand specialist
 Incomplete SLL tears (or sprain) can often be managed conservatively with splinting and exercises guided by
a hand therapist
 Delay in treatment for scapholunate dissociation can lead to wrist arthritis, scapho-lunate advanced collapse
(SLAC) and poor functional outcomes

Pearls and Pitfalls

 The Terry-Thomas sign may not be present with incomplete SLL tears (sprain). If clinical examination is
suspicious for SLL injury, refer to hand specialist for further evaluation

Further Reading
Boggess, BR. (2019). Evaluation of the adult with acute wrist pain in Uptodate.

Lau, S., Swarna, S., & Tamvakopoulos, G. (2009). Scapholunate dissociation: an overview of the clinical entity and
current treatment options. European Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery & Traumatology. 19(6), 377-385.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 18

Simple Subungual Haematoma

Definition

Collection of blood underneath nail plate

Simple refers to subungual haematoma in absence of associated nail fold or digit injury

Mechanism https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/nail-trauma-a-to-z

Blow or crush injury to distal phalanx causing bleeding from nail bed

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Discolouration underneath the nail plate which is blue black in colour

 Swelling to distal phalanx

Feel

 Focal tender over nail plate and distal phalanx. Often described as “throbbing pain.”

Move

 There may be reduced DIPJ movement secondary to pain and swelling

Radiology
Must have standard finger-series X-ray to rule out distal phalanx fractures, in particular for subungual haematoma
involving >50% of nail plate surface area

Associated Injuries

 Distal phalanx fractures

 Mallet injury
 Nail bed laceration
 Nail plate avulsion

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 For subungual haematoma involving <50% of nail plate surface, manage conservatively with advice for
elevation and short-term digital splint for comfort
 For subungual haematoma involving >50% of nail plate surface or significant discomfort for patient, consider
trephination of nail plate using fine needle to drain blood.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 19

Disposition and Follow-up

 Majority of patients have good outcome and can be managed by a GP

 There may be nail loss and/or nail deformity in the short-term, although this should resolve once a new nail
plate has regrown
 If associated with distal phalanx fracture, nail bed laceration, nail bed avulsion or haematoma involving 100%
nail plate surface, refer to hand specialist for consideration of surgery

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Trephination is most effective in the first 24 hours post injury prior to blood clotting
 Must assess for concomitant injuries (eg: distal phalanx fracture, nail bed laceration) prior to managing as
isolated simple subungual haematoma

Further Reading
Batrick, N., Hashemi, K., & Freij, R. (2003).Treatment of uncomplicated subungual haematoma. Emergency Medicine
Journal. 20(1), 65.

Dean, B., Becker, G., & Little, C. (2012). The management of the acute traumatic subungual haematoma: a
systematic review. Hand Surgery. 17(1), 151-154.

Fastle, R., & Bothner, J. (2018). Subungual Haematoma in UpToDate

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 20

Skier’s Thumb

Definition
Acute injury to ulna collateral ligament (UCL) at MCPJ of thumb

Mechanism
Forced abduction of thumb (eg: against ski-pole)

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Localized swelling to MCPJ of thumb

 Can have bruising over MCPJ of thumb
https://www.physio-pedia.com/Skier%27s_thumb

Feel

 Maximal tenderness over UCL at MCPJ of thumb

Move

 Pain with thumb MCPJ movement, especially abduction

 IPJ movement should be preserved
 Perform UCL stress test at both MCPJ in 0 degrees extension and 30 degrees flexion. Considered positive if
pain or laxity compared with uninjured side

https://www.physio-pedia.com/Skier%27s_thumb
https://www.physio-pedia.com/Skier%27s_thumb

Testing with MCPJ in 0 degrees Testing with MCPJ at 30

extension degrees flexion
Radiology
Standard thumb X-ray to assess for associated avulsion fracture

Thumb X-ray showing UCL avulsion

fracture at base of proximal phalanx on
ulna side

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 21

Associated Injuries

 Avulsion fracture base of proximal phalanx on ulna side

 Stener Lesion – serious complication associated with complete (grade III) UCL ruptures whereby the UCL is
trapped between adductor pollicus aponeurosis and bone, preventing healing.

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Thumb spica plaster keeping IPJ of thumb free
 Elevate

Disposition and Follow-up

 All suspected UCL sprains/ruptures should be referred to hand specialist for review
 UCL ruptures associated with Stener lesion and avulsion fracture will require surgery
 Incomplete UCL ruptures are usually managed conservatively with splinting and exercises guided by a hand
therapist

Pearls and Pitfalls

 UCL rupture can be partial or complete

 Gamekeepers’ thumb refers to chronic injury of the UCL and is different to Skier’s thumb

Further Reading
Gammons, M. (2019). Ulna collateral ligament injury (Gamekeeper’s or Skier’s thumb) in Uptodate.

Mahajan, M., & Rhemrev, SJ. (2013). Rupture of the ulnar collateral ligament of the thumb – a review. International
Journal of Emergency Medicine. 6:31, 1-6.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 22

Tendinous Mallet

Definition
Rupture of terminal extensor tendon at dorsal aspect of distal phalanx

Mechanism https://litfl.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/anatomy-mallet-300x246.jpg

Forced flexion to DIPJ such as ball hitting fingertip

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Deformity at DIPJ - extensor lag

 Localised swelling of distal phalanx and DIPJ

Feel

 Maximal tenderness over dorsal DIPJ

 May be tender along dorsal aspect of digit if tendon retraction

Move

 There is NO active extension of DIPJ

 Flexion of DIPJ is preserved

Radiology
Standard finger-series X-ray, lateral view crucial to differentiate with bony mallet

Finger X-ray showing tendinous mallet to

left ring finger

Associated Injuries

 DIPJ subluxation
 Swan neck deformity

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 23

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Dorsal digital zimmer splint with finger straight, keeping PIPJ free. Beware to not apply tape too tightly and
risk causing digital ischaemia.

Disposition and Follow-up

 Tendinous mallet with volar subluxation of DIPJ requires referral to hand specialist
 Tendinous mallet with no volar subluxation of DIPJ requires strict splinting for 10-12 weeks and should be
referred to a hand therapist

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Lateral finger X-ray is the only way to differentiate between bony and tendinous mallet
 Untreated mallet injuries can lead to osteo-arthritis of the DIPJ and swan neck deformity

Further Reading
Bassett, R. (2019). Extensor tendon injury of the distal interphalangeal joint (mallet finger) in UptoDate.

Lamaris, G., & Matthew, M. (2017). The diagnosis and management of mallet finger injuries. Hand (NY). 12(3), 223-
228.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 24

Triangular Fibrocartilaginous Complex (TFCC) Injury

Definition
Injury to the TFCC of the wrist
TFCC complex is comprised
Can be sprain or tear of multiple ligaments and
the triangular fibrocartilage

Mechanism https://somepomed.org/articulos/contents/mobipreview.htm?3/5/3156

Can be traumatic (usually following FOOSH injury) or degenerative

Clinical Assessment

 Patients will report ulna-sided wrist pain which is worse with activities like opening/closing taps
pushing up from a chair or lifting heavy objects
 Patients may also complain of clicking in the wrist

Look

 Ulna sided wrist swelling

Feel

 Focal tenderness of the ulna fovea (space between extensor carpi and flexor carpi ulnaris)

https://eorthopod.com/triangular-fibrocartilage-complex-tfcc-injuries/

Move

 Painful movement of wrist, in particular ulna deviation and/or pronation

 Combined axial loading of wrist in extension reproduces pain

Radiology
Standard wrist-series X-ray to rule out DRUJ (distal radio-ulna joint) injuries and fracture

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 25

Differentials

 DRUJ instability
 Extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU) tendonitis
 Ulna styloid fracture

Emergency Management

 Oral analgesia
 Short-arm backslab or wrist splint
 Advice rest and avoid gripping activities

Disposition and Follow-up

 Minor TFCC injuries can be managed by a GP or hand therapist with advice to rest and splint for
comfort
 TFCC injuries associated with trauma, are persistent and causing functional impairment should be
referred to a hand specialist for review

Pearls and Pitfalls

 TFCC injuries represent one of the most common causes of ulna-sided wrist pain and should
always be considered as a possible diagnosis or differential in patients with ulna wrist pain
 TFCC injuries often occur with distal radius fractures. Persistent ulna-sided wrist pain in a patient
with recent distal radius fracture should trigger suspicion of TFCC injury
 Focal tenderness of the ulna fovea is the most specific objective indicator of a TFCC injury

Further Reading
Atzei, A., & Luchetti, R. (2011). Foveal TFCC Tear Classification and Treatment. Hand Clinics. 27, 263–
272.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 26

Trigger Finger

Definition

Also known as stenosing flexor tenosynovitis

The catching of the long finger flexors at the A1 pulley (located over volar aspect of metacarpal-phalangeal joint)
during active finger flexion

https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases--conditions/trigger-finger

Mechanism
Caused by pathology between flexor synovial sheath and underlying tendon which impedes smooth gliding of the long
flexors during flexion movement
Exact mechanism is unclear although can be associated with overuse or repetitive finger movements

Clinical Assessment

 Patients report sensation of catching, clicking or locking of affected digit which is often worse first thing in the
morning
Look

 Swelling over volar aspect of metacarpal phalangeal joint (location of A1 pulley)

 If severe, digit may be locked in fixed flexion position

Feel

 Pain over A1 pulley

 May be palpable click over A1 pulley

Move https://www.clinicaplanas.com/en/hand-unit/trigger-finger

 Flexion of digit is associated with painful catching (triggering) at the A1 pulley

 There may be locking of digit as patient tries to actively extend digit from a flexed position, requiring digit to be
passively straightened. In late stages, there may be fixed flexion contracture of digit

Radiology
Imaging is not required for the diagnosis of trigger finger

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Can consider dorsal finger splint to hold finger straight. This should only be used as a short-term measure for
comfort until review by a hand therapist for proper splint

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 27

Disposition and Follow-up

 Trigger finger without locking or flexion contracture should be referred to a hand therapist for trial of
conservative management and splinting. Ultrasound guided steroid injection can be considered for milder
cases.
 Trigger finger with locking or flexion contracture should be referred to a hand specialist for consideration of
surgery.

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Trigger finger can occur in paediatric populations with the thumb being most commonly affected digit.
 Triggering is usually worst first thing in the morning. Wearing a splint fabricated by hand therapists whilst
sleeping at night can help prevent this.

Further Reading
Giugale, J., & Fowler, J. (2015) Trigger finger adult and paediatric treatment. Orthopaedic Clinic North America. 46,
561-569

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 28

Ulna Tunnel Syndrome

Definition

Compression neuropathy of ulna nerve at level of the wrist

Mechanism
Repetitive trauma eg: using jackhammer
Chronic pressure over ulna aspect of hand eg: handlebars on bicycle
Following acute hook of hamate fracture
Space occupying lesion

Clinical Assessment

 Patients often report sensory changes (pain, numbness P+N) along ulna nerve distribution
 May complain of hand or grip weakness

Look

 Muscle wasting: Hypothenar, interossei, dorsal thumb webspace

 May have clawing of ring and little finger if prolonged compression
 Swelling if associated with hook of hamate fracture

Feel

 Reduced sensation in ulna nerve distribution

 Point tenderness over hook of hamate if fractured
 Palpable mass can indicate space occupying lesion

Move

 Weakness of interossei and inability to cross fingers

 Weakness in thumb adduction which can be tested using Froment’s sign (image below)

https://teachneuro.blogspot.com/2012/04/froments-sign.html?m=0

Radiology
Standard wrist-series X-rays if suspect underlying hamate fracture

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 29

Differentials

 Carpal tunnel syndrome

 Cervical radiculopathy
 Cubital tunnel syndrome
 Mixed brachial plexus neuropathy

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Wrist splint or short-arm plaster if associated with hook of hamate fracture

Disposition and Follow-up

 All ulna tunnel syndromes should be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up
 Treatment depends on cause and can include conservative management through splinting or surgery for
removal of space occupying lesions

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Ulna tunnel syndrome can present with either isolated motor and sensory loss, or combination of both.
 Neurological examination is key to differentiate between ulna tunnel syndrome, cervical radiculopathy and
mixed brachial plexus neuropathy

Further Reading
Bachoura, A., & Jacoby, S. (2012). Ulnar Tunnel Syndrome. Orthopaedic Clinics North America. 42, 467-474.

Chen, S., & Tsai, T. (2014). Ulnar Tunnel Syndrome. Journal of Hand Surgery America. 39, 571-579.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 30

Volar Plate Injuries

Definition
Injury to the volar plate over PIPJ
Can be volar plate sprain or volar plate avulsion #

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4471-6554-5_8

Mechanism
Forced hyperextension of finger (eg: finger bent backwards by ball)
Secondary injury to dorsal dislocation of PIPJ

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Swollen finger, especially at level of PIPJ

 May be bruising over volar aspect of PIPJ

Feel

 Maximal tenderness over volar aspect of PIPJ

 May be tender over both radial and ulna collateral ligaments at PIPJ

Move

 Reduced active flexion and extension of PIPJ due to pain

 Passive extension of PIPJ very painful

Radiology
Standard finger series X-ray, lateral view crucial to assess for associated avulsion #

Finger-series X-ray showing volar

plate avulsion fracture of left middle
finger, visible only on the lateral view

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 31

Associated Injuries

 Volar plate avulsion fracture

 Collateral ligament injury at PIPJ

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Dorsal finger splint with PIPJ slightly flexed to protect volar plate. Beware to not apply tape too tightly and risk
causing digital ischaemia.

Disposition and Follow-up

 Volar plate sprain and small volar plate avulsion fractures can be managed by GP and hand therapist
 Volar plate avulsion fracture involving >1/3 articular surface or with unstable PIPJ should be referred to a hand
specialist for management

Pearls and Pitfalls

 The most common error with managing volar plate injuries is prolonged splinting. This causes finger stiffness
which is much harder to treat
 Finger flexion exercises should commence within a few days of injury and splinting should not be for more
than 1 week. Consider weaning to buddy strap to prevent stiffness and avoid hyperextending finger
 It is crucial to take finger series X-ray, particularly lateral view, to assess for associated avulsion fracture

Further Reading
Bassett, R. (2019). Middle phalanx fractures in Uptodate

Body, R. (2005). Early mobilization for volar plate avulsion fractures – best evidence topic reports. Emergency
Medicine Journal. 22, 504-509.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 32

Distal Interphalangeal Joint (DIPJ) Dislocation Digits 2-5

Definition

Dorsal or volar (less common) translation of distal phalanx relative to digit

Mechanism
Direct impact onto fingertip such as with catching sports or landing on digit from fall

Clinical Assessment

Look

 Step deformity at level of DIPJ

 Swollen digit and localised bruising

Feel

 Step deformity palpable at DIPJ

 Maximal tenderness to DIPJ and base of distal phalanx
 May have altered sensation to tip of finger

Move

 No active flexion or extension of DIPJ

 Movement at PIPJ is preserved

Radiology
Standard finger-series X-ray, lateral view crucial to confirm direction of dislocation and assess for associated avulsion
fractures

X-rays showing dorsal DIPJ dislocation of right little finger

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 33

Associated Injuries

 Fracture of distal phalanx

 Rupture of FDP with dorsal DIPJ dislocation
 DIPJ volar plate injury
 Nail-bed injuries

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Ring block to affected finger
 Closed reduction
o Longitudinal traction
o For dorsal dislocation, simultaneously gently hyper-extend joint and apply direct pressure over dorsal
aspect of distal phalanx until reduction achieved
o For volar dislocation, simultaneously gently hyper-flex joint and apply direct pressure over volar
aspect of distal phalanx until reduction achieved
o Check for clinical relocation by asking patient to actively move DIPJ
 Repeat X-ray to assess post-reduction position
 Apply dorsal digital zimmer splint to affected finger leaving PIPJ free. Beware to not apply tape too tightly and
risk causing digital ischaemia.

Disposition and Follow-up

 All DIPJ dislocations should be referred to hand specialist for follow-up

Pearls and Pitfalls

 DIPJ dislocations can be difficult to reduce, particularly if volar plate is trapped inside the joint. Longitudinal
traction for dis-impaction is essential for successful reduction.
 In cases of failed reduction, splint digit in position of comfort and immediately refer to hand specialist

Further Reading
Joshi, S. (2019). Digit dislocation reduction in Uptodate

Leggit, JC., & Meko, C. (2006). Acute finger injuries: part II. Fractures, dislocations, and thumb injuries. American
Family Physician. 73, 827–834, 839.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 34

Interphalangeal Joint (IPJ) Dislocation of Thumb

Definition

Dorsal or volar (less common) translation of distal phalanx relative to proximal phalanx of thumb

Mechanism

Direct impact onto distal phalanx of thumb such as through catching sports or landing on thumb from fall

Clinical Assessment

Look

 Step deformity at IPJ level of thumb

 Swollen thumb and localised bruising

Feel

 Step deformity palpable at IPJ of thumb

 Maximal tenderness to IPJ of thumb
 May have altered sensation to tip of thumb

Move

 No active flexion or extension of thumb IPJ

 Thumb MCPJ movement is preserved

Radiology

Standard thumb X-ray, lateral view crucial to confirm direction of dislocation and assess for associated avulsion
fractures

Thumb X-ray showing dorsal IPJ

dislocation of right thumb

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 35

Associated Injuries

 Distal phalanx fracture

 IPJ collateral ligament injury

 Rupture of FPL
 Volar plate injury
 Nail bed injury

Emergency Management

 Oral analgesia
 Ring block to thumb
 Closed reduction
o Longitudinal traction
o For dorsal dislocation, simultaneously gently hyper-extend joint and apply direct pressure over dorsal
aspect of distal phalanx until reduction achieved
o For volar dislocation, simultaneously gently hyper-flex joint and apply direct pressure over volar
aspect of distal phalanx until reduction achieved
o Check for clinical relocation by asking patient to actively move thumb IPJ
 Apply thumb spica plaster and elevate
 Repeat X-ray to assess post-reduction position

Disposition and Follow-up

 All thumb IPJ dislocations should be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up

 IPJ dislocations which are clinically stable following relocation are usually managed conservatively with
splinting and exercises guided by hand therapist
 Operative management may be required if failed reduction, associated with large fragment bony avulsion or
rupture of collateral ligaments causing IPJ instability

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Thumb IPJ dislocations can be difficult to reduce, particularly if the volar plate or FDP is trapped inside the
joint. Longitudinal traction for dis-impaction is essential for successful relocation
 In cases of failed reduction, apply thumb spica plaster and refer immediately to hand specialist

Further Reading

Joshi, S. (2019). Digit dislocation reduction in Uptodate.

Leggit, JC., & Meko, C. (2006). Acute finger injuries: part II. Fractures, dislocations, and thumb injuries. American
Family Physician. 73, 827–834, 839.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 36

Proximal Interphalangeal Joint (PIPJ) Dorsal Dislocation (Digits 2-5)

Definition

Dorsal translation of middle phalanx relative to proximal phalanx of digits 2-5

Mechanism

Direct axial loading force on extended finger such as when catching a ball or falling onto finger

Clinical Assessment

Look

 Step deformity at level of PIPJ

 Swollen digit and localised bruising

Feel

 Step deformity palpable at level of PIPJ of digit

 Maximal tenderness at PIPJ and base of middle phalanx
 May have altered sensation to digit

Move

 There is no active flexion or extension at PIPJ

 DIPJ movement is pain limited

 MCPJ movement is preserved

Radiology

Standard finger-series X-ray, lateral view crucial to confirm direction of dislocation and assess for associated avulsion
fracture

X-ray showing dorsal PIPJ dislocation of

right middle finger

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 37

Associated Injuries

 Volar plate avulsion fracture

 Volar plate injury

 PIPJ collateral ligament injury

Emergency Management

 Oral analgesia
 Ring block to affected digit
 Closed reduction
o Longitudinal traction
o Simultaneously gently hyper-extend joint and apply direct pressure over dorsal aspect of middle
phalanx until reduction achieved
o Check for clinical relocation by asking patient to move PIPJ
 Apply dorsal splint to digit with PIPJ slightly flexed to protect volar plate. Beware to not apply tape too tightly
and risk causing digital ischaemia.

 Repeat X-ray to assess post-reduction position and assess for associated fractures

Disposition and Follow-up

 All PIPJ dislocations should be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up

 PIPJ dislocations that are clinically stable or with small volar plate avulsion fractures are usually managed
conservatively with splinting and exercises guided by a hand therapist
 Operative management may be required if failed reduction, associated with large volar plate avulsion fracture
or rupture of collateral ligaments causing PIPJ instability

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Dorsal PIPJ dislocations are the most common type of digital dislocation

 Dorsal PIPJ dislocations are generally easily reducible. If reduction is difficult, usually associated with volar
plate being trapped inside the joint or large bony fragment blocking reduction
 In cases of failed reduction, apply digital splint in position of comfort and refer immediately to a hand specialist

Further Reading

Joshi, S. (2019). Digit dislocation reduction in Uptodate.

Leggit, JC., & Meko, C. (2006). Acute finger injuries: part II. Fractures, dislocations, and thumb injuries. American
Family Physician. 73, 827–834, 839.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 38

Proximal Interphalangeal Joint (PIPJ) Volar Dislocation (Digits 2-5)

Definition

Volar translation of middle phalanx relative to proximal phalanx of digits 2-5

Mechanism

Direct axial loading force on flexed finger (eg: getting finger caught in spinning clothes dryer)

Clinical Assessment

Look

 Step deformity over PIPJ

 Swollen digit and localised bruising

Feel

 Step deformity palpable at level of PIPJ of digit

 Maximal tenderness at PIPJ and base of middle phalanx

 May have altered sensation to digit

Move

 There is no active flexion or extension at PIPJ

 DIPJ movement is pain limited

 MCPJ movement is preserved

Radiology

Standard finger-series X-ray, lateral view crucial to confirm direction of dislocation and assess for associated avulsion
fracture

Lateral X-ray showing volar PIPJ

dislocation of right index finger

https://www.orthobullets.com/hand/6038/phalanx-
dislocations

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 39

Associated Injuries

 Central slip rupture

 Avulsion fracture to base of middle phalanx

 PIPJ collateral ligament injury

Emergency Management

 Oral analgesia
 Digital ring block to affected finger
 Closed reduction
o Keep MCPJ of affected finger flexed to 90 degrees (relaxes lateral bands)
o Longitudinal traction and simultaneously hyper-flex joint and apply direct pressure over volar aspect of
middle phalanx until reduction achieved
o Check for clinical relocation by asking patient to move PIPJ
 Apply dorsal zimmer splint to affected digit with finger straight, leaving MCPJ free. Beware to not apply tape
too tightly and risk causing digital ischaemia.

 Repeat X-ray to assess post-reduction position and assess for associated fractures

Disposition and Follow-up

 All PIPJ dislocations must be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up

 Volar PIPJ dislocations with an intact central slip, no associated avulsion fracture and clinical stable are
usually managed conservatively with splinting and exercises guided by hand therapist
 Operative management will be required in cases of failed reduction, avulsion fractures disrupting extensor
mechanism or rupture of collateral ligaments causing PIPJ instability

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Volar PIPJ dislocations are a rare injury and are difficult to reduce
 Trapping of the extensor tendon and lateral bands in the articular surface can prevent successful closed
reduction even if effective longitudinal traction is applied
 In cases of failed reduction, apply digital splint in position of comfort and refer immediately to a hand specialist

Further Reading

Borchers, J., & Best, T. (2012). Common finger fractures and dislocations. American Family Physician. 85(8), 805-
810.

Leggit, J., & Meko, C. (2006). Acute finger injuries: part II. Fractures, dislocations, and thumb injuries. American
Family Physician. 73, 827–834, 839.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 40

Metacarpal-Phalangeal Joint (MCPJ) Dislocation (Digits 2-5)

Definition

Dorsal or volar (rare) translation of proximal phalanx relative to metacarpal digits 2-5

Mechanism

High energy trauma resulting in forceful hyperflexion or hyperextension at MCPJ (eg:) falling on outstretched or flexed
hand

Clinical Assessment

Look

 Deformity at level of MCPJ with fingers typically held in flexed position

 Obvious prominence at “knuckle” can be seen with dorsal dislocation

 Loss of bony prominence at “knuckle” with volar dislocation

 Significant hand swelling

Feel

 Step deformity palpable at level of MPCJ of affected digit

 Maximal tenderness at MCPJ
 Often have altered sensation to affected digit

Move

 There is no active flexion or extension at affected MCPJ

 PIPJ and DIPJ movement of affected digit is reduced due to pain and disruption of finger flexors/extensors

Radiology

Standard hand-series X-ray

X-ray showing volar MCPJ dislocation of

right ring finger

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221049171630029X

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 41

Associated Injuries

 Usually associated with significant soft-tissue damage surrounding MCPJ

 Volar plate rupture

 MCPJ collateral ligament injury

 Fractures of proximal phalanx or metacarpal head
 Open dislocation

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Procedural sedation

 Closed reduction
o For dorsal MCPJ dislocation, start with wrist and affected digit in flexion to relax finger flexors and
lateral bands. Gently extend finger and simultaneously apply direct pressure over dorsal aspect of
proximal phalanx until reduction achieved
o For volar MCPJ dislocation, reduction should not be attempted in ED. These injuries are often
irreducible and if performed incorrectly will convert a reducible injury to irreducible.
 Apply POSI in position of MCPJ comfort (MCPJ does NOT need to be flexed to 70 degrees)

 Repeat X-ray to assess post-reduction position and associated fractures

Disposition and Follow-up

 All MCPJ dislocations must be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up

 Volar MCPJ dislocations should be referred immediately to a hand specialist for reduction or surgical fixation.
 The majority of dorsal MCPJ dislocations are clinically unstable after reduction and will also require surgery.
Dorsal MCPJ dislocations that are clinically stable typically have minor injury to the volar plate and are not
associated with fractures. These can usually be managed conservatively with splinting and exercises guided
by a hand therapist.

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Longitudinal traction is NOT encouraged for closed reduction of digital MCPJ dislocations as it can pull
surrounding soft-tissue structures into the joint, making it irreducible
 MCPJ dislocations are major hand injuries and if inadequately managed can lead to poor functional outcomes
and long-term disability

Further Reading

Borchers, J., & Best, T. (2012). Common finger fractures and dislocations. American Family Physician. 85(8), 805-
810.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 42

Metacarpal-Phalangeal Joint (MCPJ) Dislocation of Thumb

Definition

Dorsal or volar (rare) translation of proximal phalanx relative to first metacarpal

Mechanism

High energy trauma resulting in forceful hyperflexion or hyperextension at thumb MCPJ

Clinical Assessment

Look

 Deformity at level of thumb MCPJ

 Obvious prominence at thumb knuckle can be seen with dorsal dislocation

 Loss of bony prominence at thumb knuckle with volar dislocation

 Swollen thumb

Feel

 Step deformity palpable at thumb MPCJ

 Maximal tenderness at MCPJ

 Often have altered sensation to thumb

Move

 There is no active flexion or extension at thumb MCPJ

 IPJ movement is reduced due to pain

Radiology

Standard thumb series X-ray

X-ray showing dorsal MCPJ

dislocation of thumb in
paediatric patient

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 43

Associated Injuries

 Rupture of thumb collateral ligaments, particularly UCL

 Volar plate injury

 Fracture of proximal phalanx or metacarpal head

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Procedural sedation
 Closed reduction
o For dorsal thumb MCPJ dislocation, start with wrist in slight flexion. Simultaneously apply direct
pressure over dorsal aspect of proximal phalanx and gently extend thumb until reduction achieved.
o For volar thumb MCPJ dislocation, start with wrist in slight flexion. Simultaneously apply direct
pressure over volar aspect of proximal phalanx and gently flex thumb until reduction achieved.
 Apply thumb spica plaster in position of comfort and elevate
 Repeat X-ray to assess post-reduction position and associated fracture

Disposition and Follow-up

 All thumb MCPJ dislocations must be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up
 Thumb MCPJ dislocations that are clinically stable, with partial tear to UCL and no Stener lesion, and not
associated with a fracture can be managed conservatively with splinting and exercises guided by a hand
therapist.

 The majority of thumb MCPJ dislocations however will be clinically unstable after reduction. These will require
surgery for definitive management.

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Longitudinal traction is NOT encouraged for closed reduction of thumb MCPJ dislocations as it can pull
surrounding soft-tissue structures into the joint, making it irreducible. This is particularly so if the UCL has
been ruptured
 Thumb MCPJ dislocations are a major injury and if inadequately managed can lead to poor functional
outcomes and long-term disability

Further Reading

Borchers, J., & Best, T. (2012). Common finger fractures and dislocations. American Family Physician. 85(8), 805-
810.

Potini, V., Sood, A., Sood, A., & Mastromonaco, E. (2014). Volar dislocation of the thumb metacarpophalangeal joint
with acute repair of the ulnar collateral ligament. Case Reports Plastic Surgery and Hand Surgery. 1(1), 5-7.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 44

Carpometacarpal Joint (CMCJ) Dislocation (Digits 2-5)

Definition

Dorsal or volar (rare) translation of the metacarpal relative to distal carpus

Mechanism

High energy trauma resulting in axial loading and hyperflexion or hyperextension force eg: punching a wall, falling onto
hand

Clinical Assessment

Look

 Gross swelling to wrist and hand

 Deformity often obscured by swelling

Feel

 Palpable step deformity at CMCJ of affected digit, particularly with dorsal dislocation

 Maximal tenderness at CMCJ

 There may be altered sensation to palm or dorsum of hand

Move

 Wrist flexion and extension is limited by pain

 MCPJ flexion and extension of affected digit is reduced secondary to pain

 Supination and pronation of forearm is preserved

Radiology

Standard wrist-series X-ray

X-rays showing dorsal 4th CMCJ

dislocation with avulsion # base
of 4th metacarpal

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 45

Associated Injuries

 Often associated with metacarpal fracture

 Rupture of surrounding CMCJ ligaments

Emergency Management

 Oral analgesia

 Procedural sedation
 Closed reduction
o For dorsal CMCJ dislocation start with arm in pronation, wrist in slight flexion and MCPJs in flexion.
Apply longitudinal traction, gently extend affected metacarpal and simultaneously apply direct
pressure over dorsal aspect of base of affected metacarpal until reduction achieved
o For volar CMCJ dislocation start with forearm in neutral or supination, wrist in neutral and MCPJs in
flexion. Apply longitudinal traction, gently flex affected metacarpal and simultaneously apply direct
pressure over volar aspect of base of affected metacarpal until reduction achieved
 Apply short-arm backslab plaster and elevate
 Repeat X-ray to assess post-reduction position and for associated fracture

Disposition and Follow-up

 All CMCJ dislocations must be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up

 CMCJ dislocations are usually unstable following reduction and require surgery for definitive management.

Pearls and Pitfalls

 CMCJ dislocations are not always obvious on X-ray due to the overlapping of bones. Careful examination of
both the oblique and lateral views are critical to diagnosing this injury.

 CMCJ dislocations of the ring and little finger are most common because of their relative mobility.

Further Reading

Jumeau, H., Lechien, P., & Dupriez, F. (2016). Conservative treatment of carpometacarpal dislocation of the three last
fingers. Case Reports in Emergency Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/4962021

Pundkare, G., & Patil, A. (2015). Carpometacarpal joint fracture dislocation of second to fifth finger. Clinics in
Orthopaedic Surgery. 7(4), 430 – 435.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 46

Carpometacarpal Joint (CMCJ) Dislocation of Thumb

Definition

Dorsal or volar (rare) translation of 1st metacarpal relative to trapezium

Mechanism

High energy trauma resulting in axial load or direct blow over volar or dorsal thumb web space

Clinical Assessment

Look

 Swollen hand, particularly in thenar eminence

 Clinical deformity is often obscured by swelling

Feel

 Palpable step deformity at level of thumb CMCJ

 Maximal tenderness of CMCJ
 There may be altered sensation to the thumb

Move

 Thumb opposition to little finger is key movement limited by pain

 Thumb flexion and extension is relatively preserved as this occurs at the MCPJ

Radiology

Standard thumb-series X-ray

X-rays showing volar

CMCJ dislocation of
left thumb

https://www.orthobullets.com/hand/10119/thumb-cmc-dislocation

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 47

Associated Injuries

 Rupture of CMCJ ligaments

 Fracture of 1st metacarpal or trapezium

Emergency Management

 Oral analgesia

 Procedural sedation
 Closed reduction
o For dorsal thumb CMCJ start with wrist in flexion. Apply longitudinal traction, gently extend thumb and
simultaneously apply direct pressure over dorsal base of metacarpal until reduction achieved.
o For volar thumb CMCJ dislocation start with forearm and wrist in neutral. Apply longitudinal traction,
gently flex thumb and simultaneously apply direct pressure over volar base of metacarpal until
reduction achieved.
 Apply thumb spica plaster in position of comfort and elevate
 Repeat X-ray to assess post-reduction position and associated fracture

Disposition and Follow-up

 All thumb CMCJ dislocations must be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up

 CMCJ dislocations are usually unstable following reduction and require surgery for definitive management.

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Thumb CMCJ dislocations are often missed as clinical deformity is not obvious and thumb flexion and
extension (which occurs at the MCPJ) is preserved.
 Assessing for thumb opposition and careful examination of thumb X-ray are both critical for diagnosing this
injury
 Thumb CMCJ dislocations are a major injury and if inadequately managed can lead to osteoarthritis of the
CMCJ, poor functional outcomes and long-term disability

Further Reading

Lahiji, F., Zandi, R., & Maleki, A. (2015). First carpometacarpal joint dislocation and review of literatures. The Archives
of Bone and Joint Surgery. 3(4), 300-303.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 48

Lunate Dislocation

Definition
Volar or dorsal (very rare) migration of lunate relative to other carpus

Mechanism
High energy fall onto outstretched or hyper-flexed wrist

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Grossly swollen wrist

 Often no obvious clinical deformity

Feel

 Maximal tenderness over the lunate

 Step deformity often not palpable
 May have altered sensation in median nerve distribution

Move

 Limited wrist movement with extension particularly painful

 May have loss of motor function in median nerve distribution

Radiology
Standard wrist-series X-ray, lateral view crucial to determine direction of dislocation. In a “normal” wrist X-ray, the
Gilula lines are smooth and the capitate sits squarely in the lunate “cup”

Normal wrist X-rays with smooth

Gilula lines and capitate sitting
squarely in lunate “cup”

https://posterng.netkey.at/esr/viewing/index.php?module=viewing_poster&task=viewsecti
on&pi=136622&ti=473646&searchkey=

http://www.emcurious.com/blog-1/2015/7/8/1ftadghymctqd2flw27ao4zwl1m6tb

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 49

 Wrist X-rays showing volar lunate
dislocation – there is disruption to I Gulila
line and the lunate has migrated in a volar
direction and “tipped” over

Associated Injuries

 Median Nerve injury

 Rupture of surrounding peri-lunate ligaments
 Carpal fractures

Emergency Management

 Oral analgesia
 Procedural sedation
 Closed reduction
o For volar lunate dislocations, bend elbow to 90 degrees and keep wrist in neutral. Apply
traction/counter-traction at level of wrist. Simultaneously flex wrist and apply pressure over volar
lunate until reduction is achieved
o For dorsal lunate dislocations, bend elbow to 90 degrees and keep wrist in neutral. Apply
traction/counter-traction at level of wrist. Simultaneously extend wrist and apply pressure over dorsal
lunate until reduction is achieved
 Place in sandwich slab plaster and elevate
 Check integrity of median nerve
 Repeat X-ray to assess post-reduction position and assess for associated fractures

Disposition and Follow-up

 All lunate dislocations require immediate referral to hand surgeon and surgical fixation for definitive
management
 Urgent surgical intervention is required for cases of failed reduction with median nerve compromise

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Rare injury with catastrophic consequences if missed and is inherently unstable after closed reduction
 Different to peri-lunate dislocation (lateral X-ray view essential for differentiating)
 The degree of volar lunate displacement and rotation can vary and does not have to be complete “spilled-cup”
to be considered lunate dislocation
 Dorsal lunate dislocation is very rare and almost always occurs with concomitant carpal fractures

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 50

Further Reading
Boggess, BR. (2019). Evaluation of the adult with acute wrist pain in Uptodate.

Goodman, A. D., Harris, A. P., Gil, J. A., Park, J., Raducha, J., & Got, C. J. (2019). Evaluation, management, and
outcomes of lunate and perilunate dislocations. Orthopedics (Online), 42(1), 1-6.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 51

Peri-lunate Dislocation

Definition
Dorsal or volar (very rare) migration of capitate relative to lunate

Mechanism
High energy fall onto extended or hyper-flexed wrist

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Grossly swollen wrist

 There may be clinical deformity over dorsal wrist if dorsal peri-lunate dislocation

Feel

 Maximal tenderness at inter-carpal joint between capitate and lunate

 May have altered sensation in median nerve distribution

Move

 Limited wrist movement due to pain

 Difficulty making a fist
 May have loss of motor function in median nerve distribution

Radiology
Standard wrist-series X-ray, lateral view crucial to determine direction of dislocation. In a “normal” wrist X-ray, the
Gilula lines are smooth and the capitate sits squarely in the lunate “cup”

Normal wrist X-rays with smooth

Gilula lines and capitate sitting
squarely in lunate “cup”

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 52

 X-ray showing dorsal peri-lunate dislocation
with disruption to both II and III Gilula line
and dorsal displacement of capitate relative
to lunate cup

Associated Injuries

 Median nerve injury

 Carpal fractures – scaphoid fracture most common
 Rupture of surround inter-carpal ligaments

Emergency Management

 Oral analgesia
 Procedural sedation
 Closed reduction
o For dorsal peri-lunate dislocation flex elbow to 90 degrees and wrist in neutral. Apply traction/counter-
traction at level of mid-carpal joint. Simultaneously extend wrist and apply direct pressure over dorsal
capitate until reduction achieved.
o For volar per-lunate dislocation flex elbow to 90 degrees and wrist in neutral. Apply traction/counter-
traction at level of mid-carpal joint. Simultaneously flex wrist and apply direct pressure over volar
capitate until reduction achieved
 Place in sandwich slab plaster and elevate
 Check integrity of median nerve
 Repeat X-ray to assess post-reduction position

Disposition and Follow-up

 All peri-lunate dislocations require immediate referral to hand specialist and surgical fixation for definitive
management
 Urgent surgical intervention is required for cases of failed reduction with median nerve compromise

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Different to lunate dislocation (lateral X-ray view essential for differentiating)

 Inherently unstable after closed reduction and requires surgery for definitive management
 Volar peri-lunate dislocations are rare and always occurs with concomitant carpal fractures

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 53

Further Reading
Apergis, E. (2013) Acute Perilunate Dislocations and Fracture-Dislocations. In: Fracture-Dislocations of the Wrist.
Springer, Milano

Boggess, B. (2019). Evaluation of the adult with acute wrist pain in Uptodate.

Goodman, A., Harris, A., Gil, J., Park, J., Raducha, J., & Got, C. (2019). Evaluation, management, and outcomes of
lunate and perilunate dislocations. Orthopedics (Online), 42(1), 1-6.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 54

Deep Palmar Space Infections

Definition
Infection of the deep fascial spaces of the hand
Can be thenar, mid-palmar or hypothenar space

Mechanism
Deep inoculation due to trauma (most common)
Secondary to spread from superficial infections
Hematogenous spread

Clinical Assessment
Look https://www.orthobullets.com/hand/6106/deep-space-and-collar-button-infections

 Focal palmar swelling with erythema

 Fingers and thumb may be in partially flexed posture due to swelling
 May be overlying wounds or discharge, particularly with penetrating injuries

Feel

 Extremely tender, particularly over the anatomically affected fascial space on palmar side of hand

Move

 Pain with active thumb and finger flexion, particularly for thenar and mid-palmar space infections
 Pain with passive thumb and finger extension, particularly for thenar and mid-palmar space infections.

Radiology
Standard hand-series X-ray to rule out presence of foreign body and assess for bony involvement, particularly with
penetrating injuries.

Ultrasound can be considered to assess for evidence of an abscess

Consider blood tests for inflammatory markers

Differentials

 Gout
 Superficial infections such as cellulitis
 Necrotising fasciitis
 Arthritis including septic and rheumatoid

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 55

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Empiric IV antibiotics – consider first generation cephalosporin eg: cephazolin
 ADT
 POSI plaster and elevate

Disposition and Follow-up

 All deep palmar space infections are surgical emergencies and must be referred immediately to a hand
specialist
 Delay in surgery can result in systemic sepsis, necrosis and long-term functional loss

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Focal tenderness on palpation is key to differentiating which of the three deep fascial spaces are infected

Further Reading
Teo, W., & Chung, K. (2019). Hand infections. Clinics in Plastic Surgery. 46(3), 371-381

Muttath, S., & Chung, K. (2018). Overview of hand injections in UpToDate.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 56

Felon

Definition
Subcutaneous abscess of the pulp space of digit

Mechanism
Most commonly secondary to penetrating injury or untreated paronchyia
Idiopathic onset Overview of Hand Injuries, Muttath et al. UptoDate

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Localised swelling and erythema around distal phalanx, particularly over pulp
 There may be an area of imminent rupture

Feel

 Warm and extremely tender over pulp

 Fluctuant swelling to pulp

Move

 May have reduced DIPJ range due to pain

Investigations
Standard finger series X-ray to assess for foreign body
Consider blood tests for inflammatory markers

Differentials

 Gouty tophi
 Metastatic lesions
 Paronychia

Emergency Management

 Oral analgesia or ring block after examination

 Empiric IV antibiotics - consider first generation cephalosporin eg: cephazolin
 Dorsal finger splint for comfort and strict elevation. Beware to not apply tape too tightly and risk causing digital
ischaemia

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 57

Disposition and Follow-up

 Whilst some early presentations may be adequately managed with warm-water soaks, elevation and
antibiotics, majority will require surgical debridement and should be referred to a hand specialist for follow-up

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Beware foreign body trapping – finger-series X-ray crucial part of assessment

 Can be resistant to conservative therapy due to complex anatomy of fibrous septae in pulp space. If managing
conservatively, must be reviewed by GP within 24 hours to ensure therapy is effective
 If not adequately managed, can progress into osteomyelitis, flexor tenosynovitis, pressure associated
ischaemia and septic arthritis

Further Reading

Franko, O., & Abrams, R. (2013). Hand infections. Orthopaedic Clinics of North America. 44(4), 625-634.

Koshy, J., & Bell, B. (2019). Hand infections. Journal of Hand Surgery America. 44(1), 46-54

Muttath, S., Chung, K., & Ono, S. (2018). Overview of Hand Injuries in UpToDate

Tannan, S., & Deal, D. (2012). Diagnosis and management of the acute felon: evidence-based review. Journal of
Hand Surgery America. 37(12), 2603-2604.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 58

High Pressure Injection Injury

Definition

Accidental injection of industrial substance into hand at high-pressures causing significant tissue trauma

Mechanism
Most often caused by high pressure industrial equipment such as spray-paint guns

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Initially can be benign appearance with minimal swelling and erythema

 There is always a site of entry, typically a puncture-type wound

Feel

 Palpable swelling
 May be crepitus if air injected
 May have reduced sensation to touch and may have reduced capillary refill time

Move

 Finger movement usually preserved in acute stage

Radiology
Finger series X-ray essential to assess for presence and extent of foreign material, and subcutaneous emphysema

Lateral finger X-ray showing presence of

foreign material over volar distal phalanx

Associated Injuries
Can be associated with systemic effects depending on nature of injected toxin

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 59

Emergency Management

 Oral analgesia
 Avoid ring-block as this can increase pressure inside digit
 Broad spectrum IV antibiotics – consider discussing with hands or plastics registrar
 ADT
 Digital splint and elevate. Beware to not apply tape too tightly and risk causing digital ischaemia.

Disposition and Follow-up

 This is a surgical emergency and must be referred immediately to a hand specialist

 Delay in surgery can result in catastrophic outcomes with compartment syndrome and gross necrosis
requiring amputation

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Initial presentation is usually benign and mistaken for minor injury. Symptoms often manifest after 4-6 hours.
 High index suspicion if presence of puncture wounds is associated with history of being near jet stream or use
of high-pressure industrial equipment.
 Look for evidence of foreign material on X-ray eg: soft-tissue densities or lucency can represent paint or
grease

Further Reading
Amsdell, S., & Hammert, W. (2013). High-pressure injection injuries in the hand: current treatment concepts. Plastic
and ReconstructiveSurgery. 132(4), 586e-591e.

Cannon, T. (2016). High-pressure injection injuries of the hand. Orthopaedic Clinics of North America. 47(3), 617-624.

Hogan, C., & Ruland, R. (2006). High-pressure injection injuries to the upper extremity: a review of the literature.
Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma. 20(7), 503-511.

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 60

Infectious Flexor Tenosynovitis

Definition

Infection of flexor tendons and synovial sheath in either hand or fingers

Mechanism
Direct introduction of pathogen through trauma (eg: animal bite)
Secondary to spread from superficial infections
Haematogenous spread

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Fusiform swelling over affected finger with associated erythema

 Digit often held in flexion at rest
 There may be evidence of puncture wound

Feel


Pyogenic Flexor Tenosynovitis. R. Yoon. Orthobullets.
Maximal tenderness along affected tendon https://www.orthobullets.com/hand/6105/pyogenic-flexor-tenosynovitis

 Warm to touch along affected digit

Move

 Most painful with passive extension of affected digit

 Active flexion of affected digit reproduces moderate pain

Radiology
Standard hand-series X-ray to rule out foreign body and bony involvement in cases of puncture wound

Differentials

 Chronic inflammatory tenosynovitis

 Cellulitis
 Gout
 Arthritis including rheumatoid and septic

Emergency Management

 Analgesia
 Empiric IV antibiotics
 POSI plaster and elevate

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 61

Disposition and Follow-up

 All suspected infectious tenosynovitis should be referred immediately to a hand specialist and most will
require surgical management.
 Untreated infectious tenosynovitis can lead to systematic sepsis, permanent destruction to tendon,
compartment syndrome and poor functional outcomes

Pearls and Pitfalls

 Most commonly mistaken for chronic inflammatory tenosynovitis which is common in patients with rheumatoid
arthritis. Key differential is history of trauma or recent infection
 Diabetes, IVDU and being immunocompromised are risk factors for infectious tenosynovitis
 Consider blood tests as part of work-up, and blood cultures if fever or systemic signs of infection

Further Reading
Giladi, A., Malay, S., & Chung, K. (2015). A systematic review of the management of acute pyogenic flexor
tenosynovitis. Journal of Hand Surgery European Volume. 40(7), 720-728.

Koshy, J., & Bell, B. (2019). Hand infections. Journal of Hand Surgery America. 44(1), 46-54

Sexton, D., & Leversedge, F. (2018) Infectious tenosynovitis in UpToDate.

Teo, W., & Chung, K. (2019). Hand infections. Clinics in Plastic Surgery. 46(3), 371-381

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 62

Paronychia

Definition
Inflammation of the skin folds surrounding nail

Mechanism
Usually infective or irritant aetiology (eg: chemotherapeutics)
Can be precipitated by local trauma to digit

Clinical Assessment
Look

 Swollen and erythematous fingertip

 Can be associated with superficial abscess, usually between nail plate and nail fold

Feel

 Warm and tender to touch

 Fluctuant swelling

Move

 Digital pressure test to volar aspect of affected fingertip. Blanching of skin folds at affected area indicates
presence of abscess
 May have reduced DIPJ range due to pain and swelling

Radiology
Imaging is not usually indicated unless suspicious of deeper infection

Differentials

 Felon
 Herpetic Whitlow
 Onychomycosis
 Green nail syndrome

Emergency Management
Without abscess

 Apply topical antibiotics (eg: bactroban) and warm water soaks

 Consider systemic oral antibiotics for resistant infection

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 63

With abscess

 Ring block then insertion of scalpel under cuticle margin and nail fold to express pus

https://www.aafp.org/afp/2001/0315/p1113.html

 Follow with warm water soaks

 Consider systemic oral antibiotics

Disposition and Follow-up

 Can be followed-up with GP and should be reviewed within 48hours to ensure therapy effective

Pearls and Pitfalls

 If left untreated simple paronychia can progress to abscess

 Pus culture may be considered to guide antimicrobial therapy in resistant cases

Further Reading
Franko, O., & Abrams, R. (2013). Hand infections. Orthopaedic Clinics of North America. 44(4), 625-634.

Koshy, J., & Bell, B. (2019). Hand infections. Journal of Hand Surgery America. 44(1), 46-54

Leggit, J. (2017). Acute and chronic paronychia. American Family Physician. 96(1), 44-51.

Goldstein, B., & Goldstein, A. (2019). Paronychia in UpToDate

COMMON HAND CONDITIONS – EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT 64