PART A:

COMMON TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS.

1. Strip footing (continuous footing).
This is provided for a load-bearing wall or a case where a row of columns are so closely spaced such
that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other and thus becomes more economical to
provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line.

2. Spread or isolated footing.

This is provided to support an individual footing column. It may be circular, square or rectangular slab
of uniform thickness. It may also be stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.

3. Combined footing
They are generally used to supports two columns when they are so close to each other such that their
individual footings will overlap. It is also provided when the property line is so close to one column
such that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property line.
Thus by combining it with that of an interior column the load is evenly distributed.

4. Strap/Cantilever Footing.

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It consist of two footings connected with a structural rigid strap beam or lever. The strap connects the
two footings as one unit but does not take any soil reaction.

5. Mat/Raft Foundation.
This is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the entire structure or a large part
of a structure. It is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls
are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other.

COMMON TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATIONS.

1. PILE FOUNDATION.
Pile foundations are used when as per soil condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to
soil strata which are beyond the reach of shallow foundations. Pile – a slender member with a small
cross-sectional area compared to its length - is used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock
strata when the bearing capacity of soil near the surface is relatively low. Pile transmits load either by
skin friction or bearing. Piles are also used for resist structures against uplift and provide structures
stability against lateral and overturning forces.

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 2. PIER FOUNDATION.
Pier is an underground structure that transmits heavier load which cannot be transmitted by shallow
foundations. It is usually shallower than pile foundations. Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural
member which transfer heavy load from superstructure to the soil by end bearing. Unlike pile, it can
only transfer load by bearing and by not skin friction.

3. CAISSON FOUNDATION.
Caisson foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier, construction of dam etc. It
is generally used in structures which requires foundation beneath a river or similar water bodies.
Reason for choosing caisson foundation is that it can be floated to the desired location and then sunk
into place.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BAD/POOR SOILS
1. Expansive soils: - These are soils that are characterized by clayey material that shrinks and
swells as it dries or becomes wet respectively. They are recognized from high values of
plasticity index, plastic limit and shrinkage limit.
2. Collapsible soils: - These are soils that appear to be strong and stable in the natural dry state
but which rapidly consolidate under wetting, generating large and often unexpected
settlements. This can yield disastrous consequences for structures unwittingly built on such soil
deposits.
3. Compressible soils: - These soils contains a high content of organic material and not exposed
to great pressure during its geological history so it will be exposed to a significant settlement.
Generally mat foundation will be used here to avoid the differential settlement.
DEPTH OF FOOTINGS.
Any foundation footing should be properly located at a suitable depth below the ground surface to
ensure it performs its function properly. The vertical distance between the ground surface and the base
of the footing known as depth of the footing tends to control the bearing capacity and settlement.
The following factors needs to be considered the determining the appropriate depth of the footing:
a) Depth of the top soil: - Since the top soil consists of decomposable organic matter, it should
be removed over an area slightly larger than that of the footing. The footing should be located
below the top soil.

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 b) Zone of soil volume change:- Soils such as clays with high plasticity usually undergoes
excessive volume changes beneath a footing upon drying and wetting leading to lifting and
dropping of the footing. Thus it’s advisable to locate a footing below all strata subjected to
large volume changes.
c) Adjacent footings and property lines:- A new footing should be located such that no damage
is done to the exiting structures in form of vibrations, undermining or lowering of the water
table. Generally, the deeper the new footing and the closer to the existing structure, the greater
the potential damage to the existing structure.
d) Sloping ground: - A footing that is located adjacent to a sloping ground surface should not
encroach upon a frustum of a bearing material under the footing having sides making an angle
of 30degrees with the horizontal.
e) Water table: -The footing should be placed above the ground water table. Any presence of
ground water within the soil immediately around the footing is undesirable as it reduces the
bearing capacity of the soil and also causes construction difficulties.
f) Underground defects: - The presence of faults, caves, mines and man-made discontinuities
such as sewer lines and water mains also affects the depth of the footing. The footing should be
relocated or for some man-made discontinuities may be shifted.
FOUNDATION LOADINGS.
An accurate estimation of all loads acting on the foundation should be made before it can properly e
designed. A foundation may be subjected to one or more of the following loads:-
a) Dead loads: - These includes the weight of the materials that are permanently attached to the
structure. They include beams, floors, walls, columns and fixed service equipment.
b) Live loads: - These are movable loads that are not permanently attached to the structure and
include loads due to people, goods, furniture, equipment and machinery.
c) Wind loads: - These acts on all exposed surfaces and depend upon the velocity of the wind
and the type of the structure.
d) Earth pressure: - It is treated as a dead load and produces lateral force against the structure
below the ground surface or fill surface.
e) Water Pressure: Like earth pressure, it also produces the lateral force against the structure
below the water level. It may cause upward force on the bottom of the structure due to uplift
pressure.
f) Earthquake loads: - The force due to an earthquake may act vertically, laterally or torsionally
on a structure in any direction and thus it’s advisable to anticipate the worst condition in
design.
g) Snow loads: - Occurs due to accumulation of snow on the roofs and exterior flat surfaces in
cold climates.
CHOICE OF FOUNDATION TYPE AND PRELIMANRY SELECTION.
The most appropriate type of foundation for a given structure depends upon the following factors:
i. The function of the structure.
ii. The sub-surface conditions.
iii. The cost of the foundation in comparison to the cost of the superstructure.
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The essential steps in the final choice of the type of the foundation are as follows:
i. Information regarding the nature of the superstructure and probable loading is required.
ii. The approximate sub-surface conditions or soil-profile is to be ascertained.
iii. Each of the customary types of foundations is considered briefly in consideration of bearing
capacity and settlement – criteria for stability. Unsuitable types are eliminated.
iv. More detailed studies of the promising types are made I the next phase.
v. Final selection of the type of the foundation is made based on the cost.

PART B
TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS
1. Gravity Retaining walls - These walls depend upon their weight for stability. The walls are
usually constructed of plain concrete or masonry. Such walls are not economical for large
heights.
2. Cantilever walls – These are made of reinforced cement concrete. The wall consists of a thin
stem and a base slab cast monolithically. This type of wall is found to be economical upto a
height of 6 to 8 m.
3. Counterfort Retaining wall: They have thin vertical slabs, known as counterforts, spaced
across the vertical steam at regular intervals. The counterforts tie the vertical stem with the
base slab. Thus the vertical stem and the base slab span between counterfors. The purpose of
providing the counterforts is to reduce the shear force and bending moments in the vertical
stem and the base slab. The counterfort retaining walls are economical for a height more than 6
to 8 m.
4. Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls- The size of the section of a gravity retaining wall may be
reduced if a small amount of reinforcement is provided near the back face. Such walls are
known as semi-gravity walls.

FAILURE MODES OF A RETAINING WALL

1. Sliding occurs when horizontal force equilibrium is not maintained (i.e., when the lateral
pressures on the back of the wall produce a thrust that exceeds the available sliding resistance
on the base of the wall).
2. Overturning failures occur when moment equilibrium is not satisfied; bearing failures at the
base of the wall are often involved.

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 3. Gravity walls may also be damaged by gross instability of the soils behind and beneath them.
Such failures may be treated as slope stability failures that encompass the wall.
4. Deep shear failure: This type of shear failure occurs along a cylindrical surface, when there is
a weak layer of soil underneath the wall a depth of about 1.5 times the height of the wall. The
critical failure surface is determined by trial and error procedures.
5. Shallow shear failure: It occurs along a cylindrical passing through the heel of the retaining
wall. The failure takes place because of the excessive shear stresses along the cylindrical
surface within the soil mass.
DRAINING A BACKFILL OF A RETAINING WALL.
To drain the soil behind a retaining wall the following three methods are adopted:
1. Weep Holes
These are series of holes located at the bottom half of the retaining wall. They contain a small section
of drain pipe to allow water to pass through the wall. The weep holes are usually 4 to 6 inches in
diameter and placed every 3 to 4 feet. Filter fabric should be used to cover the inlet of the drain pipe
to filter the dirty water so it does not stain the exterior surface.
2. Drain Pipe
The use of drain pipes eliminates the need for weep holes. These perforated drain pipes are installed
in a bed of gravel behind the wall. The gravel allows the water to percolate easily towards the bottom
of the wall where it then enters the holes in the perforated pipe and flows down to the end of the wall.
At this point, the pipe can be left open so the water flows out onto the ground, or it can be connected
to another drainage feature, if necessary.
3. Dry Stack Walls
Small walls under 1m in height may not require drain holes if the wall itself is not completely
impermeable. For example, "dry-stacked" stone walls -- meaning those that are not held together with
mortar -- have enough space between each stone to function as informal weep holes. Filter fabric is
needed behind the dry-stack walls, too, to prevent soil from migrating through the cracks.

PART C
PILE DRIVING METHODS
1. HAMMERS.
A hammer with approximately the weight of the pile is raised a suitable height in a guide and released
to strike the pile head. A “pile driver” is used to lift the hammer and allow it to fall on to the head of
the pile. The driving rig should guide the pile accurately keeping the pile and hammer in alignment
and plumb despite underground obstructions and the movement of the pile hammer.

The various types of pile hammers available are:

a) Drop hammer
b) Single-acting hammer (steam or pneumatic)
c) Double-acting hammer (steam or pneumatic)
d) Diesel hammer (internal combustion)
e) Vibratory hammer

(a) Drop Hammer.

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This is the simplest type. However, it’s very slow and thus used for small jobs only. The hammer is
raised by pulley and is then allowed to fall on the top of the pile.
(b) Single-acting hammer
In this type, the hammer is raised by steam or compressed air and is allowed to drop on to the pile
head. The hammer is usually heavy and rugged, weighing 10 to 100 kN. The height of fall may be
about 60 to 90 cm. The blows may be delivered much more rapidly than in the case of drop hammer.
(c) Double-acting hammer
In this method, the time required to drive the pile is reduced by more rapid blows; from 90 to 240
blows per minute thus making the driving easier. The weight of the ram may be 10 to 25 kN. The
energy delivered in each blow varies greatly with the steam or air pressure. The advantage of power
hammers is that the blows follow in rapid succession, keeping the pile in continuous motion and
reducing the effect of impact, thus minimizing the damage to the pile head.
(d) Diesel hammer
This works on the internal combustion of diesel oil. Energy is provided both for raising the hammer
and for downward stroke. It’s self-contained, economical, and simple. The energy delivered per blow
is relatively high, considering the weight of the hammer, as it is developed by a high-velocity blow.
The disadvantage is that the energy per hammer blow varies with the resistance offered by the pile and
is difficult to evaluate. Thus, the diesel hammer is best adopted to conditions where controlled energy
is not critical.
(e) Vibratory
The driving unit vibrates at high frequency and thus, the driving is quick and quiet. A variable speed
oscillator is used for the purpose of creating resonance conditions. This allows easy penetration of the
pile with a relatively small driving effort.

2. PRESSING (JACKING)
Pressing methods operate by jacking the piles into the ground, using the adjacent piles for reaction.
This is a low noise and low vibration method, which makes it good for sensitive sites. There are two
generic types of pressing rig, the ‘Japanese’ rigs, and panel driving rigs

The Japanese method uses a rig which progresses along the line of piles without needing to be lifted
onto each pile individually by crane, which means that access requirements are reduced. The machines
are often specific to a particular generic section size, therefore it is important to match pile section to
driving method.

The panel driving/pressing rigs are suited mainly to installation in heavy clays and require a crane to
move the rams from pile to pile. With older multi-ram presses it was also necessary to bolt plates to
each pile, however recent advances have eliminated this requirement.

PART D
PNEUMATIC CAISSONS.
A pneumatic caisson is a type of watertight enclosed structure used during construction in water or wet
areas. These caissons are box-shaped or cylindrical structures designed to keep water out of the
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construction zone by acting as a seal from the wet external environment while keeping the inside of
the structure dry.
This allows for the safe construction of challenging structures such as foundations, dams and bridges
without interruption. The major components of Pneumatic caissons are:
1. Working Chamber
It is made of structural steel, about 3 m high, with a strong roof, and is absolutely air tight. The air
pressure in the chamber is raised above atmospheric and is kept at a certain specified value to prevent
entry of water and soil into it. This pressure varies with the depth at which excavation is proceeding at
any time.
The outside surface is made smooth to reduce friction. A cutting edge is provided at the bottom to
facilitate the sinking process. The air pressure must be sufficient to balance the full hydrostatic
pressure due to water outside. However, there is a maximum limit to the air pressure in view of the
physiological characteristics of human beings.
The maximum depth of water through which a pneumatic caisson can be sunk successfully is about
40m as working under a pressure greater than 0.4 N/mm2 may cause a special sickness called ‘Caisson
disease’.
2. Air Shaft
This is a vertical passage which connects the working chamber with an airlock. It is meant to provide
access to the working chamber for workmen. It is also used to transport the excavated material to the
ground surface. As the caisson sinks, the air shaft is extended to keep the airlock always above the
water level.
3. Air Lock.
This is a steel chamber provided at the upper end of the air shaft above the water level. Its function is
to permit the workmen to go in or come out of the Caisson without releasing the air pressure in the
working chamber.
4. Miscellaneous equipment.
Certain miscellaneous equipment such as motors, pressure pumps, and compressors are usually located
outside at bed level. Pressure in the working chamber is maintained through an air pipe connected to a
compressor. At least one stand-by unit for all equipment should be provided to cope with any
emergency.

The problems associated with Pneumatic caissons are:

a) The depth of penetration is limited to 30 m to 40 m below water table.
b) A lot of inconvenience is caused to the workmen while working under compressed air
pressure, and they may be afflicted with caisson disease.
c) Pneumatic Caissons are highly expensive and hence should be used only when other types of
caissons are not feasible.
d) Extreme care is required for the proper working of the system; even a small degree of
slackness may lead to an accident.
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTING PIERS.
The two main types of pier foundation used are Masonry (or concrete) pier and drilled caissons.

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 Construction of drilled piers.
A drilled pier is a deep foundation system that uses a large diameter concrete cylinder constructed by
placing fresh concrete and reinforcing steel into a drilled shaft.
Construction of drilled piers is divided into 3 stages.
(a) Excavation of piers.
1. Generally, auger drill is used for the excavation of drilled pier. Other drilling equipment like
rotary systems, hydraulic power etc. are also used as per the need
2. An auger is attached to a shaft and rotated under pressure to dig into the soil. When it is filled
with soil, it is raised above the ground and emptied.
3. When the soil stratum does not have the adequate bearing capacity, belled piers are generally
used. For the formation of a bell, the auger is replaced by an under-reaming tool which consists
of a cylinder with cutting blades that are hinged at the top.
4. The cutting blades are in the folded position when the under-reamer is lowered into the hole.
On reaching the bottom of the hole, the blades are spread outward by a mechanism.
5. As the under-reamer is rotated, a bell is formed and the loose soil falls inside the cylinder,
which is raised and emptied. The process is repeated until the bell is completely formed. The
diameter of the bell is kept two to three times the diameter of the shaft. The angle of the bell is
30o to 45o with the vertical.
6. The above-mentioned method of drilling is convenient for hard clays where the hole can be left
open for a few hours without any support. In cohesionless soils below the water table, the hole
is prevented from collapsing by providing a casing or by drilling in a slurry. When rock is
encountered during drilling, special machines are required.
(b) Providing supports.
There are two methods available for providing supports.

i. Chicago method
ii. Gow method
(i) Chicago method
In this method, a circular hole is excavated up to the depth at which the soil will stand unsupported
(about 0.5m for soft clay and 2m for stiff clay). Vertical boards known as laggings, are then set in
position around the excavated face and are held tightly against the soil by steel rings.The shaft is then
excavated further for 1 to 2m and another setting of boards and rings is made. The process is repeated
until the desired level is reached. The base of the shaft is then belled out.

(ii) Gow method.

In this method, excavation of the hole is done manually. Telescopic steel shells are used to support the
soil and are extended as the hole is deepened. The shells are removed as the concreting progresses.
One section of the shell is removed at one time. The minimum diameter of the hole in this method is
about 1.25m
Concreting of piers.
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 1. After the hole has been drilled to the required depth, the shaft is dewatered and the bottom is
cleaned. The casing (if used) is removed.
2. The reinforcement cage is then inserted and concreting is done. Concreting can be done in a
dry hole by gravity pouring, provided the concrete does not strike the sides.
Construction of masonry/concrete pier.
1. A square or rectangular hole 4-8 inches longer than the required diameter of the post is dug.
2. The formwork is then set in the pit which settles the shape of the future foundation; then the
reinforcement cage is placed, and concrete is poured.
3. After that, the formwork is removed and covered with a pillar. This method makes it possible
to have a reinforced concrete pillar of different.
4. Inside the formwork, there is the reinforcement cage which ensures that the reinforcements
remain in place.
PART E
BRACING SYSTEMS IN FOUNDATION.
1. Bracing Perimeter foundations.
Corner foundations for concrete perimeter foundations in a particular residential property usually
provide sufficient bracing, unless the corner walls are taller than they are long, which makes them
susceptible to toppling under lateral seismic load. In this case, either sheet bracing or diagonal timber
braces should be installed.
In corner wall construction, the floor joists may not be adequately connected to the foundation wall. In
this case, diagonal timber braces should be installed between the joist and the concrete wall. This must
be done at both ends of the building to evenly distribute the earthquake loads.
2. Bracing open pile foundations.
Open pile foundations with no perimeter foundation walls are sometimes enclosed with spaced
horizontal boards fastened to the perimeter piles. These boards provide no bracing and should be
replaced with either sheet bracing or diagonal bracing.
(i). Sheet Bracing.
Sheet bracing involves fixing a series of flat panels such as fibre-cement or plywood sheets between
the piles and the floor. The top of the sheet is fixed to the boundary joist or the bearer. An additional
framing member should be installed between adjacent piles to support the bottom edge of the sheet
material.

Sheet bracing may be used with open concrete and timber pile foundations where there is more than
600 mm between the ground and the underside of the joists. It may also be possible to use sheet
bracing with shorter pile foundations, but engineering advice is required. When applying sheet
bracing, adequate ventilation is provided.

(ii) Diagonal Bracing.

Diagonal bracing involves fixing a timber bracing element between the bottom of piles and the floor
frame. They are suitable for timber piles and may be placed between the pile and bearer or between
the pile and joist. The latter connection provides a more direct fixing to the floor plane.

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To brace a pile foundation using diagonal bracing, at least two braces are required. They should be
installed at an angle of no more than 45° on the outside row of piles and on every second row in both
directions.

REFERENCES.
C.Venkatramaiah, “Geotechnical Engineering”(2006) 3rd Edition, New Age International (P) Ltd

VNS Murthy, “Principles and practices of soil mechanics and foundations”

http://www.seismicresilience.org.nz/topics/strengthening-strategies/strengthening-residential-
buildings/bracing-foundations/

https://living.thebump.com/need-drainage-holes-retaining-walls-13908.html

https://www.steelpilinggroup.org/guidance/construction/pile-driving-installation-methods/

https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/pile-installation-methods/1812/

https://civilblog.org/2015/04/24/4-different-types-of-drilled-pier-foundations/

https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/drilled-piers-construction/11242/

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