Coconut

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut

The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the palm tree family (Arecaceae) and the only

living species of the genus Cocos.[1] The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut")[2] can refer
to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which botanically is a drupe, not a nut. The
name comes from the old Portuguese and Spanish word coco, meaning 'head' or 'skull' after the
three indentations on the coconut shell that resemble facial features. They are ubiquitous in
coastal tropical regions, and are a cultural icon of the tropics.
It is one of the most useful trees in the world, and is often referred to as the "tree of life". It
provides food, fuel, cosmetics, folk medicine and building materials, among many other uses.
The inner flesh of the mature seed, as well as the coconut milk extracted from it, forms a
regular part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are distinct
from other fruits because their endosperm contains a large quantity of clear liquid,
called coconut water or coconut juice. Mature, ripe coconuts can be used as edible seeds, or
processed for oil and plant milk from the flesh, charcoal from the hard shell, and coir from the
fibrous husk. Dried coconut flesh is called copra, and the oil and milk derived from it are
commonly used in cooking – frying in particular – as well as in soaps and cosmetics. The hard
shells, fibrous husks and long pinnate leaves can be used as material to make a variety of
products for furnishing and decoration.
The coconut has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in India,
where it is used in Hindu rituals. It forms the basis of wedding and worship rituals in Hinduism,
a coconut religion in Vietnam, and features in the origin myths of several societies. The falling
nature of their mature fruit has led to preoccupation with death by coconut.[3]
Coconuts have been used by humans for thousands of years, and may have spread to their
present range because of Pacific island settlers. The evolutionary origin of the coconut is under
dispute, with theories stating that it may have evolved in Asia, South America, or on islands in
the Pacific. Trees grow up to 30 m (98 ft) tall and can yield up to 75 fruits per year, though less
than 30 is more typical. Plants are intolerant of cold weather and prefer copious precipitation,
as well as full sunlight. Many insect pests and diseases affect the species, and are a nuisance for
commercial production. About 74% of the world's supply of coconuts derives from Indonesia,
the Philippines, and India combined.

Etymology
The name coconut is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word coco,
meaning 'head' or 'skull' after the three indentations on the coconut shell that resemble facial
features.[4][5][6] Coco and coconut apparently came from 1521 encounters
by Portuguese and Spanish explorers with Pacific islanders, with the coconut shell reminding
them of a ghost or witch in Portuguese folklore called coco (also côca).[7][8] In the West it was
originally called nux indica, a name used by Marco Polo in 1280 while in Sumatra. He took the
term from the Arabs, who called it ‫جوز هندي‬ jawz hindī, translating to 'Indian nut'.[9] Thenga,
its Malayalam name, was used in the detailed description of coconut found
in Itinerario by Ludovico di Varthema published in 1510 and also in the later Hortus Indicus
Malabaricus.[10]
The specific name nucifera is Latin for 'nut-bearing'

History
Literary evidence from the Ramayana and Sri Lankan chronicles indicates that the coconut was
present in the Indian subcontinent before the 1st century BCE.[12] The earliest direct description
is given by Cosmas Indicopleustes in his Topographia Christiana written around 545, referred to
as "the great nut of India".[13] Another early mention of the coconut dates back to the "One
Thousand and One Nights" story of Sinbad the Sailor wherein he bought and sold a coconut
during his fifth voyage.[14]
In March 1521, a description of the coconut was given by Antonio Pigafetta writing in Italian
and using the words "cocho"/"cochi", as recorded in his journal after the first European crossing
of the Pacific Ocean during the Magellan circumnavigation and meeting the inhabitants of what
would become known as Guam and the Philippines. He explained how at Guam "they eat
coconuts" ("mangiano cochi") and that the natives there also "anoint the body and the hair
with coconut and beniseed oil" ("ongieno el corpo et li capili co oleo de cocho et de giongioli").
Origin
The American botanist Orator F. Cook proposed a theory in 1901 on the location of the origin
of Cocos nucifera based on its current worldwide distribution. He hypothesized that the
coconut originated in the Americas, based on his belief that American coconut populations
predated European contact and because he considered pan-tropical distribution by ocean
currents improbable.
Modern genetic studies have identified the center of origin of coconuts as being the region
between Southwest Asia and Melanesia, where it shows greatest genetic diversity.[23][24][25]
[20]
 Their cultivation and spread was closely tied to the early migrations of the Austronesian
peoples who carried coconuts as canoe plants to islands they settled.[25][20][26][22] The similarities
of the local names in the Austronesian region is also cited as evidence that the plant originated
in the region. For example,
the Polynesian and Melanesian term niu; Tagalog and Chamorro term niyog; and
the Malay word nyiur or nyior.[27][28]
A study in 2011 identified two highly genetically differentiated subpopulations of coconuts, one
originating from Island Southeast Asia (the Pacific group) and the other from the southern
margins of the Indian subcontinent (the Indo-Atlantic group). The Pacific group is the only one
to display clear genetic and phenotypic indications that they were domesticated; including
dwarf habit, self-pollination, and the round "niu vai" fruit morphology with larger endosperm-
to-husk ratios. The distribution of the Pacific coconuts correspond to the regions settled by
Austronesian voyagers indicating that its spread was largely the result of human introductions.
It is most strikingly displayed in Madagascar, an island settled by Austronesian sailors at around
2000 to 1500 BP. The coconut populations in the island show genetic admixture between the
two subpopulations indicating that Pacific coconuts were brought by the Austronesian settlers
that later interbred with the local Indo-Atlantic coconuts.
Genetic studies of coconuts have also confirmed pre-Columbian populations of coconuts
in Panama in South America. However, it is not native and display a genetic bottleneck resulting
from a founder effect. A study in 2008 showed that the coconuts in the Americas are genetically
closest related to coconuts in the Philippines, and not to any other nearby coconut populations
(including Polynesia). Such an origin indicates that the coconuts were not introduced naturally,
such as by sea currents. The researchers concluded that it was brought by early Austronesian
sailors to the Americas from at least 2,250 BP, and may be proof of pre-Columbian contact
between Austronesian cultures and South American cultures, albeit in the opposite direction
than what early hypotheses like Heyerdahl's had proposed. It is further strengthened by other
similar botanical evidence of contact, like the pre-colonial presence of sweet potato in
Oceanian cultures.[25][22][32] During the colonial era, Pacific coconuts were further introduced
to Mexico from the Spanish East Indies via the Manila galleons.[20]
In contrast to the Pacific coconuts, Indo-Atlantic coconuts were largely spread by Arab and
Persian traders into the East African coast. Indo-Atlantic coconuts were also introduced into
the Atlantic Ocean by Portuguese ships from their colonies in coastal India and Sri Lanka; first
being introduced to coastal West Africa, then onwards into the Caribbean and the east coast
of Brazil. All of these introductions are within the last few centuries, relatively recent in
comparison to the spread of Pacific coconuts.[20]
In attempting to determine whether the species had originated in South America or Asia, a
2014 study proposed that it was neither, and that the species evolved on coral atolls in the
Pacific. Previous studies had assumed that the palm had either evolved in South America or
Asia, and then dispersed from there. The 2014 study hypothesized that instead the species
evolved while on coral atolls in the Pacific, and then dispersed to the continents. It contended
that this would have provided the necessary evolutionary pressures, and would account for
morphological factors such as a thick husk to protect against ocean degradation and provide a
moist medium in which to germinate on sparse atolls.
Evolutionary history
The evolutionary history and fossil distribution of Cocos nucifera and other members of the
tribe Cocoseae is more ambiguous than modern-day dispersal and distribution, with its ultimate
origin and pre-human dispersal still unclear. There are currently two major viewpoints on the
origins of the genus Cocos, one in the Indo-Pacific, and another in South America.[34][35] The vast
majority of Cocos-like fossils have been recovered generally from only two regions in the
world: New Zealand and west-central India. However, like most palm fossils, Cocos-like fossils
are still putative, as they are usually difficult to identify.[35] The earliest Cocos-like fossil to be
found was "Cocos" zeylanica, a fossil species described from small fruits, around 3.5 cm (1.4 in)
× 1.3 to 2.5 cm (0.51 to 0.98 in) in size, recovered from the Miocene (~23 to 5.3 million years
ago) of New Zealand in 1926. Since then, numerous other fossils of similar fruits were
recovered throughout New Zealand from the Eocene, Oligocene, and possibly the Holocene.
But research on them is still ongoing to determine which of them (if any) actually belong to the
genus Cocos.[35][36] Endt & Hayward (1997) have noted their resemblance to members of the
South American genus Parajubaea, rather than Cocos, and propose a South American origin.[35]
[37][38]
 Conran et al. (2015), however, suggests that their diversity in New Zealand indicate that
they evolved endemically, rather than being introduced to the islands by long-distance
dispersal.[36] In west-central India, numerous fossils of Cocos-like fruits, leaves, and stems have
been recovered from the Deccan Traps. They include morphotaxa like Palmoxylon
sundaran, Palmoxylon insignae, and Palmocarpon cocoides. Cocos-like fossils of fruits
include "Cocos" intertrappeansis, "Cocos" pantii, and "Cocos" sahnii. They also include fossil
fruits that have been tentatively identified as modern Cocos nucifera. These includes two
specimens named "Cocos" palaeonucifera and "Cocos" binoriensis, both were dated by their
authors to the Maastrichtian–Danian of the early Tertiary (70 to 62 million years ago). C.
binoriensis has been claimed by their authors to be the earliest known fossil of Cocos nucifera.
[34][35][39]

Outside of New Zealand and India, only two other regions have reported Cocos-like fossils,
namely Australia and Colombia. In Australia, a Cocos-like fossil fruit, measuring 10 cm (3.9 in) ×
9.5 cm (3.7 in), were recovered from the Chinchilla Sand Formation dated to the
latest Pliocene or basal Pleistocene. Rigby (1995) assigned them to modern Cocos
nucifera based on its size.[34][35] In Colombia, a single Cocos-like fruit was recovered from
the middle to late Paleocene Cerrejón Formation. The fruit however was compacted in the
fossilization process and it was not possible to determine if it had the diagnostic three pores
that characterize members of the tribe Cocoseae. Nevertheless, the authors Gomez-Navarro et
al. (2009), assigned it to Cocos based on the size and the ridged shape of the fruit.

Description
Plant
Cocos nucifera is a large palm, growing up to 30 m (100 ft) tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m (13–
20 ft) long, and pinnae 60–90 cm (2–3 ft) long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving
the trunk smooth.[41] On fertile soil, a tall coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year,
but more often yields less than 30.[42][43][44] Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut
palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, taking 15 to 20 years to reach peak production.
[45]

Many different varieties are grown, including the Maypan coconut, King coconut,

and Macapuno. These vary by the taste of the coconut water and color of the fruit, as well as
other genetic factors. Dwarf varieties are also available.
Fruit
Botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut.[47] Like other fruits, it has three layers:
the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp make up the "husk" of the
coconuts. The endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water.
As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut,
becoming the edible coconut "flesh".[48] Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries
often have had the exocarp (outermost layer) removed. The mesocarp is composed of a fiber,
called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has
three germination pores (micropyles) or "eyes" that are clearly visible on its outside surface
once the husk is removed.[citation needed]
A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.4 kg (3.1 lb). It takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to
produce one tonne of copra.
Roots
Unlike some other plants, the palm tree has neither a tap root nor root hairs, but has a fibrous
root system.[50] The root system consists of an abundance of thin roots that grow outward from
the plant near the surface. Only a few of the roots penetrate deep into the soil for stability. This
type of root system is known as fibrous or adventitious, and is a characteristic of grass species.
Other types of large trees produce a single downward-growing tap root with a number of
feeder roots growing from it. 2,000-4,000 adventitious roots may grow, each about 1 cm
(0.39 in) large. Decayed roots are replaced regularly as the tree grows new ones.[24]
Inflorescence
The palm produces both the female and male flowers on the same inflorescence; thus, the palm
is monoecious.[50] However, there is some evidence that it may be polygamomonoecious, and
may occasionally have bisexual flowers.[51] The female flower is much larger than the male
flower. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-
pollinated, although most dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.[52]

Distribution
Coconuts have a nearly cosmopolitan distribution thanks to human action in using them for
agriculture. However their historical distribution was likely more limited.
Natural habitat
The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of salinity. It prefers areas with
abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (1,500–2,500 mm [59–98 in] annually), which makes
colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward.[53] Coconuts also need
high humidity (at least 70–80%) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas
with low humidity. However, they can be found in humid areas with low annual precipitation
such as in Karachi, Pakistan, which receives only about 250 mm (9.8 in) of rainfall per year, but
is consistently warm and humid.
Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of cold
weather. Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with good growth where mean summer
temperatures are between 28 and 37 °C (82 and 99 °F), and survival as long as winter
temperatures are above 4–12 °C (39–54 °F); they will survive brief drops to 0 °C (32 °F). Severe
frost is usually fatal, although they have been known to recover from temperatures of −4 °C
(25 °F).[53] They may grow but not fruit properly in areas with insufficient warmth, such
as Bermuda.
The conditions required for coconut trees to grow without any care are:

 Mean daily temperature above 12–13 °C (54–55 °F) every day of the year
 Mean annual rainfall above 1,000 mm (39 in)
 No or very little overhead canopy, since even small trees require direct sun
The main limiting factor for most locations which satisfy the rainfall and temperature
requirements is canopy growth, except those locations near coastlines, where the sandy soil
and salt spray limit the growth of most other trees.
Domestication
Coconut plantation in India

Coconuts could not reach inland locations without human intervention (to carry seednuts, plant
seedlings, etc.) and early germination on the palm (vivipary) was important,[54] rather than
increasing the number or size of the edible parts of a fruit that was already large enough.
Human cultivation of the coconut selected, not for larger size, but for thinner husks and
increased volume of endosperm, the solid "meat" or liquid "water" that provides the fruit its
food value. Although these modifications for domestication would reduce the fruit's ability to
float, this ability would be irrelevant to a cultivated population.[citation needed]
Among modern C. nucifera, two major types or variants occur: a thick-husked, angular fruit and
a thin-husked, spherical fruit with a higher proportion of endosperm reflect a trend of
cultivation in C. nucifera. The first coconuts were of the niu kafa type, with thick husks to
protect the seed, an angular, highly ridged shape to promote buoyancy during ocean dispersal,
and a pointed base that allowed fruits to dig into the sand, preventing them from being washed
away during germination on a new island. As early human communities began to harvest
coconuts for eating and planting, they (perhaps unintentionally)[citation needed] selected for a larger
endosperm-to-husk ratio and a broader, spherical base, which rendered the fruit useful as a cup
or bowl, thus creating the niu vai type. The decreased buoyancy and increased fragility of this
spherical, thin-husked fruit would not matter for a species that had started to be dispersed by
humans and grown in plantations. Harries' adoption of the Polynesian terms niu kafa and niu
vai has now passed into general scientific discourse, and his hypothesis is generally accepted.[55]
[56]

Variants of C. nucifera are also categorized as tall (var. typica) or dwarf (var. nana).[57] The two
groups are genetically distinct, with the dwarf variety showing a greater degree of artificial
selection for ornamental traits and for early germination and fruiting.[58][59] The tall variety
is outcrossing while dwarf palms are incrossing, which has led to a much greater degree
of genetic diversity within the tall group. The dwarf subspecies is thought to have mutated from
the tall group under human selection pressure.[60]
Dispersal
Coconut fruit in the wild are light, buoyant, and highly water resistant. It is claimed that they
evolved to disperse significant distances via marine currents.[61] However, it can also be argued
that the placement of the vulnerable eye of the nut (down when floating), and the site of the
coir cushion are better positioned to ensure that the water-filled nut does not fracture when
dropping on rocky ground, rather than for flotation.
It is also often stated that coconuts can travel 110 days, or 3,000 miles (4,800 km), by sea and
still be able to germinate.[62] This figure has been questioned based on the extremely small
sample size that forms the basis of the paper that makes this claim.[32] Thor Heyerdahl provides
an alternative, and much shorter, estimate based on his first-hand experience crossing the
Pacific Ocean on the raft Kon-Tiki:
"The nuts we had in baskets on deck remained edible and capable of germinating the whole
way to Polynesia. But we had laid about half among the special provisions below deck, with the
waves washing around them. Every single one of these was ruined by the sea water. And no
coconut can float over the sea faster than a balsa raft moves with the wind behind it."[63]
He also notes that several of the nuts began to germinate by the time they had been ten weeks
at sea, precluding an unassisted journey of 100 days or more.[32]
Drift models based on wind and ocean currents have shown that coconuts could not have
drifted across the Pacific unaided.[32] If they were naturally distributed and had been in the
Pacific for a thousand years or so, then we would expect the eastern shore of Australia, with its
own islands sheltered by the Great Barrier Reef, to have been thick with coconut palms: the
currents were directly into, and down along this coast. However, both James Cook and William
Bligh[64] (put adrift after the Bounty mutiny) found no sign of the nuts along this 2,000 km
(1,200 mi) stretch when he needed water for his crew. Nor were there coconuts on the east
side of the African coast until Vasco da Gama, nor in the Caribbean when first visited
by Christopher Columbus. They were commonly carried by Spanish ships as a source of sweet
water.
These provide substantial circumstantial evidence that deliberate Austronesian voyagers were
involved in carrying coconuts across the Pacific Ocean and that they could not have dispersed
worldwide without human agency. More recently, genomic analysis of cultivated coconut (C.
nucifera L.) has shed light on the movement. However, admixture, the transfer of genetic
material, evidently occurred between the two populations.[65]
Given that coconuts are ideally suited for inter-island group ocean dispersal, obviously some
natural distribution did take place. However, the locations of the admixture events are limited
to Madagascar and coastal east Africa, and exclude the Seychelles. This pattern coincides with
the known trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Additionally, a genetically distinct
subpopulation of coconut on the Pacific coast of Latin America has undergone a genetic
bottleneck resulting from a founder effect; however, its ancestral population is the Pacific
coconut from the Philippines. This, together with their use of the South American sweet potato,
suggests that Austronesian peoples may have sailed as far east as the Americas.[65]
Specimens have been collected from the sea as far north as Norway (but it is not known where
they entered the water).[66] In the Hawaiian Islands, the coconut is regarded as
a Polynesian introduction, first brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers from their
homelands in the southern islands of Polynesia.[9] They have been found in the Caribbean and
the Atlantic coasts of Africa and South America for less than 500 years (the Caribbean native
inhabitants do not have a dialect term for them, but use the Portuguese name), but evidence of
their presence on the Pacific coast of South America antedates Christopher Columbus's arrival
in the Americas.[23] They are now almost ubiquitous between 26° N and 26° S except for the
interiors of Africa and South America.
The 2014 coral atoll origin hypothesis proposed that the coconut had dispersed in an island
hopping fashion using the small, sometimes transient, coral atolls. It noted that by using these
small atolls, the species could easily island-hop. Over the course of evolutionary time-scales the
shifting atolls would have shortened the paths of colonization, meaning that any one coconut
would not have to travel very far to find new land.[33]

Ecology
Pests and diseases
Coconuts are susceptible to the phytoplasma disease, lethal yellowing. One recently
selected cultivar, the 'Maypan', has been bred for resistance to this disease.[67] Yellowing
diseases affect plantations in Africa, India, Mexico, the Caribbean and the Pacific Region.[68]
The coconut palm is damaged by the larvae of many Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species
which feed on it, including the African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta)
and Batrachedra spp.: B. arenosella, B. atriloqua (feeds exclusively on C. nucifera), B.
mathesoni (feeds exclusively on C. nucifera), and B. nuciferae.[69]
Brontispa longissima (coconut leaf beetle) feeds on young leaves, and damages
both seedlings and mature coconut palms. In 2007, the Philippines imposed
a quarantine in Metro Manila and 26 provinces to stop the spread of the pest and protect the
Philippine coconut industry managed by some 3.5 million farmers.[70]
The fruit may also be damaged by eriophyid coconut mites (Eriophyes guerreronis). This mite
infests coconut plantations, and is devastating; it can destroy up to 90% of coconut production.
The immature seeds are infested and desapped by larvae staying in the portion covered by
the perianth of the immature seed; the seeds then drop off or survive deformed. Spraying with
wettable sulfur 0.4% or with Neem-based pesticides can give some relief, but is cumbersome
and labor-intensive.
In Kerala, India, the main coconut pests are the coconut mite, the rhinoceros beetle, the red
palm weevil, and the coconut leaf caterpillar. Research into countermeasures to these pests has
as of 2009 yielded no results; researchers from the Kerala Agricultural University and the
Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Kasaragode, continue to work on countermeasures.
The Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has developed an
innovative extension approach called the compact area group approach to combat coconut
mites.

Production and cultivation

Coconut production, 2018

Production
Country
(millions of tonnes)

 Indonesi 18.6
a

 Philippin
14.7
es

 India 11.7

 Sri Lanka 2.6

 Brazil 2.5
  Mexico 1.2

World 61.9

Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[71]

In 2018, world production of coconuts was 62 million tonnes, led by Indonesia, the Philippines,

and India, with 74% combined of the total (table).
Cultivation
Coconut palms are normally cultivated in hot and wet tropical climates. They need year round
warmth and moisture to grow well and fruit. Coconut palms are hard to establish in dry
climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new
leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed.
[53]

The extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats, such as mangroves;
an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the Petenes mangroves of the Yucatán.[72]
Cultivars
Coconut has a number of commercial and traditional cultivars. They can be sorted mainly into
tall cultivars, dwarf cultivars, and hybrid cultivars (hybrids between talls and dwarfs). Some of
the dwarf cultivars such as 'Malayan dwarf' have shown some promising resistance to lethal
yellowing, while other cultivars such as 'Jamaican tall' are highly affected by the same plant
disease. Some cultivars are more drought resistant such as 'West coast tall' (India) while others
such as 'Hainan Tall' (China) are more cold tolerant. Other aspects such as seed size, shape and
weight, and copra thickness are also important factors in the selection of new cultivars. Some
cultivars such as 'Fiji dwarf' form a large bulb at the lower stem and others are cultivated to
produce very sweet coconut water with orange-coloured husks (king coconut) used entirely in
fruit stalls for drinking (Sri Lanka, India).[citation needed]
Harvesting
In some parts of the world (Thailand and Malaysia), trained pig-tailed macaques are used to
harvest coconuts. Thailand has been raising and training pig-tailed macaques to pick coconuts
for around 400 years.[73] Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist both in
southern Thailand and in the Malaysian state of Kelantan.[74]
Substitutes for cooler climates
In cooler climates (but not less than USDA Zone 9), a similar palm, the queen palm (Syagrus
romanzoffiana), is used in landscaping. Its fruits are similar to the coconut, but smaller. The
queen palm was originally classified in the genus Cocos along with the coconut, but was later
reclassified in Syagrus. A recently discovered palm, Beccariophoenix alfredii from Madagascar,
is nearly identical to the coconut, more so than the queen palm and can also be grown in
slightly cooler climates than the coconut palm. Coconuts can only be grown in temperatures
above 18 °C (64 °F) and need a daily temperature above 22 °C (72 °F) to produce fruit.[citation needed]
Production by country
Indonesia
In 2010, Indonesia increased its coconut production. It is now the world's largest producer of
coconuts. The gross production was 15 million tonnes.[75] A sprouting coconut seed is the logo
for Gerakan Pramuka Indonesia, the Indonesian scouting organization. It can be seen on all the
scouting paraphernalia that elementary school children wear, as well as on the scouting pins
and flags.[76]
Philippines
The Philippines is the world's second-largest producer of coconuts. It was the world's largest
producer for decades until a decline in production due to aging trees as well as typhoon
devastation. Indonesia overtook it in 2010. It is still the largest producer of coconut oil and
copra, accounting for 64% of the global production. The production of coconuts plays an
important role in the economy, with 25% of cultivated land (around 3.56 million hectares) used
for coconut plantations and approximately 25 to 33% of the population reliant on coconuts for
their livelihood.[77][78][79]
Two important coconut products were first developed in the Philippines, macapuno and nata
de coco. Macapuno is a coconut variety with a jelly-like coconut meat. Its meat is sweetened,
cut into strands, and sold in glass jars as coconut strings, sometimes labeled as "gelatinous
mutant coconut". Nata de coco, also called coconut gel, is another jelly-like coconut product
made from fermented coconut water.[80][81]
India
Traditional areas of coconut cultivation in India are the states of Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra, Odisha, West
Bengal and, Gujarat and the islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar. As per 2014–
15 statistics from Coconut Development Board of Government of India, four southern states
combined account for almost 90% of the total production in the country: Tamil Nadu (33.84%),
Karnataka (25.15%), Kerala (23.96%), and Andhra Pradesh (7.16%).[82] Other states, such as Goa,
Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal, and those in the northeast (Tripura and Assam) account for
the remaining productions. Though Kerala has the largest number of coconut trees, in terms of
production per hectare, Tamil Nadu leads all other states. In Tamil
Nadu, Coimbatore and Tirupur regions top the production list.[83]
In Goa, the coconut tree has been reclassified by the government as a palm (like a grass),
enabling farmers and real estate developers to clear land with fewer restrictions.[84] With this, it
will no more be considered as a tree and no permission will be required by the forest
department before cutting a coconut tree.[85]
Maldives
The coconut is the national tree of the Maldives and is considered the most important plant in
the country. A coconut tree is also included in the country's national emblem and coat of arms.
Coconut trees are grown on all the islands. Before modern construction methods were
introduced, coconut leaves were used as roofing material for many houses in the islands,
while coconut timber was used to build houses and boats.[citation needed]
Middle East
The main coconut-producing area in the Middle East is the Dhofar region of Oman, but they can
be grown all along the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and Red Sea coasts, because these seas are
tropical and provide enough humidity (through seawater evaporation) for coconut trees to
grow. The young coconut plants need to be nursed and irrigated with drip pipes until they are
old enough (stem bulb development) to be irrigated with brackish water or seawater alone,
after which they can be replanted on the beaches. In particular, the area
around Salalah maintains large coconut plantations similar to those found across the Arabian
Sea in Kerala. The reasons why coconut are cultivated only in Yemen's Al
Mahrah and Hadramaut governorates and in the Sultanate of Oman, but not in other suitable
areas in the Arabian Peninsula, may originate from the fact that Oman and Hadramaut had
long dhow trade relations with Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, East Africa, and Zanzibar, as well as
southern India and China. Omani people needed the coir rope from the coconut fiber to stitch
together their traditional seagoing dhow vessels in which nails were never used. The knowhow
of coconut cultivation and necessary soil fixation and irrigation may have found its way into
Omani, Hadrami and Al-Mahra culture by people who returned from those overseas areas.
The coconut cultivars grown in Oman are generally of the drought-resistant Indian 'West Coast
tall' variety. Unlike the UAE, which grows mostly non-native dwarf or hybrid coconut cultivars
imported from Florida for ornamental purposes, the slender, tall Omani coconut cultivars are
relatively well-adapted to the Middle East's hot dry seasons, but need longer to reach maturity.
The Middle East's hot, dry climate favors the development of coconut mites, which cause
immature seed dropping and may cause brownish-gray discoloration on the coconut's outer
green fiber.[citation needed]
The ancient coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan traveller Ibn
Battuta in his writings, known as Al Rihla.[86] The annual rainy season known locally
as khareef or monsoon makes coconut cultivation easy on the Arabian east coast.
Coconut trees also are increasingly grown for decorative purposes along the coasts of
the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia with the help of irrigation. The UAE has, however,
imposed strict laws on mature coconut tree imports from other countries to reduce the spread
of pests to other native palm trees, as the mixing of date and coconut trees poses a risk of
cross-species palm pests, such as rhinoceros beetles and red palm weevils.[87] The artificial
landscaping may have been the cause for lethal yellowing, a viral coconut palm disease that
leads to the death of the tree. It is spread by host insects, that thrive on heavy turf grasses.
Therefore, heavy turf grass environments (beach resorts and golf courses) also pose a major
threat to local coconut trees. Traditionally, dessert banana plants and local wild beach flora
such as Scaevola taccada and Ipomoea pes-caprae were used as humidity-supplying green
undergrowth for coconut trees, mixed with sea almond and sea hibiscus. Due to
growing sedentary lifestyles and heavy-handed landscaping, a decline in these traditional
farming and soil-fixing techniques has occurred.
United States
In the United States, coconut palms can be grown and reproduced outdoors without irrigation
in Hawaii, southern and central Florida,[88] and the territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, American
Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands.
In Florida, wild populations of coconut palms extend up the East Coast from Key West to Jupiter
Inlet, and up the West Coast from Marco Island to Sarasota. Many of the smallest coral islands
in the Florida Keys are known to have abundant coconut palms sprouting from coconuts that
have drifted or been deposited by ocean currents. Coconut palms are cultivated north of south
Florida to roughly Cocoa Beach on the East Coast and Clearwater on the West Coast.
Australia
Coconuts are commonly grown around the northern coast of Australia, and in some warmer
parts of New South Wales. However they are mainly present as decoration, and the Australian
coconut industry is small; Australia is a net importer of coconut products. Australian cities put
much effort into de-fruiting decorative coconut trees to ensure that the mature coconuts do
not fall and injure people. [89]

Uses
The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for decoration, as well as for its many
culinary and nonculinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm can be used by humans
in some manner and has significant economic value. Coconuts' versatility is sometimes noted in
its naming. In Sanskrit, it is kalpa vriksha ("the tree which provides all the necessities of life"). In
the Malay language, it is pokok seribu guna ("the tree of a thousand uses"). In the Philippines,
the coconut is commonly called the "tree of life".[90]
It is one of the most useful trees in the world.[48]
Culinary uses
Nutrition

Coconut meat, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 354 kcal (1,480 kJ)

Carbohydrates 15.23 g

Sugars 6.23 g

Dietary fiber 9.0 g

Fat 33.49 g

Saturated 29.698 g

Monounsaturated 1.425 g
Polyunsaturated 0.366 g

Protein 3.33 g

Tryptophan 0.039 g

Threonine 0.121 g

Isoleucine 0.131 g

Leucine 0.247 g

Lysine 0.147 g

Methionine 0.062 g

Cystine 0.066 g

Phenylalanine 0.169 g

Tyrosine 0.103 g

Valine 0.202 g

Arginine 0.546 g

Histidine 0.077 g

Alanine 0.170 g

Aspartic acid 0.325 g

Glutamic acid 0.761 g

Glycine 0.158 g

Proline 0.138 g

Serine 0.172 g

Vitamins Quantity%DV†
Thiamine (B1) 6%
0.066 mg

Riboflavin (B2) 2%
0.020 mg

Niacin (B3) 4%
0.540 mg

Pantothenic acid (B5) 6%

0.300 mg

Vitamin B6 4%
0.054 mg

Folate (B9) 7%
26 μg

Vitamin C 4%
3.3 mg

Vitamin E 2%
0.24 mg

Vitamin K 0%
0.2 μg

Minerals Quantity%DV†

Calcium 1%
14 mg

Copper 22%
0.435 mg

Iron 19%
2.43 mg
 Magnesium 9%
32 mg

Manganese 71%
1.500 mg

Phosphorus 16%
113 mg

Potassium 8%
356 mg

Selenium 14%
10.1 μg

Sodium 1%
20 mg

Zinc 12%
1.10 mg

Other constituents Quantity

Water 47 g

Link to USDA Database entry

 Units
 μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
 IU = International units
†
Percentages are roughly approximated
using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Per 100-gram serving with 354 calories, raw coconut meat supplies a high amount of
total fat (33 grams), especially saturated fat (89% of total fat), moderate content
of carbohydrates (15 grams), and protein (3 grams). Micronutrients in significant content (more
than 10% of the Daily Value) include the dietary
minerals, manganese, copper, iron, phosphorus, selenium, and zinc (table). The various parts of
the coconut have a number of culinary uses.
Flaked coconut
The white, fleshy part of the seed, the coconut meat, is used fresh or dried in cooking,
especially in confections and desserts such as macaroons and buko pie. Dried coconut is also
used as the filling for many chocolate bars. Some dried coconut is purely coconut, but others
are manufactured with other ingredients, such as sugar, propylene glycol, salt, and sodium
metabisulfite. Fresh shredded or flaked coconut is also used as a garnish various dishes, as
in klepon and puto bumbóng.[91]
Macapuno
A special cultivar of coconut known as macapuno has a jelly-like coconut meat. It was first
developed for commercial cultivation in the Philippines and is used widely in Philippine
cuisine for desserts, drinks, and pastries. It is also popular in Indonesia (where it is known
as kopyor) for making beverages.[81]
Coconut milk
Coconut milk, not to be confused with coconut water, is obtained by pressing the grated
coconut meat, usually with hot water added which extracts the coconut oil, proteins, and
aromatic compounds. It is used for cooking various dishes. Coconut milk contains 5% to 20%
fat, while coconut cream contains around 20% to 50% fat.[92][93] Most of which (89%) is saturated
fat, with lauric acid as a major fatty acid.[94] Coconut milk can be diluted to create coconut milk
beverages. These have much lower fat content and are suitable as milk substitutes.[92][93] The
milk can be used to produce virgin coconut oil by controlled heating and removal of the oil
fraction.
Coconut milk powder, a protein-rich powder can be processed from coconut milk
following centrifugation, separation, and spray drying.[95]
Coconut milk and coconut cream extracted from grated coconut is frequently added to various
dessert and savory dishes, as well as in curries and stews.[96][97] It can also be diluted into a
beverage. Various other products made from thickened coconut milk with sugar and/or eggs
like coconut jam and coconut custard are also widespread in Southeast Asia.[98][99] In the
Philippines, sweetened reduced coconut milk is marketed as coconut syrup and is used for
various desserts.[100] Coconut oil extracted from coconut milk or copra is also used for frying,
cooking, and making margarine, among other uses.[96][101]
Coconut water
Coconut water serves as a suspension for the endosperm of the coconut during its nuclear
phase of development. Later, the endosperm matures and deposits onto the coconut rind
during the cellular phase.[47] It is consumed throughout the humid tropics, and has been
introduced into the retail market as a processed sports drink. Mature fruits have significantly
less liquid than young, immature coconuts, barring spoilage. Coconut water can be fermented
to produce coconut vinegar.
Per 100-gram serving, coconut water contains 19 calories and no significant content of essential
nutrients.
Coconut water can be drunk fresh or used in cooking as in binakol.[102][103] It can also be
fermented to produce a jelly-like dessert known as nata de coco.[80]
Coconut flour
Coconut flour has also been developed for use in baking, to combat malnutrition.[96]
Coconut oil
Another product of the coconut is coconut oil. It is commonly used in cooking, especially for
frying. It can be used in liquid form as would other vegetable oils, or in solid form as
would butter or lard.
Coconut butter
Coconut butter is often used to describe solidified coconut oil, but has also been adopted as an
alternate name for creamed coconut, a specialty products made of coconut milk solids
or puréed coconut meat and oil.[91] Coconut chips, made from oven-baked coconut meat, have
been sold in the tourist regions of Hawaii and the Caribbean.[104]
Heart of palm
See also: Heart of palm

Apical buds of adult plants are edible, and are known as "palm cabbage" or heart of palm. They
are considered a rare delicacy, as harvesting the buds kills the palms. Hearts of palm are eaten
in salads, sometimes called "millionaire's salad".
Sprouted coconut
See also: Sprouted coconut

Newly germinated coconuts contain an edible fluff of marshmallow-like consistency

called sprouted coconut or coconut sprout, produced as the endosperm nourishes
the developing embryo. It is a haustorium, a spongy absorbent tissue formed from the distal
portion of embryo during coconut germination, facilitates absorption of nutrients for the
growing shoot and root.[105]
Toddy and sap
The sap derived from incising the flower clusters of the coconut is drunk as neera, also known
as toddy or tubâ (Philippines), tuak (Indonesia and Malaysia) or karewe (fresh and not
fermented, collected twice a day, for breakfast and dinner) in Kiribati. When left to ferment on
its own, it becomes palm wine. Palm wine is distilled to produce arrack. In the Philippines, this
alcoholic drink is called lambanog or "coconut vodka".[106]
The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup or candy such as te
kamamai in Kiribati or dhiyaa hakuru and addu bondi in the Maldives. It can be reduced further
to yield coconut sugar also referred to as palm sugar or jaggery. A young, well-maintained tree
can produce around 300 litres (66 imp gal; 79 US gal) of toddy per year, while a 40-year-old tree
may yield around 400 litres (88 imp gal; 110 US gal).[107]
Coconut sap, usually extracted from cut inflorescence stalks is sweet when fresh and can be
drunk as is like in tuba fresca of Mexico.[108] They can also be processed to extract palm sugar.
[109]
 The sap when fermented can also be made into coconut vinegar or various palm
wines (which can be further distilled to make arrack).[110][111]
Coir
Coir (the fiber from the husk of the coconut) is used in ropes, mats, doormats, brushes, and
sacks, as caulking for boats, and as stuffing fiber for mattresses.[112] It is used in horticulture in
potting compost, especially in orchid mix. The coir is used to make brooms in Cambodia.[113]
Copra
Main articles: Copra and Coconut oil

Copra is the dried meat of the seed and after processing produces coconut oil and coconut
meal. Coconut oil, aside from being used in cooking as an ingredient and for frying, is used in
soaps, cosmetics, hair oil, and massage oil. Coconut oil is also a main ingredient in Ayurvedic
oils. In Vanuatu, coconut palms for copra production are generally spaced 9 m (30 ft) apart,
allowing a tree density of 100 to 160 per hectare (40 to 65 per acre).
Husks and shells
The husk and shells can be used for fuel and are a source of charcoal.[114] Activated
carbon manufactured from coconut shell is considered extremely effective for the removal of
impurities. The coconut's obscure origin in foreign lands led to the notion of using cups made
from the shell to neutralise poisoned drinks. The cups were frequently engraved and decorated
with precious metals.[115]
A dried half coconut shell with husk can be used to buff floors. It is known as a bunot in the
Philippines and simply a "coconut brush" in Jamaica. The fresh husk of a brown coconut may
serve as a dish sponge or body sponge. A coco chocolatero was a cup used to serve small
quantities of beverages (such as chocolate drinks) between the 17th and 19th centuries in
countries such as Mexico, Guatemala, and Venezuela.
In Asia, coconut shells are also used as bowls and in the manufacture of various handicrafts,
including buttons carved from dried shell. Coconut buttons are often used for Hawaiian aloha
shirts. Tempurung, as the shell is called in the Malay language, can be used as a soup bowl and
—if fixed with a handle—a ladle. In Thailand, the coconut husk is used as a potting medium to
produce healthy forest tree saplings. The process of husk extraction from the coir bypasses the
retting process, using a custom-built coconut husk extractor designed by ASEAN–Canada Forest
Tree Seed Centre in 1986. Fresh husks contain more tannin than old husks. Tannin produces
negative effects on sapling growth.[116] In parts of South India, the shell and husk are burned for
smoke to repel mosquitoes.
Half coconut shells are used in theatre Foley sound effects work, struck together to create the
sound effect of a horse's hoofbeats. Dried half shells are used as the bodies of musical
instruments, including the Chinese yehu and banhu, along with the Vietnamese đàn gáo and
Arabo-Turkic rebab. In the Philippines, dried half shells are also used as a music instrument in a
folk dance called maglalatik.
The shell, freed from the husk, and heated on warm ashes, exudes an oily material that is used
to soothe dental pains in traditional medicine of Cambodia.[113]
In World War II, coastwatcher scout Biuku Gasa was the first of two from the Solomon
Islands to reach the shipwrecked and wounded crew of Motor Torpedo Boat  PT-
109 commanded by future U.S. president John F. Kennedy. Gasa suggested, for lack of paper,
delivering by dugout canoe a message inscribed on a husked coconut shell, reading “Nauru Isl
commander / native knows posit / he can pilot / 11 alive need small boat / Kennedy.”[117] This
coconut was later kept on the president's desk, and is now in the John F. Kennedy Library.[118]
Leaves
The stiff midribs of coconut leaves are used for making brooms in India, Indonesia (sapu lidi),
Malaysia, the Maldives, and the Philippines (walis tingting). The green of the leaves (lamina) is
stripped away, leaving the veins (long, thin, woodlike strips) which are tied together to form a
broom or brush. A long handle made from some other wood may be inserted into the base of
the bundle and used as a two-handed broom.
The leaves also provide material for baskets that can draw well water and for roofing thatch;
they can be woven into mats, cooking skewers, and kindling arrows as well. Leaves are also
woven into small piuches that are filled with rice and cooked to make pusô and ketupat.[119]
Dried coconut leaves can be burned to ash, which can be harvested for lime. In India, the
woven coconut leaves are used to build wedding marquees, especially in the states
of Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
The leaves are used for thatching houses, or for decorating climbing frames and meeting
rooms in Cambodia, where the plant is known as dôô:ng.[113]
Timber
Coconut trunks are used for building small bridges and huts; they are preferred for their
straightness, strength, and salt resistance. In Kerala, coconut trunks are used for house
construction. Coconut timber comes from the trunk, and is increasingly being used as an
ecologically sound substitute for endangered hardwoods. It has applications in furniture and
specialized construction, as notably demonstrated in Manila's Coconut Palace.
Hawaiians hollowed the trunk to form drums, containers, or small canoes. The "branches"
(leaf petioles) are strong and flexible enough to make a switch. The use of coconut branches in
corporal punishment was revived in the Gilbertese community on Choiseul in the Solomon
Islands in 2005.[120]
Roots
The roots are used as a dye, a mouthwash, and a folk medicine for diarrhea and dysentery.[42] A
frayed piece of root can also be used as a toothbrush. In Cambodia, the roots are used in
traditional medicine as a treatment for dysentery.[113]
Other uses
The leftover fiber from coconut oil and coconut milk production, coconut meal, is used as
livestock feed. The dried calyx is used as fuel in wood-fired stoves. Coconut water is
traditionally used as a growth supplement in plant tissue culture and micropropagation.[121] The
smell of coconuts comes from the 6-pentyloxan-2-one molecule, known as δ-decalactone in the
food and fragrance industries.[122]
Tool and shelter for animals
Researchers from the Melbourne Museum in Australia observed
the octopus species Amphioctopus marginatus use tools, specifically coconut shells, for defense
and shelter. The discovery of this behavior was observed in Bali and North Sulawesi in Indonesia
between 1998 and 2008.[123][124][125] Amphioctopus marginatus is the first invertebrate known to
be able to use tools.[124][126]
A coconut can be hollowed out and used as a home for a rodent or small birds. Halved, drained
coconuts can also be hung up as bird feeders, and after the flesh has gone, can be filled with fat
in winter to attract tits.
Allergies
Food allergies
Coconut oil is increasingly used in the food industry.[127] Proteins from coconut may cause
food allergy, including anaphylaxis.[127]
In the United States, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration declared that coconut must be
disclosed as an ingredient on package labels as a "tree nut" with potential allergenicity.[128]
Topical allergies
Cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB) is a surfactant manufactured from coconut oil that is
increasingly used as an ingredient in personal hygiene products and cosmetics, such
as shampoos, liquid soaps, cleansers and antiseptics, among others.[129] CAPB may cause mild
skin irritation,[129] but allergic reactions to CAPB are rare[130] and probably related to impurities
rendered during the manufacturing process (which
include amidoamine and dimethylaminopropylamine) rather than CAPB itself.[129]

In culture
The coconut was a critical food item for the people of Polynesia, and the Polynesians brought it
with them as they spread to new islands.[131]
In the Ilocos region of the northern Philippines, the Ilocano people fill two halved coconut shells
with diket (cooked sweet rice), and place liningta nga itlog (halved boiled egg) on top of it. This
ritual, known as niniyogan, is an offering made to the deceased and one's ancestors. This
accompanies the palagip (prayer to the dead).
A coconut (Sanskrit: narikela) is an essential element of rituals in Hindu tradition.[132] Often it is
decorated with bright metal foils and other symbols of auspiciousness. It is offered during
worship to a Hindu god or goddess. Narali Purnima is celebrated on a full moon day which
usually signifies the end of monsoon season in India. The word ‘Narali’ is derived
from naral implying ‘coconut’ in Marathi. Fishermen give an offering of coconut to the sea to
celebrate the beginning of a new fishing season.[133] Irrespective of their religious affiliations,
fishermen of India often offer it to the rivers and seas in the hopes of having bountiful catches.
Hindus often initiate the beginning of any new activity by breaking a coconut to ensure the
blessings of the gods and successful completion of the activity. The Hindu goddess of well-being
and wealth, Lakshmi, is often shown holding a coconut.[134] In the foothills of the temple town
of Palani, before going to worship Murugan for the Ganesha, coconuts are broken at a place
marked for the purpose. Every day, thousands of coconuts are broken, and some devotees
break as many as 108 coconuts at a time as per the prayer.[citation needed] They are also used in
Hindu weddings as a symbol of prosperity.[135]
The flowers are used sometimes in wedding ceremonies in Cambodia.[113]
The Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club of New Orleans traditionally throws hand-decorated
coconuts, one of the most valuable Mardi Gras souvenirs, to parade revelers. The tradition
began in the 1910s, and has continued since. In 1987, a "coconut law" was signed by
Governor Edwin Edwards exempting from insurance liability any decorated coconut "handed"
from a Zulu float.[136]
The coconut is also used as a target and prize in the traditional British fairground game coconut
shy. The player buys some small balls which are then thrown as hard as possible at coconuts
balanced on sticks. The aim is to knock a coconut off the stand and win it.[137]
It was the main food of adherents of the now discontinued Vietnamese religion Đạo Dừa.[138]
Myths and legends
Some South Asian, Southeast Asian, and Pacific Ocean cultures have origin myths in which the
coconut plays the main role. In the Hainuwele myth from Maluku, a girl emerges from the
blossom of a coconut tree.[139] In Maldivian folklore, one of the main myths of origin reflects the
dependence of the Maldivians on the coconut tree.[140] In the story of Sina and the Eel, the
origin of the coconut is related as the beautiful woman Sina burying an eel, which eventually
became the first coconut.[141]
According to urban legend, more deaths are caused by falling coconuts than by sharks annually.