Sustainable Disaster Risk Reduction in Nigeria: Lessons

for Developing Countries

Olorunfemi, F.B & Raheem U. Adebimpe

Abstract:
This paper examined the concept of disaster and its management in
the light of sustainable development with particular reference to
Nigeria. It enumerated the different human and natural phenomena
that could be characterized as disasters. It was discovered that, while
hazard and/ or disasters posses anthropogenic origins, their
consequences are felt on both human and the physical environments.
In all cases, the human tolls have been significant. The paper
highlighted the important elements of a typical Disaster Management
Information System in Nigeria. After presenting a typology of
disasters in Nigeria, the paper, advocated for a workable disaster
management information system.

Keywords: Disaster Management, Risk, Hazards, Vulnerability,

Introduction
Disaster refers to an emergency caused by natural hazards or human-
induced actions resulting in a significant change in circumstances over
a relatively short time period. Typical examples are death,
displacement, disease, loss of crops, damage to physical and service
infrastructure, depletion of natural and social capitals, institutional
weakening and a general disruption of economic and social activity. A
broad definition of disasters include the fact that they are dramatic,
sudden, unscheduled events that are often accompanied by large
losses of human life, suffering and affliction to a society or a
significant part of it, and a temporary breakdown of prevailing
lifelines and systems. Such events cause considerable material
damages and interrupt the normal functioning of an economy and of
society in general (Otero and Marti, 1995). The intensity of disasters

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often represent the intersection of human and natural disaster,

conditions of poverty, poor housing, lack of information about disaster
risk, poor telecommunications, and inadequate physical
infrastructures, including bridges or roads, frequently exacerbate
natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, and volcanic
eruption. Evacuations of large populations are complicated by low-
capacity infrastructure or family or cultural impediments. Although
every nation is generally aware of their propensity for various kinds of
human and natural disaster scenarios, their occurrence and
consequences are often sudden, random and not well predicted.

Although, differing somewhat in the trigger, scope, duration and

requisite actions, most disasters – both natural and human-driven
generally result in widespread physical damage, death, disability and
displacement, as well as the disruption of economic and social
activities (Coletta, 2004, Olokesusi, 2004). Disaster specialists focus
on two kinds of vulnerability. The first is peoples’ vulnerability to
disasters – the extent to which they are at risk (living on a flood plain,
having a house unable to withstand floods) and the extent to which
they can cope with the impacts (through such provisions as health care
and property insurance). The second is the vulnerability of key
institutions or systems such as power supplies, water supplies, and
hospitals and emergency response networks to disasters.

During the past four decades, hazards events such as earthquakes,

drought, floods, storms, fires and volcanic eruptions have caused
major loss of human life and livelihoods; destruction of economic and
social infrastructure and significant environmental damage. Moves
towards sustainable development and poverty reduction initiatives are
threatened by disasters triggered by hazards of hydro-meteorological,
geological and environmental origins often amplified by human
activities or technology (Ojo, 2003). According to Gavidia (2000),
natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods and hurricanes can wipe
out years of urban development by destroying infrastructure and
housing and by injury or killing thousands of people. The 26th

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December, 2004, tsunami disaster in South Asia is an example which

led to an immense loss of over 270,000 lives in addition to several
million dollars worth of property and infrastructure destroyed.
Disasters and those prone to it increase human vulnerability. In the
last millennium, and even now, the world has witnessed a range of
natural hazards (environmental emergencies), in greater and more
frequent in some areas than in others, slow-acting in some cases and
catastrophic in others. The Munich Re-insurance estimated that
economic losses due to environmental emergencies have increased
three-fold from the 1960s to the 1990s, and in the first few years of
this decade, are running about US $50 billion per year. The majority
of these enormous economic losses are incurred in industrially
developed parts of the world including Japan, USA and Canada. But
the relative impact is much greater in countries with lower per capital
incomes, where their effects on such human and economic factors as
employment, balance of trade, indebtedness from reconstruction and
loss of capital continued to be felt for many years after the event
(CERD, 2000; Mac Entire, 2001).

Developing nations in particular, experience pervasive risk of

devastation, human and property loss resulting from human and
natural disasters. According to Henderson (2004), this level of risk
was attributable to socio-economic stress, aging and inadequate
physical infrastructure, weak education and preparedness for disaster
and insufficient fiscal and economic resources to carefully implement
the preparedness, response, mitigation and recovery components of
integrated emergency management. Disasters are clearly a
development problem. First, because certain natural phenomena,
including those of hydro-meteorological, geodesic and vulcanological
origin tend to have greater effects on developing countries than on
developed countries. Second, because several factors associated with a
low level of development exacerbate such effects. Third, because the
impact of natural phenomena on the prospects for long term
development is considerably greater in less developed countries (BID,
CEPAL, 2000).

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The growing trend of disasters in Nigeria has implications for national

sustainability. This is because, disasters, irrespective of causal factors
are associated with diverse externalities such as mortalities, loss of
income, home, farmlands, social networks, livelihoods and
infrastructures. The accelerating pace of urbanization and the growing
scale of urban-industrial activity is exacerbating environmental
stresses in developing-country cities and increasing the vulnerability
of urban dwellers to both natural, technological and other human
induced disasters (Kreimer and Munasingle, 1991). The demand for
more urban space has pushed the poor onto marginal, environmentally
vulnerable terrain. In many developing countries, overcrowding,
congestion, poverty, unemployment, and in adequate infrastructure
and services further weaken urban resistance to natural hazards
(Clarke and Munasinghe, 1995).

All things considered, the long-term effects of disasters seriously

affect countries’ prospects for development. This calls into question at
least two aspects related to a country’s development strategy: first,
understanding that resources earmarked for preventing and mitigating
the impact of natural phenomena are very high-yield investment, both
in economic, social and political terms in line with long-term growth.
Second, the spending actions and decisions that are taken once a
phenomenon has arisen must be seen from the perspective of reducing
vulnerability, in other words, in a combined reconstruction and
transformation approach aimed at positively and progressively
modifying the degree of vulnerability and, therefore, the prospects for
future development. This paper examined the critical factors in
disaster risk management and vulnerability in Nigeria. It underscores
the weaknesses of the social and political institutions and
infrastructure to adequately prepare and respond to hazards and
disasters.

Disaster Management: Some Conceptual Clarifications

Disaster management aims at motivating societies at risk to be more
involved in the conscious management of risk and reduction of

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vulnerability in various communities. As a cross cutting issue, it

demands substantial commitment from public authorities/ Civil
society and a greater inter-sectoral and policy coordination at all
levels. This section provides a clarification of some terms used in
disaster management.

Hazard
A hazard can be defined as a potentially damaging physical event,
phenomenon or human activity which may cause the loss or life or
injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or
environmental degradation. Hazards can include hidden conditions
that may represent future threats and can have different origins. These
include natural (geological, hydro-meteorological and biological)
and/or induced by human processes (environmental degradation and
technological hazards) (ISDR 2002: 24). According to Niekerk
(2002), hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin
and effects. Each hazard is characterized by its location, intensity and
probability. Typical examples of hazards can be the absence of rain
(leading to drought) or the abundance thereof (leading to flooding).
Chemical manufacturing plants near settlements can also be seen as
hazards. Similarly, incorrect agricultural techniques will in the long
run lead to possible disasters such as loss of crops and famine.
Hazards can either be a creation of humans or the environment.
Although the farmer can be planned for than the latter, in both cases,
the management of hazard will remain the same.

Vulnerabilities
Vulnerabilities is a set of prevailing or consequential conditions
resulting from physical, social, economic and environmental factors,
which increase the sustainability of a community to the impact of
hazards (ISDR 2002: 24). It can comprise of physical, socio-
economic, environmental and/or political factors that adversely affect
the ability of communities to respond to events (Jegillos, 1999).
Blaike et al (1994) is of the opinion that vulnerability is the
characteristics of person or group in terms of their capacity to

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anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a hazard.
Vulnerability can be expressed as the degree of loss resulting from
potentially damaging phenomenon or hazard (Niekerk, 2002a). In
other words, vulnerabilities can be measured by the level of fatality
i.e. amount of deaths, losses of properties or cash etc. Population
increases due to high birth rate and the lack of food governance do
make communities in developing nations to be highly vulnerable to
hazards. The community and its members may or may not be willing
participants in contributing to or tolerating the conditions leading to
vulnerability. Taken together, they create a dynamic mix of variables,
each of which results from a continuous process. Vulnerabilities can
be physical, social or attitudinal and can be primary or secondary in
nature. If there are positive factors, that increase ability to respond to
needs effectively or which reduce susceptibility, they are considered
capabilities or coping mechanics.

Aspects Contributing to Vulnerability:

• Political factors
• Economic factors
• Physical factors
• Social factors
• Ecological factors
It has been established that vast knowledge on vulnerability and
conditions that lead to vulnerability do exist.

Risk
Risk is usually associated with the inability of men to manage hazard
events that may eventually lead to negative consequences like
destruction of the environment, socio-economic activities, properties
and losses of lives. Risk in terms of disaster management has a
specific focus (UN, 1992). It can be defined as the probability of
harmful consequences (ISDR, 2002), or expected losses (lives lost,
persons injured, damage to property and/or the environment,
livelihoods lost, disruption of economic activity or social systems) due
to the interaction between humans, hazards and vulnerable conditions.

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Risk is therefore the possibility that a particular hazard might exploit a

particular vulnerability (Nierkerk, 2002). It is the production of the
possible damage caused by a hazard due to the vulnerability within a
community. In other words, risk is usually due to hazard events
exploiting the vulnerable situation of an environment or community.
The poorer communities are more at risk because of their high
vulnerability to hazard situations due to their low coping capacities.
The perception of risk and causes vary from community to
communities and culture to cultures. According to Moor (2001) cities
as the most complex of human creations are more at great risk from
their own multiple vulnerabilities. Points of urban vulnerabilities
include their infrastructure systems, factories, telecommunications,
transport, energy, food supplies, schools, offices etc. Two elements
are essential in the formulation or risk: the probability of occurrence
of a given threat (e.g. a hazard); and the degree of susceptibility of the
element (e.g. a rural community) exposed to that source (vulnerability
(ISDR, 2002: 41).

Disasters
A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society,
causing or threatens to cause, widespread human, material, or
environmental losses which exceed the ability of affected community
to cope using only its own resources (South Africa, 2002). Disasters
can be sudden (flash floods) or progressive (drought). Disasters are
caused due to the interaction of humans with their environment. A
disaster is a function of the risk process. It results from the
combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient
capacity or measures to reduce the potential negative consequences of
risk (ISDR, 2002: 25). Extreme natural phenomena do not in
themselves constitute hazards. It is only when such phenomena occur
in an environment where they pose a threat to human life, property,
infrastructure or the environment that they can be classified as
hazards. Similarly in the case of technological developments, it is only
when such developments pose a danger e.g. industrial accidents,
infrastructure failures. In essence, a disaster is the result of a hazard’s

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impact on society. So the effects of a disaster are determined by the

extent of a community’s vulnerability to the hazard.

Hazards in themselves do not constitute disasters. The magnitude of

disaster, according to Niekerk, is usually described in terms of the
adverse effects which a disaster has had on lives, property and
infrastructure; environmental damage; and the costs attached to post-
disaster recovery and rehabilitation. Simply out, therefore, disaster
risk is the product of the combination of three elements –
vulnerability, coping capacity and hazard (ISDR, 2004). This
interaction is illustrated in the following formula.
Disaster risk (R) = Vulnerability (V) x Hazard (H)
Capacity (C)

Hazards are increasingly dynamic and with highly varying potential

impacts. A wide range of geographical, meteorological hydrological,
environmental, technological, biological and socio-political hazards
can threaten livelihoods and sustainable development.

Hazards can be classified into three broad categories:

• Natural hazards
• Technological hazards
• Environmental degradation.
It should be noted that all communities be it rural or urban is
vulnerable to hazards. However, different regions will be more prone
to certain types of hazards then others. Natural hazards are those
triggered by climatic and geographical variability, which is at least
partly beyond the control of human activity (Palm, 1990).
Technological hazards represents dangers originating from
technological or industrial accidents, dangerous procedures,
infrastructure failures or certain human activities, which may cause
the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic
disruption or environmental degradation. Degradation of the
environment is processes induced by human behaviour and activities
(sometimes combined with natural hazards) that damage the natural

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resource base or adversely alter natural processes or ecosystems.

Potential effects are varied and many contribute to an increase in
vulnerability and the frequency and intensity of hazards.

Threat, Vulnerability and Risk

The term vulnerability has taken on a new and increased importance
due to the greater scale of disasters. In general terms, it may be
defined as the probability of a community exposed to a natural threat,
given the degree of fragility of its elements (infrastructure, housing,
productive activities, degree of organization, warning systems,
political and institutional development), suffering human and material
damages. The magnitude of such damage is, in turn related to the
degree of vulnerability.

Vulnerability may be analyzed from different perspectives (physical,

social, political, technological, ideological, cultural and education,
environmental, institutional), although in one way or another all are
actually related. It is a direct result of factors said to be anthropogenic
that is, related to the interaction between man and nature. Risk arises
as a product of the priori function linking threat and vulnerability, and
is intrinsic and latent within society, although its level, degree of
perception and means used to confront it, depend on the guidelines
laid down by that society. All in all, vulnerability and risks are related
to the political decisions a society has taken over time and therefore,
depend on a country’s or region’s development. Vulnerability is,
therefore, a precondition that reveals itself during a disaster, when not
enough has been invested in prevention and mitigation, and an
excessively high risk level has been accepted. This shows that when
defining a preventive policy, before all else vulnerability must be
reduced, since the forces of nature cannot themselves be eliminated.
Nevertheless, it must be made clear that an analysis of vulnerability of
structures is not enough, and the structure of vulnerability must also
be understood: what or who is vulnerable and why?

It must be added that the most fragile and vulnerable population

groups are the poor, and among them, women, children and ethnic

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minorities. The poor line in the areas at greater risk, use

environmentally damaging farming techniques or work marginal land,
have less access to information, basic services and pre and post
disaster protection. This greater vulnerability of poor population
groups is also related, where the democratic political system is limited
or precarious to their scarce possibilities of participation in public
politics. In many ways, poverty closes and exacerbates the vicious
circle of disasters.

Hazard is a potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or

human activity, which may cause the loss of life or injury, property
damage, social and economic disruption or environmental
degradation. Empirical evidence indicates that hazards can include
hidden (or unforeseen) conditions that may represent future threats
and can have a number of different root causes. These include hydro-
metrological (e.g. flood), biological (disease epidemic such as
HIV/AIDS) and/or induced by human processes (e.g. logging,
September 11, 2001 event in New York, U.S.A.) and technological
hazards (e.g. vehicular brake failures), etc.

Violent Conflict is defined as organized acts of social and political

violence pitting one or more groups against one another and/or the
state, or pitting states against each other. Violent conflict can be
manifested in some form of armed conflict. While conflict is a normal
and not necessarily negative part of social and economic
transformation, violent conflict is always destructive. Violent conflict
is distinguished from criminal violence (organized and otherwise) and
household (domestic) violence in that it is typically massive in scale
and organized with political or ideological ends. Violent conflict is
exemplified by war and armed struggle between one or more groups
(e.g. organized peasants, indigenous peoples, labour and/or political
groups) resulting in mass violence.

Terrorism, a form of warfare, is a classical example of violent

conflict. It is defined as the use of violence, often against people not
directly involved in a conflict, by groups operating clandestinely,

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which generally claim to have high political or religious purposes, and

believe that creating a climate of terror will assist in the attainment of
their objectives.

Natural Hazards result from natural phenomena such as earthquakes,

hurricanes, tidal waves, droughts, volcanic eruptions and landslides.
They typically leave physical destruction, disability and death in their
wake and disrupt economic activities and production. Natural hazards
can also provoke severe pollution and other environmental damages.
However, unlike violent conflicts, they are not typically characterized
for producing severe effects on institutions, social capital and social
cohesion. In fact, the populace tends to galvanize around natural
disaster response and social solidarity is often reinforced. They are
usually of short and intensive duration, and episodic or seasonal in
character.

Technological Disasters are those originated by faulty design,

construction or operation of man-made materials and systems.
Examples range from structural collapse to explosion, conflagration,
pollution, contamination and/or some combination thereof. Like
natural hazards, technological disasters may be short in duration, but
have long-term impacts such as in the case of a nuclear meltdown.

The Linkages between natural hazards and human-driven disasters

and distressing environmental and humanitarian situations are
increasingly present, particularly as the poor are compelled to exploit
scarce environmental resources simply for survival. Deforestation,
land degradation, and related food security are shaped by human
resource use (e.g. urban squatting on marginalized hillsides), in turn
sometimes creating conditions for flooding, landslides and drought.

Triggers
Disasters have a range of triggers. Natural hazards may be triggered
by events such as earthquakes, tidal waves (Tsunamis), hurricanes,
volcanic eruptions (lava, ash, rock), floods, drought, epidemics, forest
fires, and erosion, or some combination thereof, and technological

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accidents by such human-made events as explosions, oil spills, and

chemical mishaps. To ensure an integrated approach by all relevant
role players in assessing hazards and determining the risk and
vulnerability in our communities, there is need for risk and
vulnerability analysis. The following steps should be followed in
order to engage in risk and vulnerability analysis.

• Identify the nature, extent, and risk of hazards;

• Determine the existence and degree of vulnerabilities;
• Identify the capabilities and resources available;
• Determine the acceptable levels of risk, cost-benefit
considerations;
• Set priorities relative to time, resource allocation effectiveness
of results;
• Develop methods to protect people and key resources and
reduce overall losses;
• Design effective and appropriate management systems to
implement and control.

The strategies that can be used for the improvement of the application
or risk and vulnerability analysis, according to Niekerk (2002) include
the following:
1. Include analysis of natural hazard risk as part of on-going
natural resource evaluation and development

2. Strategy formulation (in terms of integrated development

planning).
3. Identify and formulate mitigation measures for development
investment project.
4. Make information on natural hazard and community
vulnerability more widely available more accessible to
emergency response and development planning departments.
5. Train planning technicians and decision-makers in hazard
assessments, vulnerability analysis, and disaster mitigation
appreciation and techniques.

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6. Review risk perceptions of different economic groupings,

(e.g. farmers, fishermen, small business community, labourers
etc.).
7. Special emphasis on “lifeline systems” vulnerability analysis.
8. Energy sector vulnerability in relation to natural hazard.
9. Floor hazard assessment and early flood alert systems as part
of integrated development (or agricultural) projects.
10. Include hazard assessment and vulnerability reduction
measures as a part of provincial and local development plans.
11. Include landslide hazard and vulnerability assessments in
metropolitan areas and on critical transportation routes.
12. Use of geographical information systems in national,
provincial, and local government level analysis of natural
hazards, resources, populations, critical facilities,
infrastructure.
The vulnerable elements that should be considered in the development
planning process include:
Human Settlements
Human population and associated housing and services critical
facilities:

Critical Facilities
1. Essential services such as telecommunications, water, energy
and sanitation;
2. Emergency medical services, fire and police station, and
disaster organizations; and
3. Local, national and international transportation facilities and
carriers.

Economic Production Facilities

Major source of livelihood of the population, such as industries,
banking and commerce buildings, public markets, agro processing
plants and areas of agricultural production, livestock, forestry, mines
and fisheries production.

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Public Assembly Sites

Public assembly sites include buildings such as schools, churches,
auditoriums, theatres, public markets and public and private office
buildings.

Cultural Patrimony
This includes buildings of significant cultural and community value or
use, and building of architectural importance.
5. Hyogo Declaration and Hyogo Framework for Action

Delegates to the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, gathered

from 18 to 22 January 2005 in Kobe City of Japan’s Hyogo
Prefecture, which was affected by the Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake of 17 January 1995. The Delegates to the conference
recognized that the international community has accumulated much
experience with disaster risk reduction through the International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction and the succeeding
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. In particular, by taking
concrete measures in line with the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of
Action for a Safer World, we have learned much, including about gaps
and challenges since the 1994 Yokohama Conference. Nevertheless,
there was a deep concern that communities continue to experience
excessive losses of precious human lives and valuable property as
well as serious injuries and major displacements due to various
disasters worldwide.

While reaffirming the vital role of the United Nations system in

disaster risk reduction, the delegates pledge their determination to
reduce disaster losses of lives and other social, economic and
environmental assets worldwide, mindful of the importance of
international cooperation, solidarity and partnership, as well as good
governance at all levels.

Thus, the following declarations were made:

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1. We will build upon relevant international commitments and

frameworks, as well as internationally agreed development goals,
including those contained in the Millennium Declaration, to
strengthen global disaster reduction activities for the twenty-first
century. Disasters have a tremendous detrimental impact on efforts at
all levels to eradicate global poverty; the impact of disasters remains a
significant challenge to sustainable development.

2. We recognize the intrinsic relationship between disaster reduction,

sustainable development and poverty eradication, among others, and
the importance of involving all stakeholders, including governments,
regional and international organizations and financial institutions,
civil society, including non-governmental organizations and
volunteers, the private sector and the scientific community. We
therefore welcome all the relevant events that took place and
contributions made in the course of the Conference and its preparatory
process.

3. We recognize as well that a culture of disaster prevention and

resilience, and associated pre-disaster strategies, which are sound
investments, must be fostered at all levels, ranging from the individual
to the international levels. Human societies have to live with the risk
of hazards posed by nature. However, we are far from powerless to
prepare for and mitigate the impact of disasters. We can and must
alleviate the suffering from hazards by reducing the vulnerability of
societies. We can and must further build the resilience of nations and
communities to disasters through people-centered early warning
systems, risks assessments, education and other proactive, integrated,
multi-hazard, and multi-sectoral approaches and activities in the
context of the disaster reduction cycle, which consists of prevention,
preparedness, and emergency response, as well as recovery and
rehabilitation. Disaster risks, hazards, and their impacts pose a threat,
but appropriate response to these can and should lead to actions to
reduce risks and vulnerabilities in the future.

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4. We affirm that States have the primary responsibility to protect the

people and property on their territory from hazards, and thus, it is vital
to give high priority to disaster risk reduction in national policy,
consistent with their capacities and the resources available to them.
We concur that strengthening community level capacities to reduce
disaster risk at the local level is especially needed, considering that
appropriate disaster reduction measures at that level enable the
communities and individuals to reduce significantly their vulnerability
to hazards. Disasters remain a major threat to the survival, dignity,
livelihood and security of peoples and communities, in particular the
poor. Therefore there is an urgent need to enhance the capacity of
disaster- prone developing countries in particular, the least developed
countries and small island developing States, to reduce the impact of
disasters, through strengthened national efforts and enhanced bilateral,
regional and international cooperation, including through technical
and financial assistance.

5. The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the

Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters with its expected
outcome, strategic goals, and priorities for action, as well as
implementation strategies and associated follow-up, as a guiding
framework for the next decade on disaster reduction was therefore
adopted.

Disaster Risk Reduction for Development

In recent years, there has been a major shift in how people seek to
cope with disasters from natural hazards. While humanitarian
response capacities are vital and needs continued attention, the focus
on addressing risk underlines the recognition that human intervention
designed to reduce the vulnerability of communities and their assets
can reduce the impact of disasters.

Disaster risk reduction is a new paradigm in disaster management

with a body of policies, strategies and practices geared toward
curtailing vulnerabilities and disaster risks in a society through
appropriate prevention, mitigation, preparedness and early warning

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programmes and facilities. It aims to motivate societies at risk to be

more involved in the conscious management of risk and reduction of
vulnerability in their communities. As a cross cutting issue, it
demands substantial commitment from public authorities/civil society
and a grater inter-sectoral and policy coordination at all levels. It also
requires a full engagements of diverse tools used in the measurement
of environmental vulnerability such as indicators and risk assessment.
A system of comprehensive risk assessment and analysis, based upon
detailed and accurate and successful disaster reduction strategy.

Risk is rooted in conditions of physical, social, economic, and

environmental vulnerability. Such conditions require assessment and
management on a continuing basis with the main aim of minimizing
exposure to hazards. This is by strengthening relationships and by
developing reliance on individual capabilities and institutional
capacities that can withstand loss or damage, or those that will hasten
discovery if loss or damage occurs (ISDR 2003).

Risk reduction measures are most successful when they directly

involve the affected people in the disaster planning and decision-
making processes at all levels. Strong participation in preventive
actions and remedial programs is also important. Nevertheless, the
primary level of disaster reduction lies at the community lev3el. Local
leaders drawn from the various political, social and economic sectors
of society have to assume primary responsibility for the economic
sectors of society have to assume primary responsibility for the
protection of their own community.

Promoting education and capacity building on how to manage and

reduce risk from disasters is crucial. People’s understanding of the
issues and their ability to mobilize professional skills are essential
components of any risk reduction strategy. Enabling communities by
investing in human resources and building individual capabilities
across the generations will have longer lasting value than any other
specific investment in technological systems to reduce risks.

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Disaster reduction policies and measures need be implemented with a

two-fold aim; to enable societies to be resilient to natural hazards
while ensuring that development efforts do not increase vulnerability
to these hazards. It is essential for communities to understand this
philosophy for them to become more resilient to the effects of hazards
and despite risks reduction was one important attribute amongst many
other tenets, which is that o anticipating potential catastrophes based
on knowledge of hazardous condition, and past devastations, which
then prompts societies to unrest in protective measures.

Before present modern researches and development, there are

indigenous protective methodologies, which dates back to the 14th
and 15th century in Africa and Asia such as in the areas of terrace
farming along the fragile steep slopes to protect erosion. In the
Yoruba tribe of Nigeria, the indigenous farming makes it mandatory
to allow farmland to fallow for some years to reduce environmental
degradation and to allow for replenishment. Countries of Europe such
as Netherlands with low lands usually around the sea level are known
to have a tradition of erecting an extensive system of sea dykes to
protect the people from floods and to reclaim marshlands.

In Nigeria, the indigenous farmers have mastered the act of

forecasting arrival and or cycles of rain and possible floods and
droughts through the sound of some birds and sprouting of some
weeds and plants. The Japanese have age long tested traditional
methods of predicting and reducing the impact of volcanic eruptions
through early warnings and evacuations.

Over the years, different communities and professional groupings

based on catastrophic experiences are known to have evolved and or
adapted various measures to prevent and generally mitigate or reduce
the impact of hazards in their various communities. These practices
are called different names in different communities and at different
time such as emergency assistances; civil defense disaster response,
humanitarian assistance, civil protection, homeland security and

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disaster protection. Currently a more holistic approach with a focus on

risk and vulnerability has midwife the concept of risk reduction or
disaster risk management. While relief intervention is needful especially at
the critical phase of disaster impact and thereafter, it is, however, criminal for
policy decision maker to wait for disasters to occur before allocating
resources to address the catastrophes.

Institutional Framework for Disaster Management in Nigeria

According to Otero and Marti (1995), some intrinsic elements of the
nation, society, or economy affected have, in general, implications for
the efforts needed to face the emergency, undertake reconstruction,
and finally, surmount the consequences of the disaster. Relative size
of the economy affected, the magnitude and depth of the event, and
the economic and socio-political conditions of the country at the time
are some of these elements. In response to the upsurge in disasters, the
Federal Government of Nigeria through Decree No. 12 of 1999
established the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) as
the apex public sector agency for emergency management. This legal
instrument was fashioned after the USNEMA law, but its operation
has been handicapped by several factors among which are inadequate
funding and equipment, weak executive capacity and lack of
decentralization.

The enabling legislation contains concepts like co-ordinate, liaise,

monitor and collect, etc. which presupposes that NEMA is a co-
coordinating agency. Yet, the Director-General of the agency in his
welcome address to a recent conference on emergency management
noted that the management of any emergency no matter how small is
the agency’s responsibility (Makarfi, 2004) It is instructive in this
regard to note that current global climate models indicate that the sea
level will rise irrespective of any interventions we make, which means
that the coastal areas of Nigeria where virtually all the oil and gas
installations are sited, including cities such as Lagos, Port-Harcourt
and Warri, industrial plants and millions of poor people. For Nigeria,
this situation is exacerbated by tropical storm surges, coastal erosion
and flooding especially during the rainy season.

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Although Nigeria has signed up to the United Nations Framework

Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC), and is widely recognized
to be vulnerable to climate change, much still needs to be done to
develop local awareness, knowledge and expertise. Whereas, NEMA
is structurally incapacitated, the situation is worse at the state and
local levels. Although the 1999 NEMA Decree directs each state to
have a fully equipped emergency management agency, this has not
been realized. Furthermore, a National Disaster Response Plan was
prepared about three years ago, it has not been put to use. It is
however quite heartening that the Nigeriasat-1 (satellite) is now
gathering data on environmental conditions and resources, we are
concerned with the application of such data for participatory and
sustainable environmental emergency management. The various
actions and intentions of government in this sector are quite laudable.
However, it is very critical that an appraisal of the framework,
relationships, logistics and public awareness and willingness to
participate in disaster prevention and management be carried out.

Although Nigeria has signed up to the United Nations Framework

Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC), and is widely recognized
to be vulnerable to climate change, much still needs to be done to
develop local awareness, knowledge and expertise. Whereas, NEMA
is structurally incapacitated, the situation is worsening at the state and
local levels. Although the 1999 NEMA Decree directs each state to
have a fully equipped emergency management agency, this has not
been realized. Furthermore, a National Disaster response Plan was
prepared about three years ago, it has not been to use. It is however
quite heartening that the Nigeriasat-1 (satellite) is now gathering data
on environmental conditions and resources, we are concerned with the
application of such data for participatory and sustainable environment
emergency management.

Disasters Occurrence in Nigeria

Four main categories of disasters have occurred in Nigeria over the
past ten years, and they have had significant human and environment
consequences. These include:

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Industrial/Technological Accidents
Under this heading, some of the disasters that have occurred in
Nigeria include

• On July 10 2000, a pipeline in Nigeria exploded killing about 250

villagers accompanied by wild fires burning out of control over
about 20 km from the town of Jesse, Delta State.
• On 27 January 2002, at least 660 people were drowned and
thousands were rendered homeless after a multiple bomb
explosions at a Nigerian Military armoury in Lagos, triggered by
an accidental fire. Mass panic ensured.
• The 2002 textile factory fire accident in Lagos killing hundreds of
workers.
• Plane crash incidents, the most recent being the 10/22 Bellview
airline flight 210 crash near Lagos in which 117 people died.

Urban Violence, Civil Strife and Conflicts:

Some of these are related to community land resource ownership; for
instance,

• On 4 June 1999, ethnic clothes flamed up in Nigeria’s southern oil

industry hub of Warri, Delta State. Dozens of people were
reported dead in six days of fighting.
• On 19 July 1999 at least 60 people died in clashes between Hausa
and Yoruba tribes near Lagos.
• On 26 July 1999, troops were sent to Kano after at least 60 people
were killed in renewed ethnic clashes in northern Nigeria.
• Several incidents of urban violence occurring frequently in major
urban centres, claiming hundreds of lives and property.

Property Rights and Unequal Sharing of Benefits from Natural

Resources
• On 1 January 1999, at least 19 people died in clashes in Nigeria’s
oil region after an ultimatum to oil firms to leave ethnic Ijaw
areas.

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• On 3 June 1999, local youths set fires at four separate points on

the Warri-Kaduna products pipeline near the village of Adeje,
after police arrested suspected product thieves. The number of
dead was undetermined.

Rural and Urban Poverty which Lead People to Taking Deadly

Risks to Get Money
• On 18 October 1998, fire engulfed more than 2000 villagers who
were scrambling for petrol near a ruptured pipeline in Jesse
outside Warri. Nearly 1000 people were killed.
• On 14 March 1999, at least 50 villagers who were scooping up
gasoline from a broken products pipeline at Umuichiechi-
Umungbede village in Abia State were burned to death after an
explosion.
• There have been several incidences of pipeline vandalisation
aimed at siphoning oil in different parts of the country especially
Lagos, Ibadan and the Niger Delta leading to thousands of death.
Available literature on Nigeria shows the existence of spatial
differences in the nature of disasters. While oil and gas pollution is
largely a Niger Delta problem, drought and quella birds infestation
occur in the Sudano-Sahelian states (e.g. Kano, Sokoto, Katsina,
Borno and Yobe). However, soil erosion, rainstorn and flood disasters
are prevalent in virtually all the states. (NEMA, 2002). The country
has witnessed several disasters accompanied by numerous casualties
including property damage. In 2001, the communal conflict in
Akampa Local Government Area in Cross River State led to the
displacement of about 3,000 people and 12 dead. The Tiv/Hausa-
Fulani clash in Nasarawa State culminated in the death of 50 persons
and displacement of 50,000 people. Furthermore, during the same
period the flood disasters in Aba, Kirfi (Bauchi State), Tal;ata Mafara
(Zamfara State) led to the dislocation of about 13,000 people although
no casualties were recorded (Orebiyi, 2002).

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Disaster Management in Nigeria: The Challenges Ahead.

There is need to create a disaster Management Information System
(DMIS). According to Gupta (2001), preparing a template for disaster
management including the following seven issues

a. Database: On various resources, skills, and services required for

relief at short notice. It will have information on safety
equipments and various other equipments, skills and other
information required to deal with emergency.
b. Logistics: One of the most difficult problems to be handles is the
organization of supply chain relief. There is the need, therefore to
put all elements of logistics in place for tracking the supplies and
distribution of relief materials.
c. Technological Needs: Whole range of technical questions
regarding buildings, rescue and relief always emerge during
emergency. The best practices have to be put in use.
d. Self Reliance: The lessons of community self-help need to be put
together. A database of volunteers who can move at short notice
need to be developed.
e. Communication infrastructure: This could pose a serious
problem during emergency. It will require a network of harm
radios, use of radio stations, setting up of help lines, etc. There is
also the need to create information dissemination system and
develop mechanism for capacity building.
f. Emergency Preparedness: There is need to organized drills to
keep society prepared for dealing with emergencies. Those living
in fragile areas, especially along major river channels need to
regularly informed about the hazards of living in such areas.
g. Forecasting: Wherever possible, disasters which can be
anticipated overtime or space need to be looked into.

It is generally accepted that the best disaster planning and

management involves the following (Sorensen, 1988; Quarantelli,
1991):

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• Views disasters as different from accidents and minor

emergencies;
• Views catastrophes as different from disasters;
• Focuses on multiple hazards and is generic rather than agent
specific;
• Includes all four time phases of the planning process: mitigation,
preparedness, response, and recovery;
• Aims at multiple rather than single hazard or risk reduction goals;
• Focuses ion general principles rather than specific details;
• Highlights a continuing process rather than an end product, such
as the production of a written plan or a document for mitigation.
• Builds on research findings derived from systematic data in
addition to personal experiences;
• Emphasizes the need for coordination both within and between
organizations and segments of the community, rather than
“command and control”; and
• Distinguishes between planning and managing, between the
strategies and the tactics necessary.

Conclusion
When placed in the context of sustainable development, disaster
management represents an important aspect of socio-economic and
national security, therefore facilitating a continuous development
process. Disaster reduction policies and measures need be
implemented with a two-fold aim; to enable societies to be resilient to
natural hazard while ensuring that development efforts do not increase
vulnerability to these hazards.

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Figure 1: Natural Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk

Vulnerability (V)

Susceptibility to human, economic an d financial

losses resulting from the risk of natural disasters

UNCONTROLLABLE CONTROLLABLE

Natural Hazard (NH)

Natural phenomena potentially causing losses

to human settlements and economic activities

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Table 1: Typology of Disaster Triggers

HUMAN-DRIVEN DISASTERS
Natural Hazards Violent Conflict Technological Hazards

Earthquakes Mass violent civil disturbances Nuclear contamination

Floods/Riverbank erosion International conflict Industrial disasters
Landslides Civil war Poisoning of water courses –
Cyclones/Typhoons/Hurricanes Localized armed conflict chlorine, cyanide, mercury, lead,
Tsunami/Tidal Waves Terrorism etc.
Volcanic eruptions Environmental pollution
Fire – forest, other Dam and structure failures
Unusually cold weather/winter Oil spills
emergencies Drough
Source: Keipi and Tyson (2002)
PHENOMENA/EXAMPLES
GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS • Earthquakes
• Tsunamis (also called tidal waves)
• Volcanic activity and emissions
• Mass earth movements e.g. landslides, rockslides, rock fall,
liquefaction, sub marine slides,
• Subsidence, surface collapse, geological fault activity.
HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL • Floods, debris and mud flows
HAZARDS • Tropical cyclones, storm surges, thunder/ hail storms, blizzards and
other severe storms.
• Drought
• Desertification
• Veld/ bush or wild fires.
• Heat waves
• Sand or dust storms
• Permafrost
• Snow avalanches
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS • Outbreaks or epidemic disease
• Plant or animal contagion
• Extensive infestations
TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS • Industrial pollution
• Nuclear activities and radioactivity
• Toxic wastes
• Dam failures
• Transport
• Industrial accidents (explosion, fires, spills)
ENVIRONMENTAL • Land Degradation
DEGRADATION • Deforestation
• Desertification
• Veld /bush /wildfires
• Loss of biodiversity
• Land, water and air pollution
• Climate change
• Sea level rise
• Ozone depletion

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Table 2: Highlights and Spatial Distribution of Major Disasters in Nigeria

S/NO State Types of major disasters Remark

1. Abia Rainstorm: soil erosion & market Soil erosion is a prevailing market fires frequent
fires

2. Adamawa Armed bandity, flood, soil erosion Soil erosion is a prevailing disasters

3. Akwa Ibom Flood, rainstorm and fire Soil erosion is a prevailing disasters

4. Anambra Rainstorm and armed banditry & soil Soil erosion is a prevailing disasters
erosion

5. Bauchi Fire and windstorm, religious crisis Armed banditry is rampant

6. Bayelsa Flood & coastal erosion, oil pollution Oil pollution & youth restiveness are the
commonest problem

7. Benue Communal clash & bush fire, Communal clashes & fire disasters are the
flooding commonest crises

8. Borno Desert encroachment, fire and flood Desertification is the major problem

9. Cross River Fire disaster & oil pollution Oil pollution if the major problem

10. Delta Flood, rainstorm, oil pollution, youth Oil pollution if the major problem and youth
unrest unrest

11. Ebonyi Soil erosion, bush fires Soil erosion and bush fire are the commonest
problem

12. Edo Flood and rainstorm, oil pollution & Oil pollution & youth restiveness are the
youth restiveness prevailing problems

13. Enugu Soil erosion, rainstorm & flood Rainstorm & soil erosion are common

14. Ekiti Rainstorm, flood Rainstorm & soil erosion are common

15. Gombe Desertification Desertification and rainstorm are common

16. Imo Rain and windstorm, soil erosion Soil erosion is he major problem in the area

17. Jigawa Flood, fire, windstorm and flood Desertification is the major problem

18. Kaduna Fire, rainstorm, windstorm and Ethnic-religious clashes are the commonest
communal clash, flood problems in the area

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 Olurunfemi, F.B. & Raheem U. Adebimpe

19. Kano Flood, fire, windstorm and communal Ethnic-religious clashes are the commonest
clashes, plane crash problems in the area

20. Katsina Fire, windstorm and flood Desertification is the major problem

21. Kebbi Fire, windstorm and flood Desertification is the major problem

22. Kogi Flood, fire and rainstorm Rainstorm & bush fires are the major problem

23. Kwara Flood, fire and rainstorm Rainstorm & bush fires are the major problem

24. Lagos Bomb explosion, collapsed buildings, Flooding is an annual even, armed banditry,
erosion, flooding, plane crash communal clashes are very frequent and
common place in the area

25. Nasarawa Communal clashes & bush fires Ethnic clashes is the major problem in the area

26. Niger Rainstorm, flooding Flooding is common place in the area

27. Ogun Flooding, ethnic clashes, plane crash Flooding is common place in the area

28. Ondo Rainstorm, erosion & communal Flooding is common place in the area
clashes

29. Osun Rainstorm, communal clashes Communal clashes are all too frequent

30. Oyo Flooding, rainstorm, erosion Rainstorm & flooding

31. Plateau Communal clash, bush fire, erosion Communal clashes & rainstorm

32. Rivers Erosion, communal clash & oil Youth restiveness and oil pollution are the main
pollution, flooding & plane crash crises and are all too frequent

33. Sokoto Flood, quella birds, fire and flood and Windstorm, drought
windstorm

34. Taraba Ethno-communal clashes and bush Communal clashes are very frequent
fires

35. Yobe Fire, drought, fire and flood Drought is common

36. Zamfara Flooding, religious crises Occasional flooding is not uncommon

37. FCT Windstorm, fire, flooding Market fires are frequent

Source: After Response May-June, 2002, p. 30.

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