Flexible Learning A.Y.

2020-2021
DISTANCE EDUCATION COURSE GUIDE USING OBTL DESIGN v1

Superposition, Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

Module 4 : 6 hrs.

Course Instructor Jose Espino

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Contact Details Email Ad [email protected]

Phone No./s 09495039419

Consultation Hours TTH TTH 10:30 – 12noon

Part I: TARGETED COURSE OUTCOMES AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Targeted Course Outcomes

1. Apply the knowledge of mathematics and sciences in solving simple and complicated DC
circuits to address issues of the society and environment.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1.1 Be able to solve a multiple source circuit using the superposition method.

1.2 Be able to determine the Thevenin voltage and the Thevenin resistance of a circuit.

1.3 Be able to determine the Norton current and the Norton resistance of a circuit.

1.4 Be able to use Thevenin’s circuit to determine load resistance for maximum power transfer.

Part II: ASSESSMENT

Learning Evidence 1 (Assessment Task 1): Reading Assignment
Learning Evidence 2 (Assessment Task 2): Quizzes

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Part III: TEACHING LEARNING ACTIVITIES

TLA 1: Reading Assignment 1

Activity 1:
Answer the questions below using the given activity sheet. ( 20 pts )

Question Answer

4 pts
How many sources of power at a time can a
circuit be analyzed, as stated by the
Superposition Theorem?
4 pts
What does Thevenin Theorem States?

4 pts
How is it useful in circuit analysis?

4 pts
What does Norton Theorem States?

4 pts
How is it useful in circuit analysis?

Superposition Theorem

The strategy used in the Superposition Theorem is to eliminate all but one source of
power within a network at a time, using series/parallel analysis to determine voltage
drops (and/or currents) within the modified network for each power source separately.
Then, once voltage drops and/or currents have been determined for each power source
working separately, the values are all “superimposed” on top of each other (added
algebraically) to find the actual voltage drops/currents with all sources active. Let’s look
at our example circuit again and apply Superposition Theorem to it:

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Since we have two sources of power in this circuit, we will have to calculate two sets of
values for voltage drops and/or currents, one for the circuit with only the 28-volt battery
in effect. . .

. . . and one for the circuit with only the 7-volt battery in effect:

When re-drawing the circuit for series/parallel analysis with one source, all other voltage
sources are replaced by wires (shorts), and all current sources with open circuits
(breaks). Since we only have voltage sources (batteries) in our example circuit, we will
replace every inactive source during analysis with a wire.

Analyzing the circuit with only the 28-volt battery, we obtain the following values for
voltage and current:

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Analyzing the circuit with only the 7-volt battery, we obtain another set of values for
voltage and current:

By Superimposing

When superimposing these values of voltage and current, we have to be very

careful to consider polarity (of the voltage drop) and direction (of the current
flow), as the values have to be added algebraically.

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Applying these superimposed voltage figures to the circuit, the end result looks
something like this:

Currents add up algebraically as well and can either be superimposed as done with the
resistor voltage drops or simply calculated from the final voltage drops and respective
resistances (I=E/R). Either way, the answers will be the same. Here I will show the
superposition method applied to current:

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Once again applying these superimposed figures to our circuit:

Prerequisites for the Superposition Theorem

Quite simple and elegant, don’t you think? It must be noted, though, that the
Superposition Theorem works only for circuits that are reducible to series/parallel
combinations for each of the power sources at a time (thus, this theorem is useless for
analyzing an unbalanced bridge circuit), and it only works where the underlying
equations are linear (no mathematical powers or roots).

The requisite of linearity means that Superposition Theorem is only applicable for
determining voltage and current, not power!!! Power dissipations, being nonlinear
functions, do not algebraically add to an accurate total when only one source is
considered at a time. The need for linearity also means this Theorem cannot be applied
in circuits where the resistance of a component changes with voltage or current. Hence,
networks containing components like lamps (incandescent or gas-discharge) or
varistors could not be analyzed.

Another prerequisite for Superposition Theorem is that all components must be

“bilateral,” meaning that they behave the same with electrons flowing in either direction
through them. Resistors have no polarity-specific behavior, and so the circuits we’ve
been studying so far all meet this criterion.

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The Superposition Theorem finds use in the study of alternating current (AC) circuits,
and semiconductor (amplifier) circuits, where sometimes AC is often mixed
(superimposed) with DC. Because AC voltage and current equations (Ohm’s Law) are
linear just like DC, we can use Superposition to analyze the circuit with just the DC
power source, then just the AC power source, combining the results to tell what will
happen with both AC and DC sources in effect. For now, though, Superposition will
suffice as a break from having to do simultaneous equations to analyze a circuit.

REVIEW:

The Superposition Theorem states that a circuit can be analyzed with only one source
of power at a time, the corresponding component voltages and currents algebraically
added to find out what they’ll do with all power sources in effect.

To negate all but one power source for analysis, replace any source of voltage
(batteries) with a wire; replace any current source with an open (break).

Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how
complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and series resistance
connected to a load. The qualification of “linear” is identical to that found in the
Superposition Theorem, where all the underlying equations must be linear (no
exponents or roots). If we’re dealing with passive components (such as resistors, and
later, inductors and capacitors), this is true. However, there are some components
(especially certain gas-discharge and semiconductor components) which are nonlinear:
that is, their opposition to current changes with voltage and/or current. As such, we
would call circuits containing these types of components, nonlinear circuits.

Thevenin’s Theorem in Power Systems

Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and other circuits
where one particular resistor in the circuit (called the “load” resistor) is subject to
change, and re-calculation of the circuit is necessary with each trial value of load
resistance, to determine the voltage across it and current through it. Let’s take another
look at our example circuit:

Thevenin theorem power systems

Let’s suppose that we decide to designate R2 as the “load” resistor in this circuit. We
already have methods of analysis at our disposal (Branch Current, Mesh Current) to use
in determining the voltage across R2 and current through R2, but each of these
methods are time-consuming. Imagine repeating any of these methods over and over
again to find what would happen if the load resistance changed (changing load
resistance is very common in power systems, as multiple loads get switched on and off

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as needed. the total resistance of their parallel connections changing depending on how
many are connected at a time). This could potentially involve a lot of work!

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Thevenin’s Theorem makes this easy by temporarily removing the load resistance from
the original circuit and reducing what’s left to an equivalent circuit composed of a single
voltage source and series resistance. The load resistance can then be re-connected to
this “Thevenin equivalent circuit” and calculations carried out as if the whole network
were nothing but a simple series circuit:

The circuit in review:

. . . after Thevenin conversion . . .

The “Thevenin Equivalent Circuit” is the electrical equivalent of B1, R1, R3, and B2 as
seen from the two points where our load resistor (R2) connects.

The Thevenin equivalent circuit, if correctly derived, will behave exactly the same as the
original circuit formed by B1, R1, R3, and B2. In other words, the load resistor (R2)
voltage and current should be exactly the same for the same value of load resistance in
the two circuits. The load resistor R2 cannot “tell the difference” between the original
network of B1, R1, R3, and B2, and the Thevenin equivalent circuit of E Thevenin, and
RThevenin, provided that the values for EThevenin and RThevenin have been calculated correctly.

Procedure:

The advantage in performing the “Thevenin conversion” to the simpler circuit, of course,
is that it makes load voltage and load current so much easier to solve than in the
original network. Calculating the equivalent Thevenin source voltage and series

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resistance is actually quite easy. First, the chosen load resistor is removed from the
original circuit, replaced with a break (open circuit):

Determine Thevenin Voltage

Next, the voltage between the two points where the load resistor used to be attached is
determined. Use whatever analysis methods are at your disposal to do this. In this case,
the original circuit with the load resistor removed is nothing more than a simple series
circuit with opposing batteries, and so we can determine the voltage across the open
load terminals by applying the rules of series circuits, Ohm’s Law, and Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law:

The voltage between the two load connection points can be figured from one of the
battery’s voltages and one of the resistor’s voltage drops and comes out to 11.2 volts.
This is our “Thevenin voltage” (EThevenin) in the equivalent circuit:

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Determine Thevenin Series Resistance

To find the Thevenin series resistance for our equivalent circuit, we need to take the
original circuit (with the load resistor still removed), remove the power sources (in the
same style as we did with the Superposition Theorem: voltage sources replaced with
wires and current sources replaced with breaks), and figure the resistance from one
load terminal to the other:

With the removal of the two batteries, the total resistance measured at this location is
equal to R1 and R3 in parallel: 0.8 Ω. This is our “Thevenin resistance” (R Thevenin) for the
equivalent circuit:

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Determine The Voltage Across The Load Resistor

With the load resistor (2 Ω) attached between the connection points, we can determine
the voltage across it and current through it as though the whole network were nothing
more than a simple series circuit:

Notice that the voltage and current figures for R2 (8 volts, 4 amps) are identical to those
found using other methods of analysis. Also notice that the voltage and current figures
for the Thevenin series resistance and the Thevenin source (total) do not apply to any
component in the original, complex circuit. Thevenin’s Theorem is only useful for
determining what happens to a single resistor in a network: the load.

The advantage, of course, is that you can quickly determine what would happen to that
single resistor if it were of a value other than 2 Ω without having to go through a lot of
analysis again. Just plug in that other value for the load resistor into the Thevenin
equivalent circuit and a little bit of series circuit calculation will give you the result.

REVIEW:

Thevenin’s Theorem is a way to reduce a network to an equivalent circuit composed of

a single voltage source, series resistance, and series load.

Steps to follow for Thevenin’s Theorem:

Find the Thevenin source voltage by removing the load resistor from the original circuit
and calculating the voltage across the open connection points where the load resistor
used to be.

Find the Thevenin resistance by removing all power sources in the original circuit
(voltage sources shorted and current sources open) and calculating total resistance
between the open connection points.

Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit, with the Thevenin voltage source in series with
the Thevenin resistance. The load resistor re-attaches between the two open points of
the equivalent circuit.

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Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor following the rules for series circuits.

Norton’s Theorem

What is Norton’s Theorem?

Norton’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how
complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single current source and parallel resistance
connected to a load. Just as with Thevenin’s Theorem, the qualification of “linear” is
identical to that found in the Superposition Theorem: all underlying equations must be
linear (no exponents or roots).

Simplifying Linear Circuits

Contrasting our original example circuit against the Norton equivalent: it looks
something like this:

. . . after Norton conversion . . .

Remember that a current source is a component whose job is to provide a constant

amount of current, outputting as much or as little voltage necessary to maintain that
constant current.

Thevenin’s Theorem vs. Norton’s Theorem

As with Thevenin’s Theorem, everything in the original circuit except the load resistance
has been reduced to an equivalent circuit that is simpler to analyze. Also similar to

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Thevenin’s Theorem are the steps used in Norton’s Theorem to calculate the Norton
source current (INorton) and Norton resistance (RNorton).

Procedure

Identify The Load Resistance

As before, the first step is to identify the load resistance and remove it from the original
circuit:

Find The Norton Current

Then, to find the Norton current (for the current source in the Norton equivalent circuit),
place a direct wire (short) connection between the load points and determine the
resultant current. Note that this step is exactly opposite the respective step in
Thevenin’s Theorem, where we replaced the load resistor with a break (open circuit):

With zero voltage dropped between the load resistor connection points, the current
through R1 is strictly a function of B1‘s voltage and R1‘s resistance: 7 amps (I=E/R).
Likewise, the current through R3 is now strictly a function of B2‘s voltage and R3‘s
resistance: 7 amps (I=E/R). The total current through the short between the load
connection points is the sum of these two currents: 7 amps + 7 amps = 14 amps. This
figure of 14 amps becomes the Norton source current (I Norton) in our equivalent circuit:

Find Norton Resistance

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Remember, the arrow notation for current source points in the direction of conventional
current flow. To calculate the Norton resistance (R Norton), we do the exact same thing as
we did for calculating Thevenin resistance (R Thevenin): take the original circuit (with the
load resistor still removed), remove the power sources (in the same style as we did with
the Superposition Theorem: voltage sources replaced with wires and current sources
replaced with breaks), and figure total resistance from one load connection point to the
other:

Now our Norton equivalent circuit looks like this:

Determine The Voltage Across The Load Resistor

If we re-connect our original load resistance of 2 Ω, we can analyze the Norton circuit as
a simple parallel arrangement:

As with the Thevenin equivalent circuit, the only useful information from this analysis is
the voltage and current values for R2; the rest of the information is irrelevant to the
original circuit. However, the same advantages seen with Thevenin’s Theorem apply to
Norton’s as well: if we wish to analyze load resistor voltage and current over several
different values of load resistance, we can use the Norton equivalent circuit, again and
again, applying nothing more complex than simple parallel circuit analysis to determine
what’s happening with each trial load.

REVIEW:

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Norton’s Theorem is a way to reduce a network to an equivalent circuit composed of a

single current source, parallel resistance, and parallel load.

Steps to follow for Norton’s Theorem:

Find the Norton source current by removing the load resistor from the original circuit and
calculating the current through a short (wire) jumping across the open connection points
where the load resistor used to be.

Find the Norton resistance by removing all power sources in the original circuit (voltage
sources shorted and current sources open) and calculating total resistance between the
open connection points.

Draw the Norton equivalent circuit, with the Norton current source in parallel with the
Norton resistance. The load resistor re-attaches between the two open points of the
equivalent circuit.

Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor following the rules for parallel circuits.

Learning Evidence 2 (Assessment Task 2): Quiz (20 points )

1. Resistors of R1= 10Ω, R2 = 4Ω and  R3 = 8Ω are connected up to two batteries (of
negligible resistance) as shown. Find the current through the R2 resistor using
Superposition , Thevenin and Norton Theorem. Verify your answer using KVL.

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