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At the dawn of the third millennium, a powerful and complex web of

interactions is contributing to unprecedented global trends in environmental
degradation. These forces include rapid globalization and urbanization,
pervasive poverty, unsustainable consumption patterns and population
growth. Often serving to compound the effects and intensity of the
environmental problems described in the previous section, global
environmental challenges require concerted responses on the part of the
international community. Global climate change, the depletion of the ozone
layer, desertification, deforestation, the loss of the planet¶s biological
diversity and the transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and
chemicals are all environmental problems that touch every nation and
adversely affect the lives and health of their populations. As with other
environment-related challenges, children are disproportionately vulnerable
to and suffer most from the effects of these global trends. Moreover, all of
these global environmental trends have longterm effects on people and
societies and are either difficult or impossible to reverse over the period of
one generation. Unless effective global actions are taken early, we will end
up plundering our children¶s heritage and future in an unprecedented way.
This chapter describes five major global environmental problems and
points to the potential impact on children and future generations.
Climate Change
It is now widely recognized that global warming over the past 50 years is
largely due to human activities that have released greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere. The most recent assessment report by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that the
global average surface temperature has increased by about 0.6°C during
the 20th century. The seemingly small rise of mean temperature is already
showing adverse effects. One of the consequences has been a rise in the
global average sea level1. Another effect has been more frequent and
intensified droughts in recent decades in parts of Asia and Africa.
Additionally, in most mid and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere
continents, precipitation has increased by 0.5 to 1.0 per cent per decade in
the 20th century2. The world¶s emissions of greenhouse gases, notably
carbon dioxide, continue to increase. The most recent estimates are that
atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2)
will double or triple pre-industrial levels by the end of this century. As a
result, global surface temperature is expected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8
degrees Celsius from 1990 to 21003. The repercussions of climate change
will disproportionately affect those who are least able to adapt ± the poor
and the most vulnerable sections of society, including children. For
example, scientists project that this level of warming could, among other
things: Greatly exacerbate the range, frequency and intensity of natural
disasters, from flooding, to droughts, to torrential rains, ice-storms,
tornadoes and hurricanes; Cause sea levels to rise by between nine and 80
centimetres by 21004, due to the expansion of warming waters and the
melting of polar icecaps and other glaciers, which in turn may produce
deadly flooding in many low-lying areas and small island States, displacing
millions from their homes; _ Increase the number of environmental
refugees resulting from weather-related disasters; _ Augment the risk of
disease migration and disease outbreaks; and _ Render large areas of the
world ³uninsurable´ due to the magnitude of property damage from
disasters. It is widely recognized that climate change, by altering local
weather patterns and by disturbing life-supporting natural systems and
processes, has significant implications for human health. While the range of
health effects is diverse, often unpredictable in magnitude, and sometimes
slow to emerge, children remain among the most vulnerable to these
threats. Higher temperatures, heavier rainfall, and changes in climate
variability would encourage vectors of some infectious diseases (such as
malaria, schistosomiasis, dengue fever, yellow fever and encephalitis) to
multiply and expand into new geographical regions, intensifying the already
overwhelming threats to children from such diseases. There is also
evidence that El Niño ± a vast natural climatic phenomenon that can bring
intense floods and droughts in many parts of the globe ± is becoming more
frequent as a result of global warming and could further aggravate health
problems in many parts of the world. Excessive flooding is, for example, a
prime cause of cholera and other water-borne and food-borne infections to
which children are particularly susceptible. While heavy rains will become
more frequent, there will also be more periods of drought and increased
spreading of the deserts. Scientists predict that a lack of rain, warmer
temperatures and increases in evaporation could have severe implications
in terms of water availability and food security, reducing crop yields in
Africa, further compromising child nutrition5. There are also numerous
health effects, both in terms of disease and injury, associated with extreme
weather events, such as heat waves, storms and floods. Extreme weather
events can exacerbate health issues such as asthma and respiratory
problems due to worsening air pollution, precisely those diseases that most
significantly burden children. The international response to this issue is
embodied in the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) and its 1997 Kyoto Protocol. The Convention sets
principles and an agenda for action with the ultimate objective of stabilizing
greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere at safe levels. It provides for:
cooperation and exchange of information; leadership by industrialized
countries in modifying long-term emission trends; financial and
technological support for the efforts of developing countries; and responses
to vulnerability. The UNFCCC has been in force since 1994 and, with over
180 countries having ratified it, is accepted nearly universally. On the other
hand, while 80 countries have signed the Kyoto Protocol, which sets
legally-binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries (5.2 per
cent below 1990 levels on average in the period from 2008 to 2012), fewer
than 50 countries have ratified it as this book goes to press. For the Kyoto
Protocol to enter into force and become legally binding it has to be ratified
by 55 countries, including those industrialized countries representing at
least 55 per cent of the total 1990 carbon dioxide emissions from this
group. However, of those countries that have currently ratified the Protocol,
none are among the world¶s largest emitters. Efforts are continuing to have
the Kyoto Protocol enter into force as early as August 2002. Headway has
been made, particularly following meetings in July 2001 in Bonn, Germany
and November 2001 in Marrakesh, Morocco. Governments (with the US
declining) agreed to detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol,
particularly on dealing with financial and technological support to
developing countries, compliance, reporting, and the Protocol's
implementing mechanisms, which include emissions trading, joint
implementation, and investments in clean technologies in developing
countries.

 
Ozone in the atmosphere¶s upper layer, the stratosphere, protectshumans,
animals and plants from the damaging effects of UV-B radiation from the
sun. Without it, all life on earth would cease to exist. However, the use of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
are slowly eating away at the stratospheric ozone layer, creating a major
potential health hazard. While the concentrations of ODS in the lower
atmosphere peaked in about 1994 and is now slowly declining due to
worldwide efforts to phase out the use of CFCs and other damaging
substances, significant health threats relating to ozone depletion persist.
Past (and current) emissions of ODS result in increases of ultraviolet
radiation reaching the Earth¶s surface which can pose several health
effects6: _ Increase of melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers;
_ Cause or acceleration of eye cataracts development;
_ Reduce effectiveness of the immune system;
_ Impact on nutrition (e.g. reduced plant yield);
_ Damage to ocean ecosystems and reduced fish yield (by killing microbial
organisms in the ocean).
Skin cancer is the most worrisome health impact of ozone depletion.
Overexposure to the sun¶s harmful ultraviolet (UV) light may damage
children¶s skin. Recent studies indicate that excessive sunburns
experienced by children 10 to 15 years of age. increase by threefold the
chance of developing malignant melanoma, the most deadly kind of skin
cancer, later in life7. In Europe, evaluations of ultraviolet-related skin
cancers suggest that despite the decline in ODS concentrations, skin
cancer incidences will not begin to fall until about 2060. The international
response to this issue is embodied in the Convention for the Protection of
the Ozone Layer, which was concluded in Vienna in 1985. The Vienna
Convention set an important precedent because nations for the first time
agreed in principle to tackle a global environmental problem before its
effects were felt. The Convention¶s 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer has been remarkably successful. Production
of the most damaging ozone-depleting substances was eliminated, except
for a few critical uses, by 1996 in developed countries and should be
phased out by 2010 in developing countries. Thanks to these measures, it
is currently estimated the CFC concentration in the ozone layer is expected
to recover to pre-1980 levels by the year 2050.
Ã
Desertification, resulting in part from deforestation, is a significant threat to
the arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions of the world ± which account
for 40 per cent of the Earth¶s land surface. Throughout the world, drylands
still provide much of the world¶s food in the form of grain and livestock, yet
close to 70 per cent of the world¶s drylands are degraded8, thus
diminishing the productive land per capita and decreasing food security.
The most common forms of unsustainable land use are over-cultivation,
overgrazing, deforestation and poor irrigation practices. These susceptible
soils ± mainly located in the savannahs of Africa, the Great Plains and the
Pampas of the Americas, the Steppes of southeast Europe and Asia, the
outback of Australia and the margins of the Mediterranean ± are particularly
vulnerable due to the fact that they recover very slowly from disturbances
and further deteriorate due to rain and wind erosion and chemical and
physical deterioration of the soil structure. More than 250 million people are
directly affected by desertification and 1 billion people in more than 100
countries are at risk9. These people include many of the world's poorest
and most marginalized citizens. In Africa, land degradation is threatening
economic and physical survival. Recurrent droughts increase soil
degradation problems, which, in turn, magnify the effect of drought, both of
which enhance the conditions that can cause widespread famines. The
consequences of desertification include:
Reduction of the land¶s natural resilience to recover from climatic
disturbances;
_ Reduction of soil productivity;

_ Damaged vegetation cover, such that edible plants can be replaced by

non-edible ones;
_ Increased downstream flooding, reduced water quality, sedimentation in
rivers and lakes and siltation of reservoirs and navigation channels;
_ Aggravated health problems due to wind-blown dust, including eye
infections, respiratory illnesses, allergies and mental stress;
_ Undermined food production; and
_ Loss of livelihoods compelling affected people to migrate.
Ã
More than 110 million hectares of forest, about 11 million hectares a year,
disappeared during the 1990s. Most of this loss was in developing
countries. About 45 per cent of the world¶s original forests are gone10.
Major causes of deforestation and forest degradation lie outside the forest
sector and include the need to create agricultural land and to harvest fuel
wood for food and energy. Approximately half of the wood harvested in the
world is used as fuel wood and charcoal, mostly in developing countries. In
developed countries the main uses are for industrial products. The alarming
rates of deforestation and the associated loss of environmental resources,
social and cultural traditions ± alongside the loss of the economic and
productive capacity of forestland ± account for the fact that forest
preservation is now a major priority on the national, regional and global
policy and political agendas. The removal of trees decreases the ability of
the soils to absorb and retain water; thus contributing to the depletion of the
groundwater aquifers, which supply about one-third of the world¶s
population. Aquifers are the sole source of water for many rural
communities worldwide11. Cleared lands stripped of their tree cover also
are more susceptible to:
Erosion, which degrades fertile lands and silts waterways lakes, rivers and
coastal waters, thereby degrades water quality for human consumption and
disrupts ecosystem processes by choking fish hatcheries, coral reefs, etc.;
_
Decreased groundwater recharge because the barren soils do not infiltrate
water as effectively; _
Increased malaria transmission, bearing in mind that 90 per cent of the
malaria disease burden is linked with underlying environmental factors and
claims some 750,000 children under five annually
and _ Desertification and drought
Deforestation is also intrinsically linked to the loss of biodiversity as original
rain forests host numerous species of precious fauna and flora (see next
section). The significance of protecting rain forests for children cannot be
overemphasized. Food security and sustainability of livelihoods as provided
by forests are critical to child development. Forests also offer climatic and
water resource conservation benefits that directly impact child health. The
rich medicinal resources stored in forests are another link to children¶s
welfare.

One hundred and fifty years ago, the Native American leader, Chief
Seattle, is reported to have said we humans are but a thread in the web of
life. He added, whatever we do to the web, ³We do to ourselves.´ The web
is unravelling at an increasing rate. Both plant and animal species have
been disappearing at 50 to 100 times the natural rate, due to such factors
as the large-scale clearing and burning of forests, over-harvesting of plants
and animals, indiscriminate use of pesticides, draining and filling of
wetlands, destructive fishing practices, air pollution and the conversion of
wild lands to agricultural and urban uses. Recent studies suggest that this
high rate of extinction will accelerate even faster, taking an increasing
number of living plants and animals away from us forever. This species
loss and ecosystem disruption is causing a complex range of
circumstances with consequences to human health. In response,
governments and communities worldwide are now concerned with the
purification of air and water, maintenance of soil fertility, mitigation of floods
and droughts, detoxification and decomposition of wastes, maintaining
concentrations of vital gases and water vapour in the atmosphere, and
controlling infectious agents in the environment. In addition, the loss of
biodiversity obstructs the discovery of new medicines to treat various
diseases.