UNIT 1

Multidisciplinary nature of Environmental studies

Contents:
1.1  Meaning, Scope & Importance
1.2  Need for public awareness
1.3  Ecological System
1.4  Human Activities
1.5  Effects of human activities on environment
1.6  Basics of Environmental Impact Assessment
1.1 Environmental Science: Definition, Scope And Importance
The science of Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises
various branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture,
public health, sanitary engineering etc. It is the science of physical phenomena in the
environment. It studies of the sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate of physical a
biological species in the air, water and soil and the effect of from human activity upon these.
‘A person’s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation which he receives from
his conception until his death.’
Environment comprises various types of forces such as physical, intellectual, economic,
political, cultural, social, moral and emotional. Environment is the sum total of all the
external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the
growth, development and maturation of living organisms.
The term environment is used to describe, in the aggregate, all the external forces, influences
and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development and
maturity of living organisms.’-Douglas and Holland
Scope of Environment:
The environment consists of four segments as under:
1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases, surrounding the
earth:
(a) It sustains life on the earth.
(b) It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
(c) It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major portion of the
electromagnetic radiation from the sun.
(d) It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 nm) and
radio waves (0.14 to 40 m) while filtering out tissue-damaging ultraviolet waves below about
300 nm. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen besides, argon, carbon dioxide,
and trace gases.
2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes,
rivers, streams, reserviour, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.
(i) Nature 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the oceans,
(ii) About 2% of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers.
(iii)Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and ground water
fit to be used for human consumption and other uses.
3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals
occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water.
4. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions with
environment, viz. atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Environment Studies: Importance
Importance of Environment Studies: The environment studies enlighten us, about the
importance of protection and conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution into the
environment.
At present a great number of environment issues, have grown in size and complexity day by
day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. We study about these issues besides and
effective suggestions in the Environment Studies. Environment studies have become
significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance: It has been well recognised
that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, acid rain, marine pollution
and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and hence must be
tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development: Development, in its wake gave birth
to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc.
However, it has become phased out in the developed world. The North, to cleanse their own
environment has, fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’ factories of South. When the West
developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities.
Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows
that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution: World census reflects that one in every seven persons
in this planted lives in India. Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only
2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land.
Agricultural experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients
and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
4. Need for An Alternative Solution: It is essential, especially for developing countries to
find alternative paths to an alternative goal. We need a goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally sound and
sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.
(3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming
wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction: It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity
from extinction, consequent to our activities constricting the environment and depleting the
biosphere, in the name of development.
6. Need for Wise Planning of Development: Our survival and sustenance depend.
Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product have all to by synchronised with the
ecological cycles in any plan of development our actions should be planned ecologically for
the sustenance of the environment and development.
Various Types of Environment
 According to Kurt Lewin, environment is of three types which influence the personality of an
individual as under:
(a) Physical Environment,
(b) Social and Cultural Environment, and
(c) Psychological Environment.
These may be explained as under:
1. Physical Environment: It refers to geographical climate and weather or physical
conditions wherein and individual lives. The human races are greatly influenced by the
climate. Some examples are as under:
(a) In the cold countries i.e. European countries the people are of white colour. Likewise, in
Asian and African countries, that is, in hot countries people are of dark complexion.
(b) The physique of an individual depends on climate conditions as the individual tries to
adjust in his physical environment.
(c) The human working efficiency also depends on the climatic conditions.
2. Social Environment: Social Environment includes an individual’s social, economic and
political condition wherein he lives. The moral, cultural and emotional forces influence the
life and nature of individual behaviour. Society may be classified into two categories as
under:
(i) An open society is very conductive for the individual development.
(ii) A closed society is not very conductive for the development.
3. Psychological Environment: Although physical and social environment are common to
the individual in a specific situation. Yet every individual has his own psychological
environment, in which he lives. Kurt Lewin has used the term ‘life space’ for explaining
psychological environment. The Psychological environment enables us to understand the
personality of an individual. Both the person and his goal form psychological environment. If
a person is unable to overcome the barriers, he can either get frustrated or completed to
change his goal for a new psychological environment. But adopting this mechanism, the
individual is helped in his adjustment to the environment.
Importance of Environment
1.      Environment is concerned with day to day interaction with the surroundings with which
human being is closely associated.
2.      Environmental Science is related to many branches of Sciences.
3.      Environment is concerned with the importance of wild life and its protection.
4.      Environmental Science explains the significant role of biodiversity in establishing ecological
balance.
5.      Environmental Science gives information relating to Population growth, Population
explosion and impact on Population growth.
6.      Environmental Science also gives information about water conservation, watershed
management and the importance of water.
1.2 Need for Public Awareness
It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the Environmental
Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken, it would result in the
extinction of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is essential to get the
 country acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly. Some of
these challenges are as under:
1.      Growing Population: A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent
every year. Over 17 million people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its
natural resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before
us is to limit the population growth. Although population control does automatically lead to
development, yet the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates. For this
development of the women is essential.
2.      Poverty: India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and
environmental degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people are
directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel
shelter and fodder. About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment
degradation has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the resources of their
immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge environment
degradation are two facets of the same challenge. The population growth is essentially a
function of poverty. Because, to the very poor, every child is an earner and helper and global
concerns have little relevance for him.
3.      Agricultural Growth: The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and
increase agricultural growth with damaging the environment. High yielding varieties have
caused soil salinity and damage to physical structure of soil.
4.      Need to Ground water: It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like
community wastes, industrial effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted
our surface water and affected quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the water
quality of our rivers and other water bodies such as lakes as it is an important challenge. It so
finding our suitable strategies for consecration of water, provision of safe drinking water and
keeping water bodies clean which are difficult challenges is essential.
5.      Development and Forests: Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand
of water, plan to harness the mighty river through large irrigation projects were made.
Certainly, these would submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As
such, the dams on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of
political and scientific debate. Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries
owing to pressures of agriculture and other uses. Vast areas that were once green stand today,
as wastelands. These areas are to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal
communities inhabiting forests respect the trees and birds and animals that give them
sustenance. We must recognise the role of these people in restoring and conserving forests.
The modern knowledge and skills of the forest department should be integrated with the
traditional knowledge and experience of the local communities. The strategies for the joint
management of forests should be evolved in a well planned way.
6.      Degradation of Land: At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha possess
any potential for production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly and 85 suffer from
varying degrees of soil degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha, 40 are completely
unproductive. The remaining 83 mha is classified as forest land, of which over half is
denuded to various degrees. Nearly 406 million head of livestock have to be supported on 13
mha, or less than 4 per cent of the land classified as pasture land, most of which is
 overgrazed. Thus, of 226 mha, about 175 mha or 66 per cent is degraded to varying degrees.
Water and wind erosion causes further degradation of almost 150 mha. This degradation is to
be avoided.
7.      Reorientation of Institutions: The people should be roused to orient institutions, attitudes
and infrastructures, to suit conditions and needs today. The change has to be brought in
keeping in view India’s traditions for resources use managements and education etc. Change
should be brought in education, in attitudes, in administrative procedures and in institutions.
Because it affects way people view technology resources and development.
8.      Reduction of Genetic Diversity: Proper measures to conserve genetic diversity need to be
taken. At present most wild genetic stocks have been disappearing from nature. Wilding
including the Asiatic Lion are facing problem of loss of genetic diversity. The protected areas
network like sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves are isolating populations. So,
they are decreasing changes of one group breeding with another. Remedial steps are to be
taken to check decreasing genetic diversity.
9.      Evil Consequences of Urbanisation: Nearly 27 per cent Indians live in urban areas.
Urbanisation and industrialisation has given birth to a great number of environmental
problems that need urgent attention. Over 30 percent of urban Indians live in slums. Out of
India’s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21 have partial or full sewerage and treatment facilities.
Hence, coping with rapid urbanization is a major challenge.
10.  Air and water Population: Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and
population technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of treating their
wastes. A great number of cities and industrial areas have been identified as the worst in
terms of air and water pollution. Acts are enforced in the country, but their implement is not
so easy. The reason is their implementation needs great resources, technical expertise,
political and social will.
Again the people are to be made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to
implement these rules.
1.3 ECO System
Ecology is the study of the interactions between and among organisms and their environment.
An organism is any form of life.
Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and the interactions between organisms and
their natural environment.
An ecosystem is the smallest unit of biosphere that has all the characteristics to support life.
Pond ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, marine ecosystem, urban ecosystem are
some of the examples for ecosystems.
The living community of plants and animals in any area together with the non-living
components of the environment such as soil, air and water, constitute the ecosystem.
Environmental science was developed from the science of ecology. Ecology is the study of
the way organisms interact with each other and with their nonliving surroundings. These
interactions involve energy and matter. Living things require a constant flow of energy and
matter to ensure their survival. If the flow of energy and matter ceases, the organism dies.
Ecology deals with the ways in which organisms are shaped by their surroundings, how they
 use these surroundings, and how an area is altered by the presence and activities of
organisms.
Kinds of Ecosystems
Ecosystem may be natural or artificial.
1.      Artificial Ecosystem: These are maintained or created artificially by man. The man tries to
control biotic community as well as physical & chemical environment. Example: Artificial
pond, urban area development.
2.      Natural Ecosystem: It consists of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems which are maintained
naturally.
The Structure of an ecosystem consists of:
1.      Abiotic structure includes the non-living things of the ecosystem.
2.      Biotic structure includes plants, animals & microorganisms present in an ecosystem.
Hence, the structure of an ecosystem comprises:
a)      The composition of biological community species (plants, animals, microorganisms), their
population, life cycles, distribution in space etc.
b)     The quantity and distribution of non-living things such as soil; water etc.
c)      The range or intensity of conditions like temperature, light, rainfall, humidity & wind plays a
major role in the structure of ecosystem.
Division of Ecosystem
Every living organism is in some way dependent on other organisms. Plants are food for
herbivorous animals which are in turn food for carnivorous animals.
Thus there are different tropic levels in the ecosystem. Some organisms such as fungi live
only on dead material and inorganic matter.
The ecosystem can be divided, from the energetic view point into three types of organisms:
1. producers, 2. consumers, and 3. decomposers/ reducers. These can be explained as
under:
1.      Producers: Plants are the ‘producers’ in the ecosystem as they manufacture their food by
using energy from the sun. Photosynthetic algae, plants and bacteria are the producers of the
ecosystem; all other organisms depend upon them directly or indirectly for food.
2.      Consumers: Consumers are herbivorous, carnivorous, and omnivorous animals; they eat the
organic matter produced by other organisms.
3.      Decomposers/ Reducers: Decomposers/ Reducers are a group of organisms consisting of
small animals like worms, insects, bacteria and fungi, which break down dead organic
material into smaller particles and finally into simpler substances that are used by plants as
nutrition.
1.4 Major Aspects of Human Activities
Consumerism has increased enormously with growing human population and growing needs
in the modern era of development, which has raised our standard of living. Some important
aspects associated with human activities are discussed here.

Food
There are thousands of edible plants and animals over the world, of which only about three
dozen types constitute the major food of human beings. With increasing population, the
demand for crops has increased at a rate that has laid a lot of stress on our land resources. As
a result, forests have been cleared to create agricultural lands. The Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations estimated that on an average minimum caloric
intake on a global scale is 2500 calories/day. People receiving 2000–2200 calories/ day are
said to be undernourished, who suffer from various deficiencies and health problems. People
having deficiency of proteins are said to suffering from malnutrition. About 15 to 20 million
deaths occur annually due to malnutrition. During the last 50 years world grain production
has increased almost three times, thereby increasing per capita production by about 50%. But,
at the same time population growth increased at such a rate in LDCs (Less developed
countries) that it outstripped food production. Every year 40million people (fifty per cent of
which are young children between 1 to 5 years) die of undernourishment and malnutrition.
This means that every year our food problem is killing as many people as were killed by the
atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II.
These startling statistical figures more than emphasize the need to increase our food
production, equitably distribute it and also to control population growth.
Shelter
With increasing population, there is also increasing pressure on finite land resources for
housing. Shelter for humans or habitat development on this earth has largely taken place
within about 5% of land area, which supports more than half of global population. Both
overcrowded unplanned urban settlements and unhygienic, underdeveloped rural settlements
pose big challenges for the present and future generations. Fast depletion of natural resources,
shrinking land, rising pollution levels and associated health problems have forced us to re-
look at the structure and design of buildings by introducing environmental approach to
buildings. There is an urgent need to apply the principles of sustainability to ‘built
environment’. An integrated approach is thus required with inputs from various fields
including architecture, engineering, science, technology, ecology and economics. Built
environment should not just be viewed as structures created for providing shelter for humans,
rather these are to be viewed as dynamic interplay of spaces with judicious use for multiple
purposes, which provide physical comfort and psychological satisfaction to the inhabitants,
along with balanced ecological elements.
Economic Growth
Economic growth is required for raising the quality of life of human beings. Technological
advancement leading to rapid industrialization and urbanisation have raised the standard of
living in modern era, but have also led to depletion of natural resources, energy crisis and
pollution of the air, water and soil. Economic growth over the world has been such that it has
led to wide disparity between the developed and developing nations. The U.S.A. with just
4.7% of global population consumes 25% of the total energy and produces 25% of total
pollutants/wastes and 22% of total chloro fluro carbons (CFC’s), responsible mainly for
ozone depletion. The developing nations, still struggling with their population of teeming
billions and poverty are not even able to provide basic amenities like food, safe drinking
water, hygienic shelter and a liveable life to millions of its people.
Social Security
The ultimate goal of development is to improve the quality of life, so that all humans
throughout the world enjoy long, healthy, purposeful and fulfilling lives. But unfortunately
the developed nations, with just 20% of global population control about 80% of global
economy. At present, about 1.4 billion people (i.e., about 1/4th global population) live on less
than $ 1 per day. About 12% of the global population living in poor countries is suffering
from under-nutrition or malnutrition. Such poor people suffer from acute social insecurity
because life for them is an endless struggle for survival, centred around fulfilment of basic
amenities of life like drinking water, fire-wood and food. While economic development is on
its zenith in developed nations, it is an irony that even now 35,000 babies die every-day due
to unavailability of adequate food, safe drinking water and medical facilities. It is very
important to improve the quality of life in poor nations and ensure adequate food, nutrition,
hygienic dwelling and education, particularly for the disadvantaged women. Intra-
generational equity has emerged as a new concept in sustainable development to ensure
equitable share of resources for economic growth of the poor and their social security.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Human activities are responsible for most of the loss in biodiversity throughout the world.
With an increasing population, we are consuming more and more natural resources. We do
this by driving more, using more energy in our homes, and buying many more products than
we need.
Cultures developed in part because people adapted to the environment where they lived.
The environment influenced the development of cultures, and similarly our cultures
influenced the makeup of the local environment. For example, food is an important part of
culture. This affects the crops people grow, animals that they raise or hunt and the waste
products that they send back into the environment.
Many species from around the world are threatened because of over-exploitation. This is
when our use of that species or resource renders it near extinction.
Over-harvesting is a big problem with many of our natural resources. The harvesting of
forests and the extraction of oil and gas are examples of non-renewable resources whose
over-use has severely impacted local environments and biodiversity.
Food
Food is much more than a commodity to be bought and sold. We cannot live without it and it
plays a significant role in our culture and daily lives.
 Humans depend on biodiversity to provide us with food. Growing the food that we eat
depends on a number of different factors. Traditional farming tries to use knowledge gained
over hundreds of years about the natural biodiversity of the land and then use this information
to decide what to grow.
The practice of changing the crops on a piece of land on a regular basis, also known as
crop rotation, is important to save or increase the mineral content of the soil, increase crop
yields, and get rid of weeds, insects and plant diseases.
Today there is a growing movement to embrace organic farming. Organic farming is the
process of producing food naturally. This method avoids the use of synthetic chemical
fertilizers and genetically modified organisms to influence the growth of crops.
The main idea behind organic farming is 'zero impact' on the environment. In the end, the
food produced via organic farming is better for your health and the environment that makes it
possible.
Human Activities - Economic
Economic activities are related to production, distribution, exchange and consumption of
goods and services. The primary aim of the economic activity is the production of goods and
services with a view to make them available to consumer.
"Human activities which are performed in exchange for money or money's worth are
called economic activities."
In other words, economic activities are those efforts which are undertaken by man to earn
Income, money, wealth for his life and to secure maximum satisfaction of wants with limited
and scarce means. E.g. A worker works in a factory and gets wages.
An economic activity may be defined as any effort, mental or physical, made by an individual
with the intention to earn something in return.
Types / Classification of Economic Activities
1. Profession
Profession is an occupation carried on by professional
people like Doctors, Lawyers, Engineers, etc. They
provide specialised services in return for fees. To
become a professional, a man requires specialized
knowledge and professional qualification. For e.g. a
doctor needs specialised knowledge in medicine, a
lawyer needs a degree in law, etc.
2. Employment
Employment is a type of occupation under which one person provides his services, physical
or mental to someone else and in return he gets salary or wage. The person who employs is
called employer and the person who is employed is called employee or worker.
3. Business
 Business is an economic activity concerned with production and distribution of goods and
services with the aim to earn profit. It includes all those activities which are directly or
indirectly concerned with production, purchase and sale of goods and services. So the
production, marketing, advertising, warehousing, insurance, banking, etc. are all business
activities.
People produce economic goods to satisfy their needs and wants.
Economic goods include:
  Products: material objects such as food, books or computers
  Services: work that is done for someone, but which doesn’t produce a material product, such as
transport, education or hairdressing
Economic goods are limited (they can be used up and finished) and you can buy and sell
them. That is why they have a price.
Economic activities produce economic goods using different resources called factors of
production. These can be:
  Natural resources: earth, water, plants, animals, etc.
  Human resources: people and their labour
  Capital resources: money, buildings, machinery, equipment, etc.
Social Security
The relationships between the environment and human security are certainly close and
complex. A great deal of human security is tied to peoples’ access to natural resources and
vulnerabilities to environmental change — and a great deal of environmental change is
directly and indirectly affected by human activities and conflicts.
Environmental change can have direct and immediate effects on wellbeing and livelihoods.
For example, water scarcity may not cause war but still engender insecurity by contributing
to dehydration-related death, reducing food production, and undermining livelihood
opportunities. The environment impacts human survival, well-being and dignity — all
aspects of human security.
Environmental change can have a variety of impacts ranging from health to economic
productivity to political instability, and so on.
Protecting and enhancing the environment can have very positive consequences for people’s
livelihoods, well-being and opportunities for fulfilment. While environmental degradation
increases the potential for deprivation, displacement and disempowerment, ecosystem
integrity is likely to reduce vulnerabilities.
It is impossible to separate the well-being of the human species from the well-being of the
earth. Therefore truly sustainable development places just as much importance on the
protection and development of the earth and the earth's resources. International documents
that include the environmental aspect of development affirm and reaffirm that "human beings
are at the centre of concern for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and
productive life in harmony with nature". As the goal of sustainable development is to
permanently improve the living conditions of human beings, social and economic
developments must be carried out in a way that is environmentally and ecologically sound;
ensuring the continual rejuvenation and availability of natural resources for future
generations.

1.5. The Effects of Human Activities on Environment

The population and activities of every species are governed by the resources available to
them & interaction among species is quite common. The waste product of one species may
form the food supply of another species.
Humans alone have the potential to gather resources from beyond their immediate
surroundings and process them into different and more versatile forms. This has made
humans to thrive and flourish beyond natural constraints. As a result of which the
anthropogenic (man-induced) pollutants have overloaded the system, and the natural
equilibrium is disturbed.
Rapid development activities have been associated with more and more exploitation of
various natural resources. Technological development has resulted in fast depletion of non-
renewable energy resources, mainly coal and petroleum, and also various minerals. Mining
activities, dam, building, urbanization and industrialization have all interfered with the
ecological balance of nature due to large scale impact.
Primitive humans used natural resources to satisfy their basic needs of air, water, food and
shelter. These natural and unprocessed resources were readily available in the biosphere, and
the residues produced by the use of these resources were generally compatible with or easily
assimilated by the environment.
With the dawn of the industrial revolution, humans were better able than ever to satisfy their
needs for air, water, food and shelter. So, humans turned their attention to other needs beyond
those associated with survival.
Automobiles, household appliances, processed foods and beverages, etc. have now become as
popular as to seem necessities, and meeting these acquired needs had become a major thrust
of modern industrial society. These acquired needs are usually met by items that must be
processed or manufactured or refined.
The production, distribution and use of such items usually results in more complex residuals
and/or wastes, many of which are not compatible with or readily assimilated by the
environment. As the acquired needs (or luxuries) increase so will the complexity of the
production chain, and mass and complexity of the pollutants generated.
Effects of Agriculture Activities on Environment
Undoubtedly, agriculture is the world’s oldest and largest industry & more than half of all the
people in the world still live on farms. Agriculture has both primary and secondary
environmental effects. A primary effect is an effect on the area where the agriculture takes
place, i.e. on-site effect. A secondary effect, also called an off-site effect, is an effect on an
environment away from the agricultural site, typically downstream and downwind.
The effects of agriculture on the environment can be broadly classified into three groups, viz.
local, regional and global:

i. Local Changes:
These occur at or near the site of farming. These changes/effects include soil erosion and
increase in sedimentation downstream in local rivers. Fertilizers carried by sediments can
cause eutrophication of local water bodies. Polluted sediments can also transport toxins and
destroy local fisheries.
ii. Regional Changes:
They generally result from the combined effects of farming practices in the same large
region. Regional effects include deforestation, desertification, large scale pollution, increases
in sedimentation in major rivers.
iii. Global Changes:
These include climatic changes as well as initially extensive changes in chemical cycles.
The main impacts of traditional type of agriculture are as follows:
(i) Deforestation:
The slash and burn of trees in forests to clear the land for cultivation and frequent shifting
result in loss of forest cover.
(ii) Soil Erosion:
Clearing of forest cover exposes the soil to wind, rain and storms, thereby resulting in loss of
top fertile layer of soil.
(iii) Depletion of Nutrients:
During slash and burn the organic matter in the soil gets destroyed and most of the nutrients
are taken up by the crops within a short period, thus making the soil nutrient poor which
forces the cultivators shift to another area.
Effect of Modern Agriculture Practices on Environment
Modern agricultural practices have both positive and negative effects on environment. For
example, modern pesticides have created a revolution in agriculture in the short-term, but the
long term effects of these chemicals have proved extremely undesirable. The major problems
that have aroused due to the modern agricultural practices are related to fertilizers, pesticides,
water-logging and salination, and are briefly discussed as under:
i. Fertilizer Related Problems:
(a) Micronutrient Imbalance:
Most of the chemical fertilizers used in modern agriculture have nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium (N, P, K) which are essential macronutrients. Farmers usually use these fertilizers
indiscriminately to boost up crop growth. Excessive uses of fertilizers cause micronutrient
imbalance. For example, excessive fertilizer use in Punjab and Haryana has caused deficiency
of the micronutrient zinc in the soils, which is affecting productivity of the soil.
(b) Nitrate Pollution:
Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the fields often leach deep into the soil and ultimately
contaminate the ground water. The nitrates get concentrated in the water and when their
concentration exceeds 25 mg/L, they become the cause of a serious health hazard called blue
baby syndrome or methaemoglobinemia. This disease affects the infants to the maximum
extent causing even death. In Denmark, England, France, Germany and Netherlands this
problem has been faced frequently. In India also, problem of nitrate pollution exists in many
areas.
(c) Eutrophication:
Excessive use of N and P fertilizers in the agricultural fields leads to another problem, which
is not related to the soil, but relates to water bodies like lakes. A large proportion of nitrogen
and phosphorus used in crop fields is washed off and along with runoff water reach the water
bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes, a process known as Eutrophication (eu = more,
trophic = nutrition).
Due to eutrophication the lakes get invaded by algal blooms. These algal species grow very
fast by rapidly using up the nutrients. They are often toxic and badly affect the food chain.
The algal species quickly complete their life cycle and die, thereby adding a lot of dead
organic matter. The fishes are also killed and there is a lot of dead matter that starts getting
decomposed. Oxygen is consumed in the process of decomposition and very soon the water
gets depleted of dissolved oxygen. This further affects aquatic fauna and ultimately anaerobic
conditions are created where only anaerobic bacteria can survive many of which are known to
be pathogenic. There are ways of controlling fertilizer use:
i. Removal of subsidy on chemical fertilizers.
ii. Reduction of price supports for crops.
iii. Regulation of crops grown.
iv. Costly slow-release liming treatment can be done.
Inter-planting or rotating some leguminous crop (plants in whose root nodules live nitrogen-
fixing bacteria) with such crops as wheat and corn.
ii. Pesticides Related Problems:
A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying,
repelling or mitigating any pest. A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent
(such as a virus or bacterium), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest.
Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes
(roundworms), and microbes that destroy property.
Subclasses of pesticides include: herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides and
biocides
Herbicides:
An herbicide, commonly known as a weed killer, is a type of pesticide used to kill unwanted
plants.
Insecticides:
An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used
against the eggs and larvae of insects respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture,
medicine, industry and the household. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the
major factors behind the increase in agricultural productivity in the 20th century.
Fungicides:
Fungicides are chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or
fungal spores. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of
yield, quality and profit. Fungicides are used both in agriculture and to fight fungal infections
in animals.
Rodenticides:
Rodenticides are a category of pest control chemicals intended to kill rodents.
Biocides:
A biocide is a chemical substance or microorganism. Despite the name a biocide does not
actually have to kill. It may instead deter, render harmless, prevent the action of or otherwise
exert a controlling effect on any harmful organism by chemical or biological means. Biocides
are commonly used in medicine, agriculture, forestry, and in industry.
Pesticides can also be classed as inorganic, synthetic, or biological (bio pesticides), although
the distinction can sometimes blur. Bio pesticides include microbial pesticides and
biochemical pesticides. Plant-derived pesticides, or “botanicals”, have been developing
quickly. These include the pyrethroids, rotenoids, nicotinoids, and a fourth group that
includes strychnine and scilliroside
A pesticide poisoning occurs when chemicals intended to control a pest affect non-target
organisms such as humans, wildlife, or bees. Pesticide use raises a number of environmental
concerns. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other
than their target species, including non-target species, air, water and soil. Pesticide drift
occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas,
potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the causes of water pollution, and some
pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination.
In addition, pesticide use reduces biodiversity, reduces nitrogen fixation, contributes to
decline, destroys habitat (especially for birds), and threatens endangered species.
The major agricultural pests are insects (feed mainly on leaves and stems live plants),
nematodes (small worms that feed on roots and other plant tissues), bacterial and viral
diseases, weeds (flowering plan that compete with the crops) and vertebrates (mainly birds an
rodents that feed on fruit or grain).
Pesticides are compounds used to kill, deter or disable pest for one or more of the following
purposes:
i. To maximize crop or livestock yields
ii. To reduce post-harvest losses to rodents, fungus, etc. To improve appearance of crops or
livestock
iii. For disease control (human health and veterinary use)
iv. To control weeds.
Agricultural pesticides are used to destroy agricultural pests. These chemicals may result in
extensive damage to human health and the environment. Adverse human health effects or
symptoms of agricultural pesticide contamination include headache, body weakness, blurred
vision, vomiting, irritability, impaired concentration and abdominal pain.
Other effects include the suppression of the human immune system, non-institutional
depression, asthma, reduced sperm concentration and vigour, blood and liver diseases, and
nerve damage. Pesticides problems can be reduced by:
i. Banning dangerous compounds.
ii. Developing alternatives like biological control or integrated pest management.
iii. Restricting trade of pesticide-contaminated produce.
iv. Controlling pesticide usage by monitoring, inspection and licensing to ensure sensible
procedures.
v. Developing less dangerous pesticides.
vi. Controlling prices of pesticides to discourage excessive use.
vii. Education to discourage unsound strategies.
viii. Hand weeding or non-chemical weeding.
Water Logging:
Over irrigation of croplands by farmers for good growth of their crop usually leads to water
logging. Inadequate drainage causes excess water to accumulate underground and gradually
forms a continuous column with the water table.
Under water-logged conditions, pore spaces in the soil get fully drenched with water and the
soil-air gets depleted. The water table rises while the roots of plants do not get adequate air
for respiration. Mechanical strength of the soil declines, the crop plants get lodged and crop
yield falls.
In Punjab, extensive areas have become water-logged where adequate canal water supply or
tube-well water encouraged the farmers to use it over-enthusiastically leading to water
logging problem. Preventing excessive irrigation, sub-surface drainage technology and bio-
drainage with trees like Eucalyptus are some of the remedial measures to prevent water
logging.
Salinity:
Salinity refers to increased concentration of soluble salts in the soil. It results due to intensive
agricultural practices. Due to poor drainage of irrigation and flood waters, the dissolved ill o
in these waters accumulates on the soil surface. In arid areas with low rainfall, poor drainage
and high temperatures, water evaporates quickly from the soil leaving behind the salts in high
concentration.
Excess of these salts (mainly carbonates, chlorides and sulphates of sodium and traces of
calcium and magnesium) from a crust on the soil surface and are injurious to the survival of
plants. The water absorption process of the plant is severely affected.
Effects of Housing Activities on Environment
Housing characteristics includes home decorations, pet keeping and other environmental
factors have significant impact on the health of the residents.
i. The poor housing can have profound, directly measurable effects on physical and mental
health of the residents.
ii. The air-tight sealing of modern buildings has helped in reducing spiralling energy costs but
it has contributed significantly to the health problems arisen due to indoor air pollution.
iii. Several building materials continue to affect the indoor air quality. These materials used
as solvents, finishes and cleansers for maintenance and protection of building materials can
cause ‘sick building syndrome’.
Production of plastics is also associated with generation of the greenhouse gas namely carbon
dioxide (CO2), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which are
harmful because of global warming potential of CO2 and health related problems of the latter
two. Disposal of PVCs is a major problem.
Manufacturing of metals from their ores has several environmental impacts. In the recycling
of metals harmful chemicals dioxins are produced, which are carcinogenic (cancer causing)
in nature.
Some insulating materials are made from non-renewable petroleum resources, while some
use chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). During demolition, their safe recovery is difficult. Release
of CFCs in the atmosphere would enhance the global warming problem. Asbestos, which has
been quite in use in buildings is now known to be very harmful for our health and not
recommended now.
iv. The indoor air pollution is a major source of public exposure to air pollutants having
potential to cause chronic health problems. The study of EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency) over the last twenty five years have shown measurable levels of over 107 known
carcinogens in modern offices and homes.
The sources of fumes, vapours or gases of indoor air pollutants or chemicals are extremely
varied. They may be associated with the building materials used in the construction, the
furnishings put in them, types of equipment used for heating and cooling, natural processes
that allows gases to seep into buildings, manufacturing process of products like plywood or
laminate cabinet doors and surfaces.
The potential sources of indoor air pollutants or chemicals are incredibly varied They can
arise from both human activity and natural process. Some of the key indoor air pollutants
along with their sources are stated as under:
v. The sources of formaldehyde in modem buildings include building materials, smoking,
household products, and the use of un-vented, fuel-burning appliances, like gas stoves or
kerosene space heaters.
vi. In the houses, offices or workplaces, the most significant sources of formaldehyde are
likely to be pressed wood products made using adhesives that contain urea-formaldehyde
(UF) resins.
vii. Formaldehyde is also present in tobacco smoke, natural gas and kerosene.
viii. Benzene is a solvent used in petrol, ink, oil, paint, plastic and rubber.
ix. Trichloroethylene is used in metal degreasers, dry cleaning solvents, inks, paints, lacquers,
varnishes and adhesives.
x. Ozone from copying machines.
xi. Fumes from cleaning solvents.
xii. Air conditioning equipment, which harbours the disease-causing bacteria in air ducts and
filters. It transports these pathogens through a building as a bacterial aerosol when heating or
cooling units are in use. However, spread of the disease is not limited to this pathway. One
epidemic occurred in a hospital as a result of contamination from an adjacent construction
site.
xiii. Out-dated heating and cooling systems with inadequate filtering systems can aggravate
the problem.
xiv. Then there are the molds, mildews and other household causes of air borne allergens,
dander or dust in the home. Add to this the toxic components of fiberglass insulation, tightly
sealed windows and doors, pets, and even human dander, and indoor air quality can easily be
quite dramatically impacted.
xv. Some varieties of asbestos, used as an insulating material and fireproofing material in
homes, schools and offices, are known to cause a particular type of lung cancer.
xvi. Even our kitchen trash-bin contributes a huge volume of illness-causing bacteria and
unpleasant odour to indoor air. Cockroach droppings trigger allergic asthma.
Effect:
i. Key signs/symptoms of health problems caused by combustion (stoves, space heaters,
furnaces, fireplaces, etc.) are- dizziness or headache, confusion, nausea/emesis, fatigue,
tachycardia, eye and upper respiratory tract irritation, wheezing/bronchial constriction,
persistent cough, elevated blood carboxyhemoglobin levels and increased frequency of
angina in persons with coronary heart disease.
ii. Key signs/symptoms of health problems caused by animal /dander, molds, dust mites and
other biological are – recognized infectious disease, exacerbation of asthma, rhinitis,
conjunctiva inflammation, recurrent fever, malaise, dyspnea, chest tightness and cough.
iii. Key signs/symptoms of health problems caused by volatile/organic compounds
(formaldehyde, pesticides, solvents and cleaning agents) are – conjunctiva irritation, nose and
throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction, dyspnea, declines in serum cholinesterase
levels, nausea, emesis, epistaxis (formaldehyde), fatigue and dizziness.
iv. Key signs/symptoms of health problems caused by airborne lead vapours in adults are –
gastrointestinal discomfort, constipation, anorexia, nausea, fatigue, weakness, personality
changes, headache, hearing loss, tremor and lack of coordination; whereas in case of infants
and small children, the symptoms of lead poisoning are -irritability, abdominal pain, ataxia,
seizures/ loss of consciousness and chronic learning deficits, hyperactivity and reduced
attention span.
v. Key signs/symptoms of mercury poisoning caused by airborne mercury vapours are –
muscle cramps or tremors, headache, tachycardia, intermittent fever, acrodynia, personality
change and neurological dysfunction.
Effects of Mining Activities on Environment
Mining is the extraction (removal) of minerals and metals from earth. Manganese, tantalum,
cassiterite, copper, tin, nickel, bauxite (aluminium ore), iron ore, gold, silver, and diamonds
are just some examples of what is mined. Mining is a money making business. Not only do
mining companies prosper, but governments also make money from revenues. Workers also
receive income and benefits. Minerals and metals are very valuable commodities.
Tantalum is used in cell phones, pagers, and lap-tops. Cooper and tin are used to make pipes,
cookware, etc. and gold, silver & diamonds are used to make jewellery. The environmental
effects of mining (extracting and using mineral resources) depend on such factors as ore
quality, mining procedures, local hydrological conditions, climate, rock types, size of
operation, topography and several other related factors. The environmental impact varies with
the stage of development of the resource, viz., exploration, mining, processing and dereliction
stages.
i. Large scale mining usually involves a company with many employees. The company mines
at one or two large sites and usually stays until the mineral or metal is completely excavated.
An example of a large scale mine is the Serra Pelada mine in Brazil which yielded 29,000
tons of gold from 1980 to 1986 and employed 50,000 workers.
ii. Small scale mining usually involves a small group of nomadic men. They travel together
and look for sites which they think will yield gold or another valuable metal or mineral.
Small scale mining occurs in places such as Suriname, Guyana, Central Africa, and many
other places around the world. Some researchers believe that small scale mining is more
harmful to the environment and causes more social problems than large scale mining.
Small scale mining is equally devastating to the environment. The Groups of 5-6 men migrate
from one mining site to another in search of precious metals, usually gold. There are two
types of small scale mining: land dredging and river dredging:
i. Land dredging involves miners using a generator to dig a large hole in the ground. They use
a high pressure hose to expose the gold-bearing layer of sand and clay. The gold bearing
slurry is pumped into a sluice box, which collects gold particles, while mine tailings flow into
either an abandoned mining pit or adjacent forest.
When the mining pits fill with water from the tailings, they become stagnant water pools.
These pools create a breeding ground for mosquitoes and other water-born insects. Malaria
and other water-born diseases increase significantly whenever open pools of water are
nearby.
ii. River dredging involves moving along a river on a platform or boat. The miners use a
hydraulic suction hose and suction the gravel and mud as they move along the river. The
gravel, mud, and rocks go through the tailings (pipes) and any gold fragments are collected
on felt mats.
The remaining gravel, mud, and rocks go back into the river, but in a different location than
where it was originally suctioned. This creates problems for the river. The displaced gravel
and mud disrupt the natural flow of the river. Fish and other living organisms often die and
fishermen can no longer navigate in the obstructed rivers.
These chemicals go through tailings (pipes) and are often discharged into rivers, streams,
bays, and oceans. This pollution contaminates all living organisms within the body of water
and ultimately the people who depend on the fish for their main source of protein and their
economic livelihood. The environmental damage caused by mining activities:
(i) De-vegetation and Defacing of Landscape:
The topsoil as well as the vegetation are removed from the mining area to get access to the
deposit. While large scale deforestation or de-vegetation leads to several ecological losses,
the landscape also gets badly affected. Huge quantities of debris and tailings along with big
scars and disruptions spoil the aesthetic value of the region and make it prone to soil erosion.
(ii) Subsidence of Land:
This is mainly associated with underground mining. Subsidence of mining areas often results
in tilting of buildings, cracks in houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks and leaking
of gas from cracked pipe-lines leading to serious disasters.
(iii) Groundwater Contamination:
Mining disturbs the natural hydrological processes and also pollutes the groundwater.
Sulphur, usually present as an impurity in many ores is known to get converted into sulphuric
acid through microbial action, thereby making the water acidic. Some heavy metals also get
leached into the groundwater and contaminate it posing health hazards.
(iv) Surface Water Pollution:
The acid mine drainage often contaminates the nearby streams and lakes. The acidic water is
detrimental to many forms of aquatic life. Sometimes radioactive substances like uranium
also contaminate the water bodies through uranium mine wastes and kill aquatic animals.
Heavy metal pollution of water bodies near the mining areas is a common feature causing
health hazards.
(v) Air Pollution:
In order to separate and purify the metal from other impurities in the ore, smelting is done
which emits enormous quantities of air pollutants damaging the vegetation nearby and has
serious environmental health impacts. The suspended particulate matter (SPM), SOx, soot,
arsenic particles, cadmium, lead etc. shoot up in the atmosphere near the smelters and the
public suffers from several health problems.
(vi) Occupational Health Hazards:
Most of the miners suffer from various respiratory and skin diseases due to constant exposure
to the suspended particulate matter and toxic substances. Miners working in different types of
mines suffer from asbestosis, silicosis, black lung disease etc.
Mining occurs in many places around the world, including the U.S. In South America, mining
is particularly active in the Amazonia region, Guyana, Suriname, and other South American
countries. In Central Africa, mining devastated a National Park called Kahuzi-Biega in the
eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). South Africa is also very well known for
mining diamonds. Mining also occurs in Indonesia and other S.E. Asian countries.
Effects of Transportation Activities on Environment
The issue of transportation and the environment is paradoxical in nature. From one side,
transportation activities support increasing mobility demands for passengers. On the other
side, transport activities have resulted in growing levels of motorization and congestion.
As a result, the transportation sector is becoming increasingly linked to environmental
problems. With a technology relying heavily on the combustion of hydrocarbons, notably
with the internal combustion engine, the impacts of transportation over environmental
systems has increased with motorization. This has reached a point where transportation
activities are a dominant factor behind the emission of most pollutants and thus their impacts
on the environment.
The most important impacts of transport on the environment relate to climate change climate
change, air quality, noise, water quality, soil quality, biodiversity and land take:
i. Climate Change:
The activities of the transport industry release several million tons of gases each year into the
atmosphere. These include lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrogen oxides (NOx), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), silicon tetraflouride (SF6), benzene and volatile components
(BTX), heavy metals (zinc, chrome, copper and cadmium) and particulate matters (ash, dust).
There is an on-going debate to what extent these emissions may be linked to climate change
and the role of anthropogenic factors. Some of these gases are created a specific types of
pollution like:
a) Nitrous oxide participate in depleting the stratospheric ozone (03) layer which naturally
screens the earth’s surface from ultraviolet radiation.
b) CO, CO2 & CH4 participate in green house effect etc.
ii. Air Quality:
Highway vehicles, marine engines, locomotives and aircraft are the sources of pollution in
the form of gas and particulate matters emissions that affects air quality causing damage to
human health. Toxic air pollutants are associated with cancer, cardiovascular, respiratory and
neurological diseases.
Carbon monoxide (CO) when inhale affects bloodstream, reduces the availability of oxygen
and can be extremely harmful to public health. An emission of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) from
transportation sources reduces lung function, affects the respiratory immune defence system
and increases the risk of respiratory problems.
The emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the atmosphere form
various acidic compounds that when mixed in cloud water creates acid rain. Acid
precipitation has detrimental effects on the built environment, reduces agricultural crop yields
and causes forest decline.
The reduction of natural visibility by smog has a number of adverse impacts on the quality of
life and the attractiveness of tourist sites. Particulate emissions in the form of dust emanating
from vehicle exhaust as well as from non-exhaust sources such as vehicle and road abrasion
have an impact on air quality.
The physical and chemical properties of particulates are associated with health risks such as
respiratory problems, skin irritations, eyes inflammations, blood clotting and various types of
allergies.
iii. Noise:
Noise represents the general effect of irregular and chaotic sounds. It is traumatizing for the
hearing organ and that may affect the quality of life by its unpleasant and disturbing
character. Long term exposure to noise levels above 75dB seriously hampers hearing and
affects human physical and psychological wellbeing.
Transport noise emanating from the movement of transport vehicles and the operations of
ports, airports and rail yards affects human health, through an increase in the risk of
cardiovascular diseases. Increasing noise levels have a negative impact on the urban
environment reflected in falling land values and loss of productive land uses.
iv. Water Quality:
Transport activities have an impact on hydrological conditions. Fuel, chemical and other
hazardous particulates discarded from aircraft, cars, trucks and trains etc. can contaminate
rivers, lakes, wetland & oceans. Because demand for shipping services is increasing, marine
transport emissions represent the most important segment of water quality inventory of the
transportation sector.
The main effects of marine transport operations on water quality predominantly arise from
dredging, waste, ballast waters and oil spills. Dredging is the process of deepening harbour
channels by removing sediments from the bed of a body of water.
Dredging is essential to create and maintain sufficient water depth for shipping operations
and port accessibility. Dredging activities have a twofold negative impact on the marine
environment. They modify the hydrology by creating turbidity that can affect the marine
biological diversity. The contaminated sediments and water raised by dredging require spoil
disposal sites and decontamination techniques.
Ballast waters are required to control ship’s stability and draught and to modify their centre
of gravity in relation to cargo carried and the variance in weight distribution. Ballast waters
acquired in a region may contain invasive aquatic species that, when discharged in another
region may thrive in a new marine environment and disrupt the natural marine ecosystem.
There are about 100 non-indigenous species recorded in the Baltic Sea. Invasive species have
resulted in major changes in near shore ecosystems, especially in coastal lagoons and inlets.
Major oil spills from oil cargo vessel accidents are one of the most serious problems of
pollution from maritime transport activities.
v. Soil Quality:
The environmental impact of transportation on soil consists of soil erosion and soil
contamination. Coastal transport facilities have significant impacts on soil erosion. Soil
contamination can occur through the use of toxic materials by the transport industry.
Fuel and oil spills from motor vehicles are washed on road sides and enter the soil. Chemicals
used for the preservation of railroad ties may enter into the soil. Hazardous materials and
heavy metals have been found in areas contiguous to railroads, ports and airports.
vi. Biodiversity:
Transportation also influences natural vegetation. The need for construction materials and the
development of land based transportation has led to deforestation. Many transport routes have
required draining land, thus reducing wetland areas and driving-out water plant species.
vii. Land Take:
Transportation facilities have an impact on the urban landscape. The development of port and
airport infrastructure is significant features of the urban and peri- urban built environment,
crops, leads to the cracking of rubber, damage of plants, etc.
1.6 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Definition of Impact: An impact can be defined as any change in physical, chemical,
biological, cultural or socio-economic environmental system as a result of activities: relating
to a project OR adverse effects caused by industrial, infrastructural projects OR by the release
of a substance into the environment.
 Definition of Impact Assessment: Impact assessment is the process of identifying the future
consequences (bad results) of a proposed project.
Impact Assessment ensures that projects, programmes and policies are economically viable;
socially equitable and environmentally sustainable.
Definition of Environmental Impact Assessment: The United Nations of Environmental
Programme (UNEP ) defined that EIA is a tool used to identify the environmental and
economic impacts of a project prior to decision making regarding the project planning,
design, adverse impacts, etc.
For all proposed and development projects, whether Government or Private, the Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MoEF) requires an Environmental impact assessment report
related to the following parameters:
 The report must define what impact it would have on water; soil and air including flora and
fauna.
 Affect on the lives of local people.
 To ensure that no way harm the environment on a short term or long term basis.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the possible impacts that a
proposed project may have on the environment, consisting of the environmental, social and
economic aspects. It is a process of evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a proposed
project or development, taking into account inter-related socio-economic, cultural and
human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse. It can be considered an important
management tool for ensuring optimal use of natural resources for sustainable development.
IA has now been made mandatory under the Environmental (Protection Act, 1986 for 29
categories of developmental activities involving investments of Rs. 50 crores and above.

Environmental Appraisal Committees: With a view to ensure multi-disciplinary input

required for environmental appraisal of development projects, Expert Committees have been
constituted for the following sectors:
  Mining Projects
  Industrial Projects
  Thermal Power Projects
  River Valley, Multipurpose, Irrigation and H.E. Projects
  Infrastructure Development and Miscellaneous Projects
  Nuclear Power Projects

Environmental Appraisal Procedure: Once an application has been submitted by a project

authority along with all the requisite documents specified in the EIA Notification, it is
 scrutinised by the technical staff of the Ministry prior to placing it before the Environmental
Appraisal Committees. The Appraisal Committees evaluate the impact of the project based
on the data furnished by the project authorities and if necessary, site visits or on-the-spot
assessment of various environmental aspects are also undertaken. Based on such
examination, the Committees make recommendations for approval or rejection of the project,
which are then processed in the Ministry for approval or rejection.
Although legislation and practice vary around the world, the fundamental components of an
EIA would necessarily involve the following stages:
1.      Screening to determine which projects or developments require a full or partial impact
assessment study;
2.      Scoping to identify which potential impacts are relevant to assess (based on legislative
requirements, international conventions, expert knowledge and public involvement), to
identify alternative solutions that avoid, mitigate or compensate adverse impacts on
biodiversity (including the option of not proceeding with the development, finding alternative
designs or sites which avoid the impacts, incorporating safeguards in the design of the
project, or providing compensation for adverse impacts), and finally to derive terms of
reference for the impact assessment;
3.      Assessment and evaluation of impacts and development of alternatives, to predict and
identify the likely environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, including the
detailed elaboration of alternatives;
4.      Reporting the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or EIA report, including an
environmental management plan (EMP), and a non-technical summary for the general
audience.
5.      Review of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), based on the terms of reference
(scoping) and public (including authority) participation.
6.      Decision-making on whether to approve the project or not, and under what conditions; and
7.      Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing. Monitor whether the
predicted impacts and proposed mitigation measures occur as defined in the EMP. Verify the
compliance of proponent with the EMP, to ensure that unpredicted impacts or failed
mitigation measures are identified and addressed in a timely fashion.
Why is EIA important?
By identifying potential alternatives and adverse impacts, Nations can better achieve goals
for sustainable development; avoid adverse environmental; social and cultural impacts;
reduces cost, provides better plan for infrastructure etc.
Classification of Impacts:
Environment impacts arising from any development projects fall into three categories:
a)Direct impacts
b)Indirect impacts and
c) Cumulative impacts.
 According to their nature, these three groups reveal:
 Positive and negative impacts
 Reversible and irreversible impacts
 Light, moderate and severe impacts
 Local and widespread impacts
 Short – term and long – term impacts
UNIT 2
Natural Resources
2.1. NATURAL RESOURCES
The word resource means a source of supply. The natural resources include-water, air, soil,
minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are examples. All the resources are classified based
on quantity, quality, re-usability, men’s activity and availability.

 Exhaustible Resources: These resources have limited supply on the earth and liable to be
exhausted if used indiscriminately. These resources are of two types.
1.    Renewable resources: These resources have the capacity to reappear themselves by quick
recycling with a reasonable span of time. E. g. forests, wildlife.
2.    Non-renewable resources: Resources that exist in a fixed quantity in earth’s crust are called
non–renewable resources. These resources lack the ability of recycling and replacement. E. g.
minerals, fossil fuels etc.
A few mineral resources which occur in the earth’s crust namely copper, aluminium,
mercury, gold etc., minerals of asbestos, clay and mica are considered as non-renewable
resources.
Fossil fuels are derived from organic matter that accumulated during hundreds of millions of
years of early bio-geological history. There is no way of recycling the energy in fossil fuels.
 Inexhaustible Resources: These resources are present in unlimited quantity in the nature and
they are not likely to be exhausted by human activities. E. g. solar energy, wind power, tidal
power, rain fall, atomic energy etc.
It is very important to protect and conserve the natural resources. Natural resources are to be
used in a judicious manner so that they cannot be exhausted. It doesn’t mean that we should
stop using them. Natural resources are to be used in such a way that we can make use for
future generations.
2.2. WATER RESOURCES
The water cycle, through evaporation and precipitation, maintains hydrological systems
which form rivers and lakes and support in a variety of aquatic ecosystems. Wetlands are
intermediate forms between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and contain species of plants
and animals that are highly moisture dependent. All aquatic ecosystems are used by a large
number of people for their daily needs such as drinking water, washing, cooking, watering
animals, and irrigating fields. The world depends on a limited quantity of fresh water. Water
covers 70% of the earth’s surface but only 3% of this is fresh water. Of this, 2% is in polar
 ice caps and only 1% is usable water in rivers, lakes and subsoil aquifers. Only a fraction of
this can be actually used. At a global level 70% of water is used for agriculture about 25% for
industry and only 5% for domestic use. However this varies in different countries and
industrialized countries use a greater percentage for industry. India uses 90% for agriculture,
7% for industry and 3% for domestic use.
India is expected to face critical levels of water stress by 2025. At the global level 31
countries are already short of water and by 2025 there will be 48 countries facing serious
water shortages. The UN has estimated that by the year 2050, 4 billion people will be
seriously affected by water shortages.
WATER RESOURCES: USE AND OVER-UTILIZATION OF SURFACE AND
GROUND WATER
Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country is for
irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic
consumption.
Significance of Water
The significant of water needs no elucidation. It is as under:
1)It is revealed by the history of human civilization that water supply and civilization are most
synonymous.
2)Several cities and civilizations have disappeared due to water shortages originating from
climatic changes.
3)Millions of people all over the world, particularly in the developing countries, are losing their
lives every year from water-borne disease.
4)An understanding of water chemistry is the basis of knowledge of the multidimensional
aspects of aquatic environment chemistry, which involve the sources, composition, reactions,
and transport of the water.
5)About 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the ocean, which is unfit of the remaining 3%,
2% is locked in the polar ice-caps and only 1% is available as fresh water in rivers, lakes,
streams, reservoirs and ground water which is suitable for human consumption.
Unlike land, which remains available as it is, the availability of water varies from place to
place and time to time. Our country is a monsoon land. The bulk of rainfall is confined to a
brief period of 3-4 months that is from July to October. As such, large part of the country
lacks surface water supply for a greater part of the year.
2.3. FOREST WEALTH
Forests are one of the most important natural resources on this earth. Covering the earth like a
green blanket these forests not only produce innumerable material goods, but also provide
several environmental services which are essential for life. Forests are of immense value to
us. They are not only useful for industry but also for rural economic growth. They offer huge
potential for reducing poverty while also conserving their valuable key resources. The figure
below compares the value of forests in terms of economic products and environmental
services.
 Economic uses:
Forests provide us a large number of commercial goods which include timber, firewood,
pulpwood, food items, gum, resins, non-edible oils, rubber, fibres, lac, bamboo canes, fodder,
medicine, drugs and many more items. Half of the timber cut each year is used as fuel for
heating and cooking. One third of the wood harvest is used for building materials as lumber,
plywood and hardwood, particle board and chipboard. One sixth of the wood harvest is
converted into pulp and used in paper industry. Many forest lands are used for mining,
agriculture, grazing, and recreation and for development of dams.
Ecological uses:
The ecological services provided by our forests may be summed up as follows:
▫ Production of oxygen: The trees produce oxygen by photosynthesis which is vital for life on
this earth. They are rightly called as earth’s lungs.
▫ Reducing global warming: The main greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide (CO2), is absorbed by
the forests as a raw material for photosynthesis. Thus forest canopy acts as a sink for CO2
thereby reducing the problem of global warming caused by greenhouse gas CO2.
▫ Wildlife habitat: Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and plants. About
7million species are found in the tropical forests alone.
▫ Regulation of hydrological cycle: Forested watersheds act like giant sponges, absorbing the
rainfall, slowing down the runoff and slowly releasing the water for recharge of springs.
About 50–80 % of the moisture in the air above tropical forests comes from their
transpiration which helps in bringing rains.
▫ Soil conservation: Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil
erosion. They also act as wind-breaks.
▫ Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping the air
pure. They have also been reported to absorb noise and thus help in preventing air and noise
pollution.
While a typical tree produces annually commercial goods worth about Rs. 30,000 it provides
environmental services worth nearly Rs. 10 lakh.
2.4.  MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids having a definite chemical
composition and characteristic physical properties. There are thousands of minerals occurring
in different parts of the world. However, most of the rocks, we see everyday are just
composed of a few common minerals like quartz, feldspar, biotite, dolomite, calcite, laterite
etc. These minerals, in turn, are composed of some elements like silicon, oxygen, iron,
magnesium, calcium, aluminium etc.
Uses
 Minerals find use in a large number of ways in everyday use in domestic, agricultural,
industrial and commercial sectors and thus form a very important part of any nation’s
economy. The main uses of minerals are as follows:
a.    Development of industrial plants and machinery. e.g. iron, coal, aluminium, lead chromium,
nickel, mercury, cadmium etc.
b.    Generation of energy e.g. coal, lignite, uranium.
c.    Construction, housing, settlements, e.g. iron, aluminium, silicate, limestone.
d.    Defence equipments (weapons, armaments) e.g. copper, chromium, cobalt, manganese, iron,
lead.
e.    Transportation means e.g. iron, lead, aluminium, platinum.
f.     Communication (telephone wires, cables, electronic devices) e.g. copper, lead, nickel.
g.    Medicinal system (particularly in Ayurvedic system) e.g. gold, silver, iron.
h.   Formation of alloys for various purposes e.g. steel alloys.
i.      Agriculture (as fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides) e.g. zineb containing zinc, maneb
containing manganese etc.
j.     Jewellery e.g. gold, silver, platinum, diamond.
Based on their properties, minerals are basically of two types:
a.    Non-metallic minerals e.g. graphite, diamond, quartz, feldspar.
b.   Metallic minerals e.g. bauxite, laterite, haematite etc.
Use of metals by human beings has been so extensive since the very beginning of human
civilization that two of the major epochs of human history are named after them as Bronze
Age and Iron-Age. The reserves of metals and the technical know-how to extract them have
been the key elements in determining the economy and political power of nations. Out of the
various metals, those used in maximum quantity are iron and steel (740 million metric tons
annually) followed by manganese, copper, chromium, aluminium and nickel.
Distribution and uses of some of the major metallic and non-metallic minerals are given in
Tables 4.2 and 4.3.
It is evident from the Tables that the CIS countries (The Commonwealth of Independent
States i.e. 12 republics of former USSR), the United States of America, Canada, South Africa
and Australia are having the major world reserves of most of the metallic minerals. Due to
huge mineral and energy resources, the USA became the richest and the most powerful nation
in the world in even less than 200years. Japan too needs a mention here, as there are virtually
no metal reserves, coal, oil and timber resources in Japan and it is totally dependent on other
countries for its resources. But, it has developed energy efficient technologies to upgrade
these resources to high quality finished products to sustain its economy.
Minerals are sometimes classified as Critical and Strategic.
Critical minerals are essential for the economy of a nation e.g. iron, aluminium, copper, gold
etc.
Strategic minerals are those required for the defence of a country e.g. Manganese, cobalt,
platinum, chromium etc.
 Some Major Minerals of India
i. Energy generating minerals
      

A.  Coal and lignite: West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh.
B.  Uranium (Pitchblende or Uranite ore): Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda),
Meghalaya, Rajasthan (Ajmer).
ii.     Other commercially used minerals
A.  Aluminium (Bauxite ore): Jharkhand, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu.
B.  Iron (Haematite and magnetite ore): Jharkhand, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa.
C.  Copper (Copper pyrites): Rajasthan (Khetri), Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Uttarakhand
2.5 Food Resources
The 3 major sources of food for humans are: - the croplands, the rangelands and fisheries.
The croplands provide the bulk amount of food for human. Yet though there are 1000s of
edible plants in the Earth, solely 4 essential crops (potatoes, rice, wheat and corn) account for
many of the caloric consumption of human beings. Few animals are raised for milk, meat and
eggs (for example. poultry, cattle and pigs) are as well the croplands are fed grain.
The rangelands provide a different source of milk and meat from animals grazing (for
example: goats, cattle and sheep).
The fisheries provide fish which are a major source of animal protein in the Earth,
particularly in coastal areas and Asia. As people become more affluent, they incline to
consume more cheese, milk, meat and eggs.
Types of Food Resources
In the food resources, there are 2 kinds of food production are as follows: -
1. The industrialized agriculture. 
2. The traditional agriculture.

Industrialized Agriculture
The industrialized agriculture is called high input agriculture since it uses large amounts
commercial fertilizers for field, the pesticides, fossil fuels and water. The large fields of
monoculture (single crops) are planted and the plants are selectively covered to produce high
productions. Large amounts of grain farmed by this process as well further the production of
large numbers in feedlots of livestock animals.
Most of the food made by industrialized processes is traded by farmers for profit and this
kind of food production is most common in modernized nations because of the involvement
of high expenses and technology. Still, the large industrialized plantations specializing in a
single cash pasture (for example. crop specifically advanced for profit such as coffee, coca,
bananas) are found in some developing nations.
Traditional Agriculture
The traditional agriculture is the most widely used form of production of food, happening
mostly in developing nations. This can be classified later as either traditional intensive
agriculture or traditional subsistence and the differences between the 2 involve the relational
amounts of food produced and resources input. The subsistence agriculture practices only
animal and human labor and only produces enough food for the families of farmer's.
The traditional, intensive agriculture uses more labor of animal and human, irrigated water
and fertilizers. This may as well involve growing processes such as intercropping designed to
maintain soil fertility rate. The intercropping involves planting 2 crops at the same time (for
example, nitrogen-fixing legume crop with a grain pasture). Increased production resulting
from the more intensive processes provides sufficient food for the farmer's family and for
marketing to other people in the local region.
2.6 Land Resources
Land resources mean the resources available from the land, thus the agricultural land which
contain natural fertilizer for growth of the products sown; the underground water, the various
minerals like coal, bauxite, gold and other raw materials.

 The more a country is able to locate and use the raw materials, the more the
industrialization of that country, area etc.

Land resource refers to the land available for exploitation, like non agricultural lands for
buildings, developing townships etc
Land resources (natural resources) (economically referred to as land or raw materials) occur
naturally within environments that exist relatively undisturbed by mankind, in a natural
form. 

 A natural resource is often characterized by amounts of biodiversity existent in

various ecosystems.
 Natural resources are derived from the environment. Many of them are essential for
our survival while others are used for satisfying our wants.

 Natural resources may be further classified in different ways.

 Underground geological resources (oil, gas, ores, precious metals), and 

 Deeper geo hydrological resources that normally bear no relation to the surface
topography such as confined aquifers, are excluded from the group of components of
the natural land unit, although it is recognized that some countries consider them as
part of individual land ownership (and hence with rights to exploit or sell them).

Land as a resource 
 Natural resources, in the context of “land” as defined above, are taken to be those
components of land units that are of direct economic use for human population groups living
in the area, or expected to move into the area: near-surface climatic conditions; soil and
terrain conditions; freshwater conditions; and vegetational and animal conditions in so far as
 they provide produce. To a large degree, these resources can be quantified in economic terms.
This can be done irrespective of their location (intrinsic value) or in relation to their
proximity to human settlements (situational value).
 Environmental resources are taken to be those components of the land that have an
intrinsic value of their own, or are of value for the longer-term sustainability of the use of the
land by human populations, either in loco  or regional and global. They include biodiversity
of plant and animal populations; scenic, educational or research value of landscapes;
protective value of vegetation in relation to soil and water resources either in loco  or
downstream; the functions of the vegetation as a regulator of the local and regional climate
and of the composition of the atmosphere; water and soil conditions as regulators of nutrient
cycles (C, N. P. K, S), as influencing human health and as a long-term buffer against extreme
weather events; occurrence of vectors of human or animal diseases (mosquitoes, tsetse flies,
blackflies, etc.).
Environmental resources are to a large degree “non-tangible” in strictly economic terms

 Land is a major resource for agricultural development worldwide.

 The components of the natural land unit can be termed land resources, including
physical, bionic, environmental, infrastructural, social and economic components, in
as much as they are fixed to the land unit.

 Land, a critically important national resource, supports all living organisms including
plants as well as every primary production system such as roads, industries,
communication and storage for surface and ground water, among others.

2.7 Energy Resources

Energy is the capacity to do work and is required for life processes. An energy resource is
something that can produce heat, power life, move objects, or produce electricity.
Matter that stores energy is called a fuel.  Human energy consumption has grown steadily
throughout human history. Early humans had modest energy requirements, mostly food and
fuel for fires to cook and keep warm. In today's society, humans consume as much as 110
times as much energy per person as early humans.   Most of the energy we use today come
from fossil fuels (stored solar energy).   But fossils fuels have a disadvantage in that they are
non-renewable on a human time scale, and cause other potentially harmful effects on the
environment.  In any event, the exploitation of  all energy sources (with the possible
exception of direct solar energy used for heating), ultimately rely on materials on planet
Earth.

Energy Sources
There are 5 fundamental sources of energy: 

1. Nuclear fusion in the Sun (solar energy)

2. Gravity generated by the Earth & Moon.
3. Nuclear fission reactions.
 4. Energy in the interior of the Earth.
5. Energy stored in chemical bonds.

    Solar Energy

Solar Energy arrives from the Sun by electromagnetic radiation.  It can be used directly for heat
and converted to electricity for other uses.  It is a nearly unlimited source, it is renewable, and
largely, non-polluting.
    Gravity Generated by the Earth & Moon.

Gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth causes tides. Tidal flow can be harnessed to drive
turbines. This is also a nearly unlimited source of energy and is largely non-polluting. 

Combining both both solar energy and gravity provides other useful sources of energy. Solar
radiation heats air and evaporates water.

Gravity causes cooler air to sink and condense water vapor. Gravity then pulls condensed water
back to Earth, where it flows downhill. The circulation of the atmosphere by the process is what
we call the wind.  Energy can be extracted from the wind using windmills.   Water flowing
downhill has a result of gravity can also be harnessed for energy to drive turbines and generate
electricity.  This is called hydroelectric energy.  This sources of energy are mostly renewable,
but only locally, and are generally non-polluting.

    Nuclear Fission Reactions

 Radioactive Uranium is concentrated and made into fuel rods that generate large amounts of
heat as a result of radioactive decay. This heat is used to turn water into steam. Expansion of the
steam can then be used to drive a turbine and generate electricity. Once proposed as a cheap,
clean, and safe way to generate energy, Nuclear power has come under some disfavor. Costs of
making sure nuclear power plants are clean and safe and the problem of disposing of radioactive
wastes, which are unsafe, as well as questions about the safety of the plants under human care,
have contributed to this disfavor.

    Energy in the Interior of the Earth

Decay of radioactive elements has produced heat throughout Earth history. It is this heat that
causes the temperature to increase with depth in the Earth and is responsible for melting of
mantle rocks to form magmas. Magmas can carry the heat upward into the crust. Groundwater
circulating in the vicinity of igneous intrusions carries the heat back toward the surface. If this
hot water can be tapped, it can be used directly to heat homes, or if trapped at great depth under
pressure it can be turned into steam which will expand and drive a turbine to generate
electricity.
    Energy Stored in Chemical Bonds

Energy stored in chemical bonds drives chemical reactions.  When the reactions take place this
energy is either released or absorbed.  If it is absorbed, it is stored in the chemical bond for later
use.  If it is released, it can produce useful heat energy. electricity, and light. 
Hydrogen Fuel Cells are one example:  A chemical reaction occurs wherein  Hydrogen reacts
with Oxygen in an electrolyte bath to produce H2O, and releases electricity and heat. The
reaction is non-polluting, but currently has problems, such as safely storing and distributing
compressed hydrogen gas, and producing hydrogen efficiently.
Biomass Energy is an other example.  It involves burning (a chemical reaction) of wood, or
other organic byproducts. Such organic material is produced by photosynthesis, a chemical
process which derives energy from the Sun and stores that energy until the material is burned.
Fossil Fuels - Biomass energy that is buried within the Earth where it is stored until humans
extract and burn it to release the energy. Among these sources are petroleum (Oil & natural
gas), oil shale, tar sands, and coal.  All of which will be one of the primary topics of our
discussion here. 
2.8. Conventional & Non Conventional Energy Sources
Energy is one of the most important component of economic infrastructure.
It is the basic input required to sustain economic growth. There is direct relation between the
level of economic development and per capita energy consumption.
Simply speaking more developed a country, higher is the per capita consumption of energy and
vice-versa. India’s per capita consumption of energy is only one eighth of global average. This
indicates that our country has low rate of per capita consumption of energy as compared to
developed countries.
Two Main Sources of Energy:
The sources of energy are of following types:

1. Conventional Sources of Energy:

These sources of energy are also called non renewable sources. These sources of energy are in
limited quantity except hydro-electric power.
These are further classified as commercial energy and non-commercial energy:
Commercial Energy Sources:
These are coal, petroleum and electricity. These are called commercial energy because they
have a price and consumer has to pay the price to purchase them.
(a) Coal
Coal is the major source of energy. Coal deposits in India are 148790 million tonnes. Total
lignite reserves found at Neyveli are 3300 million tonnes. In 1950-51, annual production of coal
was 32 million tonnes. In 2005-06, annual production of coal was 343 million tonnes.
(b) Oil and Natural Gas:
In these days oil is considered as the most important source of energy in India and the world. It
is widely used in automobiles, trains, planes and ships etc. In India it is found in upper Assam,
Mumbai High and in Gujarat. The resources of oil are small in India.
In 1950-51, the total production of oil in India was 0.3 million tonnes. It increased to 32.4
million tonnes in 2000-01. Despite tremendous increase in oil production. India still imports
70% of has oil requirements from abroad. In 1951, there was only one oil refinery in Assam.
After independence 13 such refineries were set up in public sector and their refining capacity
was 604 lakh tonnes. After implementation of economic reforms, private refineries are also
engaged in oil refining. As per current rate of consumption, oil reserves in India may last about
20 to 25 years.
(c) Electricity:
Electricity is the common and popular source of energy. It is used in commercial and domestic
purposes. It is used for lighting, cooking, air conditioning and working of electrical appliances
like T.V., fridge and washing machine.
In 2000-01 agriculture sector consumed 26.8%, industrial sector 34.6% and 24% of electricity
was used for domestic purposes and 7% was used for commercial purpose. Railways consumed
2.6% and miscellaneous consumption was 5.6%.
Non-Commercial energy Sources:
These sources include fuel wood, straw and dried dung. These are commonly used in rural
India. According to an estimate, the total availability of fuel wood in India was only 50 million
tonnes a year. It is less than 50% of the total requirements. In coming years, there would be
shortage of fire wood.
Agricultural wastes like straw are used as fuel for cooking purposes. According to one estimate
agricultural waste used for fuel might be 65 million tonnes. Animal dung when dried is also
used for cooking purposes. Total animal dung production is 324 million tonnes out of which 73
million tonnes are used as fuel for cooking purposes. The straw and dung can be used as
valuable organic manure for increasing fertility of soil and in turn productivity.
2. Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:
Besides conventional sources of energy there are non-conventional sources of energy. These are
also called renewable sources of energy. Examples are Bio energy, solar energy, wind energy
and tidal energy. Govt. of India has established a separate department under the Ministry of
Energy called as the Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources for effective exploitation
of non-conventional energy.
The various sources are given below:
1. Solar Energy:
Energy produced through the sunlight is called solar energy. Under this programme, solar
photovoltaic cells are exposed to sunlight and in the form of electricity is produced.
Photovoltaic cells are those which convert sun light energy into electricity. In year 1999-2000,
975 villages were illuminated through solar energy. Under Solar Thermal Programme, solar
energy is directly obtained. Sunlight is converted into thermal power. Solar energy is used for
cooking, hot water and distillation of water etc.
2. Wind Energy:
This type of energy can be produced by harnessing wind power. It is used for operating water
pumps for irrigation purposes. Approximately 2756 wind pumps were set up for this purpose. In
seven states, wind power operated power houses were installed and their installed capacity was
1000 MW. India has second position in wind power energy generation.
3. Tidal Energy:
Energy produced by exploiting the tidal waves of the sea is called tidal energy. Due to the
absence of cost effective technology, this source has not yet been tapped.
4. Bio Energy:
This type of energy is obtained from organic matter.
It is of two kinds:
(i) Bio Gas:
Bio Gas is obtained from Gobar Gas Plant by putting cow dung into the plant. Besides
producing gas this plant converts gobar into manure. It can be used for cooking, lighting and
generation of electricity. 26.5 lakh bio gas plants had been established by the year 2003-04.
They produce more than 225 lakh tonnes of manure. About 1828 large community bio gas
plants have been established in the country.
(ii) Bio Mass:
It is also of a source of producing energy through plants and trees. The purpose of bio mass
programme is to encourage afforestation for energy. So that fuel for the generation of energy
based on gas technique and fodder for the cattle could be obtained, 56 MW capacity for the
generation of bio mass energy has been installed.
5. Energy from Urban Waste:
Urban waste poses a big problem for its disposal. Now it can be used for generation of power.
In Timarpur (Delhi) a power Ration of 3.75 capacity has been set up to generate energy from
the garbage.

2.9. Fossil Fuels based energy sources

The origin of fossil fuels, and biomass energy in general, starts with photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the most important chemical reaction to us as human beings, because without
it, we could not exist. Photosynthesis is the reaction that combines water and carbon dioxide
from the Earth and its atmosphere with solar energy to form organic molecules that make up
plants and oxygen essential for respiration. Because all life forms depend on plants for
nourishment, either directly or indirectly, photosynthesis is the basis for life on Earth. 

Note that if the reaction runs in reverse, it produces energy. Thus when oxygen is added to
organic material, either through decay by reaction with oxygen in the atmosphere, or by adding
oxygen directly by burning, energy is produced, and water and carbon dioxide return to the
Earth or its atmosphere.
Petroleum
To produce a fossil fuel, the organic matter must be rapidly buried in the Earth so that it does
not oxidize (react with oxygen in the atmosphere). Then a series of slow chemical reactions
occur which turn the organic molecules into hydrocarbons- Oil and Natural Gas, together called
Petroleum.  Hydrocarbons are complex organic molecules that consist of chains of hydrogen
and carbon. 

Formation of Petroleum
The process of petroleum formation involves several steps:

 Organic matter from organisms must be produced in great abundance.

 This organic matter must be buried rapidly before oxidation takes place.
 Slow chemical reactions transform the organic material into the hydrocarbons found in
petroleum.

The organic matter that eventually becomes petroleum is derived from photosynthetic
microscopic organisms, like plankton and bacteria, originally deposited along with clays in the
oceans. The resulting rocks are usually black shales that form the petroleum source rock.   
If temperatures get higher than the petroleum forming window (90 to 150 °C ) then only
graphite forms, which is not a useful hydrocarbon.   Thus oil is not formed during
metamorphism and older rocks that have been heated will also lose their oil forming potential.
Most oil and gas is not found in the source rock.  Although black shales (oil shales) are found, it
is difficult to extract the oil from such rock.   Nature, however, does separate the oil and gas. As
a result of compaction of the sediments containing the petroleum, the oil and natural gas are
forced out and migrate into a reservoir rock.
Petroleum Reservoirs
Reservoir rock contains pore space between the mineral grains (this is called porosity). It is
within this pore space that fluids are stored. Sands and sandstones are the best reservoir rocks
because of the pore space left around the rounded sand grains. Highly fractured rock of also a
good reservoir rock, because the fractures provide lots of open space. Limestone, if it has often
been partially dissolved, also has high porosity.
Another essential property of reservoir rock is that it must have good
permeability. Permeability is the degree of interconnections between the pores. Low
permeability means that the fluids cannot easily get into or out of the pore spaces. Highly
cemented sandstones, unweatherd limestones, and unfractured rock have low permeability.
Since oil and natural gas have a density lower than that of water, the petroleum migrates
upward.   It would continue upward and seep out at the surface where it would oxidize, if it
were not for some kind of trap that keeps it in the Earth until it is extracted. 

Oil Traps
An oil or gas reserve requires trapping in the reservoir. A trap is a geological configuration that
holds oil and gas.  It must be overlain by impermeable rock called a seal or caprock, which
prevents the petroleum from migrating to the surface. Exploration for petroleum reservoirs
requires geologists to find trap and seal configurations where petroleum may be found.
Oil traps can be divided into those that form as a result of geologic structures like folds and
faults, called structural traps, and those that form as a result of stratigraphic relationships
between rock units, called stratigraphic traps. If petroleum has migrated into a reservoir formed
by one of these traps, note that the petroleum, like groundwater, will occur in the pore spaces of
the rock. Natural gas will occur above the oil, which in turn will overly water in the pore spaces
of the reservoir. This occurs because the density of natural gas is lower than that of oil, which is
lower than that of water.
Structural Traps

 Anticlines - If a permeable reservoir rocks

like a sandstone or limestone is sandwiched
between impermeable rock layers like shales
or mudstones, and the rocks are folded into
an anticline, petroleum can migrate upward
in the permeable reservoir rocks, and will
occur in the hinge region of the anticline. 

Since anticlines in the subsurface can often be found by observing the orientation of rocks on
the surface, anticlinal traps were among the first to be exploited by petroleum geologists.
Note that synclines will not form an oil trap (Why?).

 Fault Traps

If faulting can juxtapose

permeable and impermeable
rocks so that the permeable
rocks always have impermeable
rocks above them, then an oil
trap can form. Note that both
normal faults and reverse faults
can form this type of oil trap.

Since faults are often exposed at the Earth's surface, the locations of such traps can often be
found from surface exploration.

 Salt Domes - During the

Jurassic Period, the Gulf
of Mexico was a
restricted basin. This
resulted in high
evaporation rates &
deposition of a thick
layer of salt on the
bottom of the basin. The
salt was eventually
covered with clastic
sediments. But salt has a
 lower density than most
sediments and is more
ductile than most
sedimentary rocks.

Because of its low density, the salt moved upward through the sedimentary rocks as salt domes. 
The intrusion of the salt deforms the sedimentary strata along its margins, folding it upward to
create oil traps. Because some salt domes get close to the surface, surface sediments overlying
the salt dome are often domed upward, making the locations of the subsurface salt and possible
oil traps easy to locate.

Stratigraphic Traps
 Unconformities - An angular
unconformity might form a
suitable oil trap if the layers
above the unconformity are
impermeable rocks and
permeable rocks layer are
sandwiched between 
impermeable layers in the
inclined strata below the
unconformity.

This type of trap is more difficult to locate because the unconformity may not be exposed at the
Earth's surface. Locating possible traps like this usually requires subsurface exploration
techniques, like drilling exploratory wells or using seismic waves to see what the structure looks
like.

 Lens Traps
Layers of sand often form lens like
bodies that pinch out. If the rocks
surrounding these lenses of sand are
impermeable and deformation has
produced inclined strata, oil and
natural gas can migrate into the sand
bodies and will be trapped by the
impermeable rocks.

This kind of trap is also difficult to locate from the surface, and requires subsurface exploration
techniques.
Petroleum Distribution
As we have seen, in order to form a petroleum reserve, the development of 4 features is
necessary :

1. Formation of a source rock.

2. Formation of a migration pathway so that the petroleum can move upwards
3. Filling a suitable reservoir rock with petroleum.
4. Development of an oil trap to prevent the oil from migrating out of the reservoir.

Because these features must develop in the specified order, development of an oil reserve is
geologically rare.   As a result, petroleum reserves reserves are geographically limited. The
largest known reserves are currently in the Persian Gulf (see figure 14.15 in your text)..
Although the distribution of petroleum reserves is widespread, the ages of the petroleum and the
reservoirs is somewhat limited.  Since older rocks have had more time to erode or
metamorphose, most reservoirs of petroleum occur in younger rocks. Most petroleum is
produced from rocks of Cenozoic age, with less produced from rocks of Mesozoic and
Paleozoic age.

Petroleum Exploration and Production

The first petroleum reservoirs exploited by humans were found as a result of seeps on the
surface. The 1st oil well was drilled in Titusville, PA., in 1859. Oil wells eased petroleum
recovery and initiated an oil boom, and within years, 1,000s of oil wells had been drilled.  It was
soon realized that a systematic approach to oil exploration was essential to prevent drilling dry
holes.
First step is to make geologic maps of sedimentary rocks and structures.  Based on surface
mapping and drill holes, geologic cross sections are made and such cross-sections often reveal
structures and potential reservoir rocks that could then be drilled. 
Geophysical techniques were soon developed in order to see beneath the surface and find
reservoirs that could not be detected from the surface. The most useful technique is seismic
reflection profiling which can be done on both land in at sea. This technique involves generating
seismic waves from either small explosions on land or air guns in the water.   The seismic
waves reflect back to surface from different rock interfaces below the surface and these
reflected waves are then detected by receivers called geophones.   By moving the source and the
receivers along the surface, and tracing the pulse of each seismic wave, a cross section can be
constructed that reveals potential reservoir rocks.   These sections are correlated with drill holes
where the geology is known, to produce a detailed picture of the subsurface.
Once potential reservoir rocks are located, drilling from the surface attempts to tap into the
reservoirs.  A diamond rotary bit pulverizes rock to drill the hole. High-density drilling mud is
then pumped in to cool the drill bit and lift the rock cuttings. The heavy mud also helps to
prevent blowouts. As the bit advances, the open borehole deepens. Drill pipe is added by a drill
derrick, a tower that stands above the surface.  Some derricks are mounted on offshore
platforms and many of these platforms can drill many holes in many directions.
When a petroleum reservoir is encountered, drilling ceases and steel casing is inserted to line
the hole and prevent collapse.  After the casing has been emplaced, the well is pumped to
recover the oil and gas.
Primary recovery uses the reservoir pressure and pumping to extract the oil, but his is usually
inefficient; and enables recovery of only about 30% of the oil. Secondary recovery methods are
then used to extract as much of the rest as possible.  Secondary recover involves pumping in
fluids, like steam or CO2 to help push the oil out.  Sometimes hydrofracturing using high
pressure or explosives, can be used to artificially increase permeability and allow for more
efficient extraction.

Oil Shale and Tar Sands

 Oil shale is shale that contains abundant organic matter that has not decomposed
completely to produce petroleum. Oil can be extracted from oil shales, but they must be
heated to high enough temperatures to drive the oil out. Since this process requires a lot
of energy, exploitation of oil shales is not currently cost-effective, but may become so as
other sources of petroleum become depleted. Known deposits of oil shale are extensive.
 Tar Sands are sandstones that have thick accumulations of viscous oil in their pore
spaces. Extraction of this oil also requires heating the rock and is therefore energy
intensive and not currently cost effective.   

Coal
Coal is a sedimentary/metamorphic rock produced in swamps where there is a large-scale
accumulation of organic matter from plants. As the plants die they accumulate to first become
peat. Compaction of the peat due to burial drives off  volatile components like water and
methane, eventually producing a black- colored organic- rich coal called lignite. Further
compaction and heating results in a more carbon- rich coal called bituminous coal. If the rock
becomes metamorphosed, a high grade coal called anthracite is produced. However, if
temperatures and pressures become extremely high, all of the carbon is converted to graphite.
Graphite will burn only at high temperatures and is therefore not useful as an energy source.
Anthracite coal produces the most energy when burned, with less energy produced by
bituminous coal and lignite.
Coal is found in beds called seams, usually ranging in thickness from 0.5 to 3m, although some
seams reach 30 m.  The major coal producing period in geologic history was during the
Carboniferous and Permian Periods, the continents were apparently located near the equator and
covered by shallow seas. This type of environment favored the growth of vegetation and rapid
burial to produce coal.

Energy for the Future

Currently, society relies mostly on fossil fuels for energy (39% natural gas, 24% natural gas,
23% Coal, 8 % nuclear, and 6% other).  Since fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy,
 at least in human lifetimes), we need to ask how much longer society can rely on this source.  
Further, what are the options for the future?
Non-Renewable Resources
First we look at the reserves of various non-renewable energy resources.  Look at figure 14.28b
in your text.   Note that Uranium (for nuclear energy) and Coal appear to be most plentiful,
while Tar sands and oil shale are currently not economical.  The current known oil reserves will
likely run out sometime between 2050 and 2150.
Currently we are consuming oil at a rate 3 times that of the discovery of new resources. Even in
terms of 4,000 years of human history, the oil age will be very short lasting only 150 to 200
years. 
Coal reserves could last for about 300 years if we can cope with the associated
pollution. Natural Gas is cleaner and can probably last for another 200 years.
Tar Sands and Oil Shale will require research to find more efficient way to extract, the resource,
but will likely be necessary to replace oil in the short term.  
Renewable Resources
Wind power is limited to areas with high consistent winds, and so is limited to very specific
areas. The wind mills are not aesthetically pleasing to look at at, make a lot of noise and kill
large numbers of birds,  all problems that would need to be overcome to expand this resource. 
As for hydroelectric resources, they will not likely increase, since most rivers are already
dammed and there are few places left where new hydroelectric facilities could be built. 
Geothermal energy is limited to areas of known thermal activity (mainly recently active
volcanic areas).   It is a great local resource, but will never play a major role as an energy
resource. 
Solar energy is a huge source, but requires other resources (Li, Rare Earth Elements) to exploit. 
Many of these problems might be overcome with new research and the development of new
technologies. 
Hydrogen Fuel Cells are another promising resource with plenty of supply, but needs further
research and technological development.  
Future energy resources have huge environmental, political and economic implications that
could change the world order.  Still, the geologic aspects of energy resources will play a large
role.
 2.10. Alternative Future Source of Energy
    Space-based solar power
    Human Power

    Tidal Power

    Hydrogen (fuel cells)

    Geothermal heat from underground lava beds

    Nuclear Waste

    Solar windows

    Bio-fuels (algae)

    Flying wind farms

10.   Nuclear fusion

Space Based Solar Power:
The title itself shows that we are going to collect the power from Space (SUN), So the energy
generated by Sun in one hour is enough to cover the earth for one year. To save such a huge
amount of energy we require giant solar farms in space which will collect higher intensity
uninterrupted solar radiations, These Giant mirrors will collect these solar rays and reflects it to
smaller solar collectors and transmitted to Earth in the form of microwave or laser beam.
Human Power:
Currently, we have many human powered devices, But scientists are looking for a device which
will work on human movement using less power. The day will come when your smart phone
automatically will get charged with the ruptures that are made in your bag or pocket when you
moves your hand or while operating your screen using a hand. With this move, Human power will
fix the global warming.
There was a time where you had a hawk eye on all the appliance running and tried limiting their
use. You probably tried alternative energy companies such as Josco Energy Company, it worked
for a while. However, the vigilance just died. Now we all are hoping for new energy resources
which can help us to change our consuming electricity.
Tidal Power:
The ocean is the best place where we can get the energy that required for the world, Hundreds of
companies are looking for the way to use it. This is the efficient one to meet the future demand.
Hydrogen:
Hydrogen can be used in engines that burn pure hydrogen with zero pollution, NASA is charging
its space shuttles from years. In our planet Hydrogen is available in combination with other
elements like oxygen, Russia invented aircraft which run on Hydrogen. This Hydrogen can be
used in mobile fuel cells which further produce electricity.
Geothermal Heat from Lava:
It is like generating the power using the heat rising from the depths of the molten core which
powers millions of homes across the globe. In Iceland, A team pumped water down into the hole
of magma instantly water turned into vapor hitting 842 degrees Fahrenheit. This will definitely
help in developing the geothermal energy projects around the world.
Nuclear Waste:
A Huge amount of Nuclear wastage is expected after the Nuclear reaction, When we are going for
the replacement 95% of wastage is confirmed. This results when the rods are submerged in Water,
A Fast reactor will increase the usage of Uranium rods in order to reduce the Nuclear wastage, A
Fast Reactor replaces water with Liquid Sodium after adopting this method we can recover 95%.
Further, these fast reactors will re-use the tons of radioactive wastage. GE Hitachi designed a fast
reactor called PRISM and selling it to power companies. But it costs high, Besides Nuclear is a
dangerous energy source, But it is proved the benefits are huge.
Solar Windows:
Solar power is the best one among these Energy sources which require cheaper amount when it
coming to production and installation costs. Europe is using the best from Photovoltaic’s,
Deutschland is generating electricity from the sun which is generated from 20 Nuclear Power
Stations 50% of the country is being powered using solar panels. Spain is listed here which is
generating more than 50% of the power that is required from renewable solar source. California is
one of the largest solar power station that exists in the world; the USA raised its capacity further
 to 500% from 2010-2014. Researchers at Los Alamos National Laboratory invented quantum dot
solar cell technology which increases the usage of solar panels; It looks like glass, which can
manage the rays from both the ends. Every sun exposed window will get the potential to convert
the energy.
Bio-fuels (algae):
Most of the countries witnessed 500% growth of biofuels from 2002 to 2013, Ethanol and
biodiesel turned as a major substitute in our cars. In ordered to generate an enormous amount of
oils that are required for our smooth running of automobiles a wide area is required which is not
possible. To overcome this problem Algae’s natural oil is brought into the light, it uses 50% of the
plant in converting into electricity and to grow more algae without any involvement of chemicals.
Algae grow quickly which doesn’t need any farmland or fresh water, Alabama has been recorded
as the world first algae biofuel.
Flying wind farms:
Air turbines are used to generate the electricity, Buoyant Air Turbines which These turbines will
generate two times of power that is being produced by tower-mounted turbines, It can handle the
wind with high speed with additional devices fitted on it. This Flying Wind Turbines will
automatically detect and adjust its height to use best wind speed.
Nuclear fusion:
Nuclear Fusion is like setting the sun inside a box, said by award winning scientist. The problem
is that Nuclear fusion results in producing volatile materials which lead to the damage of the
reactor, Government organizations is working on it to fix and spending billions for the research
Because this fusion will provide limitless energy. Lockheed Martin is the leading industry in
generating a good amount of energy using their fusion reactors. It is moving ahead to meet the
global energy demand by 2050.
2.11.    Role of An Individual in Conservation of Natural Resources
Every individual has responsibility to use natural resources judiciously. This will give equal
opportunity to all to use the resources for the benefit of mankind. One should not be selfish to
spend the available resources without thinking of other fellow beings. There is no limit to spend
natural resources if available plenty but at the same time one should realize that natural resources
are non-renewable sources. The future also depends on such resources. Every individual should
think himself or herself as a world think himself or himself as a world citizen. The whole world is
a family and all are inter-dependant for a better life. The mother earth has given enough for all to
satisfy minimum wants but not enough to utilize. Every individual has a role in the conservation
of natural resource like in using water electricity woods, foods etc. water is life and every drop is
precious similarly every chemical power saved is like it is produced. Woods should be used so
has not to destroy the forest procurement of more food than needed is like putting other starving.
Equitable use of resources for sustainable life styles.
Everyone has the right to live in this world. All living creatures belong to mother earth and
they all have their shine of resources available. All these resources like land, energy, food,
mineral, water, forest etc. have to be distributed in an equitable way for sustainable lifestyles
of all creatures. The responsibility lies more on the human population because they have got
the thinking power and the wisdom to judge good and had man should realize that he is not
alone in this world. There are others to use the available resources. Hence responsibility
should be for all human being for an equitable use of natural resources for sustainable use of
natural resources for sustainable life styles of all in this mother earth.
Effects Development of Environment:

 The spread of disease via environment

 Man’s activity has impaired protective ozone cover.
 Over the natural resources such as land, water, minerals coal, oil etc. development has
undermined the stock of natural resources.
 It has resulted into global warning.
 There has been addition of toxin pollutants to the environment.
 It has caused loss of bio-diversity or genetic erosion.

Need for Conservation:

 Use of natural resources is increasing but the amount of these resources by

decreasing.
 Deforestation caused the loss of energy resources.
 Relational and international capacities conserving the resources are not properly
organized, must have some common conservation strategy.

Objectives of conservation of natural resources:

 To maintain the essential ecological processes i.e. food chain recycling of mineral
resources etc and the life support system – soil, air, water, pond, plants, animals etc.
 To ensure the availability and sustainability of resources which assumes the survival
of all species is a healthy and easy manner.
 To preserve the diversity at the specific habitat levels.

Methods of conservation:

 For conservation of water.

 Keeping the water taps closed, when not in use.
 Using less water-consuming toilets.
 Watering the plants to be done in the evening tours.
 Using drip irrigation and sprinkling irrigation systems water lawns etc.
 Treating water to be provided for irrigation purpose.
 Water to be used carefully and economically for domestically for domestic and
industrial.

Conservation of energy:

 Using alternative source of energy and develops the renewable sources of energy such
as solar energy, sea water energy, wind energy, tidal energy, nuclear energy, etc. for
our energy requirements.
  Taking care in using fuels: we should exercise great care is using fuels for getting
energy. The fossil fuels should be used only when no other alternative source is
available to us. The fossil fuel should be conserved as far as possible.
 Avoiding wastage of energy.
 Some methods to avoid wastage:
 We should use the most efficient fuels available.
 Most heating devices like stoves, cloths, etc. should be used conserving soil:
 By addition of fertilizing.
 By green managing.
 By biological nitrogen fixation.
 Together supply of minerals by decomposition and animal excreta.
 Prevention of soil erosion:
 By crop rotation.
 By growing erosion checking crops like grasses, pulses, ground nuts etc.
 By making suitable outlet channels to carry out flood water.
 By dancing afforestation and reforestation to check soil erosion.
 By making tenancies on the slopes to reduce the speed of water for checking soil
erosion.

Unit 3
Environmental Pollution
Contents:
Meaning, causes, effects & control measures of:–
3.1  Air Pollution
3.2  Water Pollution
3.3  Soil Pollution
3.4  Marine Pollution
3.5  Noise Pollution
3.6  Thermal Pollution
3.7  Nuclear Pollution
3.8  Solid waste management
3.9  Disaster management
3.1 Air Pollution
Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the air that are detrimental to human
health and the planet as a whole.
The Clean Air Act authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to protect
public health by regulating the emissions of these harmful air pollutants. The NRDC has been
a leading authority on this law since it was established in 1970.
What Causes Air Pollution?
“Most air pollution comes from energy use and production,” says John Walke, director of the
Clean Air Project, part of the Climate and Clean Air program at NRDC. “Burning fossil fuels
releases gases and chemicals into the air.” And in an especially destructive feedback loop, air
pollution not only contributes to climate change but is also exacerbated by it. “Air pollution
in the form of carbon dioxide and methane raises the earth’s temperature,” Walke says.
“Another type of air pollution is then worsened by that increased heat: Smog forms when the
weather is warmer and there’s more ultraviolet radiation.” Climate change also increases the
production of allergenic air pollutants including mold (thanks to damp conditions caused by
extreme weather and increased flooding) and pollen (due to a longer pollen season and more
pollen production).
Effects of Air Pollution
“While we’ve made progress over the last 40-plus years improving air quality in the U.S.
thanks to the Clean Air Act, climate change will make it harder in the future to meet pollution
standards, which are designed to protect health,” says Kim Knowlton, senior scientist and
deputy director of the NRDC Science Center.
Smog and soot
These two are the most prevalent types of air pollution. Smog, or “ground-level ozone,” as it
is more wonkily called, occurs when emissions from combusting fossil fuels react with
sunlight. Soot, or “particulate matter,” is made up of tiny particles of chemicals, soil, smoke,
dust, or allergens, in the form of gas or solids, that are carried in the air. The EPA’s “Plain
English Guide to the Clean Air Act” states, “In many parts of the United States, pollution has
reduced the distance and clarity of what we see by 70 percent.” The sources of smog and soot
are similar. “Both come from cars and trucks, factories, power plants, incinerators, engines—
anything that combusts fossil fuels such as coal, gas, or natural gas,” Walke says. The tiniest
airborne particles in soot—whether they’re in the form of gas or solids—are especially
dangerous because they can penetrate the lungs and bloodstream and worsen bronchitis, lead
to heart attacks, and even hasten death.
Smog can irritate the eyes and throat and also damage the lungs—especially of people who
work or exercise outside, children, and senior citizens. It’s even worse for people who have
asthma or allergies—these extra pollutants only intensify their symptoms and can trigger
asthma attacks.
Hazardous air pollutants
These are either deadly or have severe health risks even in small amounts. Almost 200 are
regulated by law; some of the most common are mercury, lead, dioxins, and benzene. “These
are also most often emitted during gas or coal combustion, incinerating, or in the case of
benzene, found in gasoline,” Walke says. Benzene, classified as a carcinogen by the EPA,
can cause eye, skin, and lung irritation in the short term and blood disorders in the long term.
Dioxins, more typically found in food but also present in small amounts in the air, can affect
the liver in the short term and harm the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems, as well as
reproductive functions. Lead in large amounts can damage children’s brains and kidneys, and
even in small amounts it can affect children’s IQ and ability to learn. Mercury affects the
central nervous system.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs, are toxic components of traffic exhaust and
wildfire smoke. In large amounts, they have been linked to eye and lung irritation, blood and
liver issues, and even cancer. In one recent study, the children of mothers who’d had higher
PAH exposure during pregnancy had slower brain processing speeds and worse symptoms of
ADHD.
Greenhouse gases
By trapping the earth’s heat in the atmosphere, greenhouse gases lead to warmer temperatures
and all the hallmarks of climate change: rising sea levels, more extreme weather, heat-related
deaths, and increasing transmission of infectious diseases like Lyme. According to a 2014
EPA study, carbon dioxide was responsible for 81 percent of the country’s total greenhouse
gas emissions, and methane made up 11 percent. “Carbon dioxide comes from combusting
fossil fuels, and methane comes from natural and industrial sources, including the large
amounts that are released during oil and gas drilling,” Walke says. “We emit far larger
amounts of carbon dioxide, but methane is significantly more potent, so it’s also very
destructive.” Another class of greenhouse gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), are thousands
of times more powerful than carbon dioxide in their ability to trap heat. In October 2016,
more than 140 countries reached an agreement to reduce the use of these chemicals—which
are used in air conditioners and refrigerators—and find greener alternatives over time. David
Doniger, director of NRDC’s Climate and Clean Air program, writes, “NRDC estimates that
the agreed HFC phase-down will avoid the equivalent of more than 80 billion tons of
CO2 over the next 35 years.”
Pollen and mold
Mold and allergens from trees, weeds, and grass are also carried in the air, are exacerbated by
climate change, and can be hazardous to health. They are not regulated by the government
and are less directly connected to human actions, but they can be considered air pollution.
“When homes, schools, or businesses get water damage, mold can grow and can produce
allergenic airborne pollutants,” Knowlton says. “Mold exposure can precipitate asthma
attacks or an allergic response, and some molds can even produce toxins that would be
dangerous for anyone to inhale.”
Pollen allergies are worsening because of climate change. “Lab and field studies are showing
that the more carbon dioxide pollen-producing plants—especially ragweed—are grown in,
the bigger they grow and the more pollen they produce,” Knowlton says. “Climate change
also extends the pollen production season, and some studies are beginning to suggest that
ragweed pollen itself might be becoming a more potent allergen.” That means more people
will suffer runny noses, fevers, itchy eyes, and other symptoms.
How to Help Reduce Air Pollution
“The less gasoline we burn, the better we’re doing to reduce air pollution and harmful effects
of climate change,” Walke says. “Make good choices about transportation. When you can,
walk, ride a bike, or take public transportation. For driving, choose cars that get better miles
per gallon of gas or choose an electric car.” You can also investigate your power provider
options—you may be able to request that your electricity be supplied by wind or solar.
Buying your food locally cuts down on the fossil fuels burned in trucking or flying food in
from across the country. And perhaps most important, “Support leaders who push for clean
air and water and responsible steps on climate change,” Walke says.
How to Protect Your Health
 “When you see in the newspaper or hear on the weather report that pollution levels
are high, it may be useful to limit the time when children go outside or you go for a
jog,” Walke says. Generally, ozone levels tend to be lower in the morning.
 When you do exercise outside, stay as far as you can from heavily trafficked roads.
Then shower and wash your clothes to remove fine particles.
 If the air quality is bad, stay inside with windows closed.
 Wear sunscreen. When ultraviolet radiation comes through the weakened ozone layer,
it can cause skin damage and skin cancer.
3.2 Water Pollution
Water they say is life, and indeed they were right. With about 70% of the earth’s cover being
water, it undeniably becomes one of our greatest resources. As young students, we learned
about the various ways to conserve water; coming to think of it, water is used in almost every
important human chores and processes. It is an important element in both domestic as well as
industrial purposes. However a closer inspection of our water resources today, give us a rude
shock.
Infested with waste ranging from floating plastic bags to chemical waste, our water bodies
have turned into a pool of poison. The contamination of water bodies in simplest words
means water pollution. Thereby the abuse of lakes, ponds, oceans, rivers, reservoirs etc is
water pollution. Pollution of water occurs when substances that will modify the water in
negative fashion are discharged in it. This discharge of pollutants can be direct as well as
indirect.
Water pollution is an appalling problem, powerful enough to lead the world on a path of
destruction. Water is an easy solvent, enabling most pollutants to dissolve in it easily and
contaminate it. The most basic effect of water pollution is directly suffered by the organisms
and vegetation that survive in water, including amphibians. On a human level, several people
die each day due to consumption of polluted and infected water.
As per the Economist report (dated 2008) each day over 1000 children die of diarrheal
sickness in India and the numbers have only increased alarming in the last five years. Water
is polluted by both natural as well as man-made activities. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
Tsunamis etc are known to alter water and contaminate it, also affecting ecosystems that
survive under water.
Sources of Water Pollution
There are various classifications of water pollution. The two chief sources of water pollution
can be seen as Point and Non Point.
Point refer to the pollutants that belong to a single source. An example of this would be
emissions from factories into the water.
Non Point on the other hand means pollutants emitted from multiple sources.Contaminated
water after rains that has traveled through several regions may also be considered as a Non
point source of pollution.
Causes of Water Pollution
Let us now study the causes of water pollution.
1. Industrial waste: Industries produce huge amount of waste which contains toxic
chemicals and pollutants which can cause air pollution and damage to us and our
environment. They contain pollutants such as lead, mercury, sulphur, asbestos, nitrates and
many other harmful chemicals. Many industries do not have proper waste management
system and drain the waste in the fresh water which goes into rivers, canals and later in to
sea. The toxic chemicals  have the capability to change the color of water, increase the
amount of minerals, also known as Eutrophication, change the temperature of water and pose
serious hazard to water organisms.
2. Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by each
household is chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage water
carries harmful bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems. Pathogens are
known as a common water pollutant; The sewers of cities house several pathogens and
thereby diseases. Microorganisms in water are known to be causes of some very deadly
diseases and become the breeding grounds for other creatures that act like carriers. These
carriers inflict these diseases via various forms of contact onto an individual. A very common
example of this process would be Malaria.
3. Mining activities: Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and other
minerals from underground. These elements when extracted in the raw form contains harmful
chemicals and can increase the amount of toxic elements when mixed up with water which
may result in health problems. Mining activities emit several metal waste and sulphides from
the rocks and is harmful for the water.
4. Marine dumping: The garbage produce by each household in the form of paper,
aluminum, rubber, glass, plastic, food if collected and deposited into the sea in some
countries. These items take from 2 weeks to 200 years to decompose. When such items enters
the sea, they not only cause water pollution but also harm animals in the sea.
5. Accidental Oil leakage: Oil spill pose a huge concern as large amount of oil enters into
the sea and does not dissolve with water; there by opens problem for local marine
wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters. For e.g.: a ship carrying large quantity of oil may
spill oil if met with an accident and can cause varying damage to species in the ocean
depending on the quantity of oil spill, size of ocean, toxicity of pollutant.
6. Burning of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels like coal and oil when burnt produce substantial
amount of ash in the atmosphere. The particles which contain toxic chemicals when mixed
with water vapor result in acid rain. Also, carbon dioxide is released from burning of fossil
fuels which result in global warming.
7. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by
farmers to protect crops from insects and bacterias. They are useful for the plants growth.
However, when these chemicals are mixed up with water produce harmful for plants and
animals. Also, when it rains, the chemicals mixes up with rainwater and flow down into
rivers and canals which pose serious damages for aquatic animals.
8. Leakage from sewer lines: A small leakage from the sewer lines can contaminate the
underground water and make it unfit for the people to drink. Also, when not repaired on time,
the leaking water can come on to the surface and become a breeding ground for insects and 
mosquitoes.
9. Global warming: An increase in earth’s temperature due to greenhouse effectresults
in global warming. It increases the water temperature and result in death of aquatic animals
and marine species which later results in water pollution.
10. Radioactive waste: Nuclear energy is produced using nuclear fission or fusion. The
element that is used in production of nuclear energy is Uranium which is highly toxic
chemical. The nuclear waste that is produced by radioactive material needs to be disposed off
to prevent any nuclear accident. Nuclear waste can have serious environmental hazards if not
disposed off properly. Few major accidents have already taken place in Russia and Japan.
11. Urban development: As population has grown, so has the demand for housing, food and
cloth. As more cities and towns are developed, they have resulted in increase use of fertilizers
to produce more food, soil erosion due to deforestation, increase in construction activities,
inadequate sewer collection and treatment, landfills as more garbage is produced, increase in
chemicals from industries to produce more materials.
12. Leakage from the landfills: Landfills are nothing but huge pile of garbage that produces
awful smell and can be seen across the city. When it rains, the landfills may leak and the
leaking landfills can pollute the underground water with large variety of contaminants.
13. Animal waste: The waste produce by animals is washed away into the rivers when it
rains. It gets mixed up with other harmful chemicals and causes various water borne diseases
like cholera, diarrhea, jaundice, dysentery and typhoid.
14. Underground storage leakage: Transportation of coal and other petroleum products
through underground pipes is well known. Accidentals leakage may happen anytime and may
cause damage to environment and result in soil erosion.
3.3 Soil Pollution
With the rise of concrete buildings and roads, one part of the Earth that we rarely see is the
soil. It has many different names, such as dirt, mud and ground. However, it is definitely very
important to us. The plants that feed us grow in soil and keeping it healthy is essential to
maintaining a beautiful planet. However, like all other forms of nature, soil also suffers
from pollution. The pollution of soil is a common thing these days, and it happens due to the
presence of man made elements.
The main reason why the soil becomes contaminated is due to the presence of man made
waste. The waste produced from nature itself such as dead plants, carcasses of animals and
rotten fruits and vegetables only adds to the fertility of the soil. However, our waste products
are full of chemicals that are not originally found in nature and lead to soil pollution.
Main Causes of Soil Pollution
1. Industrial Activity: Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the problem in the
last century, especially since the amount of mining and manufacturing has increased. Most
industries are dependent on extracting minerals from the Earth. Whether it is iron ore or coal,
the by products are contaminated and they are not disposed off in a manner that can be
considered safe. As a result, the industrial waste lingers in the soil surface for a long time and
makes it unsuitable for use.
2. Agricultural Activities:  Chemical utilization has gone up tremendously since technology
provided us with modern pesticides and fertilizers. They are full of chemicals that are not
produced in nature and cannot be broken down by it. As a result, they seep into the ground
after they mix with water and slowly reduce the fertility of the soil. Other chemicals damage
the composition of the soil and make it easier to erode by water and air. Plants absorb many
of these pesticides and when they decompose, they cause soil pollution since they become a
part of the land.
3. Waste Disposal: Finally, a growing cause for concern is how we dispose of our waste.
While industrial waste is sure to cause contamination, there is another way in which we are
adding to the pollution. Every human produces a certain amount of personal waste products
by way or urine and feces.
While much of it moves into the sewer the system, there is also a large amount that is
dumped directly into landfills in the form of diapers. Even the sewer system ends at the
landfill, where the biological waste pollutes the soil and water. This is because our bodies are
full of toxins and chemicals which are now seeping into the land and causing pollution of
soil.
4. Accidental Oil Spills: Oil leaks can happen during storage and transport of chemicals. This
can be seen at most of the fuel stations. The chemicals present in the fuel deteriorates the
quality of soil and make them unsuitable for cultivation. These chemicals can enter into the
groundwater through soil and make the water undrinkable.
3.4 Marine Pollution
Marine pollution refers to the contamination or presence of pollutants in oceans and seas. The
word ‘marine’ comes from the Latin word for ‘sea’ and it is related to similar words, such as
‘mariner’. Ocean pollution is become ever more of a problem in the present day.
Marine pollution can be defined as anything that contaminates the sea. Common marine
pollutants include chemicals, small plastic beads in exfoliants and also toxic bio-matter (such
as sewage). But, noise – due to excessive traffic around the ocean – can also be defined as
pollution if it disrupts marine life.
Pollution can vary depending on the context and the purpose for which seawater is being
used. For example, normal seawater has some small particles of plants or sand in, and when
the sea is considered as the habitat of marine animals, one would not think of these particles
as pollutants – whereas one would definitely define toxic chemicals as pollutants. However if
somebody wanted to use this brine for cooking in, they might see the sand and plants as
polluting our cooking water.
Causes/Sources of Marine Pollution
1. Toxic chemicals in water
Chemical runoff from industry can really endanger marine life. Industrial waste pumped into
the sea, household cleaners poured down the sink, and even chemicals in the atmosphere (for
instance due to the discharge of industrial wastes through factory chimneys) that dissolve into
the sea can pollute our oceans significantly.
2. Oil spillages
This is usually an accidental form of industrial dumping, whereby leaks in oil tankers cause
vast quantities of oil to pour into the ocean. Accidental oil spills can devastate marine life.
3. Small particles
The tiny plastic beads in exfoliating creams and other small particles that we pour down the
drain without thinking wind up polluting the ocean.
4. Plastic, Litter, and human waste
Plastic bags, aluminum cans, trash and other human waste constitute a major pollutant of the
world’s oceans. A huge ‘island’ of trash roughly the size of Texas was recently found in the
Pacific ocean for instance, demonstrating the vast scale of this problem.
5. Sewage
Whether or not it is treated with toxic chemicals, sewage pollutes the clear, clean water of the
oceans. This is another type of industrial dumping. Sometimes, sewage is not pumped
directly into the sea but into rivers, and then the untreated water of rivers carries it into the
sea.
6. The shipping industry
Gases (which dissolve in the sea), chemicals and sewage from container ships are major
pollutants.
7. Dissolved greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases from human fossil fuel consumption are making the sea more acidic.
Effects of Marine Pollution
1. Oxygen depletion
Seawater is full of dissolved oxygen, however decomposing sewage and other biomatter in
oceans can result in a condition known as ‘hypoxia’ or oxygen depletion. This makes it hard
for oxygen loving marine life – plants, fish and animals – to survive in the oceans.
2. Higher acidity
Toxic chemicals make our oceans more acidic. Again, this makes them poisonous to marine
life and causes harm to fish and marine mammals as well as marine plants and corals.
3. Choking marine life
Small pieces of plastic and other litter are increasingly being found in the stomach of fish,
turtles and other marine animals. These pieces of trash choke marine animals and hamper
their digestion, with an often fatal result.
4. Spoiling birds’ feathers
Oil spills coat the feathers of marine birds and strip them of the natural oils that birds use to
keep their feathers waterproof and to maintain their own body temperatures. As a result,
marine birds can overheat or get too cold, and they find it hard to stay afloat as their feathers
get soggy. They will also find it difficult to fly when their feathers are clogged with oil.
5. Blocking out the sunlight
Pollutants such as oil or litter can block out the sunlight from sea plants which need sunlight
for photosynthesis.
6. Dangers to human health
Human swimmers and water sports lovers can become endangered by swimming in a
polluted sea.
Control Measures/ Solutions for Marine Pollution
1. Be careful with our chemicals
Climate change and marine pollution are both results of excess human interference in the
natural world. If we choose eco-friendly household cleaners and take measures to reduce the
fumes we release into the air (for instance, by choosing public transport over cars) we can
reduce the impact of our lives on the oceans.
Further, careful site monitoring to prevent or stop any chemical or oil spills at all times will
reduce the instances of oil spills.
2. Don’t flush or rinse away harmful particles
If we do not flush plastics down the toilet, and if we do not pour oils and exfoliating beads
down the faucet, we prevent these particles from reaching our oceans. Switch to exfoliants
that use natural materials like seeds, sugar or sand instead – and recycle all plastics!
3. Campaign
Influence the decisions of policymakers and factory bosses to make them more eco-friendly
by lobbying, writing letters, spreading the word on social media and campaigning.
Motivating the shipping companies to use safe and environmentally friendly vessels are
among the key measures that can be taken here.
4. Volunteer at an oil spill site
Volunteers are always needed at oil spill sites to save the lives of marine birds by washing the
oil from their feathers and caring for them until they are ready to fly, swim and dive under
water again. Intervention is always needed as soon as possible to ensure that these birds do
not suffer any ill effects to their health.
5. Volunteer at a beach cleanup – or organize one yourself
Rid your local beach of litter by getting together with the rest of the community to pick up the
trash left behind by careless picnickers, boat crews and more. Joining together as a
community to care for the natural world is a wonderful way to remind everyone how
intimately we are connected to nature, and how much we depend on it. Working together
with other people also helps to keep us motivated and reminds us that we are not alone in our
quest to care for the environment.
6. Ensuring no debris is released into the ocean
Recycling our plastics and other recyclable, and disposing of our waste responsibly is key
here.
Conclusion
Marine pollution is a serious issue, and it comes in many forms. Nevertheless, there are
several ways that we can take positive action right now to solve this problem of marine
pollution.
3.5. Noise Pollution
We hear various types of sound every day. Sound is mechanical energy from a vibrating
source. A type of sound may be pleasant to someone and at the same time unpleasant to
others. The unpleasant and unwanted sound is called noise. Sound can propagate through a
medium like air, liquid or solid. Sound wave is a pressure perturbation in the medium through
which sound travels. Sound pressure alternately causes compression and rarefaction. The
number of compressions and rarefaction of the molecules of the medium (for example, air) in
a unit time is described as frequency. It is expressed in Hertz (Hz) and is equal to the number
of cycles per second. There is a wide range of sound pressures, which encounter human ear.
Increase in sound pressure does not invoke linear response of human ear. A meaningful
logarithmic scale has been devised. The noise measurements are expressed as Sound Pressure
Level (SPL) which is logarithmic ratio of the sound pressure to a reference pressure. It is
expressed as a dimensionless unit, decibel (dB). The international reference pressure of 2 ×
10–5 Pa is the average threshold of hearing for a healthy ear. Decibel scale is a measure of
loudness. Noise can affect human ear because of its loudness and frequency (pitch).The
 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has recommended permissible noise levels for
different locations as given in Table 6.1.

A.  Sources of Noise Pollution: The sources of noise can be classified as

a.    Mobile sources: Mobile sources are various modes of transportation (like air, road, rail-
transportation) and
b.   Stationary sources: Stationary sources include industrial operations, construction activities
and celebrations (social/religious functions, elections etc.), electric home appliances etc.
High levels of noise have been recorded in some of the cities of the world. In Nanjing (China)
noise level of 105 dB has been recorded, while in some other cities of the world these levels
are: Rome90 dB, New York 88 dB, Kolkata 85 dB, Mumbai 82 dB, Delhi 80 dB, Kathmandu
75 dB.
B.  Effects of Noise Pollution: Noise pollution causes the following effects:
a.    Interferes with man’s communication: In a noisy area communication is severely affected.
b.   Hearing damage: Noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. It depends on
intensity and duration of sound level. Auditory sensitivity is reduced with noise level for over
90 dB in the mid-high frequency for more than a few minutes.
c.    Physiological and psychological changes: Continuous exposure to noise affects the
functioning of various systems of the body. It may result in hypertension, insomnia
(sleeplessness),gastro-intestinal and digestive disorders, peptic ulcers, blood pressure
changes, behavioural changes, emotional changes etc.
C.  Noise Pollution during Diwali: Diwali is a festival of lights. Traditionally people of all ages
enjoy firecrackers. Some accidents do occur every year claiming a few lives. Besides, noise
generated by various firecrackers is beyond the permissible noise levels of 125 decibels as
per the Environmental Protection (Second Amendment) Rules, 1999.There has been a great
concern over the noise levels generated during Diwali. Some measurements by certain group
of researchers have also been made at various places during Diwali. It is recommended that
the manufacturers of fireworks should mention the noise levels in decibels generated by
individual items. The department of explosives of the Union Ministry of Commerce and
Industry is entrusted with the task to ensure that the industry produces firecrackers
conforming to permissible noise standards. According to a test report on firecrackers
produced by the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi most of the firecrackers available
in the market produce noise beyond the permissible levels of 125 decibels as per the
Environment (Protection) (Second amendment) Rules, 1999. Some of them have been
observed to produce noise near the threshold of pain. The details are given in Table 6.3.

Remedial Measures for Noise Pollution (Control)

1.    Reduction in sources of noise: Sources of noise pollution like heavy vehicles and old
vehicles may not be allowed to ply in the populated areas.
2.    Noise making machines should be kept in containers with sound absorbing media. The noise
path will be uninterrupted and will not reach the workers.
3.    Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machinery.
4.    Use of sound absorbing silencers: Silencers can reduce noise by absorbing sound. For this
purpose various types of fibrous material could be used.
5.    Planting more trees having broad leaves.
6.    Through law: Legislation can ensure that sound production is minimised at various social
functions. Unnecessary horn blowing should be restricted especially in vehicle-congested
areas.
3.6 Thermal Pollution
An increase in the optimum water temperature by industrial process (steel factories, electric
power houses and atomic power plants) may be called as “Thermal Pollution.” Many
industries generate their own power and use water to cool their generator.
This hot water is released into the system from where it was drawn, causing a warming trend
of surface water. If the system is poorly flushed, a permanent increase in the temperature may
result. However, if the water is released into the well flushed system, permanent increase in
temperature does not occur.
Effects:
Many organisms are killed instantly by the hot water resulting into a high mortality. It may
bring other disturbance in the ecosystem. The egg of fish may hatch early or fail to hatch at
all. It may change the diurnal and seasonal behaviour and metabolic responses of organisms.
It may lead to unplanned migration of aquatic animals.
Macro-phytic population may also be changed. As temperature is an important limiting
factor, serious changes may be brought about even by a slight increase in temperature in a
population. For minimising thermal pollution, hot water should be cooled before release from
factories and removal of forest canopies and irrigation return flows should be prohibited.
Causes or Sources of Thermal Pollution:
The various causes of thermal pollution are as follows:
(1) Coal-fired Power Plants:
Some thermal power plants use coal as fuel. Coal-fired power plants constitute the major
source of the thermal pollution.
(2) Industrial Effluents:
Industries generating electricity require large amount of Cooling water for heat removal.
Other industries like textile, paper, and pulp and sugar industry also release heat in water, but
to a lesser extent.
(3) Nuclear Power Plants:
Nuclear power plants emit a large amount of unutilized heat and traces of toxic radio nuclear
into nearby water streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors and processing installations are
also responsible for increasing the temperature of water bodies.
(4) Hydro Electric Power:
Generation of hydro-electric power also results in negative thermal loading of water bodies.
(5) Domestic Sewage:
Domestic sewage is often discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams without waste
treatment. The municipal water sewage normally has a higher temperature than receiving
water. With the increase in temperature of the receiving water the dissolved oxygen content
(DO) decreases and the demand of oxygen increases and anaerobic conditions occur.
Control of Thermal Pollution:
Control of thermal pollution is necessary as its detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystem may
be detrimental in the future. Viable solutions to chronic thermal discharge into water bodies
are as follows:
(1) Cooling Ponds:
Cooling ponds or reservoirs constitute the simplest method of controlling thermal discharges.
Heated effluents on the surface of water in cooling ponds maximize dissipation of heat to the
atmosphere and minimize the water area and volume. This is the simplest and cheapest
method which cools the water to a considerable low temperature. However, the technique
alone is less desirable and inefficient in terms of air-water contact.
(2) Cooling Towers:
Using water from water sources for cooling purposes, with subsequent return to the water
body after passing through the condenser is termed as cooling process. In order to make the
cooling process more effective, cooling towers are designed to control the temperature of
water. In-fact, cooling towers are used to dissipate the recovered waste heat so as to eliminate
the problems of thermal pollution.
(3) Artificial Lake:
Artificial lakes are man-made bodies of water which offer possible alternative to once
through cooling. The heated effluents may be discharged into the lake at one end and the
water for cooling purposes may be withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually
dissipated through evaporation.
These lakes have to be rejuvenated continuously. A number of methods have been suggested
and developed for converting the thermal effluents from power plants into useful heat
resources for maximing the benefits.
Some of the potential physical applications for thermal discharge (rejected heat) of
power plants are:
i. Industrial and space heating.
ii. Biological applications such as soil warming.
iii. Fish culture, livestock shelters and for heating greenhouses.
Most of these potential physical applications are of colder regions or locations.
3.7 Nuclear Pollution
Nuclear power plants routinely and accidentally release tritium into the air and water. Tritium
has a half-life of 12.3 years and emits radioactive beta particles. Once tritium is inhaled or
swallowed, its beta particles can bombard cells causing a mutation.
Few occupations that involve radioactive exposures are uranium mineworkers, radium watch
dial painters, technical staff at nuclear power plants, etc. Exposure to radioactive and nuclear
hazards has been clinically proven to cause cancer, mutations and teratogenesis
(Teratogenesis is a prenatal toxicity characterized by structural or functional defects in the
developing embryo or fetus).
Nuclear hazard effects can be either initial or residual. Initial effects occur in the immediate
area of explosion and are hazardous immediately after the explosion where as the residual
effects can last for days or years and cause death. The principal initial effects are blast and
radiation.
Blast causes damage to lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses structures and causes immediate
death or injury. Thermal Radiation is the heat and light radiation, which a nuclear explosion’s
fireball emits producing extensive fires, skin burns, and flash blindness. Nuclear radiation
consists of intense gamma rays and neutrons produced during the first minute after the
explosion.
This radiation causes extensive damage to cells throughout the body. Radiation damage may
cause headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and even death, depending on the radiation dose
received.
Sources of Nuclear Pollution:
The sources of radioactivity include both natural and manmade.

Effects of Nuclear Pollution:

Studies have shown that the health effects due to radiation are dependent on the level of dose,
kind of radiation, duration of exposure and types of cells irradiated. Radiation effects can be
somatic or genetic.

1. Somatic effects:
Somatic effects the function of cells and organs. It causes damages to cell membranes,
mitochondria and cell nuclei resulting in abnormal cell functions, cell division, growth and
death.
2. Genetic effects:
Genetic effects the future generations. Radiations can cause mutations, which are changes in
genetic makeup of cells. These effects are mainly due to the damages to DNA molecules.
People suffer from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to doses around 100 to 1000
roentgens. Instantaneous deaths on exposure in the event if disasters are many.
Management of Radioactive Waste:
a. The radioactive waste which comes out from industry, nuclear reactors should be stored
and allowed to decay either naturally in closed drums or in very large underground air tight
cemented tanks (Delay and Decay).
b. The intermediate radioactive waste should be disposed off into the environment after
diluting it with some inert materials (Dilute and Disperse)
c. Now-a-days small quantities of high activity wastes are converted into solids such as
concrete and then it is buried underground or sea. (Concentrate and contain)
Control Measures:
a. Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and scientifically.
b. Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of the geology of the
area, tectonic activity and meeting other established conditions.
c. Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.
d. Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use of radioactive elements
as fuel and careless handling of radioactive isotopes must be prevented.
e. Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be ensured in
nuclear plants.
f. Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x-rays.
g. Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area should be
ensured.
3.8 Solid Waste Management
Solid waste management is a polite term for garbage management. As long as liumans have
been living in settled communities, solid waste, or garbage, has been an issue, and modern
societies generate far more solid waste than early humans ever did.
Daily life in industrialized nations can generate several pounds of solid waste per consumer,
not only directly in the home, but indirectly in factories that manufacture goods purchased by
consumers.
Garbage: many broad categories of garbage are:
i. Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.
ii. Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide
containers, batteries, shoe polish.
iii. Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics.
iv. Hospital waste such as cloth with blood
1. Types & Source of Solid Wastes:
Basically solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source:

Effects of Solid Waste Pollution:

Municipal solid wastes heap up on the roads due to improper disposal system. People clean
their own houses and litter their immediate surroundings which affects the community
including themselves.
This type of dumping allows biodegradable materials to decompose under uncontrolled and
unhygienic conditions. This produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects and
infectious organisms besides spoiling the aesthetics of the site. Industrial solid wastes are
sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which may spread on land and can cause
changes in physicochemical and biological characteristics thereby affecting productivity of
soils.
Toxic substances may leach or percolate to contaminate the ground water. In refuse mixing,
the hazardous wastes are mixed with garbage and other combustible wastes. This makes
segregation and disposal all the more difficult and risky.
Various types of wastes like cans, pesticides, cleaning solvents, batteries (zinc, lead or
mercury), radioactive materials, plastics and e-waste are mixed up with paper, scraps and
other non-toxic materials which could be recycled. Burning of some of these materials
produces dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls, which have the potential to cause
various types of ailments including cancer.
3. Methods of Solid Wastes Disposal:
i. Sanitary Landfill
ii. Incineration
iii. Composting
iv. Pyrolysis
i. Sanitary Land Filling:
In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or
plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually
several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner protects the ground water from being
contaminated due to percolation of leachate.
Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. When landfill is full it is covered
with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled near
the landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced
by anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat. Sanitary
Landfills Site Selection:
i. Should be above the water table, to minimize interaction with groundwater.
ii. Preferably located in clay or silt.
iii. Do not want to place in a rock quarry, as water can leech through the cracks inherent in
rocks into a water fracture system.
iv. Do not want to locate in sand or gravel pits, as these have high leeching. Unfortunately,
most of Long Island is sand or gravel, and many landfills are located in gravel pits, after they
were no longer being used.
v. Do not want to locate in a flood plain. Most garbage tends to be less dense than water, so if
the area of the landfill floods, the garbage will float to the top and wash away downstream.
A large number of adverse impacts may occur from landfill operations. These impacts can
vary:
i. Fatal accidents (e.g., scavengers buried under waste piles).
ii. Infrastructure damage (e.g., damage to access roads by heavy vehicles).
iii. Pollution of the local environment (such as contamination of groundwater and/or aquifers
by leakage and residual soil contamination during landfill usage, as well as after landfill
closure).
iv. Off gassing of methane generated by decaying organic wastes (methane is a greenhouse
gas many times more potent than carbon dioxide, and can itself be a danger to inhabitants of
an area).
v. Harbouring of disease vectors such as rats and flies, particularly from improperly operated
landfills.
ii. Incineration:
The term incinerates means to burn something until nothing is left but ashes. An incinerator is
a unit or facility used to burn trash and other types of waste until it is reduced to ash. An
incinerator is constructed of heavy, well-insulated materials, so that it does not give off
extreme amounts of external heat.
The high levels of heat are kept inside the furnace or unit so that the waste is burned quickly
and efficiently. If the heat were allowed to escape, the waste would not burn as completely or
as rapidly. Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to
combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful
for disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water
management. This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 per cent of the
original volume.
Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as
“thermal treatment”. Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by
industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical
method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials. Incineration is a controversial
method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
iii. Composting:
Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the biodegradable yard waste (kept
separate from the municipal waste) is allowed to degrade or decompose in a medium. A good
quality nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed which improves the soil
conditions and fertility.
Organic matter constitutes 35%-40% of the municipal solid waste generated in India. This
waste can be recycled by the method of composting, one of the oldest forms of disposal. It is
the natural process of decomposition of organic waste that yields manure or compost, which
is very rich in nutrients.
Composting is a biological process in which micro-organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria,
convert degradable organic waste into humus like substance. This finished product, which
looks like soil, is high in carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for growing plants.
The process of composting ensures the waste that is produced in the kitchens is not carelessly
thrown and left to rot. It recycles the nutrients and returns them to the soil as nutrients. Apart
from being clean, cheap, and safe, composting can significantly reduce the amount of
disposable garbage.
The organic fertilizer can be used instead of chemical fertilizers and is better specially when
used for vegetables. It increases the soil’s ability to hold water and makes the soil easier to
cultivate. It helped the soil retain more of the plant nutrients.
Vermi-composting has become very popular in the last few years. In this method, worms are
added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta of the worms
makes the compost very rich in nutrients. In the activity section of this web site you can learn
how to make a compost pit or a vermi-compost pit in your school or in the garden at home.
To make a compost pit, you have to select a cool, shaded corner of the garden or the school
compound and dig a pit, which ideally should be 3 feet deep. This depth is convenient for
aerobic composting as the compost has to be turned at regular intervals in this process.
Preferably the pit should be lined with granite or brick to prevent nitrite pollution of the
subsoil water, which is known to be highly toxic. Each time organic matter is added to the pit
it should be covered with a layer of dried leaves or a thin layer of soil which allows air to
enter the pit thereby preventing bad odour. At the end of 45 days, the rich pure organic matter
is ready to be used. Composting: some benefits
i. Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a longer period.
ii. It supplies part of the 16 essential elements needed by the plants.
iii. It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the excessive use of
chemical fertilizer.
iv. It makes soil easier to cultivate.
v. It helps keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.
vi. It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil covered.
vii. It helps in controlling the growth of weeds in the garden.
iv. Pyrolysis:
Pyrolysis is a form of incineration that chemically decomposes organic materials by heat in
the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating
temperatures above 430 °C (800 °F).
In practice, it is not possible to achieve a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some
oxygen is present in any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs. If volatile or
semi-volatile materials are present in the waste, thermal desorption will also occur.
Organic materials are transformed into gases, small quantities of liquid, and a solid residue
containing carbon and ash. The off-gases may also be treated in a secondary thermal
oxidation unit. Particulate removal equipment is also required. Several types of pyrolysis
units are available, including the rotary kiln, rotary hearth furnace, and fluidized bed furnace.
These units are similar to incinerators except that they operate at lower temperatures and with
less air supply.
Limitations and Concerns:
i. The technology requires drying of soil prior to treatment.
ii. Limited performance data are available for systems treating hazardous wastes containing
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and other organics. There is concern that systems
that destroy chlorinated organic molecules by heat have the potential to create products of
incomplete combustion, including dioxins and furans. These compounds are extremely toxic
in the parts per trillion ranges. The MSO process reportedly does not produce dioxins and
furans.
iii. The molten salt is usually recycled in the reactor chamber. However, depending on the
waste treated (especially inorganics) and the amount of ash, spent molten salt may be
hazardous and require special care in disposal.
iv. pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically separating in organics from the
contaminated medium. Volatile metals may be removed as a result of the higher temperatures
associated with the process, but they are not destroyed. By-products containing heavy metals
may require stabilization before final disposal.
v. When the off-gases are cooled, liquids condense, producing an oil/tar residue and
contaminated water. These oils and tars may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper treatment,
storage, and disposal.
3.9 Disaster Management
Disaster Management can be defined as the organization and management of resources and
responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular
preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the impact of disasters.
Disaster Management Support Programme
India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its geo-climatic
conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been recurrent
phenomena. About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over
40 million hectares is prone to floods; close to 5,700 km long coastline out of the 7,516 km,
is prone to cyclones; about 68% of the cultivable area is susceptible to drought. The
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the East and part of West coast are vulnerable to Tsunami. The
deciduous/ dry-deciduous forests in different parts of the country experience forest fires. The
Himalayan region and the Western Ghats are prone to landslides.
Under the DMS programme, the services emanating from aerospace infrastructure, set up by
ISRO, are optimally synthesized to provide data and information required for efficient
management of natural disasters in the country. The Geostationary satellites (Communication
and Meteorological), Low Earth Orbiting Earth Observation satellites, aerial survey systems
together with ground infrastructure form the core element of the observation Systems for
disaster management.
The Decision Support Centre established at National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) of
ISRO is engaged in monitoring natural disasters such as flood, cyclone, agricultural drought,
landslides, earthquakes and forest fires at operational level. The information generated from
aero-space systems are disseminated to the concerned in near real time for aiding in decision
making. The value added products generated using satellite imagery helps in addressing the
information needs covering all the phases of disaster management such as, preparedness,
early warning, response, relief, rehabilitation, recovery and mitigation.
Flood
India is one of the most flood prone countries in the world. Floods occur in almost all rivers
basins in India. Twenty-three of the 35 states and union territories in the country are subject
to floods and 40 million hectares of land, roughly one-eighth of the country’s geographical
area, is prone to floods. Assessment of the extent of flood affected areas and the damage to
the infrastructure will enable the decision makers to plan for relief operations. Satellite based
imageries due to their synoptic coverage are the best tool to assess the extent of flood affected
areas. As soon as the information of a flood event is obtained, the earliest available satellite is
programmed to collect the required data for the delineation of flooded areas. Both optical and
microwave satellites data is being used. The inundation maps with flooded and non-flooded
areas marked in different colours along with the affected villages and the transport network
are disseminated to the concerned Central / State agencies. Using the historical data of floods
affecting different areas flood hazard zonation is being carried out. Such district level hazard
atlases have been prepared for Assam and Bihar States. Further, integrating the information
on the river morphology generated from aerial surveys, weather forecast and the in-situ data
from CWC, flood forecasting methodologies have been generated and being operationalised.

Cyclone
The major natural disaster that affects the coastal regions of India is cyclone. India has a
coastline of about 7516 kms and it is exposed to nearly 10% of the world’s tropical cyclones.
About 71% of this area falls in ten states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal). The islands of
Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep are also prone to cyclones. On an average, about five or
six tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea and hit the coast every year.
When a cyclone approaches to coast, a risk of serious loss or damage arises from severe
winds, heavy rainfall, storm surges and river floods. Using appropriate models and satellite
data, ISRO is supporting the efforts of India Meteorological Department to predict the
tropical cyclone track, intensity and landfall. After the formation of cyclone, its future tracks
are regularly monitored and predicted on an experimental basis using a mathematical model,
developed at Space Application Centre, ISRO.

Agricultural Drought
With more than 70 percent of India’s population relying directly or indirectly on agriculture,
the impact of agricultural drought on human life and other living beings is critical. In India,
around 68% of the country is prone to drought in varying degrees. Of the entire area, 35%
receives rainfall between 750 mm and 1125 mm, which is considered as drought prone and
33%, receives rainfall less than 750 mm, which is considered to be chronically drought prone.
Coarse resolution satellite data, which covers larger areas, is used to monitor the prevalence,
severity level and persistence of agricultural drought at state/ district/ sub district level during
kharif season (June to November). The operational methodology developed by ISRO over the
years is now institutionalized by setting up Mahalanobis National Crop Forecasting Centre
(MNCFC) under the Ministry of Agriculture. Currently, ISRO is concentrating on upgrading
the methodology for monitoring the drought and efforts are on to develop early warning
systems for agricultural drought.
Forest Fire
Nearly 55% of the total forest cover in India is prone to fires every year. An estimated annual
economic loss of Rs.440 crores is reported on account of forest fires over the country. Forest
fires in India have environmental significance in terms of tropical biomass burning, which
produces large amounts of trace gases, aerosol particles, and play a pivotal role in
tropospheric chemistry and climate. Active forest fires are detected from the satellite images
and the information is uploaded daily to the Indian Forest Fire Response and Assessment
System (INFFRAS) website during the forest fire season – February to June.
Landslide
Remote sensing data have been proved to be useful for landslide inventory mapping both at
local and regional level. It is also used for generating maps such as lithology, geological
structure, geomorphology, land use / land cover, drainage, landslide scarp, etc. These maps
can be combined with other terrain maps like slope, slope aspect, slope morphology, rock
weathering and slope-bedding dip relationship in GIS environment to map the vulnerable
areas for landslides. Department of Space has prepared Landslide Hazard Zonation maps
(LHZ) along tourist and pilgrim routes of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh, Himalayas and
in Shillong-Silchar-Aizwal sector. As a part of the DSC activity all the major Landslides are
being monitored for damage estimation.
Earthquakes
Remote Sensing and GIS provide a database from which the evidences left behind by disaster
can be combined with other geological and topographical database to arrive at hazard map.
 The area affected by earthquakes are generally large, but they are restricted to well known
regions (Plate contacts). Satellite data gives synoptic overview of the area affected by the
disaster. These data can be made use to create a very large scale base information of the
terrain for carrying out the disaster assessment and for relief measures.

UNIT 4
Social Issues & the Environment
Contents:
4.1  Population growth
4.2  Climate change & Global Warming
4.3  Urbanization
4.4  Sustainable development
4.5  Acid rain
4.6  Ozone layer depletion
4.7  Environmental Protection- Environmental Protection Acts in India
4.8  Role of Government; Initiatives by NGO.
4.1. Population Growth
In 1800, the earth was home to about 1 billion people. The dramatic way in which global
human population grew thereafter is shown in Fig. 7.1. It took about thirty nine thousand
years of human history to reach 1 billion, 130 years to reach the second billion, 45 years to
reach 4 billion and the next doubling is likely within a span of a few decades. We have
already crossed 6 billion and may reach 11 billion by 2045 as per the World Bank estimates.

Let us look at the reasons of this trend of human population growth. In the beginning of
human civilization, during the Stone Age, population was quite stable. Environmental
conditions were hostile and humans had not yet developed adequate artificial means for
adaptations to these stresses. Droughts and outbreak of diseases used to be quite common
leading to mass deaths. The 14th century A.D. experienced large scale mortality due to
bubonic plague when about 50% of people in Asia and Europe died due to the disease. With
scientific and technological advancement, life expectancy of humans improved. People
started living in definite settlements leading a more stable life with better sanitation, food and
medical facilities. Victory over famine-related deaths and infant mortality became
instrumental for a rapid increase in population size. In agriculture based societies children
were considered as economic assets who would help the parents in the fields and that is why
in the developing countries, population growth climbed to unthought-of heights, at the rate of
3–4% per year, accounting for about 90–95% of total population growth of the world in the
last 50 years.
The Indian Scenario
India is the second most populous country of the world with 1 billion people. If the current
growth rates continue, it will have 1.63 billion people by 2050 and will become the most
populous country surpassing China. If we look at the population statistics of our country we
find that in just 35 years after independence we added another India in terms of population.
On 11th May, 2000 we became 1 billion and now we can say that every 6th person in this
world is an Indian.

4.2. Climate Change

Climate is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions, seasonal
variations and extremes of weather in a region. Such conditions which average over a long
period – at least 30 years –are called climate.
We have relatively stable climate for thousands of years due to which we have practised
agriculture and increased in population. Even small changes in climatic conditions may
disturb agriculture that would lead to migration of animals including humans. Anthropogenic
(man-made) activities are upsetting the delicate balance that has been established between
various components of the environment. Greenhouse gases are increasing in the atmosphere
resulting in increase in the average global temperature. This may upset the hydrological
cycle, result in floods and droughts in different regions of the world, cause sea level rise,
changes in agriculture productivity, famines and death of humans as well as livestock.
The global change in temperature will not be uniform everywhere and will fluctuate in
different regions. The places at higher latitudes will be warmed up more during late autumn
and winter than the places in tropics. Poles may experience 2 to 3 times more warming than
the global average, while warming in the tropics may be only 50 to 100% on an average. The
increased warming at poles will reduce the thermal gradient between the equator and high
latitude regions decreasing the energy available to the heat engine that drives the global
weather machine. This will disturb the global pattern of winds and ocean currents as well as
the timing and distribution of rainfall. Shifting of ocean currents may change the climate of
Iceland and Britain and may result in cooling at a time when rest of the world warms. By a
temperature increase of 1.5 to 4.5°C the global hydrological cycle is expected to intensify by
5 to 10%. Disturbed rainfall will result in some areas becoming wetter and the others drier.
Although rainfall may increase, higher temperatures will result in more evapotranspiration
leading to annual water deficit in crop fields.
Global Warming
Troposphere, the lowermost layer of the atmosphere, traps heat by a natural process due to
the presence of certain gases. This effect is called Greenhouse Effect as it is similar to the
warming effect observed in the horticultural greenhouse made of glass. The amount of heat
 trapped in the atmosphere depends mostly on the concentrations of “heat trapping” or
“greenhouse” gases and the length of time they stay in the atmosphere. The major greenhouse
gases are carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
water vapours. The average global temperature is 15°C. In the absence of greenhouse gases
this temperature would have been –18°C. Therefore, Greenhouse Effect contributes a
temperature rise to the tune of 33°C. Heat trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
keeps the planet warm enough to allow us and other species to exist. The two predominant
greenhouse gases are water vapours, which are controlled by hydrological cycle, and carbon
dioxide, which is controlled mostly by the global carbon cycle. While the levels of water
vapour in the troposphere have relatively remained constant, the levels of carbon dioxide
have increased. Other gases whose levels have increased due to human activities are methane,
nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons. Deforestation has further resulted in elevated levels of
carbon dioxide due to non-removal of carbon dioxide by plants through photosynthesis.
Warming or cooling by more than 2°C over the past few decades may prove to be disastrous
for various ecosystems on the earth including humans, as it would alter the conditions faster
than some species could adapt or migrate. Some areas will become inhabitable because of
drought or floods following a rise in average sea level.
Impacts of Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
The enhanced greenhouse effect will not only cause global warming but will also affect
various other climatic and natural processes.
a)   Global temperature increase: It is estimated that the earth’s mean temperature will rise
between1.5 to 5.5°C by 2050 if input of greenhouse gases continues to rise at the present
rate. Even at the lower value, earth would be warmer than it has been for 10,000 years.
b)   Rise in sea level: With the increase in global temperature sea water will expand. Heating
will melt the polar ice sheets and glaciers resulting in further rise in sea level.
c)    Effects on human health: The global warming will lead to changes in the rainfall pattern in
many areas, thereby affecting the distribution of vector-borne diseases like malaria,
filariasis, elephan-tiasis etc.
d)   Effects on agriculture: There are different views regarding the effect of global warming on
agriculture. It may show positive or negative effects on various types of crops in different
regions of the world. Tropical and subtropical regions will be more affected since the
average temperature in these regions is already on the higher side. Even a rise of 2°C may
be quite harmful to crops. Soil moisture will decrease and evapotranspiration will increase,
which may drastically affect wheat and maize production.
Measures to Check Global Warming
To slow down enhanced global warming the following steps will be important:
a)   Cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuel.
b)   Use energy more efficiently.
c)    Shift to renewable energy resources.
d)   Increase nuclear power plants for electricity production.
e)    Shift from coal to natural gas.
f)    Trap and use methane as a fuel.
g)   Reduce beef production.
h)   Adopt sustainable agriculture.
i)     Stabilize population growth.
j)     Efficiently remove CO2 from smoke stacks.
k)   Plant more trees.
l)     Remove atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photosynthetic algae.
4.3. Urbanization
An urban area is defined as a town or city along with its adjacent suburban fringes with a
population exceeding 2500 (as per U.S. Bureau of Census). However, this value is set at a
minimum of 10,000 –50,000 in different countries. But in Denmark a population of 250
makes an area urban.
Urbanization is the growth of urban population by natural growth or immigration from rural
areas. Rural population moves to urban areas to find employment there, because of poverty,
declining agricultural jobs and inadequate and uneconomical market valuation of crops.
Characteristics and Patterns of Urban Population
1)   These are heterogeneous populations with much greater diversity of race, religion, ethnicity,
socio-economic status and nationality as compared to rural population.
2)   In developing countries urban areas have more males, who migrate in search of job from
rural areas. While in developed countries the women from rural areas migrate more to cities
to seek employment.
3)   Urban population is growing very fast. Between 1850 and 2003, global urban population in-
creased from a mere 2% to 47%, which will be 63% in 2050 as per UN (United Nations)
projections.
4)   In 1900, there were only 19 cities having more than 1 million population and in 2003 the
number of such cities increased to 400. These are called large cities. Megacities, which have
a population size exceeding 10 million, have also increased in number from 8 in the year
1985 to 19 in the year 2003.
5)   Urban growth is much faster in developing countries than in developed ones.
6)   Poverty is a main cause of urbanization, when poor people from villages move to urban
areas and get crowded in slums with most unhygienic conditions.
Environment Related Urban Problems and Benefits
1)   Urban areas suffer from serious problems of environmental pollution. There are high levels
of air pollution and noise pollution due to industries and automobiles. Water is also polluted
due to industrial wastewater discharge. Solid waste generation in urban areas is very high,
and its proper disposal is a major problem.
2)   Proper sewerage facilities are often lacking in urban areas. In the crowded slums, the
human waste is just deposited in gutters or vacant spaces, which become a breeding ground
for pathogenic bacteria spreading salmonella and hepatitis infections. In most of the cities
heavy rainfall totally upsets the sewerage system.
3)   Cities are warmer than villages. Due to lot of heat released by various types of human
activities in cities, which get retained by built structures and then slowly released into the
atmosphere there is creation of urban heat island. This problem can be partially tackled by
growing green belts of trees.
4)   Urbanization also provides several benefits when there is a well-planned city with proper
transportation and residential facilities, reducing pollution problems.
5)   Due to better access to health care, educational and social service facilities, infant mortality
is less in cities.
4.4 Sustainable Development
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it
two key concepts:
 the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding
priority should be given; and
 the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the
environment's ability to meet present and future needs."
Sustainable development recognizes that growth must be both inclusive and environmentally
sound to reduce poverty and build shared prosperity for today’s population and to continue to
meet the needs of future generations.
Sustainable development promotes the idea that social, environmental, and economic
progress is all attainable within the limits of our earth’s natural resources.  Sustainable
development approaches everything in the world as being connected through space, time and
quality of life.
Some of the more common examples of sustainable development practices are:
1. Solar and wind energy: Energy from these resources is limitless, meaning we have the
ability to eliminate dependence on non-renewable power sources by harnessing power from
renewable resources.
2. Sustainable construction: Homes, offices and other structures that incorporate recycled and
renewable resources will be more energy efficient and stand the test of time.
3. Crop rotation: Many farmers and gardeners are using this method as a chemical free way to
reduce diseases in the soil and increase growth potential of their crops.
4. Water fixtures: Water conservation is critical to sustainable development, and more and
more products are available that use less water in the home, such as showers, toilets,
dishwashers and laundry systems.
The world’s resources are finite, and growth that is unmanaged and un-sustained will lead to
increased poverty and decline of the environment.  We owe it to future generations to explore
 lifestyles and paths of development that effectively balance progress with awareness of its
environmental impact.  In order to preserve the future, we must appreciate the
interconnectedness between humans and nature at all levels.  Sustainable development
practices can help us do this, and through education and building awareness, preserving the
future is within everyone’s reach.
Priority Areas for Action
 Climate Change & Energy
 Sustainable Consumption & Production
 Natural Resource Protection & Environmental Enhancement
 Sustainable Communities
 Governance for SD
 Learning & Communication
Guiding Principles
 Living within Environmental Limits
 Achieving a Stable Economy
 Ensuring a Strong, Healthy & Just Society
 Promoting Good Governance
 Using Sound Science Responsibly
 Opportunity and innovation
Measures for Sustainable Development
Following are the measures for the sustainable development:
1. Population Control: Population growth should be limited to the desirable level. Slow
growth of human population, reduces the stress on global life.
2. Biodiversity (variety of life on earth and how the living things interact with each other) must
be conserved.
3. Recycling of wastes: Recycle at least 60% of the materials which are discarded now as trash.
4. Reduced Consumption: Lifestyle should be shifted to lesser consumption of resources.
5. Efficient usage of Resources: Resources should be renewed or reused. For e.g.: solar energy
should be encouraged.
6. Water Resource Management: Some of the consequences of poor water resource
management such as:
a. River flooding;
b. Silting of reservoirs, ponds, lakes;
c. Over-exploitation of groundwater;
d. Water logging by over irrigation;
e. Improper drainage;
f.  Pollution of water bodies are to be taken up for implementation.
So, Sustainable development insists optimum management of water resources locally and
globally.
7. Integrated Land use planning: Using lands for agriculture, forestry, fodder cultivation,
industrial growth, traffic etc should be planned.
8. Creating Awareness: Creation of environmental awareness and spreading environmental
education among the people is must for fruitful results.
Threats to Sustainability
 Though the measures are adopted for implementation of Sustainable Development , some of
the threats such as Energy depletion; climate system collapse; ecological collapse; Economic
slump etc are reduce the sustainability of life.
1. Energy depletion: The availability of crude oil resources are less and usage is more and
more. Since the increased number of human beings mainly dependent on energy source
especially fossil fuels, the future generation will have to work hard to restructure the way
they live.
2. Climate system collapse: Huge quantities of Green House Gases have been releasing into
the atmosphere over the last 100 years. And more is being released every day, future
generation may be unstable with the climate systems of floods, storms, droughts, extreme
temperatures etc
3. Ecological collapse: Numerous industries are coming up by consuming the natural resources
and releasing the toxic substances into the atmosphere. These substances cause soil pollution,
air pollution; water pollution and in turn causing the imbalance of ecosystem.
4. Economic slump: Although the world has never had an economic recession all over, there
may be a global economic depression may takes place because of the destruction of
ecosystem.
4.5. Acid Rain
Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen originating from industrial operations and fossil fuel
combustion are the major sources of acid forming gases. Acid forming gases are oxidised
over several days by which time they travel several thousand kilometres. In the atmosphere
these gases are ultimately converted into sulfuric and nitric acids. Hydrogen chloride
emission forms hydrochloric acid. These acids cause acidic rain. Acid rain is only one
component of acidic deposition. Acidic deposition is the total of wet acidic deposition (acid
rain) and dry deposition. Rain water is turned acidic when its pH falls below 5.6 (Figure is
given below). In fact clean or natural rainwater has a pH of 5.6 at 20°C because of formation
of carbonic acid due to dissolution of CO2 in water.

Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain causes a number of harmful effects below pH 5.1. The effects are visible in the
aquatic system even at pH less than 5.5.
  It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble e.g. monuments like Taj Mahal.
Crystals of calcium and magnesium sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion caused by
acid rain.
  It damages stone statues. Priceless stone statues in Greece and Italy have been partially
dissolved by acid rain.
  It damages metals and car finishes.
  Aquatic life especially fish are badly affected by lake acidification.
  Aquatic animals suffer from toxicity of metals such as aluminium, mercury, manganese, zinc
and lead which leak from the surrounding rocks due to acid rain.
  It results in reproductive failure and killing of fish.
  Many lakes of Sweden, Norway, Canada have become fishless due to acid rain.
  It damages foliage and weakens trees.
  It makes trees more susceptible to stresses like cold temperature, drought, etc. Many insects
and fungi are more tolerant to acidic conditions and hence they can attack the susceptible
trees and cause diseases.
Control of Acid Rain
  Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipments.
  Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effects of acid rain.
  A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water pipes for
drinking water.

4.6 Ozone Layer Depletion

For the last 450 million years the earth has had a natural sunscreen in the stratosphere called
the ozone layer. This layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiations from the sunlight and thus
protects various life forms on the earth. Ozone is a form of oxygen.
Thinning of Ozone Layer
The Antarctic ozone hole was discovered by Dr. Joe C. Farman and his colleagues in the
British Antarctic Survey who had been recording ozone levels over this region since 1957.
During spring season of south-pole i.e. September to November, each year, ozone depletion
is observed. Steep decline has been observed since mid 1970s with a record low
concentration of 90 DU (Dobson units: The amount of atmospheric ozone is measured by
‘Dobson Spectrometer’; One DU is equivalent to a 0.01 mm thickness of pure ozone at the
density) in early October of 1993. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are mainly responsible for
ozone depletion in the stratosphere.
Effects of Ozone Depletion
      Ozone depletion in the stratosphere will result in more UV radiation reaching the earth
especially UV-B (290–320 nm). The UV-B radiations affect DNA and the photosynthetic
chemicals. Any change in DNA can result in mutation and cancer. Cases of skin cancer
(basal and squamous cell carcinoma) which do not cause death but cause disfigurement will
increase.
      Easy absorption of UV rays by the lens and cornea of eye will result in increase in incidents
of cataract.
      Melanin producing cells of the epidermis (important for human immune system) will be
destroyed by UV-rays resulting in immuno-suppression. Fair people (who cannot produce
enough melanin) will be at a greater risk of UV exposure.
      Phytoplanktons are sensitive to UV exposure. Ozone depletion will result in decrease in their
population thereby affecting the population of zooplankton, fish, marine animals, in fact the
whole aquatic food chain.
      Yield of vital crops like corn, rice, soybean, cotton, bean, pea, sorghum and wheat will
decrease.
      Degradation of paints, plastics and other polymer material will result in economic loss due
to effects of UV radiation resulting from ozone depletion.
4.7 Environmental Protection
In order to protect the environment efforts have to be done at individual level as well as
national and international level. The role of government and non-government organizations
(NGOs) are equally important. Legislative measures are also very important in ensuring
environmental protection. Environmental awareness, education and particularly, women
education hold a significant place in promoting the spirit of environmental protection.
Role of Government
Environmental protection can be done by formulating some guidelines, policies and laws by
the government. India is the first country in the world to have made provisions for the
protection and conservation of environment in its Constitution. On 5th June, 1972,
environment was first discussed as an item of international agenda in the U.N. Conference on
Human Environment in Stockholm and thereafter 5th June is celebrated all over the world as
World Environment Day . Soon after the Stockholm Conference our country took substantive
legislative steps for environmental protection. The Wildlife (Protection) Act was passed in
1972, followed by the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act1974, the Forest
(Conservation) Act, 1980, Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and
subsequently the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Legal Aspects
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
The Act, a landmark in the history of wildlife legislation in our country, came into existence
in 1972. Wildlife was transferred from State List to Concurrent List in 1976, thus giving
power to the Central government to enact the legislation. The Indian Board of Wildlife
(IBWL) was created in 1952 in our country, which after the enactment of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act actively took up the task of setting up wildlife national parks and
sanctuaries. The major activities and provisions in the Act can be summed up as follows:
a.    It defines the wildlife related terminology.
b.   It provides for the appointment of Wildlife Advisory Board, wildlife warden, their powers,
duties etc.
c.    Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife species was done for the first
time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned.
d.   Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad, Blue vanda, Ladies slipper
orchid, Pitcher plant etc. is also provided under the Act.
e.    The Act provides for setting up of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries etc.
f.     The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
g.    There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for sale,
possession, transfer etc.
h.   The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
i.      It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.
j.     It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species. Several conservation
projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972), tiger (1973), crocodile (1974)
and brown antlered deer (1981) were started under this Act.
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
This Act deals with the conservation of forests and related aspects. Except J & K, the Act is
adopted all over India. The Act covers under it all types of forests including reserve forests,
protected forests or any forested land irrespective of its ownership. The salient features of the
Act are as follows:
a.    The State government has been empowered under this Act to use the forests only for forestry
purposes. If at all it wants to use it in any other way, it has to take prior approval of Central
government, after which it can pass orders for declaring some part of the reserve forest for
non-forest purposes (e.g. mining) or for clearing some naturally growing trees and replacing
them by economically important trees (reforestation).
b.   It makes provision for conservation of all types of forests and for this purpose there is an
advisory committee which recommends funding for it to the Central government.
c.    Any illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under this
Act. Non-forest activities include clearing of forest land for cultivation of any type of
plants/crops or any other purpose (except re-afforestation). However, some construction
work in the forest for wildlife or forest management is exempted from non-forest activity (e.g.
fencing, making water-holes, trench, pipelines, check posts, wireless communication etc.).
1992 Amendment in the Forest Act
▫  In 1992, some amendments was made in the Act which made provisions for allowing some
non-forest activities in forests, without cutting trees or limited cutting with prior approval of
Central government. These activities are setting of transmission lines, seismic surveys,
exploration, drilling and hydroelectric projects. The last activity involves large scale
destruction of forests, for which prior approval of the Centre is necessary.
▫  Wildlife sanctuaries, national parks etc. are totally prohibited for any exploration or survey
under this Act without prior approval of Central govt. even if no tree-felling is involved.
▫  Cultivation of tea, coffee, spices, rubber and plants which are cash-crops, are included under
non-forestry activity and not allowed in reserve forests.
▫  Even cultivation of fruit-bearing trees, oil-yielding plants or plants of medicinal value in
forest area need to be first approved by the Central govt. This is because newly introduced
species in the forest area may cause an imbalance in the ecology of the forest. If the species
to be planted is a native species, then no prior clearance is required.
▫  Tusser cultivation (a type of silk-yielding insect) in forest areas by tribals as a means of their
livelihood is treated as a forestry activity as long as it does not involve some specific host
 tree like Asan or Arjun. This is done in order to discourage monoculture practices in the
forests which are otherwise rich in biodiversity.
▫  Plantation of mulberry for rearing silkworm is considered a non-forest activity. The reason is
same as described above.
▫  Mining is a non-forestry activity and prior approval of Central govt. is mandatory. The
Supreme Court in a case T.N. Godavarman Thirumulkpad Vs. Union of India (1997) directed
all on-going mining activity to be ceased immediately in any forest area of India if it had not
got prior approval of Central government.
▫  Removal of stones, bajri, boulder etc. from river-beds located within the forest area fall under
non-forest activity.
▫  Any proposal sent to Central govt. for non-forest activity must have a cost-benefit analysis
and Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) of the proposed activity with reference to its
ecological and socio-economic impacts.
Thus, the Forests (Conservation) Act has made ample provisions for conservation and
protection of forests and prevents deforestation.
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
It provides for maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water by preventing and
controlling its pollution. Water pollution is defined as such contamination of water, or such
alteration of the physical, chemical or biological properties of water, or such discharge as is
likely to cause a nuisance or render the water harmful or injurious to public health and
safety or harmful for any other use or to aquatic plants and other organisms or animal life.
The definition of water pollution has thus encompassed the entire probable agents in water
that may cause any harm or have a potential to harm any kind of life in any way. The salient
features and provisions of the Act are summed up as follows:
a.    It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all types of surface and ground
water.
b.   It provides for the establishment of Central and State Boards for pollution control.
c.    It confers them with powers and functions to control pollution. The Central and State
Pollution Control Boards are widely represented and are given comprehensive powers to
advise, coordinate and provide technical assistance for prevention and control of pollution of
water.
d.   The Act has provisions for funds, budgets, accounts and audit of the Central and State
Pollution Control Boards.
e.    The Act makes provisions for various penalties for the defaulters and procedure for the
same.
The main regulatory bodies are the Pollution Control Boards, which have been conferred the
following duties and powers:
(A) Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):
▫  It advises the Central govt. in matters related to prevention and control of water pollution.
▫  Coordinates the activities of State Pollution Control Boards and provides them technical
assistance and guidance.
▫  Organizes training programs for prevention and control of pollution.
▫  Organizes comprehensive programs on pollution related issues through mass media.
▫  Collects, compiles and publishes technical and statistical data related to pollution.
▫  Prepares manuals for treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents.
▫  Lays down standards for water quality parameters.
▫  Plans nation-wide programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution.
▫  Establishes and recognizes laboratories for analysis of water, sewage or trade effluent
sample.
(B) The State Pollution Control Boards:
These boards also have similar functions to be executed at state level and are governed by the
directions of CPCB.
▫  The Board advises the State govt. with respect to the location of any industry that might
pollute a stream or a well.
▫  It lays down standards for effluents and is empowered to take samples from any stream, well
or trade effluent or sewage passing through an industry.
▫  The State Board is empowered to take legal samples of trade effluent in accordance with the
procedure laid down in the Act. The sample taken in the presence of the occupier or his agent
is divided into two parts, sealed, signed by both parties and sent for analysis to some
recognized lab. If the samples do not conform to the prescribed water quality standards
(crossing maximum permissible limits), then ‘consent’ is refused to the unit.
▫  Every industry has to obtain consent from the Board (granted for a fixed duration) by
applying on a prescribed pro-forma providing all technical details, along with a prescribed
fee following which analysis of the effluent is carried out.
▫  The Board suggests efficient methods for utilization, treatment and disposal of trade effluents.
The Act has made detailed provisions regarding the power of the Boards to obtain
information, take trade samples, restrict new outlets, restrict expansion, enter and inspect the
units and sanction or refuse consent to the industry after effluent analysis.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
Salient features of the act are as follows:
a.    The Act provides for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
b.   )In the Act, air pollution has been defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous
substance (including noise) in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be
harmful  to human beings or any other living creatures or plants or property or environment.
c.    Noise pollution has been inserted as pollution in the Act in 1987.
d.   Pollution Control Boards at the Central or State level have the regulatory authority to
implement the Air Act. Just parallel to the functions related to Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, the Boards perform similar functions related to improvement of air
quality. The Boards have to check whether or not the industry strictly follows the norms or
 standards laid down by the Boards under section 17, regarding the discharge of emission of
any air pollutant. Based upon analysis report consent is granted or refused to the industry.
e.    Just like the Water Act, the Air Act has provisions for defining the constitution, powers and
function of Pollution Control Boards, funds, accounts, audit, penalties and procedures.
f.     Section 20 of the Act has provision for ensuring emission standards from automobiles. Based
upon it, the State govt. is empowered to issue instructions to the authority in-charge of
registration of motor vehicles (under Motor Vehicles Act, 1939) that is bound to comply with
such instructions.
g.    As per Section 19, in consultation with the State Pollution Control Board, the state
government may declare an area within the state as “air pollution control area” and can
prohibit the use of any fuel other than approved fuel in the area causing air pollution. No
person shall, without prior consent of State Board operate or establish any industrial unit in
the “air pollution control area”.
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
The Act came into force on Nov. 19, 1986, the birth anniversary of our late Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi, who was a pioneer of environmental protection issues in our country. The Act
extends to whole of India. Some terms related to environment have been described as follows
in the Act:
a.    Environment includes water, air and land and the inter-relationships that exist among and
between them and human beings, all other living organisms and property.
b.   Environmental pollution means the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance
present in such concentration, as may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment.
c.    Hazardous substance means any substance or preparation which by its physico-chemical
properties or handling is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living organisms,
property or environment.
The Act has given powers to the Central Government to take measures to protect and
improve environment while the state governments coordinate the actions. The important
functions of Central government under this Act include setting up of:
a.    The standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes.
b.   The maximum permissible limits of concentration of various environmental
pollutants(including noise) for different areas.
c.    The procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances.
d.   The prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different areas.
e.    The prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and to carry on process and
operations in different areas.
f.     The procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and providing for remedial measures for such accidents.
The power of entry and inspection, power to take sample etc. under this Act lies with the
Central Government or any officer empowered by it.
Under the Environmental (Protection) Rules, 1986 the State Pollution Control Boards have to
follow the guidelines provided under Schedule VI, some of which are as follows:
a.    They have to advise the industries for treating the waste water and gases with the best avail-
able technology to achieve the prescribed standards.
b.   The industries have to be encouraged for recycling and reusing the wastes.
c.    They have to encourage the industries for recovery of biogas, energy and reusable materials.
d.   While permitting the discharge of effluents and emissions into the environment, the State
Boards have to take into account the assimilative capacity of the receiving water body.
e.    The Central and State Boards have to emphasize on the implementation of clean
technologies by the industries in order to increase fuel efficiency and reduce the generation
of environmental pollutants.
4.8 Initiatives By Non-Governmental Organizations
Non-government organizations (NGOs) can play a very important role in protection of
environment because they act at the grass-root level. Simple laws cannot be enforced that
effectively unless there is proper awareness amongst the masses. The NGOs can play a dual
role:
a)   They can act as watch-dogs and advice the government about some local environmental
issues of prime and urgent concern
b)   They can interact with the people at grass-root level, sharing their problems and concern.
These NGO’s can act as a viable link between the two. They can act both as an “Action
group” and a “pressure group” by leading public environmental movements.
Drawbacks:
a)   Quite often NGO’s are found to work with vested interests, without a genuine concern for the
environment
b)   They may get politically motivated. In such cases the public feels cheated and the enthusiasm
to protect the environment is totally lost. Nonetheless, all over the world the number of
NGOs is increasing day by day and several initiative shave been taken by them for protection
of environment in different ways.
Initiatives:
Some major initiatives taken by NGO’s are discussed here:
a)   Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal in Gopeshwar is known for the well known “Chipko-
Movement” for protecting the trees. Sh. Sunderlal Bahuguna’s name is now synonymous
with this movement, who led this movement in Uttarakhand against tree-felling.
b)   Kalpavriksh is known for the “Narmada Bachao Andolan” headed by Medha Patekar, raising
the major environmental issues associated with the Sardar Sarovar dam on the river,
particularly the issue of displacement and rehabilitation of the natives/out sees.
c)    Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) has played a significant role in preparing
‘Citizen’s Report’ and has taken up various prime issues in a scientific way. Pesticide levels
in cola drinks exceeding the maximum permissible limits, has sensitized the people all over
the country.
d)   Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) is one of the oldest NGOs of India who have
worked for the protection of wildlife.
e)    Tarun Bharat Sangh, Rajasthan, under the leadership of Mr. Rajendra Singh (who was
honoured with prestigious Magsaysay award for his work) has done a remarkable job of
harvesting rainwater by constructing check-dams.
Greenpeace is a world-wide NGO working for the protection of environment. This
organization believes in peaceful mass movements for environmental protection. There is
Sea-shepherd, another NGO, which is determined to stop killing of marine animals. This
NGO even resorted to aggressive and violent means to achieve their goals.