Calculus 1 - Differentiation and Integration-Sanet - ST PDF

Calculus I
Differentiation and Integration

Book Title: Calculus I - Differentiation and Integration
Author: Dan Hamilton
Editor: Linda Hamilton
Cover design by: Kathleen Myers
Copyright  2002
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the
prior written permission of the author. Request for permission or further information should be
addressed to Hamilton Education Guides via [email protected].
First published in the year 2002
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 20022-81883

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 0-9649954-4-1
This book is dedicated to my wife and children for their support and understanding.
Hamilton Education Guides
Book Series
____________________________________________________________________________________
eBook and paperback versions available in the Amazon Kindle Store

Manual Series
____________________________________________________________________________________
eManual versions available in the Amazon Kindle Store

Manual Series
____________________________________________________________________________________
eManual versions available in the Amazon Kindle Store

Contents
Introduction and Overview ....................................................................................................... iii
Chapter 1 Sequences and Series

Quick Reference to Chapter 1 Problems ........................................................................ 1
1.1 Sequences ........................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Series .................................................................................................................. 7
1.3 Arithmetic Sequences and Arithmetic Series..................................................... 13
1.4 Geometric Sequences and Geometric Series ..................................................... 20
1.5 Limits of Sequences and Series ......................................................................... 31
1.6 The Factorial Notation ....................................................................................... 42
Chapter 2 Differentiation (Part I)

2.1 The Difference Quotient Method ....................................................................... 54
2.2 Differentiation Rules Using the Prime Notation ................................................ 59
2.3 Differentiation Rules Using the dx
d Notation ..................................................... 71
2.4 The Chain Rule .................................................................................................. 82

2.5 Implicit Differentiation ...................................................................................... 97
2.6 The Derivative of Functions with Fractional Exponents ................................... 102
2.7 The Derivative of Radical Functions ................................................................. 109
2.8 Higher Order Derivatives ................................................................................... 124
Chapter 3 Differentiation (Part II)

3.1 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions ....................................................... 140
3.2 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions .......................................... 158
3.3 Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions ............................... 166
3.4 Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions ............................................................ 181
3.5 Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions ............................................... 187
3.6 Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms Using L’Hopital’s Rule ............................. 193
Chapter 4 Integration (Part I)

4.1 Integration Using the Basic Integration Formula ............................................... 213
4.2 Integration Using the Substitution Method ........................................................ 222
4.3 Integration of Trigonometric Functions ............................................................. 232
4.4 Integration of Expressions Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions........ 259
4.5 Integration of Expressions Resulting in Exponential or Logarithmic Functions 273
Hamilton Education Guides i

Calculus I Contents
Chapter 5 Integration (Part II)

5.1 Integration by Parts ............................................................................................ 287
5.2 Integration Using Trigonometric Substitution ................................................... 308
5.3 Integration by Partial Fractions .......................................................................... 320
Case I - The Denominator Has Distinct Linear Factors 320
Case II - The Denominator Has Repeated Linear Factors 327
Case III - The Denominator Has Distinct Quadratic Factors 334
Case IV - The Denominator Has Repeated Quadratic Factors 344
5.4 Integration of Hyperbolic Functions .................................................................. 350
Appendix Exercise Solutions

Chapter 1 Solutions .........................................................................................379
Index ...........................................................................................................................................478
Hamilton Education Guides ii

Introduction and Overview
Similar to the previous books published by the Hamilton Education Guides, the intent of
this book is to build a strong foundation by increasing student confidence in solving mathematical
problems. To achieve this objective, the author has diligently tried to address each subject in a
clear, concise, and easy to understand step-by-step format. A great deal of effort has been made to
ensure that the subjects presented in each chapter are explained simply, thoroughly, and
adequately. It is the authors hope that this book can fulfill these objectives by building a solid
foundation in pursuit of more advanced technical concepts.
The scope of this book is intended for educational levels ranging from the 12th grade to
adult. The book can also be used by students in home study programs, parents, teachers, special
education programs, tutors, high schools, preparatory schools, and adult educational programs,
including colleges and universities as a main text, a thorough reference, or a supplementary book.
A thorough knowledge of algebraic concepts in subject areas such as linear equations and
inequalities, fractional operations, exponents, radicals, polynomials, factorization, non-linear and
quadratic equations is required.
“Calculus I” is divided into five chapters. Sequences and series are introduced in Chapter 1.
How to compute and find the limit of arithmetic and geometric sequences and series including
expansion and simplification of factorial expressions is discussed in this chapter. Derivatives and its
applicable differentiation rules using the Prime and dx d notations are introduced in Chapter 2. In
addition, use of the Chain rule in solving different types of equations, the implicit differentiation
method, derivative of functions with fractional exponents, derivative of radical functions, including
the steps for solving higher order equations is discussed in this chapter. Differentiation of
trigonometric functions, exponential and logarithmic functions, hyperbolic functions, and inverse
hyperbolic functions is discussed in Chapter 3. Furthermore, evaluation of expressions referred to as
indeterminate forms using a general rule known as L’Hopital’s Rule is discussed in Chapter 3. The
subject of integration is introduced in Chapter 4. Integration using basic integration formulas and
methods such as the substitution method is discussed in this chapter. Additionally, integration of
trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions, exponential and logarithmic functions is
addressed in Chapter 4. Other integration techniques such as integration by parts, integration using
trigonometric substitution, and integration by partial fractions is introduced in Chapter 5. The steps
in integrating hyperbolic functions is also discussed in this chapter. Finally, detailed solutions to the
exercises are provided in the Appendix. Students are encouraged to solve each problem in the same
detailed and step-by-step format as shown in the text.
In keeping with our commitment of excellence in providing clear, easy to follow, and
concise educational materials to our readers, I believe this book will again add value to the Hamilton
Education Guides series for its clarity and special attention to detail. I hope readers of this book
will find it valuable as both a learning tool and as a reference. Any comments or suggestions for
improvement of this book will be appreciated.
With best wishes,
Dan Hamilton
Hamilton Education Guides iii

Calculus I Quick Reference to Chapter 1 Problems
Chapter 1
Sequences and Series
Quick Reference to Chapter 1 Problems
1.1 Sequences .................................................................................................................... 2
2n + 1 k ( k + 1) n( n + 1)
an = = ; bk = 2 = ; sn = −1
=
−2n k 2n
1.2 Series ........................................................................................................................... 7

n
1 1 
5
( −1) i+1 4
∑  ai − bi  = ;
i =1  2 4 
∑ 2i
=; ∑
n =0
( n − 1)2 ( n + 1) =
i =1
1.3 Arithmetic Sequences and Arithmetic Series .......................................................... 13

20 15 15
∑ ( 2i+1) = ;
i =1
∑ (3i−2) = ;
i =1
∑ (5 j −1)
j =3
=
1.4 Geometric Sequences and Geometric Series............................................................ 20

10 10 6 k +1
 1
∑ 3k − 2 =; ∑ ( −3)k −2 =; ∑ 8 − 
2
=
k =1 k =1 k =2 
1.5 Limits of Sequences and Series ................................................................................. 31

−n
n2 + 5  1 n6
lim n→∞ =; lim n→∞ 1 +  = ; limn→∞ =
n2  2 12n4 + 5
1.6 The Factorial Notation .............................................................................................. 42

2
( 4 − 2 )!8! ( 2n − 2 )! 2 ( n!) ( n!)
=; =; =
11! ( 5 − 3)! ( )(
2 n ! n − 1 )! ( n + 1 )! ( n − 1)!
Hamilton Education Guides 1

Chapter 1 - Sequences and Series
The objective of this chapter is to improve the student’s ability to solve problems involving
sequences and series. Sequences and series are introduced in Sections 1.1 and 1.2. How to solve
arithmetic sequences and arithmetic series are discussed in Section 1.3. Solutions to geometric
sequences and geometric series are addressed in Section 1.4. The process of identifying
convergence or divergence of a sequence or a series, for large values of n , is discussed in Section
1.5. Finally, the factorial notation and its use in expanding binomial expressions is addressed in
Section 1.6. Each section is concluded by solving examples with practice problems to further
enhance the student’s ability.
1.1 Sequences
A sequence is a function whose domain contains a set of positive integer terms such as
(1, 2, 3, 4,) . Functions generate sequences. For example, the function s( n) = sn = n − 2 whose
domain is (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) generates the sequence
s (1) =s1 =1 − 2 =−1 s ( 2 ) = s2 = 2 − 2 = 0 s ( 3) = s3 = 3 − 2 = 1
s ( 4 ) = s4 = 4 − 2 = 2 s ( 5) = s5 = 5 − 2 = 3 s ( 6 ) = s6 = 6 − 2 = 4
where the first six terms of the sequence are ( s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 , s6 ) = ( −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4) .

In general, a function f ( x ) whose domain is the set of positive integers (1, 2, 3,  , n) including a
fixed value for n is called a finite sequence function. On the other hand, a function whose
domain is the set of (1, 2, 3, ) is called an infinite sequence function. The elements of the range
of a sequence function are called the terms of the sequence function. In some instances a
sequence is given by presenting its first few terms, followed by its nth term, sn = s( n) , which is
commonly referred to as the general term of a sequence. For example, the sequence
2
4, 3,
16 25
, ,,
( n + 1) shows the first four terms and the general term of the sequence. In the
5 9 2n − 1
following examples we will learn how the various terms of a sequence are found:
Example 1.1-1 List the first six terms of the given sequence.
a. a n =
(− 3)n b. bk =
( −1) k c. d n =
5 1
d. cn =   ⋅
n
(−1) n
n3 k +1 n(2n − 1)  2 n
Solutions:
(− 3) 1 −3 (− 3) 2 9
a. a1 = 3
= = −3 a2 =
3
= = 1.125
1 1 2 8
a3 =
(− 3) 3 −27 (− 3) 4 81
3
= = −1 a4 =
3
= = 1.265
3 27 4 64
a5 =
(− 3) 5 −243 (− 3) 6 729
3
= = −1.944 a6 =
3
= = 3.375
5 125 6 216

Calculus I 1.1 Sequences
(− 1) 1 −1 (− 1) 2 1
b. b1 = = = −0.5 b2 = = = 0.333
1+1 2 2 +1 3
b3 =
(− 1) 3 −1 (− 1) 4 1
= = −0.25 b4 = = = 0.2
3 +1 4 4 +1 5
b5 =
(− 1) 5
=
−1
= −0.167 b6 =
(− 1) 6 = 1
= 0.143
5 +1 6 6 +1 7
5 5 5 5 5 5
c. d1 = = = = 5 d2 = = = = 0.833
1 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 1 − 1) 2 −1 1 2 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 2 − 1) 2⋅3 6
5 5/ 1 5 5 5
d3 = = = = 0.333 d4 = = = = 0.178
3 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 3 − 1) 3 ⋅ 5/ 3 4 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 4 − 1) 4⋅7 28
5 5/ 1 5 5 5
d5 = = = = 0.111 d6 = = = = 0.076
5 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 5 − 1) 5/ ⋅ 9 9 6 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 6 − 1) 6 ⋅11 66
1 2
 1  (− 1)  1  (− 1)
1 2
1 1 1 1 1
d. c1 =   ⋅ = ⋅ −1 = − = −0.5 c2 =   ⋅ = ⋅ = = 0.125
2 1 2 2 2 2 4 2 8
3 4
 1  (− 1)  1  (− 1)
3 4
1 1 1 1 1 1
c3 =   ⋅ = ⋅− = − = −0.042 c4 =   ⋅ = ⋅ = = 0.016
2 3 8 3 24 2 4 16 4 64
5 6
 1  (− 1)  1  (− 1)
5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1
c5 =   ⋅ = ⋅− = − = −0.006 c6 =   ⋅ = ⋅ = = 0.003
2 5 32 5 160 2 6 64 6 384
Example 1.1-2 Find the indicated terms for the following sequences.
a. Write the third and sixth terms of sn =

( −2) n+1 b. Write the tenth term of a i = (i − 1)3 ⋅ 2 i−4
n3
c. Write the third and fourth terms of a n = ( −1) n − 2 d. Write the seventh term of a k = (0.2) k −1
e. Write the third and twelfth terms of a i = ( − i)3 f. Write the eleventh term of sn = ( −1) n −1 ⋅ 2 n +1
Solutions:
(− 2) 3+1 (− 2) 4 16 (− 2) 6+1 (− 2) 7 −128
a. s3 = 3
= = = 0.593 s6 =
3
= = = −0.593
3 27 27 6 216 216
b. a10 = (10 − 1) 3 ⋅ 210−4 = 9 3 ⋅ 2 6 = 729 ⋅ 64 = 4.6656 × 10 4
c. a3 = (− 1) 3−2 = (− 1) 1 = −1 a4 = (− 1) 4− 2 = (− 1) 2 = 1

d. a7 = (0.2) 7 −1 = (0.2) 6 = 0.000064 = 6.4 × 10 −5
e. a3 = (− 3) 3 = − 33 = −27 a12 = (− 12 ) 3 = − 12 3 = −1728
f. s11 = (− 1) 11−1 ⋅ 211+1 = (− 1) 10 ⋅ 212 = 1⋅ 212 = 4096
Example 1.1-3 Write s5 , s6 , s7 , and s15 for the following sequences.
a. s n =
(n + 1) π b. sn =
2n
c. s n = 2n(n − 1) (n − 2)
2 2 n −1
Solution:
(5 + 1) π 6π (6 + 1) π 7π
a. s5 = = = 3π s6 = = = 3.5π
2 2 2 2
s7 =
(7 + 1) π 8π (15 + 1) π 16π
= = 4π s15 = = = 8π
2 2 2 2
25 25
b. s5 = 5−1
= 4
; 2 5 ⋅ 2 −4 ; 2 5−4 ; 21 = 2
2 2
26 26
s6 = = = 2 6 ⋅ 2 −5 = 2 6−5 = 21 = 2
2 6−1 25
27 27
s7 = = = 2 7 ⋅ 2 −6 = 2 7 −6 = 21 = 2
2 7 −1 26
215 215
s15 =
15−1
= 14
= 215 ⋅ 2 −14 = 215−14 = 21 = 2
2 2
c. s5 = 2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ (5 − 1) (5 − 2) = 10 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 = 120 s6 = 2 ⋅ 6 ⋅ (6 − 1)(6 − 2 ) = 12 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 = 240
s7 = 2 ⋅ 7 ⋅ (7 − 1) (7 − 2) = 14 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 = 420 s15 = 2 ⋅15 ⋅ (15 − 1)(15 − 2 ) = 30 ⋅14 ⋅13 = 5460
Example 1.1-4 Find the twelfth term of the following sequences:

1n +1 1
n+2
2 n ⋅ ( n + 1)
a. 0.5, 0.25, 0125
. ,, b. 8, 5.063, 4.214,  , 1 +  c. 4, − 12, 32,  ,
2n  n ( −1) n+1
Solutions:
112+1 113 1
a. s12 = 12
= 12
= = 0.000244 = 2.44 × 10 −4
2 2 4096
12 + 2 14 14
 1  12 + 1   13  14
b. s12 = 1 +  =   =   = 1.0833 = 3.066
 12   12   12 

212 ⋅ (12 + 1) 212 ⋅13 4096 ⋅13

c. s12 = = = = −53248 = − 5.3248 × 10 4
(− 1) 12+1
(− 1) 13 −1
Example 1.1-5 Given the general term of the sequence s( n) = sn = n( n − 2) + 5 , write its k th and
k + 1 term.
Solutions:
a. To write the k th term of the sequence simply substitute k in place of n in the general term of
the sequence, i.e., s ( k ) = sk = k (k − 2) + 5 = k 2 − 2k + 5
b. To write the k + 1 term of the sequence simply substitute k + 1 in place of n in the general term
of the sequence, i.e., s ( k + 1) = sk +1 = ( k + 1) ( k + 1) − 2  + 5 = ( k + 1) k + 1 − 2 + 5 = ( k + 1)( k − 1) + 5
= k 2 − k/ + k/ − 1 + 5 = k 2 + 4
Example 1.1-6 For the given domain (1, 2, 3, 4) , write the first four terms of the following functions:
a. f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x + 1 b. s ( x=
) 3x − 5
2
c. g ( x ) = x d. h (=
x) x + 1
−1
3
Solutions:
a. f (1) = f1 = 12 + ( 2 ⋅1) + 1 = 1 + 2 + 1 = 4 f ( 2) = f 2 = 22 + ( 2 ⋅ 2 ) + 1 = 4 + 4 + 1 = 9
f ( 3) = f3 = 32 + ( 2 ⋅ 3) + 1 = 9 + 6 + 1 = 16 f ( 4) = f 4 = 42 + ( 2 ⋅ 4 ) + 1 = 16 + 8 + 1 = 25
Therefore, the first four terms of the sequence are ( f 1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 ) = ( 4, 9, 16, 25)
b. s (1) = s1 = ( 3 ⋅1) − 5 = 3 − 5 = −2 s ( 2) = s2 = ( 3 ⋅ 2 ) − 5 = 6 − 5 = 1
s ( 3) = s3 = ( 3 ⋅ 3) − 5 = 9 − 5 = 4 s ( 4) = s4 = ( 3 ⋅ 4 ) − 5 = 12 − 5 = 7
Therefore, the first four terms of the sequence are ( s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 ) = ( −2, 1, 4, 7) .
2 2 2 4
c. g (1) = g1 = ×1 = g ( 2) = g2 = × 2 =
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 8
g ( 3) = g3 = × 3/ = = 2 g ( 4) = g4 = × 4 =
3/ 1 3 3
2 4 8
Therefore, the first four terms of the sequence are ( g1 , g 2 , g 3 , g 4 ) =  , , 2, 
  3 3 3
1 1+ 1 1 1+ 2 3
d. h (1) = h1 = 1−1 + 1 = +1 = = 2 h ( 2) = h2 = 2−1 + 1 = + 1 = =
1 1 2 2 2

1 1+ 3 4 1 1+ 4 5
h ( 3) = h3 = 3−1 + 1 = +1 = = h ( 4) = h4 = 4−1 + 1 = + 1 = =
3 4 3 4 4 4
3 4 5
Therefore, the first four terms of the sequence are ( h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 ) =  2, , , 
  2 3 4
In the following section we will discuss series and identify its relation with sequences.
Section 1.1 Practice Problems - Sequences
1. List the first four and tenth terms of the given sequences.
n +1
2n + 1 k ( k + 1) 1 ( −1)
n
a. a n = b. bk = c. d n = 3 − ( −2) n d. k n =  − 
−2n k2  2 n+2
2. Write s3 , s4 , s5 , and s8 for the following sequences.
a. sn =
n( n + 1)
b. sn = ( −1) n+1 2 n−2 c. sn =
( −2) n+1( n − 2)
2n −1 2n
3. Write the first five terms of the following sequences.

i −2 i −1
1  1
a. a n = ( −1) n+1 ( n + 2) b. a i = 3   c. ci = 3  − 
 100   5
k −2
2
d. a n = (3n − 5) 2 e. uk = ar k −2 + 2 f. bk = −3  
3
n +1
j 1 
g. c j = + j h. y n = 1 −  i. uk = 1 − ( −1) k +1
j +1  n + 2
1
k n2 − 2
j. y k = k. y n = 9k ( k − 2) l. cn =
2 k −1 n +1
4. Given n ! read as “n factorial” which is defined as n ! = n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3)  5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 , find

a. The first eight terms of n ! .
2n + 1
b. The first four terms of a n = .
n!
1 + 3 n −1
c. The tenth and twelfth terms of the c n = .
(n !)2
n ! (n − 1)
d. The first, fifth, tenth, and fifteenth terms of y n = .
2+n!
5. Write the first three terms of the following sequences.
a. c n =
(2n − 3) (n + 1) b. a n = 
1   n − 2
c. sn = ( −1) n+1 2 n+1
 
(n − 4) n  n − 1  2 + n 
k +1 k ( k − 1) n −1
d. y k = ( −1) e. bn = n 2   f. x a = (5 − a) a +1 2 a
2  2 + n

Calculus I 1.2 Series
1.2 Series
Addition of the terms in any finite sequence result in having the sum of the sequence. The sum of
1
the sequence is referred to as a series. For example, the sequence yk = k −1
for
2
k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 can be summed and expressed in the following way:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
y1 + y 2 + y3 + y 4 + y5 + y 6 = 0
+ 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ 5
= 1+ + + + + = 1.9687
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 8 16 32
The sum of a sequence is generally shown by the Greek letter “ ∑ ” (sigma) which is also called
summation. Thus, using the sigma notation, the above example can be expressed in the following
6
1
way ∑ y k where y k = 2 k −1 . Note that the variable i is referred to as the index of summation and
i =1
the integer range over which the summation occurs is referred to as the range of summation. The
following are three properties of summation that students should be familiar with:
n n n
∑ ( ai + bi ) = ∑ ai + ∑ bi
i =1 i =1 i =1
n n
∑ kai = k ∑ ai
i =1 i =1
n
∑k = nk
i =1
These properties are used extensively in solving the sum of sequences over a specified range as
shown in the following examples:
n n
Example 1.2-1 Given ∑ a i = 20 and ∑ bi = 40 , find the solution to the following problems
i =1 i =1
using the summation properties.
n n n n
1 1
a. ∑ ( 2a i + 3bi ) = b. ∑ ( a i − bi ) = c. ∑ ( −5a i + 2bi ) = d. ∑  2 ai − 4 bi  =
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
Solutions:
n n n n n
a. ∑ ( 2ai + 3bi ) = ∑ 2ai + ∑ 3bi = 2∑ ai + 3∑ bi = ( 2 × 20 ) + ( 3 × 40 ) = 40 + 120 = 160
i =1 =i 1 =i 1 =i 1 =i 1
n n n
b. ∑ ( ai − bi ) = ∑ ai − ∑ bi = 20 − 40 = −20
i =1 =i 1 =i 1
n n n n n
c. ∑ ( −5ai + 2bi ) = ∑ −5ai + ∑ 2bi = −5∑ ai + 2∑ bi = ( −5 × 20 ) + ( 2 × 40 ) = −100 + 80 = −20
i =1 =i 1 =i 1 =i 1 =i 1

n
1 1 n
1 n
1 1 n 1 n 1   1
d. ∑  ai − bi  = ∑ ai − ∑ bi = ∑ ai − ∑ bi = 
 × 20  +  − × 40  = 10 − 10 = 0
2
i =1 4
 2 4 
=i 1 =i 1 =2 i 1= 4i1  2   4 
Example 1.2-2 Solve the following series:

6 7
∑ x i where x i = (1 + i 2 ) (−2) i
2n + 1
a. Find ∑ a n where a n =
n
b. Find
n =1 i =1
5 2 4
1
c. Find ∑( x j −1 ) where x j =
1+ j
d. Find ∑ ( uk ) 2 where uk = k + 1
j =0 k =0
5 2 5
n
e. Find ∑ ( y n − 2) n+1 where y n =
1+ n
f. Find ∑ ( ua + a) 2 where ua = a 2 − 1
n =1 a =0
Solutions:
6
2n + 1 2 + 1 4 + 1 6 + 1 8 + 1 10 + 1 12 + 1
a. ∑ an where an = = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 = + + + + +
n =1 n 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 5 7 9 11 13
= + + + + + = 3 + 2.5 + 2.33 + 2.25 + 2.2 + 2.17 = 14.45
1 2 3 4 5 6
7
b. ∑ xi where xi =(1 + i 2 ) ( −2 )i = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 = (1 + 12 ) ( −2 )1 + (1 + 22 ) ( −2 )2
i =1
+ (1 + 32 ) ( −2 ) + (1 + 42 ) ( −2 ) + (1 + 52 ) ( −2 ) + (1 + 62 ) ( −2 ) + (1 + 7 2 ) ( −2 ) = ( 2 ⋅ −2 ) + ( 5 ⋅ 4 ) + (10 ⋅ −8)
3 4 5 6 7
+ (17 ⋅ 16 ) + ( 26 ⋅ −32 ) + ( 37 ⋅ 64 ) + ( 50 ⋅ −128 ) = −4 + 20 − 80 + 272 − 832 + 2368 − 6400 = −4656
5
1
c. ∑ ( x j − 1) = ( x0 − 1)2 + ( x1 − 1)2 + ( x2 − 1)2 + ( x3 − 1)2 + ( x4 − 1)2 + ( x5 − 1)2
2
where x j =
j =0 1+ j
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1   1   1   1   1   1   1  2  3
=  − 1 +  − 1 +  − 1 +  − 1 +  − 1 +  − 1 = 0 + −  + −  + − 
1   2   3   4   5   6   2  3  4
2 2
4  5 1 4 9 16 25
+  +  −  = + + + + = 0.25 + 0.4444 + 0.5625 + 0.64 + 0.6944 = 2.5913
5  6 4 9 16 25 36
4
d. ∑ ( uk )2 where uk= k +1 = ( u0 )2 + ( u1 )2 + ( u2 )2 + ( u3 )2 + ( u4 )2 = ( 0 + 1)2 + (1 + 1)2 + ( 2 + 1)2
k =0
+ ( 3 + 1) + ( 4 + 1) = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 = 55
2 2

5
n
e. ∑ ( yn − 2 )n +1 where yn = = ( y1 − 2 )1+1 + ( y2 − 2 )2 +1 + ( y3 − 2 )3+1 + ( y4 − 2 )4 +1 + ( y5 − 2 )5+1
n =1 1+ n
2 3 4 5 6
 1   2   3   4   5 
=  − 2 +  − 2 +  − 2 +  − 2 +  − 2 = ( −1.5)2 + ( −1.33)3 + ( −1.25)4
1+1  1+ 2  1+ 3  1+ 4  1+ 5 
+ ( −1.2 ) + ( −1.17 )
5 6
= 2.25 − 2.35 + 2.44 − 2.49 + 2.56 = 2.41
5
f. ∑ ( ua + a )2 where ua =
a 2 − 1 = ( u0 + 0 ) + ( u1 + 1) + ( u2 + 2 ) + ( u3 + 3) + ( u4 + 4 ) + ( u5 + 5 )
2 2 2 2 2 2
a =0
= ( −1 + 0 )2 + ( 0 + 1)2 + ( 3 + 2 )2 + (8 + 3)2 + (15 + 4 )2 + ( 24 + 5)2 = 1 + 1 + 25 + 121 + 361 + 841 = 1350
Example 1.2-3 Solve the following series.

5 5
2a + 1
5
( −1) i+1 =
a. ∑ a n (2a − 1) = b. ∑ a
= c. ∑ 2i
a=1 a =1 i =1
4 3
2j (1 − k ) k −1 =
5
d. ∑ (n − 1)2 (n + 1) = e. ∑ j+5
= f. ∑ k
n=0 j =−3 k =1
Solutions:
5
a. ∑ a ( 2a − 1) = 1 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ 1 − 1)  +  2 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ 2 − 1)  + 3 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ 3 − 1)  +  4 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ 4 − 1)  + 5 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ 5 − 1)  = 1 + 6 + 15
a =1
+28 + 45 = 95
5
2a + 1 ( 2 ⋅ 1) + 1 + ( 2 ⋅ 2 ) + 1 + ( 2 ⋅ 3) + 1 + ( 2 ⋅ 4 ) + 1 + ( 2 ⋅ 5) + 1 3 5 7 9 11
b. ∑ = = + + + + = 3 + 2.5
a =1 a 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
+2.33 + 2.25 + 2.2 = 12.28
( −1) ( −1) ( −1) ( −1) ( −1) ( −1) ( −1) ( −1) ( −1) ( −1) ( −1)
i +1 1 +1 2 +1 3 +1 4 +1 5 +1 2 3 4 5 6
5
c. ∑ = + + + + = + + + +
i =1 2i 2 ⋅1 2⋅2 2⋅3 2⋅4 2⋅5 2 4 6 8 10
1 1 1 1 1
= − + − + = 0.5 − 0.25 + 0.167 − 0.125 + 0.1 = 0.392
2 4 6 8 10
4
d. ∑ ( n − 1)2 ( n + 1) = ( 0 − 1)2 ( 0 + 1) + (1 − 1)2 (1 + 1) + ( 2 − 1)2 ( 2 + 1) + ( 3 − 1)2 ( 3 + 1) + ( 4 − 1)2 ( 4 + 1)
n=0
= (1 ⋅ 1) + ( 0 ⋅ 2 ) + (1 ⋅ 3) + ( 4 ⋅ 4 ) + ( 9 ⋅ 5) = 1 + 0 + 3 + 16 + 45 = 65

3
2j 2−3 2−2 2−1 20 21 22 23 2−3 2−2 2−1 20 21 22
e. ∑ = + + + + + + = + + + + +
j = −3 j+5 −3 + 5 −2 + 5 −1 + 5 0 + 5 1 + 5 2 + 5 3 + 5 2 3 4 5 6 7
23 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8

+ = + + + + + + = 0.0625 + 0.0833 + 0.125 + 0.2 + 0.3333 + 0.5714 + 1 = 2.3755
8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(1 − k ) (1 − 1) (1 − 2 ) (1 − 3) (1 − 4 ) (1 − 5)
k 1 2 3 4 5
5
0 1 8 81 1024
f. ∑ = + + + + = + − + − = 0.5 − 2.67
k =1 k 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
+20.25 − 204.8 = −186.72
Example 1.2-4 Prove that both sides of the following series are equal to one another.
n n n n n
a. ∑ 2xi + ∑ 4 yi = 2∑ ( x i + 2 y i ) b. ∑ a yi2 = a ∑ y i2
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
n n n
c. ∑ a = na d. ∑ ( xi + a) = ∑ xi + na
i =1 i =1 i =1
Solutions:
n n
a. ∑ 2 xi + ∑ 4 yi = ( 2 x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 +  + 2 xn ) + ( 4 y1 + 4 y2 + 4 y3 +  + 4 yn ) = ( 2 x1 + 4 y1 ) + ( 2 x2 + 4 y2 )
=i 1 =i 1
+ ( 2 x3 + 4 y3 ) +  + ( 2 xn + 4 yn ) = 2 ( x1 + 2 y1 ) + 2 ( x2 + 2 y2 ) + 2 ( x3 + 2 y3 ) +  + 2 ( xn + 2 yn )
n
= 2∑ ( x i + 2 y i )
i =1
n n
b. ∑ a yi2 = ay12 + ay22 + ay32 + ay42 +  + ayn2 = a ( y12 + y22 + y32 + y42 +  + yn2 ) = a ∑ yi2
i =1 i =1
n
c. ∑ a = a + a + a + a ++ a
 = na
i =1
n terms
n
d. ∑ ( xi + a ) = ( x1 + a ) + ( x2 + a ) + ( x3 + a ) +  + ( xn + a ) = ( x1 + x2 + x3 +  + xn ) + ( a + a + a +  + a )
i =1
n
= ∑ xi + na
i =1
Example 1.2-5 Use the properties of summation to evaluate the following series.
6 7 4
a. ∑ 2k = b. ∑ (4k − 3) = c. ∑ ( k 3 − 2k ) =
i=1 i =1 k =1

5 4 k +1 5
d. ∑ (k 2
+a )= e. ∑  2
2⋅− 
 3
= f. ∑ (2 k + k ) =
k =1 k =1 k =1
Solutions:
6 6
a. ∑ 2k = 2 ∑ k = 2 ⋅ 6k = 12k
i =1 i =1
7 7 7 7 7
b. ∑ ( 4k − 3) = ∑ 4k + ∑ −3 = 4∑ k − ∑ 3 = 4 ⋅ 7k − 7 ⋅ 3 = 28k − 21
i =1 =i 1 =i 1 =i 1 =i 1
∑ (k 3 − 2k ) = ∑ k
4 4 4 4 4
c. 3
+ ∑ −2k = ∑ k 3 − 2∑ k = (13 + 23 + 33 + 43 ) − 2 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ) = 1 + 8 + 27 + 64
=k 1=k 1 =k 1=k 1
k =1
−(2 ⋅ 10) = 100 − 20 = 80
5 5 5 5
d. ∑ ( k 2 + a ) = ∑ k 2 + ∑ a = ∑ k 2 + 5a = (12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 ) + 5a = (1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25) + 5a
k =1 =k 1=k 1 k =1
= 55 + 5a = 5 (11 + a )
k +1 k +1
4
2 4
2  2  2  2 3  2  4  2 5   4 8 16 32 
e. ∑ 2 ⋅  −  = 2∑  −  = 2 ⋅  −  +  −  +  −  +  −   = 2⋅ − + − 
k =1 3   k =13    3   3   3   3    9 27 81 243 
= 2 ⋅ ( 0.4444 − 0.2963 + 0.1975 − 0.1317 ) = 2 ⋅ 0.2139 = 0.4278
5 5 5
f. ∑ ( 2k + k ) = ∑ 2k + ∑ k = ( 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 + 25 ) + (1 + 2 + 3 + +4 + 5) = ( 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 ) + 15
k =1 =k 1=k 1
= 62 + 15 = 77
Section 1.2 Practice Problems - Series

n n
1. Given ∑ a i = 10 and ∑ bi = 25 , find
i =1 i =1
n n n n
1 1
a. ∑ ( 2ai + 4bi ) = b. ∑ ( −ai + bi ) = c. ∑ (3ai + 5bi ) = d. ∑  2 ai + 5 bi  =
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
2. Evaluate each of the following series.

5 6 4
1
a. ∑ y k where y k = 2 + k b. ∑ xn where xn =
(− 2) n +1
c. ∑ x n where x n = (− 1) n+1
k =1 n=0 n =0

3 5 5
(− 1) i +1
d. ∑ u j where u j = j − 3 j 2 e. ∑ y a where y = a + 2 f. ∑ x i where x i =
2i
j = −3 a =3 i =0
3 5
1
g. ∑ y k + 2 where y = 2k − 3 h. ∑ (x m − 1) 2 where x m = m
k = −2 m =1
3. Find the sum of the following series within the specified range.
3 6 4
n −1 1
a. ∑ 10 i = b. ∑ 2 n
= c. ∑ 10 a =
i = −3 n=0 a =0
5 6 5 k
1 + ( −1)
d. ∑ (n 2
−n )= e. ∑ (−1) m+1
= f. ∑ 2k
=
n =1 m= 0 k =0
6 5 k −1 5
∑( j − 3 j2 ) =
 1
g. ∑ 5(a − 1) + 3 = h. ∑ − 
3
= i.
a =1 k =0  j =1
4 4 5 4
n +1 n2
j. ∑ n
− ∑ n +1
= k. ∑ 5k −1 = l. ∑ (− 0.1) 2i−5 =
n =1 n =1 k =1 i =1
4. Rewrite the following terms using the sigma notation.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
a. + + + + + = b. + + + + + = c. 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 =
2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 1
d. 1 + + + + + = e. 0 + + + + + = f. 1 − + − + − =
2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6

Calculus I 1.3 Arithmetic Sequences and Arithmetic Series
1.3 Arithmetic Sequences and Arithmetic Series

An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which each term, after the first term, is obtained by
adding a common number to the preceding term. The common number added to each term can
be found by taking the common difference, denoted by d , of two successive terms. For
1 3 5 7
example, the sequences 3, 6, 9, 12, 15,  and , 1, , 2, , 3, ,  are arithmetic sequences because
2 2 2 2
the common difference that is added to each term in order to obtain the next term is 6 − 3 = 3 and
1 1
1− = , respectively. Note that the n th term in both examples can easily be stated as sn = 3n
2 2
1
and sn = n . Therefore, the two arithmetic sequences can be written as 3, 6, 9, 12, 15,  , 3n and
2
1 3 5 7 1
, 1, , 2, , 3, ,  , n .
2 2 2 2 2
To obtain the n th term of an arithmetic sequence, a general form can be developed by letting sn
and d be the n th term and the common difference of an arithmetic sequence. Thus, the first
terms can be written as:
s1 = a
s2 = s1 + d where a and d are real numbers and n is a positive integer
s3 = s2 + d = ( s1 + d ) + d = s1 + 2d
s4 = s3 + d = ( s1 + 2d ) + d = s1 + 3d
s5 = s4 + d = ( s1 + 3d ) + d = s1 + 4d

sn = sn−1 + d = [s1 + (n − 2) d ] + d = s1 + nd − 2d + d = s1 + nd − d = s1 + (n − 1) d
sn+1 = sn + d = [s1 + (n − 1) d ] + d = s1 + nd − d + d = s1 + nd
Thus, the n th and n + 1 term of an arithmetic sequence is equal to
sn = s1 + (n − 1) d ( 1)
s n+1 = s1 + nd (2)
In the following examples the above equations ( 1) and (2) are used in order to find several terms
of arithmetic sequences.
Example 1.3-1 Find the next five terms of the following arithmetic sequences.
a. s1 = 5 , d = 3 b. s1 = −5 , d = 2 c. s1 = 20 , d = 0.4
Solutions:
a. The n th term for an arithmetic sequence is equal to sn = s1 + (n − 1) d . Substituting s1 = 5 and
d = 3 into the general arithmetic expression for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 we obtain
s2 = s1 + (2 − 1) d = s1 + d = 5 + 3 = 8
s3 = s1 + (3 − 1) d = s1 + 2d = 5 + ( 2 × 3) = 5 + 6 = 11

s4 = s1 + (4 − 1) d = s1 + 3d = 5 + ( 3 × 3) = 5 + 9 = 14
s5 = s1 + (5 − 1) d = s1 + 4d = 5 + ( 4 × 3) = 5 + 12 = 17
s6 = s1 + (6 − 1) d = s1 + 5d = 5 + ( 5 × 3) = 5 + 15 = 20
Thus, the first six terms of the arithmetic sequence are ( 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20 ) .
b. Substituting s1 = −5 and d = 2 into the general arithmetic expression for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 we
obtain
s2 = s1 + (2 − 1) d = s1 + d = −5 + 2 = −3
s3 = s1 + (3 − 1) d = s1 + 2d = −5 + ( 2 × 2 ) = −5 + 4 = −1
s4 = s1 + (4 − 1) d = s1 + 3d = −5 + ( 3 × 2 ) = −5 + 6 = 1
s5 = s1 + (5 − 1) d = s1 + 4d = −5 + ( 4 × 2 ) = −5 + 8 = 3
s6 = s1 + (6 − 1) d = s1 + 5d = −5 + ( 5 × 2 ) = −5 + 10 = 5
Thus, the first six terms of the arithmetic sequence are ( −5, − 3, − 1, 1, 3, 5 ) .
c. Substituting s1 = 20 and d = 0.4 into the general arithmetic expression for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 we
obtain
s2 = s1 + (2 − 1) d = s1 + d = 20 + 0.4 = 20.4
s3 = s1 + (3 − 1) d = s1 + 2d = 20 + ( 2 × 0.4 ) = 20 + 0.8 = 20.8
s4 = s1 + (4 − 1) d = s1 + 3d = 20 + ( 3 × 0.4 ) = 20 + 1.2 = 21.2
s5 = s1 + (5 − 1) d = s1 + 4d = 20 + ( 4 × 0.4 ) = 20 + 1.6 = 21.6
s6 = s1 + (6 − 1) d = s1 + 5d = 20 + ( 5 × 0.4 ) = 20 + 2 = 22
Thus, the first six terms of the arithmetic sequence are ( 20, 20.4, 20.8, 21.2, 21.6, 22 ) .
Example 1.3-2 Find the general term and the fiftieth term of the following arithmetic
sequences.
a. s1 = 3 , d = 5 b. s1 = −2 , d = 4 c. s1 = 10 , d = −2.5
Solutions:
a. The n th term for an arithmetic sequence is equal to sn = s1 + (n − 1) d . Substituting s1 = 3 and
d = 5 into the general arithmetic expression we obtain
sn = 3 + (n − 1) 5 = 3 + 5n − 5 = 5n + ( 3 − 5 ) = 5n − 2

substituting n = 50 into the general equation sn = 5n − 2 we find

s50 = ( 5 × 50 ) − 2 = 250 − 2 = 248
b. Substituting s1 = −2 and d = 4 into the general arithmetic expression sn = s1 + (n − 1) d we obtain

sn = − 2 + (n − 1) 4 = −2 + 4n − 4 = 4n + ( −2 − 4 ) = 4n − 6
substituting n = 50 into the general equation sn = 4n − 6 we find

s50 = ( 4 × 50 ) − 6 = 200 − 6 = 194
c. Substituting s1 = 10 and d = −2.5 into the general arithmetic expression sn = s1 + (n − 1) d we
obtain sn = 10 + ( n − 1) × −2.5 = 10 − 2.5n + 2.5 = −2.5n + (10 + 2.5) = −2.5n + 12.5

substituting n = 50 into the general equation sn = −2.5n + 12.5 we find
s50 = ( −2.5 × 50 ) + 12.5 = −125 + 12.5 = −112.5
Example 1.3-3 Find the next four terms in each of the following arithmetic sequences.
a. 6, 10,  b. x, x + 2,  c. 2 x + 1, 2 x + 5,  d. x, x − 29, 
Solutions:
a. The first term s1 and the common difference d are equal to s1 = 6 and d = 10 − 6 = 4 . Thus,
using the general arithmetic equation sn = s1 + (n − 1) d or sn+1 = sn + d the next four terms are
as follows: Let’s use sn+1 = sn + d . Then,
s3 = s2 + d = 10 + 4 = 14 s4 = s3 + d = 14 + 4 = 18
s5 = s4 + d = 18 + 4 = 22 s6 = s5 + d = 22 + 4 = 26
b. The first term s1 and the common difference d are equal to s1 = x and d = x + 2 − x = 2 .
Thus,
s3 = s2 + d = ( x + 2 ) + 2 = x + 4 s4 = s3 + d = ( x + 4 ) + 2 = x + 6
s5 = s4 + d = ( x + 6 ) + 2 = x + 8 s6 = s5 + d = ( x + 8 ) + 2 = x + 10
c. The first term s1 and the common difference d are equal to s1 = 2 x + 1 and d = (2 x + 5) − (2 x + 1) .
= 2 x + 5 − 2 x − 1 = 4 . Thus,
s3 = s2 + d = ( 2 x + 1) + 4 = 2 x + 5 s4 = s3 + d = (2 x + 5) + 4 = 2 x + 9
s5 = s4 + d = ( 2 x + 9 ) + 4 = 2 x + 13 s6 = s5 + d = ( 2 x + 13) + 4 = 2 x + 17
d. The first term s1 and the common difference d are equal to s1 = x and d = ( x − 29) − x = −29 .
Thus,
s3 = s2 + d = ( x − 29 ) − 29 = x − 58 s4 = s3 + d = ( x − 58 ) − 29 = x − 87

s5 = s4 + d = ( x − 87) − 29 = x − 116 s6 = s5 + d = ( x − 116) − 29 = x − 145

Example 1.3-4 The first term of an arithmetic sequence is −5 and the fourth term is 10 . Find
the twentieth term.
Solution:
Since s1 = −5 and s4 = 10 we use the general formula sn = s1 + ( n − 1)d in order to solve for d .
15
s4 = s1 + (4 − 1)d ; 10 = −5 + (4 − 1)d ; 10 = −5 + 3d ; 10 + 5 = 3d ; 15 = 3d ; d = ; d = 5 . Then,
3
s20 = s1 + (20 − 1)d ; s20 = −5 + 19d ; s20 = −5 + (19 × 5) ; s20 = −5 + 95 ; s20 = 90
Having learned about arithmetic sequences and the steps for finding the terms of an arithmetic
sequence, we will next learn about arithmetic series and the steps for finding the sum of
arithmetic series over a given range.
Addition of the terms in an arithmetic sequence result in having an arithmetic series. To obtain
the arithmetic series formula let sk = s1 + ( k − 1)d be an arithmetic sequence and denote the sum of
the first n terms by
n
Sn = ∑ s1 + (k − 1)d
k =1
then,
S n = s1 + ( s1 + d ) +  + [ s1 + ( n − 2)d ] + [ s1 + ( n − 1)d ] (a )
Let’s write the sum in reverse order and add the two series (a ) and (b ) together.
Sn = [ s1 + ( n − 1)d ] + [ s1 + ( n − 2)d ] +  + ( s1 + d ) + s1 (b )
Sn + Sn = { s1 + [ s1 + ( n − 1)d ]} + {( s1 + d ) + [ s1 + ( n − 2)d ]} +  + {[ s1 + ( n − 2)d ] + ( s1 + d )} + {[ s1 + ( n − 1)d ] + s1}
2S n = [ s1 + s1 + ( n − 1)d ] + [ s1 + d + s1 + ( n − 2)d ] +  + [ s1 + ( n − 2)d + s1 + d ] + [ s1 + ( n − 1)d + s1 ]
2S n = [2s1 + ( n − 1)d ] + [ s1 + s1 + ( n − 2)d + d ] +  + [ s1 + s1 + ( n − 2)d + d ] + [ s1 + s1 + ( n − 1)d ]
2S n = [2s1 + ( n − 1)d ] + [2s1 + nd − 2d + d ] +  + [2s1 + nd − 2d + d ] + [2s1 + ( n − 1)d ]
2S n = [2s1 + ( n − 1)d ] + [2s1 + nd − d ] +  + [2s1 + nd − d ] + [2s1 + ( n − 1)d ]
2S n = [2s1 + ( n − 1)d ] + [2s1 + ( n − 1)d ] +  + [2s1 + ( n − 1)d ] + [2s1 + ( n − 1)d ]

n[2 s1 + (n − 1)d ] n
2S n = n [2s1 + ( n − 1)d ] ; S n =
2
=
2
[
2s1 + ( n − 1)d ]
Therefore, the arithmetic series can be written in the following two forms:
n
Sn = ∑ s1 + ( k − 1)d (1)
k =1
n
Sn =
2
[
2s1 + ( n − 1) d ] (2)

Note that equation (2) , similar to the n th term of the arithmetic sequence [s n = s1 + (n − 1) d ] , is
given in terms of s1 , n , and d .
In the following examples the above equations (1) and (2) are used in order to find the sum of
arithmetic series.
Example 1.3-5 Find the sum of the following arithmetic series.
20 15 15
a. ∑ (2i + 1) = b. ∑ (3i − 2) = c. ∑ (5 j − 1) =
i =1 i =1 j =3
Solutions:
a. First - Write the first three terms of the arithmetic series in expanded form, i.e.,
20
∑ ( 2i + 1) = ( 2 + 1) + ( 4 + 1) + ( 6 + 1) +  =
i =1
3+ 5+ 7 +
Second - Identify the first term, s1 , the difference between the two terms, d , and n , i.e.,
s1 = 3 , d = 5 − 3 = 2 , and n = 20 .
Third - Use the arithmetic series formula to obtain the sum of the twenty terms.
n
Sn = [2s1 + (n − 1) d ]
2
20
S 20 = [2s1 + (20 − 1) d ] = 10[ 2 s1 + 19d ] = 10 ( 2 × 3) + (19 × 2 ) = 10[6 + 38] = 10 × 44 = 440
2
Note that prior to learning the arithmetic series formula the only method that we could use was
by summing each term as shown below:
20
∑ ( 2i + 1) = ( 2 + 1) + ( 4 + 1) + ( 6 + 1) + (8 + 1) + (10 + 1) + (12 + 1) + (14 + 1) + (16 + 1) + (18 + 1) + ( 20 + 1)

i =1
+ ( 22 + 1) + ( 24 + 1) + ( 26 + 1) + ( 28 + 1) + ( 30 + 1) + ( 32 + 1) + ( 34 + 1) + ( 36 + 1) + ( 38 + 1) + ( 40 + 1)
= 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 + 21 + 23 + 25 + 27 + 29 + 31 + 33 + 35 + 37 + 39 + 41 = 440
As you note, it is much easier to use the arithmetic series formula as opposed to the
summation of each term which is fairly long and time consuming.
b. First - Write the first three terms of the arithmetic series in expanded form, i.e.,
15
∑ ( 3i − 2 ) = ( 3 − 2 ) + ( 6 − 2 ) + ( 9 − 2 ) +  =
i =1
1+ 4 + 7 + 
s1 = 1 , d = 4 − 1 = 3 , and n = 15 .
Third - Use the arithmetic series formula to obtain the sum of the fifteen terms.
n
Sn = [ 2s1 + (n − 1) d ]
2

15
S15 = [2s1 + (15 − 1) d ] = 7.5[ 2 s1 + 14d ] = 7.5  ( 2 × 1) + (14 × 3)  = 7.5[ 2 + 42] = 7.5 × 44 = 330
2
or, we can obtain the answer by summing up the first fifteen terms of the series, i.e.,
15
∑ ( 3i − 2 ) =
i =1
1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 + 19 + 22 + 25 + 28 + 31 + 34 + 37 + 40 + 43 = 330
c. First - Write the first three terms of the arithmetic series in expanded form, i.e.,
15
∑ ( 5 j − 1) = (15 − 1) + ( 20 − 1) + ( 25 − 1) +  =
j =3
14 + 19 + 24 + 
s1 = 14 , d = 19 − 14 = 5 , and n = 13 .
Third - Use the arithmetic series formula to obtain the sum of the thirteen terms.
n
Sn = [ 2s1 + (n − 1) d ]
2
13
S15 = [2s1 + (13 − 1) d ] = 6.5[ 2 s1 + 12d ] = 6.5  ( 2 × 14 ) + (12 × 5)  = 6.5[ 28 + 60] = 6.5 × 88 = 572
2
or, we can obtain the answer by summing up the first thirteen terms of the series, i.e.,
15
∑ ( 5 j − 1) =
j =3
14 + 19 + 24 + 29 + 34 + 39 + 44 + 49 + 54 + 59 + 64 + 69 + 74 = 572
Example 1.3-6 Given the first term s1 and d , find S 80 for each of the following arithmetic
sequences.
a. s1 = 5 , d = 2 b. s1 = −10 , d = 3 c. s1 = 500 , d = 25
Solutions:
n
a. The n th term for an arithmetic series is equal to S n = [2s1 + (n − 1) d ] . Substituting s1 = 5
2
and d = 2 into the general arithmetic expression we obtain
80
S80 = [2s1 + (80 − 1) d ] = 40[ 2 s1 + 79d ] = 40  ( 2 × 5) + ( 79 × 2 )  = 40[10 + 158] = 40 ×168 = 6720
2
n
b. Substituting s1 = −10 and d = 3 into S n = [2s1 + (n − 1) d ] we obtain
2
80
S80 = [2s1 + (80 − 1) d ] = 40[ 2 s1 + 79d ] = 40  ( 2 × −10 ) + ( 79 × 3)  = 40[ −20 + 237] = 8680
2
n
c. Substituting s1 = 500 and d = 25 into sn = [2s1 + (n − 1) d ] we obtain
2
80
S80 = [2s1 + (80 − 1) d ] = 40[ 2 s1 + 79d ] = 40  ( 2 × 500 ) + ( 79 × 25)  = 40[1000 + 1975] = 119000
2

Example 1.3-7 Find the sum of the following sequences for the indicated values.
a. S35 for the sequence −5, 3,  b. S 200 for the sequence −10, 10, 
Solutions:
a. The first term s1 and the common difference d are equal to s1 = −5 and d = 3 − (− 5) = 3 + 5 = 8 .
n
Thus, using the general arithmetic series S n = [2s1 + (n − 1) d ] we obtain
2
35
S35 = [2s1 + (35 − 1) d ] = 17.5[ 2 s1 + 34d ] = 17.5  ( 2 × −5) + ( 34 × 8)  = 17.5[ −10 + 272] = 4585
2
b. The first term s1 and the common difference d are equal to s1 = −10 and d = 10 − (− 10) = 20 .
n
Thus, using the general arithmetic series S n = [2s1 + (n − 1) d ] we obtain
2
200
S 200 = [2s1 + (200 − 1) d ] = 100[ 2 s1 + 199d ] = 100  ( 2 × −10 ) + (199 × 20 )  = 100[ −20 + 3980]
2
= 396000
Section 1.3 Practice Problems - Arithmetic Sequences and Arithmetic Series
1. Find the next seven terms of the following arithmetic sequences.

a. s1 = 3 , d = 2 b. s1 = −3 , d = 2 c. s1 = 10 , d = 0.8
2. find the general term and the eighth term of the following arithmetic sequences.
a. s1 = 3 , d = 4 b. s1 = −3 , d = 5 c. s1 = 8 , d = −12
.
3. find the next six terms in each of the following arithmetic sequences.
a. 5, 8,  b. x, x + 4,  c. 3x + 1, 3x + 4,  d. w, w − 10, 
4. Find the sum of the following arithmetic series.
20 1000 100
a. ∑ (2i − 4) = b. ∑k = c. ∑ (2k − 3) =
i =10 k=1 k =1
15 10 15
d. ∑ 3i = e. ∑ (i + 1) = f. ∑ (2k − 1) =
i=1 i =1 k =5
10 13 18
g. ∑ (3i + 4) = h. ∑ (3 j + 1) = i. ∑ (4k − 3) =
i=4 j =5 k =7
5. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 6 and the third term is 24 . Find the tenth term.
6. Given the first term s1 and d , find S 50 for each of the following arithmetic sequences.
a. s1 = 2 , d = 5 b. s1 = −5 , d = 6 c. s1 = 30 , d = 10
7. Find the sum of the following sequences for the indicated values.
a. S15 for the sequence −8, 6,  b. S100 for the sequence −20, 20, 

Calculus I 1.4 Geometric Sequences and Geometric Series
1.4 Geometric Sequences and Geometric Series

A geometric sequence is a sequence in which each term, after the first term, is obtained by
multiplying the preceding term by a common multiplier. This common multiplier is also called
the common ratio and is denoted by r . The common ratio r is obtained by division of two
successive terms in a sequence. For example, the sequences 3, 6, 12, 24, 48,  and
1 1 1 1 1
, , , , ,  are geometric sequences because the common ratio that each term is multiplied
2 4 8 16 32
1
6 4 1× 2 2 1
by in order to obtain the next term is equal to = 2 and 1
= = = , respectively.
3 4 ×1 4 2
2
To obtain the n th term of a geometric sequence, a general form can be developed by letting sn
and r be the n th term and the common multiplier (common ratio) of a geometric sequence.
Thus, the first terms can be written as:
s1 =a where a is a real number and n is a positive integer
s2 = s1r
s3 = s2 r = ( s1r ) ⋅ r = s1r 2
s4 ( )
= s3r = s1r 2 ⋅ r = s1r 3
s5 = s r = (s r ) ⋅ r = s r
4 1
3
1
4

sn ( )
= sn−1r = s1r n−2 ⋅ r = s1r n−2+1 = s1r n−1
sn+1 = s r = (s r ) ⋅ r = s r
n 1
n −1
1
n −1+1
= s1r n
Thus, the n th and n + 1 term of an arithmetic sequence is equal to

sn = s1 r n−1 ( 1)
s n+1 = s1 r n (2)
In the following examples the above equations ( 1) and (2) are used in order to find several terms
of geometric sequences.
Example 1.4-1 Find the next five terms of the following geometric sequences.
a. s1 = 5 , r = 2 b. s1 = −3 , r = 3 c. s1 = 10 , r = 0.5
Solutions:
a. The n th term for an geometric sequence is equal to sn = s1r n−1 . Substituting s1 = 5 and r = 2
into the general geometric expression for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 we obtain
s2 = s1r 2−1 = s1r = 5 × 2 = 10
s3 = s1r 3−1 = s1r 2 = 5 × 22 = 5 × 4 = 20
s4 = s1r 4−1 = s1r 3 = 5 × 23 = 5 × 8 = 40

s5 = s1r 5−1 = s1r 4 = 5 × 24 = 5 ×16 = 80
s6 = s1r 6−1 = s1r 5 = 5 × 25 = 5 × 32 = 160

Thus, the first six terms of the geometric sequence are ( 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, 160) .
b. Substituting s1 = −3 and r = 3 into the general geometric expression for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 we
obtain
s2 = s1r 2−1 = s1r = −3 × 3 = −9
s3 = s1r 3−1 = s1r 2 = −3 × 32 = −3 × 9 = −27
s4 = s1r 4−1 = s1r 3 = −3 × 33 = −3 × 27 = −81
s5 = s1r 5−1 = s1r 4 = −3 × 34 = −3 × 81 = −243
s6 = s1r 6−1 = s1r 5 = −3 × 35 = −3 × 243 = −729
Thus, the first six terms of the geometric sequence are ( −3, − 9, − 27, − 81, − 243, − 729) .
c. Substituting s1 = 10 and r = 0.5 into the general geometric expression for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 we
obtain
s2 = s1r 2−1 = s1r = 10 × 0.5 = 5
s3 = s1r 3−1 = s1r 2 = 10 × 0.52 = 10 × 0.25 = 2.5
s4 = s1r 4−1 = s1r 3 = 10 × 0.53 = 10 × 0.125 = 1.25
s5 = s1r 5−1 = s1r 4 = 10 × 0.54 = 10 × 0.0625 = 0.625
s6 = s1r 6−1 = s1r 5 = 10 × 0.55 = 10 × 0.03125 = 0.3125
Thus, the first six terms of the geometric sequence are (10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, 0.625, 0.3125) .
Example 1.4-2 find the general term and the tenth term of the following geometric sequences.
a. s1 = 3 , r = 12
. b. s1 = −2 , r = 0.8 c. s1 = 10 , r = −0.5
Solutions:
a. The n th term for a geometric sequence is equal to sn = s1r n−1 . Substituting s1 = 3 and r = 12
.
into the general geometric expression we obtain
sn = 3 × r n −1 = 3×1.2n-1
. n −1 we have
substituting n = 10 into the general equation sn = 3 × 12
s10 = 3 ×1.210−1 = 3 ×1.29 = 3 × 5.1598 = 15.479
b. Substituting s1 = −2 and r = 0.8 into the general geometric expression sn = s1r n−1 we obtain

sn = −2 × r n −1 = −2× 0.8n-1
substituting n = 10 into the general equation sn = −2 × 0.8 n−1 we have
s10 = −2 × 0.810−1 = −2 × 0.89 = −2 × 0.1342 = − 0.2684
c. Substituting s1 = 10 and r = −0.5 into the general geometric expression sn = s1r n−1 we obtain
n-1
sn = 10 × r n −1 = 10× ( −0.5 )
substituting n = 10 into the general equation sn = 10 × ( −0.5) n −1 we have
s10 = 10 × ( −0.5)10−1 = 10 × ( −0.5)9 = 10 × ( −0.0019 ) = − 0.019
Example 1.4-3 Find the next four terms and the n th term in each of the following geometric
sequences.
1 1 1 1 1
a. 1, ,  b. − , ,  c. x, − x, 
2 3 9 2 4
Solutions:
1 1
2 1× 1 1
a. The first term s1 and the common ratio r are equal to s1 = 1 and r = = 2 = = . Thus,
1 1 2 ×1 2
1
using the general geometric equation sn = s1r n−1 the next four terms are:
2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
s3 = s1r 2 = 1 ⋅   = 2 = s4 = s1r 3 = 1 ⋅   = 3 =
2 2 4 2 2 8
4 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
s5 = s1r 4 = 1 ⋅   = 4 = s6 = s1r 5 = 1 ⋅   = 5 =
2 2 16 2 2 32
1 1 1 1 1
Thus, the first six terms of the geometric sequence are  1, , , , ,  and the n th term is
 2 4 8 16 32 
n−1 n −1
1 1 1
equal to sn = 1 ⋅   = = n-1
2 2n −1 2
1
1 1× 3 1
b. The first term s1 and the common ratio r are equal to s1 = − and r = 91 = − = − . Thus,
3 −3 9 ×1 3
using the general geometric equation sn = s1r n−1 the next four terms are:
2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s3 = s1r 2 = − ⋅  −  = − 3 = − s4 = s1r 3 = − ⋅  −  = 4 =
3  3 3 27 3  3 3 81
4 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s5 = s1r 4 = − ⋅  −  = − 5 = − s6 = s1r 5 = − ⋅  −  = 6 =
3  3 3 243 3  3 3 729
1 1 1 1 1 1 
Thus, the first six terms of the geometric sequence are  − , , − , , − ,  and the
  3 9 27 81 243 729

1 1
n−1
(− 1) n−1 (− 1) n−1
n th term is equal to sn = − ⋅  −  = − = −
3  3 3 ⋅ 3 n −1 3n
1 1
c. The first term s1 and the common ratio r are equal to s1 = x and r = − . Thus, using the
2 2
general geometric equation sn = s1r n−1 the next four terms are:
2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s3 = s1r 2 = x ⋅  −  = 3 x = x s4 = s1r 3 = x ⋅  −  = − 4 x = − x
2  2 2 8 2  2 2 16
4 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s5 = s1r 4 = x ⋅  −  = 5 x = x s6 = s1r 5 = x ⋅  −  = − 6 x = − x
2  2 2 32 2  2 2 64
1 1 1 1 1 1
Thus, the first six terms of the geometric sequence are  x, − x, x, − x, x, − x
2 4 8 16 32 64 
1 1
n −1
x (− 1) n −1 x (− 1) n −1 x (− 1) n −1
and the n th term is equal to sn = x ⋅  −  = = =
n −1 2  2
n −1+1 n
2⋅2 2 2
Example 1.4-4 Given the following terms of a geometric sequence, find the common ratio r .
1 1
a. s1 = 32 and s7 = b. s1 = 3 and s5 = c. s1 = 5 and s8 = 1
2 27
Solutions:
1
a. Substitute s1 = 32 and s7 = into sn = s1r n−1 and solve for r .
2
1 1 1
1 2 2 1× 1 1 1
s 7 = s1 r 7 −1 6
; = 32r ; 6 6 6
= r ; r = 5 ; r = 25 ; r 6 = ; r6 = 6 ; r =
2 32 2 2 2× 2 5 2 2
1
1
b. Substitute s1 = 3 and s5 = into sn = s1r n−1 and solve for r .
27
1 1
1
1 3 3 3 3 1× 1 1 1
s 5 = s1 r 5−1 ; = 3r 4 ; 27 = r 4 ; r 4 = ; r4 = 3 ; r4 = 3 ; r4 = 4 ; r =
27 3 3 3 ×3 3 3
1
c. Substitute s1 = 5 and s8 = 1 into sn = s1r n−1 and solve for r .

1 1 1
s8 = s1 r 8−1 ; 1 = 5r 7 ; = r7 ; r7 = ; r=7
5 5 5
Example 1.4-5 Write the first six terms and the n th term of the following geometric sequences.
n −1 n+2 2n n +1
1 1 1 1
a. sn =   b. sn =   c. sn =  −  d. sn =  − 
 3  2  3  2
Solutions:
1−1 0 2 −1 1
1 1 1 1 1
a. s1 =   =   = 1 s2 =   =   =
3 3 3 3 3

3−1 2 4 −1 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s3 =   =   = = s4 =   =   = =
3 3 32 9 3 3 33 27
5−1 4 6 −1 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s5 =   =   = = s6 =   =   = =
3 3 34 81 3 3 35 243
1 1 1 1 1 
Thus, the first six terms of the geometric sequence are  1, , , , , .
  3 9 27 81 243
1+ 2 3 2+ 2 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
b. s1 =   =   = 3 = 8
s2 =   =   = 4 = 16
2 2 2 2 2 2
3+ 2 5 4+ 2 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s3 =   =   = 5 = 32
s4 =   =   = 6 = 64
2 2 2 2 2 2
5+ 2 7 6+ 2 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s5 =   =   = = s6 =   =   = =
2 2 27 128 2 2 28 256
1 1 1 1 1 1 
Thus, the first six terms of the geometric sequence are  , , , , , .
  8 16 32 64 128 256
2 4
 1 1 1  1 1 1
c. s1 = −  = 2 = 9.0×100
s2 =  −  = 4 = 8.1×101
 3 3  3 3
6 8
 1 1 1  1 1 1
s3 =  −  = = s4 =  −  = =
 3 36 7.29×102  3 38 6.56×103
10 1 12
 1 1  1 1 1
s5 =  −  = = s6 =  −  = 12 = 5.31×105
 3 3
10
5.9×104  3 3
 1 1 1 1 1 1 
Thus, the six terms are  , , , , ,  .
 9.0 × 10 0 8.1 × 101 7.29 × 10 2 6.56 × 10 3 5.9 × 10 4 5.31 × 10 5 
2 3
 1 1 1  1 1 1
d. s1 = −  = 2 = 4
s2 =  −  = − 3 = −
 2 2  2 2 8
4 5
 1 1 1  1 1 1
s3 =  −  = 4 = 16
s4 =  −  = − 5 = −
 2 2  2 2 32
6 7
 1 1 1  1 1 1
s5 =  −  = = s6 =  −  = − 7 = −
 2 26 64  2 2 128
1 1 1 1 1 1 
Thus, the first six terms of the geometric sequence are  , − , , − , , − .
  4 8 16 32 64 128
Having learned about geometric sequences and the steps for finding the terms of a geometric
sequence, we will next learn about geometric series and the steps for finding the sum of
geometric series over a given range.

Similar to arithmetic series, addition of the terms in a geometric sequence result in having a
geometric series. To obtain the geometric series formula let sk = s1r k −1 be a geometric sequence
and denote the sum of the first n terms by
n
Sn = ∑ s1r k −1
k =1
then,
S n = s1 + s1r + s1r 2 +  + s1r n −2 + s1r n −1 (a )
Let’s multiply both sides of the equation (a ) by r and subtract (b ) from (a ) .
Sn ⋅ r = s1 ⋅ r + s1r ⋅ r + s1r 2 ⋅ r +  + s1r n−2 ⋅ r + s1r n−1 ⋅ r
rS n = s1r + s1r 2 + s1r 3 +  + s1r n−1 + s1r n (b )

S n − rS n ( ) (
= s1 + s1r + s1r 2 + s1r 3 +  + s1r n −1 − s1r + s1r 2 + s1r 3 +  + s1r n −1 + s1r n )
S (1 − r ) = ( s + s r + s r
n 1 1 + s r +  + s r ) + (− s r − s r − s r
1
2
1
3
1
n −1
1 1
2
1
3
−  − s1r n −1 − s1r n )
S (1 − r ) = s + ( s r − s r ) + ( s r − s r ) + ( s r − s r ) +  + ( s r
n 1 1 1 1
2
1
2
1
3
1
3
1
n −1
)
− s1r n −1 − s1r n
s −s r s (1 − r ) n 1
n
S (1 − r ) = s − s r ; S =
n 1 1
n
n ; S = 1 1
n r ≠1
1− r 1− r
Therefore, the geometric series can be written in the following two forms:
n
Sn = ∑ s1 r k −1 ( 1)
k =1
Sn =
(
s1 1 − r n ) r ≠1 (2)
1− r
Note that equation (2) , similar to the n th term of a geometric sequence sn = s1r n−1 , is given in ( )
terms of s1 , n , and r .
A third alternative way of expressing the geometric series is by substituting s1r n with its
(
equivalent value s1r n = s1r n−1 ⋅ r = r s1r n−1 = rsn which result in having )
Sn =
s1 − s1r n
=
(
s1 − r s1 r n −1 ) = s − r (s r ) = s
1 1
n −1
1 − rs n
(3)
1− r 1− r 1− r 1− r
where the geometric series is given in terms of s1 , sn (the geometric sequence), and r .
In the following examples we will use the above equations ( 1) , (2) , and (3) in order to find the
sum of geometric series.
Example 1.4-6 Evaluate the sum of the following geometric series.
10 10 6 k +1
 1
a. ∑ 3k − 2 = b. ∑ (−3) k −2 = c. ∑ 8 − 
2
=
k =1 k =1 k =2 

Solutions:
a. First - Write the first few terms of the geometric series in expanded form, i.e.,
10
∑ 3k − 2 = 31−2 + 32−2 + 33−2 + 34−2 +  = 3−1 + 30 + 31 + 32 +  = 3−1 + 1 + 3 + 6 + 
k =1
Second - Identify the first term, s1 , the common ratio between the two terms, r , and n , i.e.,
1
1 1 1× 3
s1 = 3−1 , r = = = 1 = = 3, and n = 10 .
3 −1 1
3
1
3
1× 1
Third - Use the geometric series formula to obtain the sum of the ten terms.
Sn =
(
s1 1 − r n )
1− r
S10 =
1
3
(
1 − 310 ) =
1
3
(1 − 59049) −
=
59048
3 =
− 59048
3
=
59048 × 1
=
59048
= 9841.333
1− 3 −2 −2 − 12 3× 2 6
Note that prior to learning the geometric series formula the only method that we could use was
by summing each term as shown below:
10
∑ 3k − 2 = 3−1 + 30 + 31 + 32 + 33 + 34 + 35 + 36 + 37 + 38 = 3−1 + 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + 243 + 729 + 2187
k =1
+6561 = 3−1 + 9841 = 0.333 + 9841 = 9841.333
As you note, it is much easier to use the geometric series formula as opposed to the summation
of each term which is somewhat long and time consuming.
b. First - Write the first few terms of the geometric series in expanded form, i.e.,
10
∑ (−3) k −2 = ( −3)1−2 + ( −3) 2−2 + ( −3)3−2 + ( −3) 4−2 +  = ( −3) −1 + ( −3) 0 + ( −3)1 + ( −3) 2 + 
k =1
= −3−1 + 1 − 3 + 9 + 
1
1 1 1× 3
s1 = −3−1 , r = = =− 1 =− = −3 , and n = 10 .
− 3 −1 1
−3 1
3
1× 1
Third - Use the arithmetic series formula to obtain the sum of the ten terms.
Sn =
(
s1 1 − r n )
1− r
[ ] = − 13 (1 − 59049) = 59048
1 10 59048
− 1 − ( −3)
3 3 3 59048 × 1 59048
S10 = = = = = 4920.666
1 − ( −3) 4 4 4 3× 4 12
1
or, we can obtain the answer by summing up the first ten terms of the series, i.e.,

10
∑ (−3) k −2 = ( −3) −1 + ( −3) 0 + ( −3)1 + ( −3) 2 + ( −3)3 + ( −3) 4 + ( −3)5 + ( −3) 6 + ( −3) 7 + ( −3)8
k =1
= −3−1 + 1 − 3 + 9 − 27 + 81 − 243 + 729 − 2187 + 6561 = −3−1 + 4921 = −0.333 + 4921 = 4920.666
c. First - Write the first few terms of the geometric series in expanded form, i.e.,
6 k +1 2 +1 3+1 4 +1 5+1 3 4 5
 1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1
∑ 8 − 
2
= 8 − 
 2
+ 8 − 
 2
+ 8 − 
 2
+ 8 − 
 2
+ = 8 −  + 8 −  + 8 − 
 2  2  2
k =2 
6
 1 1 1 1 1 8 8 8 8 1 1 1
+ 8 −  +  = 8× − + 8× − 8× + 8× +  = − + − + + = −1 + − + + 
 2 8 16 32 64 8 16 32 64 2 4 8
1 1
2 1× 1 1
s1 = −1 , r = =− 2 =− =− , and n = 5 .
−1 1 2 ×1 2
1
Third - Use the geometric series formula to obtain the sum of the five terms.
Sn =
(
s1 1 − r n )
1− r

( )5 
− 1 ⋅ 1 − − 12 − 1 + 15 
 2  ( 1
− 1+ 32 ) − (1+ 0.03125) 1.03125
S5 = = = = = − = −0.6875
( )
1 − − 12 1 + 12 3
2
1.5 1.5
or, we can obtain the answer by summing up the first five terms of the series, i.e.,
6 k +1  1  3  1  4  1  5  1  6  1  7 
 1  1 1 1  1 1
∑ 8 − 
2
= 8 ⋅  −  +  −  +  −  +  −  +  −  
 2   2   2  2  2  
= 8 ⋅ − + − + − 
8 16 32 64 128
k =2   
= 8 ⋅ (− 0.125 + 0.0625 − 0.03125 + 0.01563 − 0.00781) = 8 × −0.08593 = −0.6875
Example 1.4-7 Given the first term s1 and r , find S10 for each of the following geometric
sequences.
a. s1 = 5 , r = 2 b. s1 = −10 , r = 3 c. s1 = 50 , r = −2
Solutions:
th
a. The n term for a geometric series is equal to S n =
(
s1 1 − r n ) . Substituting s =5 and r = 2
1
1− r
into the general geometric expression we obtain
S10 =
(
5 1 − 210 ) =
5 (1 − 1024)
= 5115
1− 2 −1
b. Substituting s1 = −10 and r = 3 into S n =

(
s1 1 − r n ) we obtain
1− r

S10 =
(
−10 1 − 310 ) =
−10 (1 − 59049)
= 5 × −59048 = −295240
1− 3 −2
c. Substituting s1 = 50 and r = −2 into S n =

(
s1 1 − r n ) we obtain
1− r
S10 =
[
50 1 − ( −2)
10
] = 50[1 − 1024] = 50 × −1023 = −17050
1 − ( −2) 1+ 2 3
Example 1.4-8 Find the x and y values to the following problems.

6 5 5
a. x if ∑ ix = 20 b. x and y if ∑ (ix + 2 y) = 30 and ∑ (ix + 2 y) = 10
i=1 i =1 i=2
5 6 8
c. x if ∑ (ix + 5) = 15 d. x and y if ∑ ( x + iy) = 50 and ∑ ( x + iy) = 24
i =1 i =3 i=4
Solutions:
6
20
a. Expanding ∑ ix = 20 we obtain x + 2 x + 3x + 4 x + 5x + 6 x = 20 ; 21x = 20 ; x =
21
; x = 0.952
i=1
5
b. Expanding ∑ (ix + 2 y) = 30 we obtain ( x + 2 y) + (2x + 2 y) + (3x + 2 y) + (4x + 2 y) + (5x + 2 y) = 30
i =1
; (x + 2 x + 3x + 4 x + 5 x ) + (2 y + 2 y + 2 y + 2 y + 2 y ) = 30 ; 15x + 10 y = 30
5
Expanding ∑ (ix + 2 y) = 10 we obtain (2x + 2 y) + (3x + 2 y) + (4 x + 2 y) + (5x + 2 y) = 10 ; 14 x + 8 y = 10
i=2
The two linear equations with two unknowns x and y are solved using the substitution method
to obtain x = −7 and y = 13.5

5
c. Expanding ∑ (ix + 5) = 15 we obtain ( x + 5) + (2x + 5) + (3x + 5) + (4x + 5) + (5x + 5) ; 15x + 25 = 15
i =1
10
; x = − ; x = −0.667
15
6
d. Expanding ∑ ( x + iy) = 50 we obtain ( x + 3 y) + ( x + 4 y) + ( x + 5 y) + ( x + 6 y) = 50 ; 4 x + 18 y = 50
i =3
8
Expanding ∑ ( x + iy) = 24 we obtain ( x + 4 y) + ( x + 5 y) + ( x + 6 y) + ( x + 7 y) + ( x + 8 y) = 24 ; 5x + 30 y = 24
i=4
The two linear equations with two unknowns x and y are solved using the substitution method
to obtain x = 35.6 and y = −5.133

Example 1.4-9 Find the value of x for the following geometric sequences.
a. 2, 4 x, 16 . b. 2 −1 , 2 −1 x, 2 −3 c. 5, 5x, 125
Solutions:
a. Since the common ratio r of a geometric sequence is defined as the ratio of the ( n + 1) st
term to the n th term, we can use this principal to solve for x , i.e.,
4 x 16 32
r = = therefore 4 x × 4 x = 16 × 2 ; 16 x 2 = 32 ; x 2 = ; x2 = 2 ; x = ± 2
2 4x 16
b. Using the common ratio principal we can solve for x in the following way:
2 −1 x 2 −3 2 −4
r = −1
=
−1
therefore 2 −1 x × 2 −1 x = 2 −3 × 2 −1 ; 2 −2 x 2 = 2 −4 ; x 2 = −2
; x 2 = 2 −4 ⋅ 2 2
2 2 x 2
1 1
; x 2 = 2 −4+ 2 ; x 2 = 2 −2 ; x 2 = ; x=±
2 2 2
c. Using the common ratio principal we can solve for x in the following way:
5 x 125 625
r = = therefore 5x × 5x = 125 × 5 ; 25x 2 = 625 ; x 2 = ; x 2 = 25 ; x = ±5
5 5x 25
Section 1.4 Practice Problems - Geometric Sequences and Geometric Series
1. Find the next four terms of the following geometric sequences.

a. s1 = 3 , r = 0.5 b. s1 = −5 , r = 2 c. s1 = 5 , r = 0.75
2. Find the eighth and the general term of the following geometric sequences.
a. s1 = 2 , r = 3 b. s1 = −4 , r = 12
. c. s1 = 4 , r = −2.5
3. Find the next six terms and the n th term in each of the following geometric sequences.
1 1 1 1
a. 1, ,  b. − , ,  c. p, − 3 p, 
4 2 4 3
4. Given the following terms of a geometric sequence, find the common ratio r .
1 1
a. s1 = 25 and s4 = b. s1 = 4 and s5 = c. s1 = 3 and s8 = 1
5 64
5. Write the first five terms of the following geometric sequences.
2 n −1 2n+2 2 n −3 n
1 1 1 1
a. sn =  −  b. sn =   c. sn =  −  d. sn =  − 
 3  3  5  2
6. Evaluate the sum of the following geometric series.
6 10 8 j +1
 1
a. ∑ 3 k −1 = b. ∑ (− 2)k −3 = c. ∑ 4 − 
 2
=
k =1 k =3 j =4

4 10 5
d. ∑ (− 2)m−3 = e. ∑ (− 3)n−4 = f. ∑ (− 3)k −1 =
m =1 n =5 k =1
5 4 6 k +1
3j 1
g. ∑ 4m = h. ∑ 27
= i. ∑ 6 
2
=
m =1 j =1 k =3  
7. Given the first term s1 and r , find S 8 for each of the following geometric sequences.
a. s1 = 3 , r = 3 b. s1 = −8 , r = 0.5 c. s1 = 2 , r = −2.5
8. Solve for x and y .
7 4 6
a. ∑ (ix + 2) = 30 b. ∑ (ix + y ) = 20 and ∑ (ix + y ) = 10
i =3 i =1 i=2

Calculus I 1.5 Limits of Sequences and Series
1.5 Limits of Sequences and Series

A sequence s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 ,  , sn ,  is said to converge to the constant K ,
lim n→∞ s n = K
if and only if, for a large value of n , the absolute value of the difference between the n th term
5 10 17  1 
and the constant K is very small. For example, the sequence 2, , , ,  , 1 + 2  , 
4 9 16  n 
 1 
converges to 1 . This is because, the absolute value of the difference between 1 + , for large
 n2 
n, and 1 is very small. On the other hand, the sequence s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 ,  , sn ,  is said to diverge,
if and only if, for a large value of n , the sequence approaches to infinity (∞) . For example, the
sequence 4, 8, 16, 32,  , 2 n+1 ,  does not converge. This is because, as n increases, the n th term
increases without bound, i.e., it approaches to infinity. In the following examples we will learn
how to identify a convergent or a divergent sequence:
Example 1.5-1 State which of the following sequences are convergent.
5 10 17 n2 + 1
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,  , n,  = b. 2, , , ,, , =
8 27 64 n3
8 26 80 3n − 1 1 1 1 1 1
c. 2, , , ,  , n −1 ,  = d. , , , ,  , n +1 ,  =
3 9 27 3 16 64 256 1024 4
9 19 33 1 7 8 9 n+5
e. 3, , , ,, 2+ 2 , = f. 6, , , ,, 2 , =
4 9 16 n 4 9 16 n
1 1 1 1 1
g. , , , ,, , = h. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15,  , 3n,  =
2 3 4 5 n +1
Solutions:
In solving this class of problems write the n th term and observe if it converges or diverges as n
approaches to infinity.
a. The sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,  , n,  continues to increase. lim n→∞ n = ∞ which is undefined.
Hence, the sequence diverges or is divergent.
n2 + 1  n2 1 1 1  1 1
b. lim n→∞ = lim n→∞  +  = lim n →∞  +  =
3 3
+ 3 = 0+0 = 0
n3  n3 n   n n ∞ ∞
The sequence converges to 0
3n − 1  3n 1   3n 3−( n−1) 1   3n/ − n/ +1 1 

c. lim n →∞ = lim n→∞  −  = lim n→∞  − = lim n→∞  − 
3n −1  3n−1 3n−1   1 3n−1   1 3n−1 

 1  1 1 1
= lim n→∞  3 − n −1 
= 3− ∞−1
= 3− ∞
= 3− = 3− 0 = 3 The sequence converges to 3
 3 3 3 ∞

1 1 1 1
d. lim n→∞ n +1
= ∞ +1
= ∞
= = 0 The sequence converges to 0
4 4 4 ∞
 1  1 1
e. lim n→∞  2 +  = 2+ = 2+ = 2+0 = 2 The sequence converges to 2
 n2  ∞ 2 ∞
n+5  n 5 1 5 1 5 1 5
f. lim n→∞ = lim n →∞  2
+ 2 = lim n→∞  +  = + 2 = + = 0+0 = 0
n 2 n n  n n2  ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

1 1 1
g. lim n→∞ = = = 0
n +1 ∞ +1 ∞
h. The sequence 3, 6, 9, 12, 15,  , 3n,  continues to increase. lim n→∞ 3n = 3⋅ ∞ = ∞ which is
undefined. Hence, the sequence diverges or is divergent.
Example 1.5-2 State which of the following geometric sequences are convergent.
1 1 1 1 1
a. , , , ,, n , = b. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,  , 2 n ,  =
3 9 27 81 3
n −1
1 1 1  1
c. 1, − 1, 1, − 1,  , ( −1) n+1 ,  = d. 10, 1, , , ,  , 10 ⋅   , =
10 100 1000  10 
n −1
n 4 16 64 256  4
. ) , =
e. 0.2, 0.02, 0.0002,  , 2(01 f. 1, , , , ,,   , =
3 9 27 81  3
n −1
1 1  1
g. −2, 4, − 8, 16, − 32,  , ( −1) n 2 n ,  = h. 27, 3, , ,  , 27 ⋅   , =
3 27  9
Solutions:
1 1 1 1 1
a. The sequence , , , ,, n , converges to 0 since, for large value of n , the absolute
3 9 27 81 3
1
value of the difference between and 0 is very small.
3n
b. The sequence 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,  , 2 n ,  diverges since, as n increases, the n th term increases
without bound.
c. The sequence 1, − 1, 1, − 1,  , ( −1) n+1 ,  diverges since, as n increases, the n th term oscillates
back and forth from +1 to −1 .
n −1
1 1 1  1
d. The sequence 10, 1, , , ,  , 10 ⋅   , converges to 0 since, for large value of n ,
10 100 1000  10 
n −1
1
the absolute value of the difference between 10 ⋅   and 0 is very small.
 10 
n
e. The sequence 0.2, 0.02, 0.0002,  , 2(01
. ) ,  converges to 0 since, for large value of n , the

n
absolute value of the difference between 2(01
. ) and 0 is very small.
n −1
4 16 64 256  4
f. The sequence 1, , , , ,,   , diverges since, as n increases, the n th term
3 9 27 81  3
increases without bound.

g. The sequence −2, 4, − 8, 16, − 32,  , ( −1) n 2 n ,  diverges since, as n increases, the n th term
oscillates back and forth from a large positive number to a large negative number.
n −1
1 1  1
h. The sequence 27, 3, , ,  , 27 ⋅   , converges to 0 since, for large value of n , the
3 27  9
n −1
1
absolute value of the difference between 27 ⋅   and 0 is very small.
 9
Example 1.5-3 Discuss the limiting behavior of the following sequences as n approaches ∞ .
1 1 n+5 n2 + 5
a. = b. 1 − = c. = d. =
n2 n2 n2 n2
−n
1 1 1
e. (1) −n = f. 1 +  = g. 2 + = h. 100n =
n  2 n2
5n + 10 2n − 1
i. = j. =
n 2n
Solutions:
1 1 1
a. lim n →∞ 2
= 2
= = 0 converges to 0
n ∞ ∞
1 1 1
b. lim n→∞ 1 − 2
= 1− 2
= 1− = 1− 0 = 1 converges to 1
n ∞ ∞
n+5  n 5 1 5 1 5 1 5
c. lim n →∞ 2
= lim n→∞  2//=1 + 2  = lim n→∞  + 2  = + 2 = + = 0 + 0 = 0
n n n  n n  ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
converges to 0
n2 + 5  n2 5  5 5
d. lim n→∞ 2
= lim n→∞  + 2  = lim n→∞ 1 + 2  = 1 + 2 = 1 + 0 = 1
2
n n n   n  ∞
converges to 1
1  1 1 1 1 1 1
e. lim n→∞ (1) − n = lim n →∞  n ⋅  = ∞ ⋅ = ⋅ = 1 ⋅ 0 = 0 converges to 0
n 1 n 1 ∞ 1 ∞
−n −n
 1  3 −n  1  1 1
f. lim n →∞ 1 +  = lim n →∞   = lim n→∞ (15
. ) = lim n →∞   = = = 0
 2  2 . n
 15 15
. ∞ ∞
converges to 0

1 1 1
g. lim n→∞ 2 + 2
= 2+ 2
= 2+ = 2+0 = 2 converges to 2
n ∞ ∞
h. lim n→∞ 100n = 100 ⋅ ∞ = ∞ diverges
5n + 10  5n 10   10  10
i. lim n→∞ = lim n →∞  / +  = lim n →∞  5 +  = 5 + = 5 + 0 = 5
n  n/ n   n  ∞
converges to 5
2n − 1  2/ n/ 1   1  1 1
j. lim n→∞ = lim n→∞  −  = lim n→∞ 1 −
n  = 1− ∞ = 1− = 1− 0 = 1
2 n
 2/ n/ 2   2  n
2 ∞
converges to 1
Note that an easier way of finding the answer to sequences as n → ∞ is by rewriting the sequence
in its “almost equivalent” form. This approach is only applicable to cases where n is
approaching to infinity. For example, lim n →∞ n + 8 is almost the same as lim n→∞ n . (This is
because ∞ + 8 is the same as ∞ . Addition of the number eight to a very large number such as
infinity does not significantly change the final answer.) Let’s use this approach to solve few of
the above problems.
n+5 n 1 1
lim n→∞ 2
≈ lim n→∞ 2
= lim n→∞ = = 0 which is the same answer as in 1.5-3c.
n n n ∞
n2 + 5 n2 1
lim n →∞ 2
≈ lim n→∞ 2
= lim n→∞ = 1 which is the same answer as in 1.5-3d.
n n 1
5n + 10 5n 5
lim n→∞ ≈ lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ = 5 which is the same answer as in 1.5-3i.
n n 1
2n − 1 2n 1
lim n→∞ n
≈ lim n→∞ n
= lim n→∞ = 1 which is the same answer as in 1.5-3j.
2 2 1
Example 1.5-4 State whether or not the following sequences are convergent or divergent as n
approaches infinity. If the sequence does converge, find its limit.
n2 5n 8n 2n
a. = b. = c. = d. =
n −1 n2 + 1 2 n + 105 8 n + 105
8n 105 n 0.5 n
e. = f. = g. 10 n = h. =
2n + 1 1+ n n2 + 1
n
1 n3 + 1 1 3n + 1
i.   = j. = k. 25 − = l. =
 
4 n3 + n + 1 n 3n
n6 n 4 + 3n n2 1 1
m. 4
= n. 5
= o. = p. − =
12n + 5 n +3 4
8n + 1 n n+3

n −1 2 n
q. (0.5) n = r. (0.5) −n = s. = t. =
2 n n +1
Solutions:
n2 n2 n
a. lim n→∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ n = ∞ diverges
n −1 n 1
5n 5n 5n
b. lim n→∞ ≈ lim n→∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n→∞ 5 = 5 converges to 5
n +12
n 2 n
8n 8n 2 3n
c. lim n→∞ n 5
≈ lim n→∞ n
= lim n→∞ n
= lim n→∞ 23n ⋅ 2 − n = lim n →∞ 23n − n = lim n→∞ 2 2 n
2 + 10 2 2
= 2∞ = ∞ diverges
2n 2n 2n 1 1 1
d. lim n→∞ ≈ lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ = lim n →∞
n
8 + 10 5
8 n
2 3n
2 3n
⋅2 −n
2 3n − n
2 2n
1 1
= ∞
2 ∞
8n 8n 2 3n
e. lim n→∞ n
≈ lim n→∞ n
= lim n→∞ n
= lim n→∞ 23n ⋅ 2 − n = lim n →∞ 23n − n = lim n→∞ 2 2 n
2 +1 2 2
= 2∞ = ∞ diverges
1
105 n 10 5 n 10 5 n 2 10 5 10 5 10 5
f. lim n→∞ ≈ lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ = lim n → ∞ = lim n → ∞
1+ n n n −1 1− 1 1
n⋅n 2 n 2 n2
10 5 10 5
= 1
∞
∞2
g. lim n→∞ 10 n = 10 ∞ = ∞ diverges
0.5 n 0.5 n 0.5∞ 0

h. lim n →∞ 2
≈ lim n→∞ 2
= 2
n +1 n ∞ ∞
n ∞
1 1
i. lim n →∞   =   = 0.25∞ = 0 converges to 0
   
4 4
n3 + 1 n3 1
j. lim n→∞ 3
≈ lim n →∞ 3
= lim n→∞ = 1 converges to 1
n + n +1 n 1
1 1
k. lim n→∞ 25 − ≈ 25 − = 25 − 0 = 52 = 5 converges to 5
n ∞

3n + 1 3n 1
l. lim n→∞ n
≈ lim n→∞ n
= lim n→∞ = 1 converges to 1
3 3 1
n6 n6 n 6 n −4
m. lim n→∞ ≈ lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ n 2 = ∞ 2 = ∞
12n 4 + 5 n4 1
diverges
4 4
n + 3n n 1 1 1
n. lim n→∞ 5
≈ lim n →∞ 5
= lim n→∞ 5 −4
= lim n →∞ = = 0
n +3 n n n n ∞
converges to 0
n2 n2 n2 1 1
o. lim n→∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n→∞ 2
= lim n→∞ =
8n 4 + 1 8n 4 2n 2 2 2 2 2
1
converges to
2 2
 1 1  1 1 1 − 1 0
p. lim n→∞  −  ≈ lim n→∞  −  = lim n →∞   = = 0 converges to 0
n n + 3 n n  n  ∞
q. lim n→∞ (0.5) n = (0.5) ∞ = 0 converges to 0
1 1 1
r. lim n→∞ (0.5) − n = n
= ∞
= = ∞ diverges
(0.5) (0.5) 0
n −1 n/ 1 1 1
s. lim n→∞ ≈ lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ = converges to
2 n 2 n/ 2 2 2
2 n 2 n/ 2
t. lim n→∞ ≈ lim n→∞ = lim n→∞ = 2 converges to 2
n +1 n/ 1
Infinite Geometric Series:

In section 1.4 we stated that the geometric series can be written in the following two forms:
n
Sn = ∑ s1r k−1 (1)
k =1
Sn =
(
s1 1 − r n ) where r ≠ 1 (2)
1− r
In equation (2) , let’s consider the criteria where r is less than one and n is considerably large.
n
Then, under these conditions r approaches to zero and S n =
(
s1 1 − r n ) reduces to S =
s1
, i.e.,
n
1− r 1− r
∞
(
s1 1 − r n ) = s (1 − 0) = s1
S∞ = ∑ s1r n −1
= lim n→∞
1− r
1
1− r 1− r
.
n =1
Thus, the sum of an infinite geometric series as n → ∞ and if r 1 is equal to

∞ ∞
s1
S∞ = ∑ s1 r n = ∑ s1r n−1 =
1− r
. (3)
n=0 n=1
Example 1.5-5 Find the sum of the following geometric series.

∞ j ∞ j ∞ k −1
1 1 5
a. ∑ 2  4  = b. ∑ 5 − 2  = c. ∑ 5 3 =
j =0 j =0 k =1
∞ ∞ j ∞ j
18 2  1
d. ∑ 10 k +1 = e. ∑  3  = f. ∑  − 8  =
k =1 j =0 j =0
Solutions:
1
a. s1 = 2 and r = . Since r 1 therefore, we can use equation (3) to obtain the sum
4
2
∞ j
 1 2 2 2 2×4 8
∑ 2 
 4
=
1
=
4 −1
=
3
= 1 =
3 1× 3
=
3
j =0 1−
4 4 4 4
1
b. s1 = 5 and r=− . Since r 1 therefore, we can use equation (3) to obtain the sum
2
5
∞ j
 1 5 5 5 5 5× 2 10
∑ 5 − 
 2
=
 1
=
1
=
2 +1
=
3
= 1 =
3 1× 3
=
3
j =0 1− −  1+
 2 2 2 2 2
∞ k −1
5 5
c. s1 = 5 and r = . Since r 〉 1 therefore, the geometric series
3 ∑ 5 3 has no finite sum.
k =1
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ k −1
18 18 18  1  18  1 
d. ∑ 10 k +1 = ∑ 10 2 ⋅10 k −1 = ∑  
100  10 k −1 
= ∑  
100  10 
k =1 k =1 k =1 k =1
18 1
s1 = and r = . Since r 1 therefore, we can use equation (3) to obtain the sum
100 10
k −1 18 18 18
∞
18  1  18 × 10 180 1
∑  
100  10 
= 100 = 100 = 100 =
1 10 − 1 9 100 × 9
=
900
=
5
k =1 1−
10 10 10
2
e. s1 = 1 and r = . Since r 1 therefore, we can use equation (3) to obtain the sum
3
1
∞ j
2 1 1 1 1× 3 3
∑   = = = = 1 = = = 3
3 2 3 − 2 1 1 1×1 1
j =0   1−
3 3 3 3
1
f. s1 = 1 and r = − . Since r 1 therefore, we can use equation (3) to obtain the sum
8
1
∞ j
 1 1 1 1 1 1× 8 8
∑ −  = = = = = 1 = =
8  1 1 8 + 1 9 9 1× 9 9
j =0  1− −  1+
 8 8 8 8 8

Example 1.5-6 Find the sum of the following infinite geometric series.
1 1 1
a. 2 − 1 + − +  = b. − + 1 − 3 + 9 +  =
2 4 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
c. 1 + + + + = d. 1 + + + + =
9 81 729 2 4 16
Solutions:
1 1 1
a. Given 2 − 1 + − +  , s1 = 2 and r = − . Since r 1 therefore, we can use equation (3)
2 4 2
to obtain the sum, i.e.,
2
1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2×2 4
2 −1+ − +  = = = = = = = = 1.333
2 4  1 1 2 +1 3 3 1× 3 3
1− −  1+
 2 2 2 2 2
Note that in example 1.4-6c the answer to the same problem when n = 5 was 1375
. . However,
as n → ∞ the answer approaches to 1333
. .
1 1 1
b. Given − + 1 − 3 + 9 +  , s1 = − and r = = −3 . Since r = − 3 = 3 is greater than one therefore,
3 3 − 13
1
the geometric sequence − + 1 − 3 + 9 +  has no finite sum.
3
1
1 1 1 1
c. Given 1 + + + +  , s1 = 1 and r = 9 = . Since r 1 therefore, we can use equation
9 81 729 1 9
(3) to obtain the sum, i.e.,
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1× 9 9
1+ + + + = = = = = =
9 81 729 1 9 −1 8 8 1× 8 8
1−
9 9 9 9
1
1 1 1 2 1
d. Given 1 + + + + , s1 = 1 and r = = . Since r 1 therefore, we can use equation
2 4 16 1 2
(3) to obtain the sum, i.e.,
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1× 2 2
1+ + + + = = = = 1 = = = 2
2 4 16 1 2 −1 1 1 1×1 1
1−
2 2 2 2
Repeating Decimals:
An application of infinite geometric series is in representation of repeating decimals as the
quotient of two integers. For example, 0131313
.  and 0.666 66  are repeating decimals. The bar
above the repeating numbers denotes that the numbers appearing under it are repeated endlessly.
The following examples show the steps as to how repeating decimals are converted to fractional
forms:

Example 1.5-7 Write the following repeating decimals as the quotient of two positive integers.
a. 0131313
.  = b. 5.510510510  = c. 012451245
. =
Solutions:
a. First - write the decimal number 0131313
.  in its equivalent form of
.
0131313  = 013
. + 0.0013 + 0.000013 + 
Second - Since this is a geometric series, write the first term in the series and its ratio, i.e.,
0.0013
s1 = 013
. and r = = 0.01 .
.
013
s1
Third - Since the ratio r is less than one, use the infinite geometric series equation s∞ =
1− r
to obtain the sum of the infinite series 013
. + 0.0013 + 0.000013 +  , i.e.,
s1 .
013 013
. 13 13
s∞ = ; s∞ = ; s∞ = ; s∞ = thus 0.131313 =
1− r 1 − 0.01 0.99 99 99
b. First - Consider the decimal portion of the number 5.510510510  and write it in its equivalent
form of 0.510510510 = 0.510 + 0.000510 + 0.000000510 + 
0.000510
s1 = 0.510 and r = = 0.001 .
0.510
s1
1− r
to obtain the sum of the infinite series 0.510 + 0.000510 + 0.000000510 +  , i.e.,
s1 0.510 0.510 510 510
s∞ = ; s∞ = ; s∞ = ; s∞ = thus 5.510510510 = 5
1− r 1 − 0.001 0.999 999 999
c. First - write the decimal number 012451245

.  in its equivalent form of
012451245
.  = 01245
. + 0.00001245 + 
0.00001245
s1 = 01245
. and r = = 0.0001 .
01245
.
s1
1− r
to obtain the sum of the infinite series 01245
. + 0.00001245 +  , i.e.,
s1 01245
. .
01245 1245 1245
s∞ = ; s∞ = ; s∞ = ; s∞ = thus 0.12451245 =
1− r 1 − 0.0001 0.9999 9999 9999

Section 1.5 Practice Problems - Limits of Sequences and Series
1. State which of the following sequences are convergent.

3 5 n +1 3 8 15 n2 −1
a. 1, , 2, , 3,  , , = b. 0, , , ,, , =
2 2 2 2 3 4 n
1 1 1 1 1
c. 4, 8, 16, 32,  , 2 n+1 ,  = d. , , , ,  , n +1 ,  =
16 64 256 1024 4
n +1
1 2 3 n −1 1 1 1 1  1
e. 0, , , ,, 2 , = f. , , , ,,   , =
4 9 16 n 25 125 625 3125  5
2. State which of the following geometric sequences are convergent.

1 1 1 1 1
a. , , , ,, n , = b. −5, 25, − 125, 625, − 3125,  , ( −5) n ,  =
4 16 64 256 4
n −1
1 1 1 1
c. 2, − 2, 2, − 2,  , 2( −1) n+1 ,  = d. 1, , , ,  ,   , =
2 4 8  2
n −1
1 1 1 1  1
e. −9, 27, − 81, 243,  , ( −1) n 3n+1 ,  = f. 1, , , , ,,   , =
3 9 27 81  3
3. State whether or not the following sequences converges or diverges as n → ∞ . If it does
converge, find the limit.
n2 5n + 1 25 n 5 n + 25
a. = b. = c. = d. =
n3 − 4 n2 + 1 5 n+1 125 n
e.
( n + 2) 2 = f.
2n
= g.
n 2 + 2n
= h.
5
=
2
n 2n + 1 n +1 4 n2 + 1
1
i.
n +1
= j.
n
= k. 10 n = l.
( n − 1) 2 =
n −1 n3 − 1 (1 − n)(1 + n)
1 3 1
− n + 100 100 n
m. 100 n = n. 3 n = o. = p. =
n 3 − 10 n2 + 3
1 n +1 n
q. −1 = r. (0.25) −n = s. = t. +2 =
n +1 n +1 n +1
4. Find the sum of the following geometric series.
∞ j ∞ j ∞ k −1
 1  1  3
a. ∑ 3 
 8
= b. ∑ 3 − 
 4
= c. ∑ 3 
 2
=
j =0 j =0 k =1
∞ ∞ j ∞ j
5 1  1
d. ∑ 100 k +1 = e. ∑  
3
= f. ∑ − 
5
=
k =1 j =0   j =0 

5. Find the sum of the following infinite geometric series.

1 1 1
a. 5 − 1 + − + = b. − + 2 − 8 + 32 +  =
5 25 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
c. 1 + + + + = d. 1 + + + + =
6 36 216 10 100 1000
6. Write the following repeating decimals as the quotient of two positive integers.
a. 0.666666 = b. 3.027027 027  = c. 0111111
. =

Calculus I 1.6 The Factorial Notation
1.6 The Factorial Notation

As was stated earlier, the product of several consecutive positive integers is usually written using
a special symbol n! , read as “ n factorial,” which is defined by
n! = n ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)( n − 4)  ( 4)( 3)( 2)(1)
For example, 1! (read as “one factorial”) through 10! (read as “ten factorial”) are written in their
equivalent form as:
1! = 1 6! = 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 720
2! = 2 ⋅ 1 = 2 7! = 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 5,040
3! = 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 6 8! = 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 40,320
4! = 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 24 9! = 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 362,880
5! = 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 120 10! = 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 3,628,800
Note that, for n 〉 1 , since n! = n ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 and ( n − 1)! = ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
we can rewrite the recursive n! relationship in the following way:
n! = n ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)( n − 4)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = n ( n − 1) !
  
( n − 1)!
n ( n − 1) ! = n ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)( n − 4)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = n ( n − 1)( n − 2) !

( n − 2) !
n ( n − 1)( n − 2)! = n ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)( n − 4)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = n ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3) !

( n − 3) !
n ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)! = n ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)( n − 4)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = n ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)( n − 4) !
  
( )
n − 4 !
For example,
7 ! = 7 ⋅ 6 ! = 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5! = 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4! = 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3! = 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 !
10! = 10 ⋅ 9 ! = 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8! = 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7! = 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6! = 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 !
35! = 35 ⋅ 34 ! = 35 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 33! = 35 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 33 ⋅ 32! = 35 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 33 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 31! = 35 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 33 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 31 ⋅ 30 !
( n + 4)! = ( n + 4)( n + 3)! = ( n + 4)( n + 3)( n + 2)! = ( n + 4)( n + 3)( n + 2)( n + 1) !
( n + 8)! = ( n + 8)( n + 7)! = ( n + 8)( n + 7)( n + 6)! = ( n + 8)( n + 7)( n + 6)( n + 5) !
(2n + 2)! = (2n + 2)(2n + 1) ! = (2n + 2)(2n + 1)(2n)! = (2n + 2)(2n + 1)(2n)(2n − 1)! = (2n + 2)(2n + 1)(2n)
(2n − 1)(2n − 2)! = ( 2n + 2)( 2n + 1)( 2n)( 2n − 1)( 2n − 2)( 2n − 3) !

(2n + 5)! = (2n + 5)(2n + 4)! = (2n + 5)(2n + 4)(2n + 3)! = (2n + 5)(2n + 4)(2n + 3)(2n + 2)! = (2n + 5)(2n + 4)
(2n + 3)(2n + 2)(2n + 1)! = ( 2n + 5)( 2n + 4)( 2n + 3)( 2n + 2)( 2n + 1)( 2n) !
The above principal can be used to prove that 0 ! = 1 . Since 1! = 1 ⋅ (1 − 1) ! = 1 ⋅ 0! in order for
equality on both sides of the equation to hold true 0! must be equal to one. Hence, we state that
0! = 1 .
Example 1.6-1 Expand and simplify the following factorial expressions.
8! 12 !
a. 13! = b. (6 − 2)! = c. = d. =
4! 11!
e.
10!
= f.
8!
= g.
11! 8 !
= h.
( 4 − 2) ! 8 ! =
5! 4 ! 3! (8 − 2)! 16 ! 11! (5 − 3) !
Solutions:
a. 13! = 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 6,227,020,800
b. (6 − 2)! = 4! = 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 24
8! 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4! 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4/ !
c. = = = 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 = 1680
4! 4! 4/ !
12 ! 12 ⋅ 11! / /!
12 ⋅ 11
d. = = = 12
11! 11! / /!
11
2
10! 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5! 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5/ ! 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8/⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 7
e. = = = = = = 1260
5! 4 ! 5! 4 ! 5/ ! 4 ! 4! 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 1
4
8! 8! 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/ ! 8⋅7 8/⋅ 7 4⋅7 28
f. = = = = = =
3! (8 − 2)! 3! 6 ! 3! 6/ ! 3! 3 ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 3 3
11! 8 ! 11! 8 ! 11
/ / ! 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 8/ ⋅ 7/ ⋅ 6/ ⋅ 5/ ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 1
g. = = = = =
16 ! 16 ⋅ 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11! 16 ⋅ 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11 / /! 16 / /⋅ 14
/ /⋅ 15 / /⋅ 13 ⋅ 12
// 2/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 13 ⋅ 2/ 13
2 3 2 2
(4 − 2)! 8! 2/ ! 8! 8! 8! 8/ ! 1
h. = = = = =
11! (5 − 3)! 11! 2/ ! 11! 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ! 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8/ ! 990
Example 1.6-2 Write the following products in factorial form.

a. 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 = b. 10 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 13 = c. 20 ⋅ 21 ⋅ 22 ⋅ 23 ⋅ 24 =
d. 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 = e. 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 7 = f. 20 =
g. 15 ⋅14 ⋅13 ⋅12 ⋅11 = h. 8 = i. 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 =

Solutions:
13 ! 24 !
a. 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 = 4! b. 10 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 13 = c. 20 ⋅ 21 ⋅ 22 ⋅ 23 ⋅ 24 =
9! 19 !
9! 7! 20 !
d. 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 = e. 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 7 = f. 20 =
4! 2! 19 !
15 ! 8!
g. 15 ⋅14 ⋅13 ⋅12 ⋅11 = h. 8 = i. 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 = 6!
10 ! 7!
Example 1.6-3 Expand the following factorial expressions.

a. n! = b. ( n − 1)! = c. (n − 3)! = d. ( n − 5)! =
e. ( n − 8)! = f. (2n)! = g. (2n − 1)! = h. (3n − 5)! =
i. (2n + 1)! = j. (n + 1)! = k. (n + 3)! = l. (n + 8)! =
m. (2n + 2)! = n. (2n + 5)! =
Solutions:
a. n! = ( n)( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)( n − 4)( n − 5)( n − 6)( n − 7)( n − 8)( n − 9)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
b. ( n − 1)! = ( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)( n − 4)( n − 5)( n − 6)( n − 7)( n − 8)( n − 9)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
c. ( n − 3)! = ( n − 3)( n − 4)( n − 5)( n − 6)( n − 7)( n − 8)( n − 9)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
d. ( n − 5)! = ( n − 5)( n − 6)( n − 7)( n − 8)( n − 9)( n − 10)( n − 11)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
e. ( n − 8)! = ( n − 8)( n − 9)( n − 10)( n − 11)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
f. (2n)! = ( 2n)( 2n − 1)( 2n − 2)( 2n − 3)( 2n − 4)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
g. (2n − 1)! = ( 2n − 1)( 2n − 2)( 2n − 3)( 2n − 4)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
h. (3n − 5)! = ( 3n − 5)( 3n − 6)( 3n − 7)( 3n − 8)( 3n − 9)( 3n − 10)( 3n − 11)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
i. (2n + 1)! = ( 2n + 1)( 2n)( 2n − 1)( 2n − 2)( 2n − 3)( 2n − 4)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
j. ( n + 1)! = ( n + 1)( n)( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)( n − 4)( n − 5)( n − 6)( n − 7)( n − 8)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
k. ( n + 3)! = ( n + 3)( n + 2)( n + 1)( n)( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)( n − 4)( n − 5)( n − 6)( n − 7)( n − 8)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
l. ( n + 8)! = ( n + 8)( n + 7)( n + 6)( n + 5)( n + 4)( n + 3)( n + 2)( n + 1)( n)( n − 1)( n − 2)( n − 3)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1

m. (2n + 2)! = ( 2n + 2)( 2n + 1)( 2n)( 2n − 1)( 2n − 2)( 2n − 3)( 2n − 4)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
n. (2n + 5)! = ( 2n + 5)( 2n + 4)( 2n + 3)( 2n + 2)( 2n + 1)( 2n)( 2n − 1)( 2n − 2)( 2n − 3)( 2n − 4)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
Example 1.6-4 Expand and simplify the following factorial expressions.
a.
( n − 1)! = b.
( n + 2)! = c.
( n + 3)! = d.
( n + 2)( n + 2)! =
( n − 3)! n! ( n − 1)! ( n + 3)!
2
e.
(3n + 1)! (3n − 1)! = f.
( n !)
= g.
(2n − 2)! 2( n !) =
(3n)! (3n − 3)! ( n + 1)! ( n − 1)! (2n)! ( n − 1)!
Solutions:
( n − 1)! ( n − 1)! ( n/ − 1/)! 1
a. = = =
( n − 3)! ( n − 3)( n − 2)( n − 1)! ( n − 3)( n − 2)( n/ − 1/)! ( n − 3)( n − 2)
( n + 2)! ( n + 2)( n + 1) n ! ( n + 2)( n + 1) n/ !

b. = = = ( n + 2)( n + 1)
n! n! n/ !
( n + 3)! ( n + 3)( n + 2)( n + 1)( n)( n − 1)! ( n + 3)( n + 2)( n + 1)( n)( n/ − 1/)!
c. = = = ( n + 3)( n + 2)( n + 1) n
( n − 1)! ( n − 1)! ( n/ − 1/)!
( n + 2)( n + 2)! ( n + 2)( n + 2)! ( n + 2)( n/ + 2/ )! n+2

d. = = =
( n + 3)! ( n + 3)( n + 2)! ( n + 3)( n/ + 2/ )! n+3
(3n + 1)! (3n − 1)! [(3n + 1)(3n)!] [(3n − 1)(3n − 2)(3n − 3)!] [(3n + 1)(3/ n/ )!] [(3n − 1)(3n − 2)(3/ n/ − 3/ )!]
e. = =
(3n)! (3n − 3)! (3n)! (3n − 3)! (3/ n/ )! (3/ n/ − 3/ )!
(3n + 1) (3n − 1)(3n − 2)

= = ( 3n + 1) ( 3n − 1)( 3n − 2)
1
( n !) 2 ( n !)( n !) ( n !)( n/ !) n! n ( n/ − 1/) ! n

f. = = = = =
( n + 1)! ( n − 1)! [( n + 1)( n)!] ( n − 1)! [( n + 1)( n/ )!] ( n − 1)! ( n + 1)( n − 1)! ( n + 1)( n/ − 1/)! n+1
(2n − 2)! 2( n !) (2n − 2)! [2 n ( n − 1)!] (2/ n/ − 2/ )! [2 n ( n/ − 1/)!] 2n

g. = = =
(2n)! ( n − 1)! [(2n)(2n − 1)(2n − 2)!] ( n − 1)! [(2n)(2n − 1)(2/ n/ − 2/ )!] ( n/ − 1/)! (2n)(2n − 1)
2/ n/ 1
= =
( / )(2n − 1)
2
/ n 2n − 1
 n
The factorial notation is used in expansion of the   read as “the binomial coefficient n, r ” in
r
the following way:
 n n!
 =
 r  r ! ( n − r) !

Example 1.6-5 Write the following expressions in factorial notation form. Simplify the answer.
 6  6  5  5  7
a.   = b.   = c.   = d.   = e.   =
 4  2  0  5  5
10  8  n n  n 
f.   = g.   = h.   = i.   = j.   =
5   4  n  n − 1  n − 4
Solutions:
3
 6 6! 6! 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 6/⋅ 5 ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1/ 3⋅ 5
a.   = = = = = = 15
 4 4 ! ( 6 − 4) ! 4! ⋅ 2! (4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) ⋅ (2 ⋅ 1) (4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1/) ⋅ (2/ ⋅ 1) 1
3
 6 6! 6! 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 6/⋅ 5 ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1/ 3⋅ 5
b.   = = = = = = 15
 2 2! (6 − 2)! 2! ⋅ 4! (2 ⋅ 1) ⋅ (4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) (2/ ⋅ 1) ⋅ (4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1/) 1
 5 5! 5! 5/ ! 1
c.   = = = = = 1
 0 0 ! ( 5 − 0) ! 0 !⋅ 5! 1 ⋅ 5/ ! 1
 5 5! 5! 5/ ! 1
d.   = = = = = 1
 5 5! (5 − 5) ! 5! ⋅ 0 ! 5/ ! ⋅ 1 1
3
 7 7! 7! 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5! 7 ⋅ 6/⋅ 5/ ! 7⋅3
e.   = = = = = = 21
 5 5! (7 − 5) ! 5! ⋅ 2 ! 5! ⋅ 2 ! 5/ ! ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 1
2 2
10 10 ! 10 ! 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 10
/ /⋅ 9 ⋅ 8/⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/ ⋅ 5/ ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1/ 2⋅9⋅2⋅7
f.   = = = = = = 252
5  5! (10 − 5) ! 5! ⋅ 5! (5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) ⋅ (5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) (5/ ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1) ⋅ (5/ ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1/) 1
2
 8 8! 8! 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4! 8/ ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/⋅ 5 ⋅ 4/ ! 7⋅ 2⋅5
g.   = = = = = = 70
 4 4 ! (8 − 4) ! 4! ⋅ 4! 4! ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 4/ ! ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 1
 n n! n! n! 1
h.   = = = / = = 1
 n n ! ( n − n) ! n ! 0! n/ ! ⋅ 1 1
n  n! n! n! n ⋅ ( n − 1) ! n ⋅ ( n/ − 1/) !
i.   = = = = = = n
 n − 1 [
( n − 1)! n − ( n − 1) ! ] ( n − 1)! ( n/ − n/ + 1)! ( n −1)!1! ( n − 1)! ( n/ − 1/)!
n  n! n! n! n ⋅ ( n − 1) ⋅ ( n − 2) ⋅ ( n − 3) ⋅ ( n − 4) !
j.   = = = =
 n − 4 [
( n − 4) ! n − ( n − 4 ) ! ] ( n − 4)! ( n/ − n/ + 4)! ( n − 4)! 4! ( n − 4)! 4!
n ⋅ ( n − 1) ⋅ ( n − 2) ⋅ ( n − 3) ⋅ ( n/ − 4/ ) ! n ⋅ ( n − 1) ⋅ ( n − 2) ⋅ ( n − 3) n ⋅ ( n − 1) ⋅ ( n − 2) ⋅ ( n − 3)
= = =
( n/ − 4/ )! 4! 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 24

 n
An application of the binomial coefficient n, r , i.e.,   is in its use for expansion of binomials
r
of the form (a + b) n , where n is a positive integer. In general, the binomial equation of order n
can be expanded in the following form:
 n n  n n −1  n n −2 2  n  n − r +1 r −1  n
( a + b) n =   a +  a b+  a
 0 1   2
b ++ a
 r − 1
b +  +   bn
 n
(1)
note that the above equation is used for expanding binomial expressions that are raised to the
second, third, fourth, or higher powers. For example, ( x − 2) 2 , ( x + 3)3 , ( x −1)5 , ( x − 3) 6 , (2 x + y ) 4 ,
5
y
( )
 4
 2x −  , x − 3 , ( x − 2 y ) 6 , ( x − y )16 , etc. can all be expanded using the above equation. The
 2
following examples show the steps as to how binomial coefficients are used in expanding
binomial equations:
Example 1.6-6 Expand the following binomial expressions.
a. ( x −1)3 = b. ( x + 2)5 = c. ( x − 3) 4 =
Solutions:
a. First - Identify the a, b, and n terms, i.e., a = x , b = −1 , n = 3 .
Second - Use the general binomial expansion formula, i.e., equation (1) above to expand ( x −1)3 .
 3 3  3 3−1  3 3−2 2  3 3−3  3  3  3  3

( x − 1)3 =   x +   x ⋅ ( −1) +   x ( −1) +   x ( −1)
3
=   x3 −   x2 +   x −   x0
 0 1  2  3  0 1  2  3
 3  3  3  3 3! 3! 3! 3!
=   x 3 −   x 2 +   x −   ⋅1 = x3 − x2 + x−
 0 1  2  3 0 ! (3 − 0) ! 1! (3 − 1) ! 2 ! (3 − 2) ! 3! (3 − 3) !
3! 3 3! 2 3! 3! 3/ ! 3 3 ⋅ 2/ ! 2 3 ⋅ 2/ ! 3/ !
= x − x + x− = x − x + x− = x3 − 3 x2 + 3 x − 1
3! 2! 2! 3! 3/ ! 2/ ! 2/ ! 3/ !
b. First - Identify the a, b, and n terms, i.e., a = x , b = 2 , n = 5 .
Second - Expand ( x + 2)5 using equation (1) .

 5 5  5 5−1  5 5−2 2  5 5−3 3  5 5−4 4  5 5−5 5
( x + 2) 5 =   x +   x ⋅2 +   x ⋅2 +   x ⋅2 +   x ⋅2 +   x ⋅2
 0 1   2  3  4  5
 5  5  5  5  5  5  5  5  5  5
=   x 5 + 2   x 4 + 4   x 3 + 8   x 2 + 16   x + 32   x 0 =   x 5 + 2   x 4 + 4   x 3 + 8   x 2
 0 1   2  3  4  5  0 1   2  3
 5  5 5! 5! 5! 5! 5!
+ 16   x + 32   = x5 + 2 x4 + 4 x3 + 8 x 2 + 16 x
 4  5 0 ! ( 5 − 0) ! 1! (5 − 1) ! 2 ! ( 5 − 2) ! 3! (5 − 3) ! 4 ! ( 5 − 4) !

5! 5! 5 5! 5! 3 5! 2 5! 5! 5/ ! 5 5 ⋅ 4/ ! 4
+ 32 = x + 2 x4 + 4 x +8 x + 16 x + 32 = x +2 x
5! (5 − 5) ! 5! 4! 2 ! 3! 3! 2 ! 4! 5! 5/ ! 4/ !
5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/! 3 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/! 2 5 ⋅ 4/ ! 5/!

+4 x +8 x + 16 x + 32 = x 5 + 10 x 4 + 40 x 3 + 80 x 2 + 80 x + 32
2!3/! 3/!2! 4/ ! 5/!
c. First - Identify the a, b, and n terms, i.e., a = x , b = −3 , n = 4 .
Second - Expand ( x − 3) 4 using equation (1) .

 4 4  4 4−1  4 2  4 3  4  4  4
( x − 3) 4 =   x +  x ⋅ ( −3) +   x 4−2 ( −3) +   x 4−3 ( −3) +   x 4−4 ( −3)
4
=   x4 − 3   x3
 0 1   2  3  4  0 1 
 4  4  4 4! 4! 4! 4!
+ 9  x 2 − 27  x + 81  x 0 = x4 − 3 x3 + 9 x 2 − 27 x
 2 3  4 0 ! ( 4 − 0) ! 1! (4 − 1) ! 2 ! (4 − 2) ! 3! (4 − 3) !
4! 4! 4 4! 4! 2 4! 4! 4/ ! 4 ⋅ 3/ ! 3 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2/ ! 2
+ 81 = x − 3 x3 + 9 x − 27 x + 81 = x4 − 3 x +9 x
4! (4 − 4)! 4! 3! 2! 2! 3! 4! 0! 4/ ! 3/ ! 2! 2/ !
4 ⋅ 3/ ! 4/ !
−27 x + 81 = x 4 − 12 x 3 + 54 x 2 − 108 x + 81
3/ ! 4/ ! 0 !
Example 1.6-7 Use the general equation for binomial expansion to solve the following
exponential numbers to the nearest hundredth.
a. (0.83) 6 = b. (105 8
. ) = c. (121 10
. ) =
Solutions:
a. First - Write the exponential expression in the form of (0.83) 6 = (1 − 017 6
. ) .
Second - Identify the a, b, and n terms, i.e., a = 1 , b = −017

. , n=6.
6
Third - Use the general binomial expansion formula, i.e., equation (1) above to expand (1 − 017
. ) .
6  6 6  6 5  6 2  6 3  6 4  6 5
(1 − 017
. ) =   1 +   1 ⋅ ( −017
0 1
. ) +   14 ⋅ ( −017
2
. ) +   13 ⋅ ( −017
3
. ) +   12 ⋅ ( −017
4
. ) +   1 ⋅ ( −017
5
. )
           
 6 6  6  6  6  6 6! 6!
+  ( −017
. ) =   − 017
.   + 0.0289   − 0.0049   +  = .
− 017
 6  0 1   2  3 0! (6 − 0) ! 1! (6 − 1) !
6! 6! 6! 6! 6! 6!
+ 0.0289 − 0.0049 + = − 017
. + 0.0289 − 0.0049 +
2!(6 − 2 )! 3!(6 − 3)! 6! 5! 2! 4! 3! 3!
6/ ! 6 ⋅ 5/ ! 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4/ ! 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/ !
= .
− 017 + 0.0289 − 0.0049 +  = 1 − 102
. + 0.4335 − 0.098 +  ≈ 0.3155
6/ ! 5/ ! 2! 4/ ! 3! 3/ !

6
Therefore, (1 − 017
. ) , to the nearest hundredth, is equal to 0.32
8 8
b. First - Write the exponential expression in the form of (105
. ) = (1 + 0.05) .
Second - Identify the a, b, and n terms, i.e., a = 1 , b = 0.05 , n = 8 .
Third - Use the general binomial expansion formula, i.e., equation (1) above to expand (1 + 0.05)8 .
 8 8  8 7  8 6 2  8 3 3  8 2 4  8
(1 + 0.05)8 = 5
  1 +   1 ⋅ (0.05) +   1 ⋅ (0.05) +   1 ⋅ (0.05) +   1 ⋅ (0.05) +   1 ⋅ (0.05) + 
 0 1   2  3  4  5
 8  8  8  8 8! 8! 8!
=   + 0.05   + 0.0025   + 0.000125   +  = + 0.05 + 0.0025
 0 1   2  3 0! (8 − 0) ! 1! (8 − 1) ! 2! (8 − 2) !
8! 8! 8! 8! 8!
+0.000125 + = + 0.05 + 0.0025 + 0.000125 +
3! (8 − 3)! 8! 7! 2! 6! 3! 5!
8/ ! 8 ⋅ 7/ ! 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/ ! 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5/ !
= + 0.05 + 0.0025 + 0.000125 +  = 1 + 0.4 + 0.07 + 0.007 +  ≈ 1477
.
8/ ! 7/ ! 2! 6/ ! 3! 5/ !
Therefore, (1 + 0.05)8 , to the nearest hundredth, is equal to 1.48

5 5
c. First - Write the exponential expression in the form of (121
. ) = (1 + 0.21) .
Second - Identify the a, b, and n terms, i.e., a = 1 , b = 0.21 , n = 5 .
Third - Use the general binomial expansion formula, i.e., equation (1) above to expand (1 + 0.21)5 .
 5 5  5 4  5 3 2  5 2 3  5 4  5
(1 + 0.21)5 =   1 +   1 ⋅ (0.21) +   1 ⋅ (0.21) +   1 ⋅ (0.21) +   1 ⋅ (0.21) +   ⋅ (0.21)
5
 0 1   2  3  4  5
5  5 5  5 5 5! 5 5! 5!

=   + 0.21 + 0.0441  + 0.00926  + 0.0019 + 0.0004  = + 0.21 + 0.0441
0 1   2  3  4  5 0 ! ( 5 − 0) ! 1! (5 − 1) ! 2! (5 − 2) !
5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5!
+ 0.00926 + 0.0019 + 0.0004 = + 0.21 + 0.0441 + 0.00926 + 0.0019 + 0.0004
3! (5 − 3)! 5! (5 − 4 )! 5! (5 − 5)! 5! 4! 2!3! 3!2! 4!1! 5!
5/! 5 ⋅ 4/ ! 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/! 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/! 5 ⋅ 4/ ! 5/!

= + 0.21 + 0.0441 + 0.00926 + 0.0019 + 0.0004 = 1+ 1.05+ 0.441 + 0.0926 + 0.0095 + 0.0004
5/! 4/ ! 2!3/! 3/!2! 4/ ! 5/!
= 2.594
Therefore, (1 + 0.21)5 , to the nearest hundredth, is equal to 2.59
Note that in equation (1) the r th term in a binomial expansion is given by

 n  n − r +1 r −1 n!
 a b = a n − r +1 b r −1 (2)
 r − 1 ( r − 1) ! ( n − r + 1) !
this implies that we can use the above equation to find any specific term of a binomial. For
example, the sixth term of ( x − 3)8 is equal to
 8 3 5 8! 5 8! 3 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/ ⋅ 5/ ! 3
  x ( −3) = x 3 ( −3) = x ⋅ ( −243) = −243 ⋅ x = −13,608 x 3
 5 5! (8 − 5) ! 5!3! 5/ ! ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1
and the fourth term of ( x − 3) 4 is equal to
 4 4−4+1 3 4! 3 4! 4 ⋅ 3/ !
  x ( −3) = x( −3) = x ⋅ ( −27) = −27 ⋅ x = −108 x
 3 3! (4 − 3) ! 3!1! 3/ !
Example 1.6-8 Find the stated term of the following binomial expressions.
a. The sixth term of ( x + 2)10 b. The eighth term of ( x − y )12
c. The fifth term of ( w − a )13 = d. The tenth term of ( x + 1) 20

Solutions:
a. First - Identify the a, b, r and n terms, i.e., a = x , b = 2 , r = 6 , and n = 10 .
Second - Use equation (2) above to find the sixth term of ( x + 2)10 .
32
10! 10 ! 5 5 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5/ ! 10
/ / ⋅ 9/⋅ 8/⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 6⋅7⋅6
x10−6+1 ⋅ 2 6−1 = x 2 = 32 x 5 = 32 x 5 = 32 x 5
(6 − 1)! (10 − 6 + 1)! 5! 5! 5! 5/ ! 5/ ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 1
= 8064 x 5
b. First - Identify the a, b, r and n terms, i.e., a = x , b = − y , r = 8 , and n = 12 .
Second - Use equation (2) above to find the eighth term of ( x − y )12 .
12! 12! 5 7 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7/ ! 5 7 12
/ / ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10/ / ⋅9⋅8 5 7
x12−8+1 ⋅ b 8−1 = x (− y) = − x y = − x y
(8 − 1)! (12 − 8 + 1)! 7 ! 5! 7/ ! 5! 5/ ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1
= − (11 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8)x 5 y 7 = −792 x 5 y 7

c. First - Identify the a, b, r and n terms, i.e., a = w , b = − a , r = 5 , and n = 13 .
Second - Use equation (2) above to find the fifth term of ( w − a )13 .
5
13! 5−1 13! 9 4 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9/ ! 9 4 13 ⋅ 12
/ / ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10// 9 4
w13−5+1 ( − a ) = w (−a) = w a = w a
( )(
5 − 1 ! 13 − 5 + 1) ! 4! 9! 4 ! 9/ ! 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1
13 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 5 9 4
= w a = 715 w 9 a 4
1

d. First - Identify the a, b, r and n terms, i.e., a = x , b = 1 , r = 10 , and n = 20 .
Second - Use equation (2) above to find the tenth term of ( x + 1) 20 .

20! 20! 11 9 20 ⋅ 19 ⋅ 18 ⋅ 17 ⋅ 16 ⋅ 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11
/ / ! 11
x 20−10+1 ⋅110−1 = x ⋅1 = x
(10 − 1)! (20 − 10 + 1)! 9 !11! 9 !11
/ /!
2
20
/ / ⋅ 19 ⋅ 18
/ / ⋅ 17 ⋅ 16/ /⋅ 15 ⋅ 14 / / ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 11 19 ⋅ 17 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 15 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 11
= x = x = 167,960 x 11
9 ⋅ 8/ ⋅ 7/ ⋅ 6/ ⋅ 5/ ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 9
Section 1.6 Practice Problems - The Factorial Notation
1. Expand and simplify the following factorial expressions.

12 ! 14 !
a. 11! = b. (10 − 3)! = c. = d. =
5! 10 !
e.
15!
= f.
10 !
= g.
12 ! 6 !
= h.
(7 − 3)!9 ! =
8! 4! 4 ! (10 − 2) ! 14 ! 12!(7 − 2)!
2. Write the following products in factorial form.

a. 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = b. 10 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 15 = c. 22 ⋅ 23 ⋅ 24 ⋅ 25 =
d. 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 = e. 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 9 = f. 35 =
3. Expand the following factorial expressions.
a. 5( n!) = b. ( n − 7)! = c. ( n + 10)! = d. (5n − 5)! =
e. (2n − 8) ! = f. (2n + 6)! = g. (2n − 5)! = h. (3n + 3)! =
a.
(n − 2)! = b.
( n + 4)! = c.
( n + 5)! = d.
( n − 1)( n + 1)! =
(n − 4)! n! ( n − 2) ! ( n + 2)!
e.
(3n)! (3n − 2)! = f.
( n − 1)! = g.
(2n − 3)! 2( n !) =
(3n + 1)! (3n − 4)! ( n + 2)! ( n !) 2 (2n)! ( n − 2)!
5. Write the following expressions in factorial notation form. Simplify the answer.
 5 10  8  8  6
a.   = b.   = c.   = d.   = e.   =
 3 6   0  8  3
 5 n   2n   3n  n 
f.   = g.   = h.   = i.   = j.   =
1   n − 5  2n − 1  3n − 3  n − 6
6. Expand the following binomial expressions.
a. ( x − 2) 4 = b. (u + 2) 7 = c. ( y − 3)5 =

7. Use the general equation for binomial expansion to solve the following exponential numbers
to the nearest hundredth.
a. (0.95)5 = b. (2.25) 7 = c. (1.05)4 =
8. Find the stated term of the following binomial expressions.
a. The eighth term of ( x + 3)12 b. The ninth term of (x − y )10
c. The seventh term of (u − 2a )11 d. The twelfth term of ( x − 1)18

Chapter 2
Differentiation (Part I)
2.1 The Difference Quotient Method .............................................................................. 54
1 4(x + h )2 − 4 x 2 (x + h ) + 3 − x+3
lim h→0 = ; lim h→0 = ; lim h→0 =
x + h +1 + x +1 h h
2.2 Differentiation Rules Using the Prime Notation ..................................................... 59

1  2 + x3 
r (θ ) = θ 2 + 2 2 x 2 + 3x + 1
3 =; f ( x) =   = ; f ( x) = =
(θ + 1) x  x +1  x2 +1
d
2.3 Differentiation Rules Using the Notation .......................................................... 71
dx
d  2x 
 5x + 2
dx 

x + 1
=;
d
dx [ (
( x + 1) x 2 − 3 )] = ; d  u
 +
u2 
 =
du  1 − u 1 + u 
2.4 The Chain Rule .......................................................................................................... 82

3 2 4
 t3 
 1
( )
  2 
f ( x ) =  2 + x =; h( t ) =  + t 2  =; f ( x) =  x 3 + 2x − x2 =
x  4
 t −1   
2.5 Implicit Differentiation .............................................................................................. 97

x 2 y 2 + y = 3y 3 − 1 = ; xy + x 2 y 2 + y 3 = 10 x = ; 3x 3 y 3 + 2 y 2 = y + 1 =
2.6 The Derivative of Functions with Fractional Exponents........................................ 102
1 1
1 1
( ) ( x + 3) x 3 (x − 1)
3
y= x 2 3
+ (2 x + 1) 5 =; y = ( x + 1) 2
2 3 =; y= =
1 + x2
2.7 The Derivative of Radical Functions ........................................................................ 109

1 θ3 +1 3 2
r (θ=
) θ2 + t +1
(θ + 1) = ; r(θ ) = = ; h(t ) = =
3
θ 2 +1 t3
2.8 Higher Order Derivatives.......................................................................................... 124

u3 − 1 1 t 3 + t 2 +1
f (u) = = ; r (θ ) = θ 2 + =; f (t) = =
u +1 (θ + 1) 3 10

Chapter 2 - Differentiation
derivatives. In Section 2.1 derivatives are computed using the Difference Quotient method.
Various differentiation rules using the prime and d notation are introduced in Sections 2.2 and
dx
2.3, respectively. The use of the Chain Rule in finding the derivative of functions that are being
added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided are addressed in Section 2.4. Implicit differentiation is
discussed in Section 2.5. Finding the derivative of exponential and radical expressions is
addressed in Sections 2.6 and 2.7, respectively. Finally, computation of second, third, fourth, or
higher order derivatives are discussed in Section 2.8. Each section is concluded by solving
examples with practice problems to further enhance the student’s ability.
2.1 The Difference Quotient Method
In this section students learn how to differentiate functions using the difference quotient equation
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
as the limit h approaches zero. The expression is referred to as the difference
h
quotient equation. A function f ( x ) is said to be differentiable at x if and only if lim h→0
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
exists. If the limit exists, then the result is referred to as the derivative of f ( x ) at
h
x which is denoted by f ′( x ) . It should be noted that this approach is rather long and time
consuming and is merely presented in order to show the usefulness of the differentiation rules
which are addressed in the subsequent sections. The following examples show the steps in
finding derivatives of functions using the Difference Quotient method:
Example 2.1-1: Use the Difference Quotient method to find the derivative of the following
functions.
a. f ( x ) = 3x + 1 b. f ( x ) = 4 x 2 c. f ( x ) = x + 3
1
d. f ( x ) = (2 x − 7) 2 e. f ( x ) = − x + 1 f. f ( x ) =
x +1
Solutions:
a. To find the derivative of the function f (x ) = 3x + 1
First - Substitute f (x + h ) = 3(x + h ) + 1 = 3x + 3h + 1 and f (x ) = 3x + 1 into the difference quotient
f (x + h ) − f (x ) (3x + 3h + 1) − (3x + 1) 3/ x + 3h + 1/ − 3/ x/ − 1/ 3h/

equation, i.e., = = / = = 3
h h h h/
Second - Compute f ′(x ) as the lim h→0 in the difference quotient equation, i.e.,
f (x + h ) − f (x )
f ′( x ) = lim h→0 = lim h→0 3 = 3
h
b. To find the derivative of the function f (x ) = 4x 2
( )
First - Substitute f (x + h ) = 4(x + h )2 = 4 x 2 + h 2 + 2 xh = 4 x 2 + 4h 2 + 8 xh and f (x ) = 4x 2 into the

Calculus I 2.1 The Difference Quotient Method
difference quotient equation, i.e.,

f (x + h ) − f (x )
=
( 4x 2
)
+ 4h 2 + 8 xh − 4 x 2
=
4/ x/ 2/ + 4h 2 + 8 xh − 4 x/ 2/
h h h
4h/ (h + 2 x ) 4(h + 2 x )
= = = 4h + 8 x
h/ 1
f (x + h ) − f (x )
f ′( x ) = lim h→0 = lim h→0 (4h + 8 x ) = (4 ⋅ 0) + 8 x = 0 + 8 x = 8 x
h
c. To find the derivative of the function f ( x ) = x + 3
First - Substitute f (x + h ) = (x + h ) + 3 = x+h+3 and f (x ) = x + 3 into the difference quotient
f (x + h ) − f (x ) x+h+3 − x+3
equation, i.e., =
h h
To remove the radical from the numerator multiply both the numerator and the denominator
by x + h + 3 + x + 3 to obtain the following:
f (x + h ) − f (x ) x+h+3 − x+3 x+h+3 − x+3 x+h+3 + x+3 1
= = ⋅ =
h h h x+h+3 + x+3 x+h+3 + x+3
f (x + h ) − f (x ) 1 1 1
f ′( x ) = lim h→0 = lim h→0 = =
h x+h+3 + x+3 x+3 + x+3 2 x+3
d. To find the derivative of the function f (x ) = (2 x − 7 )2
First - Substitute f (x + h ) = [ 2 (x + h ) − 7 ] 2 = 4 (x + h ) 2 + 49 − 28 (x + h ) = 4 x 2 + 4h 2 + 8 xh + 49 − 28 x − 28h
f (x + h ) − f (x )
and f (x ) = (2 x − 7 ) 2 = 4 x 2 + 49 − 28 x into the difference quotient equation, i.e.,
h
=
(4 x 2
) (
+ 4h 2 + 8 xh + 49 − 28 x − 28h − 4 x 2 + 49 − 28 x )= 4/ x/ 2/ + 4h 2 + 8 xh + 4/ 9/ − 2/ 8/ x/ − 28h − 4/ x/ 2/ − 4/ 9/ + 2/ 8/ x/
h h
4h 2 + 8 xh − 28h h/ (4h + 8 x − 28)

= = = 4h + 8 x − 28
h h/
f (x + h ) − f (x )
f ′( x ) = lim h→0 = lim h→0 (4h + 8 x − 28) = (4 ⋅ 0) + 8 x − 28 = 0 + 8 x − 28 = 8 x − 28
h
e. To find the derivative of the function f (x ) = − x + 1
First - Substitute f (x + h ) = − (x + h ) + 1 = − x + h + 1 and f (x ) = − x + 1 into the difference

f (x + h ) − f (x ) x + h +1 + x +1
quotient equation, i.e., = −
h h
To remove the radical from the numerator multiply both the numerator and the denominator by
x + h + 1 − x + 1 to obtain the following:
f (x + h ) − f (x ) x + h +1 + x +1 x + h +1 + x +1 x + h +1 − x +1 1
= − = − ⋅ = −
h h h x + h +1 − x +1 x + h +1 + x +1
f (x + h ) − f (x ) 1 1 1
f ′( x ) = lim h→0 = − lim h→0 = − = −
h x + h +1 + x +1 x +1 + x +1 2 x +1
1
f. To find the derivative of the function f (x ) =
x +1
1 1
First - Substitute f (x + h ) = and f (x ) = into the difference quotient equation,
x + h +1 x +1
1 1
−
f (x + h ) − f (x ) x + h +1 x +1 x +1 − x + h +1
i.e., = =
h h h x +1 ⋅ x + h +1
To remove the radical from the numerator multiply both the numerator and the denominator
by x + 1 + x + h + 1 to obtain the following:
f (x + h ) − f (x ) x +1 − x + h +1 x +1 + x + h +1 (x + 1) − (x + h + 1)
= ⋅ =
h h x +1 ⋅ x + h +1 x +1 + x + h +1 h (x + 1) x + h + 1 + h (x + h + 1) x +1
x/ + 1/ − x/ − h − 1/ −h/ −1
= = =
h (x + 1) x + h + 1 + h (x + h + 1) x + 1 [
h/ (x + 1) x + h + 1 + (x + h + 1) x + 1 ] (x + 1) x + h + 1 + (x + h + 1) x + 1
f (x + h ) − f (x ) −1 −1
f ′( x ) = lim h→0 = lim h→0 =
h (x + 1) x + h + 1 + (x + h + 1) x + 1 (x + 1) x + 1 + (x + 1) x +1
1
= −
2 ( x + 1) x +1
Example 2.1-2: Given the derivative of the functions in example 2.1-1, find:
a. f ′(2) b. f ′(3) c. f ′(1)
d. f ′(0) e. f ′(15) f. f ′(0)
Solutions:
a. Given f ′(x ) = 3 then, f ′(2) = 3

Note that since the derivative is constant f ′(x ) is independent of the x value. f ′(2) can also
f (x + h ) − f (x ) [ 3 (x + h ) + 1] − (3x + 1)
be calculated directly by using f ′(x ) = lim h→0 = lim h→0
h h
[ 3 (2 + h ) + 1] − (6 + 1) 6 + 3h + 1 − 7
and by replacing x with 2 , i.e., f ′(2) = lim h→0 = lim h→0
h h
3h/
= lim h→0 = lim h→0 3 = 3
h/
b. Given f ′(x ) = 8 x then, f ′(3) = 8⋅ 3 = 24
f (x + h ) − f (x ) 4 (x + h ) 2 − 4 x 2
f ′(3) can also be calculated directly by using f ′(x ) = lim h→0 = lim h→0
h h
and by replacing x with 3 , i.e., f ′(3) = lim h→0

4 ( 3 + h) 2 − 4 ⋅ 32
= lim h→0
4 9 + h 2 + 6h − 36( )
h h
36 + 4h 2 + 24h − 36 h/ (4h + 24 )
= lim h→0 = lim h→0 = lim h→0 4h + 24 = 0 + 24 = 24
h h/
1 1 1 1 1
c. Given f ′(x ) = then, f ′( 1) = = = =
2 x+3 2 1+ 3 2 4 2⋅2 4
f (x + h ) − f (x )
Again, f ′( 1) can also be calculated directly by using the equation f ′(x ) = lim h→0
h
(x + h ) + 3 − x+3 (1 + h ) + 3 − 1+ 3
= lim h→0 and by replacing x with 1 , i.e., f ′( 1) = lim h→0
h h
h+4 − 4 h+4 − 4 h+4 + 4 h 1

= lim h→0 = lim h→0 ⋅ = lim h→0 = lim h→0
h h h+4 + 4 h ( h+4 +2 ) h+4 +2
1 1 1 1
= = = =
0+4 +2 4 +2 2+2 4
d. Given f ′(x ) = 8 x − 28 then, f ′(0) = (8 × 0) − 28 = −28
1 1 1 1 1
e. Given f ′(x ) = − then, f ′(15) = − = − = − = −
2 x +1 2 15 + 1 2 16 2⋅4 8
1 1 1 1
f. Given f ′(x ) = − then, f ′(0) = − = − = −
2 ⋅1 2
2 (x + 1)3 2 (0 + 1)3
In problems 2.1-2 d, e, and f students may want to practice finding f ′(x ) for the specific values of

f (x + h ) − f (x )
x by using the general equation f ′(x ) = lim h→0 . The answers should agree with the
h
above stated solutions.
Finally, it should be noted that every differentiable function is continuous. However, not every
continuous function is differentiable. The proof of this statement is beyond the scope of this
book and can be found in a calculus book. In the following section we will learn simpler
methods of finding derivative of functions using various differentiation rules.
Section 2.1 Practice Problems – The Difference Quotient Method
1. Find the derivative of the following functions by using the Difference Quotient method.
x 1
a. f (x ) = x 2 − 1 b. f (x ) = x 3 + 2 x − 1 c. f (x ) = d. f (x ) = −
x −1 x2
10 ax + b
e. f (x ) = 20 x 2 − 3 f. f (x ) = x 3 g. f (x ) = h. f (x ) =
x−5 cx
2. Compute f ′(x ) for the specified values by using the difference quotient equation as the lim h→0 .
a. f (x ) = x 3 at x = 1 b. f (x ) = 1+ 2 x at x = 0 c. f (x ) = x 3 + 1 at x = −1
d. f (x ) = x 2 (x + 2) at x = 2 e. f (x ) = x −2 + x −1 + 1 at x = 1 f. f (x ) = x + 2 at x = 10

Calculus I 2.2 Differentiation Rules Using the Prime Notation
2.2 Differentiation Rules Using the Prime Notation

In the previous section we differentiated several functions by writing the difference quotient
equation and taking the limit as h approaches to zero. This process, however - as was mentioned
earlier, is rather long and time consuming. Instead, we can establish some general rules that
make the calculation of derivatives simpler. These rules are as follows:
Rule No. 1 - The derivative of a constant function is equal to zero, i.e.,
if f (x ) = k , then f ′( x ) = 0
For example, the derivative of the functions f ( x ) = 10 , g( x ) = −100 , and s( x ) = 250 is equal to
f ′( x ) = 0 , g ′( x ) = 0 , and s ′( x ) = 0 , respectively.
Rule No. 2 - The derivative of the identity function is equal to one, i.e.,
if f ( x ) = x , then f ′( x ) = 1
For example, the derivative of the functions f ( x ) = 5x , g( x ) = −10 x , and s( x ) = 5x is equal to

f ′(x ) = 5 ⋅1 = 5 , g ′(x ) = −10 ⋅1 = −10 , and s ′(x ) = 5 ⋅1 = 5 , respectively.
Rule No. 3A - The derivative of the function f ( x ) = x n is equal to f ′( x ) = n x n −1 , where n is a

positive integer.
For example, the derivative of the functions f ( x ) = x , f ( x ) = x 2 , f ( x ) = x 3 , and f ( x ) = x 4 is equal
to f ′( x ) = 1 ⋅ x1−1 = x 0 = 1 , f ′( x ) = 2 ⋅ x 2−1 = 2 x1 = 2 x , f ′( x ) = 3 ⋅ x 3−1 = 3x 2 , and f ′(x ) = 4 ⋅ x 4−1 = 4x 3 ,
respectively.
Rule No. 3B - The derivative of the function f ( x ) = x n is equal to f ′( x ) = n x n −1 , where n is a
negative integer.
For example, the derivative of the functions f ( x ) = x −1 , f ( x ) = x −2 , f ( x ) = x −3 , f ( x ) = x −4 , and
1
−
f ( x) = x 8 is equal to f ′( x ) = −1 ⋅ x −1−1 = − x −2 , f ′( x ) = −2 ⋅ x −2−1 = −2 x −3 , f ′(x ) = − 3 ⋅ x −3−1 = −3x −4 ,
1 9
1 − −1 1 −
and f ′( x ) = − ⋅ x 8 =− x 8, respectively.
8 8
Note that this rule can also be used to obtain the derivative of functions that are in the form of
1
f ( x) = n by rewriting the function in its equivalent form of f ( x ) = x − n . For example, the
x
1 1 2 1
derivative of the functions f (x ) = = x −1 , f (x ) = = x − 2 , f (x ) = − = −2 x −3 , and f (x ) = = x −8
x 2 3 8
x x x
is equal to f ′( x ) = −1 ⋅ x −1−1
= −x −2
, f ′( x ) = −2 ⋅ x −2−1
= −2 x −3
, f ′( x ) = ( −2 ⋅ −3) ⋅ x −3−1
= 6x −4
, and
f ′(x ) = −8 ⋅ x −8−1
= −8 x −9
, respectively.
Rule No. 4 - If the function f ( x ) is differentiable at x , then a constant k multiplied by f ( x ) is
also differentiable at x , i.e.,
( k f ) ′ x = k f ′( x )

Note that this rule is referred to as the scalar rule.

For example, the derivative of the functions f ( x ) = 5x , g( x ) = −10 x , and s( x ) = 5x is equal to
f ′( x ) = 5 , g ′( x ) = −10 , and s ′( x ) = 5 , respectively.
Rule No. 5 - If the function f ( x ) and g( x ) are differentiable at x , then their sum is also
differentiable at x , i.e.,
( f + g )′ (x ) = f ′( x ) + g ′( x )
In other words, the derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions, ( f + g )' (x ) , is equal to
the derivative of the first function, f ' (x ) , plus the derivative of the second function, g ' (x ) . Note
that this rule is referred to as the summation rule.
For example, the derivative of the functions h( x ) = (5x − 3) + 2 x 2 − 1 and s( x ) = 6
 
 


(
x 3 + (3x + 2) is ) f ( x)

 
f ( x) g( x ) g( x )
equal to h ′( x ) = f ′( x ) + g ′( x ) = 5 + 4 x and s ′( x ) = f ′( x ) + g ′( x ) = 18 x 2 + 3 .
Rule No. 6 - If the function f ( x ) and g( x ) are differentiable at x , then their product is also
( f ⋅ g )′ (x ) = f ′( x ) g( x ) + g ′( x ) f ( x )
In other words, the derivative of the product of two differentiable functions, ( f ⋅ g )' (x ) , is equal to
the derivative of the first function multiplied by the second function, f ' (x ) ⋅ g (x ) , plus the
derivative of the second function multiplied by the first function, g ' (x ) ⋅ f (x ) . Note that this rule is
referred to as the product rule.
For example, the derivative of the functions f ( x ) = (3x − 5)(6 x + 1) and g( x ) = −10 x 2 5x 3 − 2 is equal ( )
to f ′( x ) = [ 3 ⋅ (6 x + 1) ] + [ 6 ⋅ (3x − 5) ] = 18 x + 3 + 18 x − 5 = (18 x + 18 x ) + (− 5 + 3) = 36 x − 2 and
[ ( )] [ ]
g ′( x ) = − 20 x ⋅ 5 x 3 − 2 + 15 x 2 ⋅ −10 x 2 = −100 x 4 + 40 x − 150 x 4 = −250 x 4 + 40 x
Rule No. 7 - Using the rules 1 , 4 , 5 , and 6 we can write the formula for differentiating
polynomials, i.e.,
if f ( x ) = a n x n + a n−1 x n−1 + a n−2 x n−2 +  + a3 x 3 + a2 x 2 + a1 x1 + a0 , then
f ′( x ) = n a n x n−1 + ( n − 1) a n−1 x n−2 + ( n − 2) a n−2 x n−3 +  + 3a3 x 2 + 2a2 x + a1
For example, the derivative of the polynomials f ( x ) = 6 x 4 + 5x 3 − 3 , g( x ) = 2 x 5 − 3x 2 − 4 x , and

1 2
h( x ) = x − 2x + 5 is equal to f ′( x ) = (6 ⋅ 4) x 4−1 + (5 ⋅ 3) x 3−1 = 24 x 3 + 15x 2 , g ′( x ) = (5 ⋅ 2) x 4 − (2 ⋅ 3) x − 4
3
1 2
= 10x 4 − 6 x − 4 , and h′( x ) =  2 ⋅  x − 2 = x − 2 , respectively.
 3 3
Rule No. 8 - If the function f ( x ) and g( x ) are differentiable at x , then their quotient is also

′
 f f ′(x )g (x ) − g ′(x ) f (x )
  ( x) =
 g [ g (x ) ] 2
'
 f 
In other words, the derivative of the quotient of two differentiable functions,   ( x ) , is equal to
g
the derivative of the function in the numerator multiplied by the function in the denominator,
f ' ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) , minus the derivative of the function in the denominator multiplied by the function in
the numerator, g ' (x ) ⋅ f (x ) , all divided by the square of the denominator, [ g (x ) ] 2 . Note that this
rule is referred to as the quotient rule.
1 + 3x 3x 2 + 5
For example, the derivative of the functions f ( x ) = and g( x ) = is equal to f ′(x )
1+ x x3 +1
=
[ 3 ⋅ (1 + x ) ] − [ 1⋅ (1 + 3x ) ] = 3 + 3x − 1 − 3x
=
2
and g ′(x ) =
[ 6x ⋅ (x + 1) ]− [ 3x ⋅ (3x + 5) ]
3 2 2
(1 + x )2 (1 + x ) 2 (1 + x ) 2 (x + 1) 3 2
6 x 4 + 6 x − 9 x 4 − 15x 2 −3x 4 − 9 x 2
= =
( x + 1) ( x + 1)
3 2 3 2
In the following examples the above rules are used in order to find the derivative of various
functions:
Example 2.2-1: Differentiate the following functions.
a. f ( x ) = 5 + x b. f ( x ) = x 3 + 3x − 1 c. f ( x ) = 2 − x
d. f ( x ) = 10 x 3 + 5x 2 + 5 (
e. f (x ) = 3 x 2 + 2 x ) f. f ( x ) = ax 3 + bx 2 + c
x5 x4 x3 x2 10
g. f ( x ) = ax 2 + b h. f ( x ) = − + − i. f ( x ) =
10 4 6 4 x2
1 1 x2 + 2
j. f ( x ) = − k. f ( x ) =x −5 + 3 x −3 − 2 x −1 + 10 l. f ( x ) =
x x3 x4
x4 x 4 + 10 3+ x
m. f ( x ) = n. f ( x ) = o. f ( x ) =
1− x x +12
x3 − 5
 2 + x3 
p. f ( x ) =
2
x

 x +1 
 (
q. f ( x ) = x 2 + 1 ( x + 5) ) r. f ( x ) = ( x + 1)( x + 2)
1  1   3x 2 + 5  1+ x2
s. f (x ) = 1 +  1 − 3  t. f ( x ) =   ( x + 1) u. f ( x ) =
 x  x   x  1− x2
2 x 2 + 3x + 1 ax 2 + bx + c 3− x
v. f ( x ) = w. f ( x ) = x. f ( x ) =
x2 +1 ax 2 − b 1
−5
x
Solutions:
a. Given f ( x )= 5 + x then f ′( x ) = 0 + x1−1 = x0 = 1

b. Given f ( x ) = x3 + 3x − 1 then f ′ ( x ) = 3x3−1 + 3 ⋅ x1−1 − 0 = 3x 2 + 3 ⋅ x0 = 3x 2 + 3 ⋅1 = 3 x 2 + 3
c. Given f ( x )= 2 − x then f ′ ( x ) = 0 − x1−1 = − x0 = −1
d. Given f ( x ) = 10 x3 + 5 x 2 + 5 then f ′ ( x ) = 10 ⋅ 3x3−1 + 5 ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 0 = 30 x 2 + 10 x
( x ) 3( x 2 + 2 x ) then f ′ ( x ) = 3( 2 x 2−1 + 2 ⋅ x1−1 ) = 3 ( 2 x + 2 ⋅ x 0 ) = 3( 2 x + 2 ⋅ 1) = 6 x + 6

e. Given f =
f. Given f ( x ) = ax3 + bx 2 + c then f ′ ( x ) = a ⋅ 3x3−1 + b ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 0 = 3ax 2 + 2bx
x ) ax 2 + b then f ′ ( x ) = a ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 0 = 2ax

g. Given f (=
x5 x 4 x3 x 2 1 1 1 1
h. Given f ( x ) = − + − then f ′ ( x ) = ⋅ 5 x5−1 − ⋅ 4 x 4−1 + ⋅ 3x3−1 − ⋅ 2 x 2−1
10 4 6 4 10 4 6 4
5 4 4 3 3 2 2 x4 x3 x2 x
= x − x + x − x = − + − or, using the quotient rule we obtain
10 4 6 4 2 1 2 2
f ′( x ) =
(5x5−1 ⋅10) − ( 0 ⋅ x5 ) − ( 4 x4−1 ⋅ 4) − ( 0 ⋅ x4 ) + (3x3−1 ⋅ 6) − ( 0 ⋅ x3 ) − ( 2 x2−1 ⋅ 4) − ( 0 ⋅ x2 )
102 42 62 42
50 x 4 16 x3 18 x 2 8 x x4 x3 x2 x
= − + − = − + −
100 16 36 16 2 1 2 2
10
i. Given f ( x ) = 2 then f ′ ( x ) =
(
0 ⋅ x 2 − 2 x 2−1 ⋅10
=
) (
0 − ( 2 x ⋅10 ) )
−20x 20
= 4/ =3/ = − 3
2 4
x x2 ( )
x x x
( 0 ⋅ x ) − (1 ⋅1) − ( 0 ⋅ x ) − ( 3x ⋅1)
3 3−1
1 1 1 3x 2/ 1 3
j. Given f ( x )= − 3 then f ′ ( x ) = 2 2 = − 2
+ 6/ =4 =
− 2+ 4
x x x
( x3 ) x x x x
k. Given f ( x ) =x −5 + 3x −3 − 2 x −1 + 10 then f ′ ( x ) = −5 x −5−1 + 3 ⋅ −3x −3−1 − 2 ⋅ −1x −1−1 + 0
1 3 2
= −5 x −6 − 9 x −4 + 2 x −2 or, we can rewrite f ( x ) as f ( x ) = 5 + 3 − + 10 and then find f ′( x )
x x x
using the quotient rule.
f ′( x ) =
( 0 ⋅ x ) − ( 5 x ⋅1) + ( 0 ⋅ x ) − ( 3x ⋅ 3) − ( 0 ⋅ x ) − (1 ⋅ 2 ) + 0 =
5 4 3 2
−
5x 4
−
9x 2
+
2 5 x 4/
= − 10 −
9 x 2/ 2
+ 2
/ / =6 6/ =4
(x ) 5 2
(x ) 3 2
x10 x6 x2
2
x x x x

5 9 2
= − 6 − 4 + 2 = −5 x −6 − 9 x −4 + 2 x −2
x x x
x2 + 2
l. Given f ( x ) = 4 then f ′ ( x ) =
[ ( 2x 2 −1
) ][
+ 0 ⋅ x 4 − 4 x 4−1 ⋅ x 2 + 2 ( )]
=
[ 2x ⋅ x ]− [ 4x ⋅ ( x
4 3 2
+2 )]
x (x ) 4 2 x8
=
2 x5 − 4 x5 − 8 x3
=
−2 x5 − 8 x3
=
(
−2 x3/ x 2 + 4 ) =
(
− 2 x2 + 4 )
x8 x8 8/ =5
x x 5
m. Given f ( x) =
x4
then f ′( x ) =
[ 4x 4 −1
][
⋅ (1 − x ) − (0 − 1) ⋅ x 4 ] =
4 x3 (1 − x ) + x 4
=
4 x3 − 4 x 4 + x 4
2 2
1− x (1 − x ) 2 (1 − x ) (1 − x )
4 x3 − 3 x 4 4 x3 − 3 x4
= 2 = 2
(1 − x ) (1 − x )
x 4 + 10
n. Given f ( x ) = 2 then f ′ ( x ) =
[ ( 4x 4 −1
)(
+ 0 x 2 +1 − ) ] [ ( 2x 2 −1
)(
+ 0 x 4 + 10 )]
=
( ) (
4 x 3 x 2 + 1 − 2 x x 4 + 10 )
x +1 (x + 1)
2 2
( x + 1)
2 2
=
4 x5 + 4 x3 − 2 x5 − 20 x
=
2 x 5 + 4 x 3 − 20 x
=
(
2 x x 4 + 2 x 2 − 10 )
( x2 + 1)
2
( x + 1)
2 2
(x 2
+1 ) 2
3+ x
o. Given f ( x ) = 3 then f ′ ( x ) =
[ (0 + 1) ( x − 5) ]− [ ( 3x
3 3−1
)
− 0 ( 3 + x) ] =
( x3 − 5 ) − 3 x 2 ( 3 + x )
x −5 ( x − 5) 3 2
( x3 − 5 )
2
x3 − 5 − 9 x 2 − 3 x3 − 2x 3 − 9x 2 − 5
= =
( x3 − 5 )
2
(x 3
−5 ) 2
p. Given f ( x ) =
2  2 + x3 
  then f ′ ( x ) =    +

 ( 0 ⋅ x ) − (1 ⋅ 2 )   2 + x3    0 + 3x
3−1
( x + 1)  − (1 + 0 ) 2 + x3 ( ) ( )  2 
x  x + 1  x2
   2  
   x +1   ( x + 1)  x 
 
=
 3x 2 ( x + 1)  − 2 + x3
  ( )  2  2 + x3  2  3x3 + 3x 2 − x3 − 2 
= − 2  + = −
2  2 + x  2  2 x + 3x − 2 
3
+ 
3 2

 2   2
 ( x + 1)
2
 x  x + 1  x  ( x + 1)
2  x  x + 1  x  ( x + 1) 
   
q. Given f ( x ) =( x 2 + 1) ( x + 5) then f ′ ( x ) = ( )
 2 x 2−1 + 0 ( x + 5 )  + (1 + 0 ) x 2 + 1 
    ( ) = 2 x ( x + 5) + ( x 2 + 1)

= 2 x 2 + 10 x + x 2 + 1 = 3 x 2 + 10 x + 1
A second method would be to multiply the binomial terms by one another, using the FOIL
method, and then taking the derivative of f (x ) as follows:
f (x ) ( )
= x 2 + 1 (x + 5) = x 3 + 5 x 2 + x + 5 then f ′ ( x ) = 3x 3−1 + (5 ⋅ 2) x 2−1 + x1−1 + 0 = 3 x + 10 x + 1
2
r. Given f ( x ) =( x + 1)( x + 2 ) then f ′ ( x ) = (1 + 0 )( x + 2 )  + (1 + 0 )( x + 1)  = ( x + 2 ) + ( x + 1) = 2 x + 3

An alternative way is by multiplying the terms in parenthesis together and then taking the
derivative of the product, i.e.,
f ( x) = ( x + 1)( x + 2 ) = x 2 + 2 x + x + 2 then f ′ ( x ) = 2 x 2−1 + 2 ⋅1 + 1 + 0 = 2 x + 2 + 1 = 2 x + 3
 1 1   ( 0 ⋅ x ) − (1 ⋅ 1)  1 − 1  + 0 − ( 0 ⋅ x3 ) − ( 3x3−1 ⋅ 1)  1 + 1 

s. Given f (x ) = 1 +  1 − 3  then f ′ ( x ) = 0 +    
 x x   x2  x3  

x6   x
1 1 3x 2 1 1 1 3x 2 3x 2 1 1 3x 2/ 3x 2/
= − 2 1 − 3  + 6 1 +  = − 2 + 5 + 6 + 7 = − 2 + 5 +=6/ 4 + 7/ =5
x  x  x  x x x x x x x x x
1 1 3 3 4 3 1
= − 2 + 5+ 4 + 5 = 5+ 4 − 2
x x x x x x x
A perhaps simpler way is to write f (x ) in the following form:
f ′( x )
 1 
= 1 +  1 −
 x 
1 

x3 
( )(
= 1 + x −1 1 − x −3 ) then f ′ ( x ) = [ ( 0 − x )⋅ (1 − x ) ]+ [ ( 0 + 3x )⋅ (1 + x ) ]
−1−1 −3 −3−1 −1
[ ( )] [
= − x − 2 ⋅ 1 − x −3 + 3x −4 ⋅ 1 + x −1 ( )] ( )(
= − x −2 + x −2−3 + 3x −4 + 3x −4−1 ) = − x −2 + x −5 + 3x −4 + 3x −5
4 3 1
= 4 x −5 + 3x −4 − x −2 = + −
x5 x4 x2
t. Given
= f ( x)
 3x 2 + 5 
  ( x + 1) a

then f ′ ( x ) = 

[ ( 3 ⋅ 2x 2−1
)][ (
+ 0 x − 1⋅ 3x 2 + 5 ) ]  (x + 1) + 1⋅  3x 2
+ 5 

 
 x  x2 x 
     
 
 6 x 2 − 3 x 2 − 5    2   3 x 2 − 5    3 x2 + 5 
=  (x + 1) +  3 x + 5  =   ( x + 1 ) + 
  x  2
 x2      x    x 
u. Given f ( x) =
1 + x2
then f ′( x ) =
[ ( 0 + 2 x )(1 − x ) ]− [ ( 0 − 2 x )(1 + x ) ]
2 −1 2 2 −1 2
=
( )
2 x 1 − x2 + 2 x 1 + x2( )
1 − x2 (1 − x ) 2 2
(1 − x2 )
2

2x − 2x 3 + 2x + 2x 3 (2 x + 2 x ) − 2/ x 3/ + 2/ x 3/ 4x
= = =
4
x − 2x + 1 2
( 1− x )
2 2
(1 − x ) 2 2
v. Given f ( x ) =
2 x 2 + 3x + 1
then f ′ ( x ) =
[ ( 4x 2−1
)(
+ 3 + 0 x 2 +1 − ) ] [ ( 2x 2−1
)(
+ 0 2 x 2 + 3x + 1 )]
2
x +1 (x + 1)
2 2
=
[ (4x + 3) (x + 1) ]− [ 2x ( 2x
2 2
+ 3x + 1 )]
=
4/ x/ 3/ + 4 x + 3 x 2 + 3 − 4/ x/ 3/ − 6 x 2 − 2 x
=
− 3x 2 + 2x + 3
(x + 1) 2 2
(x + 1)
2 2
(x 2
+1 ) 2
w. Given f ( x ) =
ax 2 + bx + c
a then f ′ ( x ) =
[ ( 2ax 2−1
)( )] [
+ b ax 2 − b − 2ax 2−1 ax 2 + bx + c ( )]
2
ax − b ( ax 2
−b ) 2
=
[ (2ax + b) (ax − b) ] − [ 2ax ( ax
2 2
+ bx + c )]
=
2/ a/ 2/ x/ 3/ − 2abx + abx 2 − b 2 − 2/ a/ 2/ x/ 3/ − 2abx 2 − 2acx
( ax − b) 2 2
( ax 2
−b ) 2
− abx 2 − 2abx − 2acx − b 2 − abx 2 − 2a (b + c ) x − b 2

= =
( ax 2
−b ) 2
( ax 2
−b ) 2
 1     ( 0 ⋅ x ) − (1 ⋅1)  
 1  1
 −1 ⋅  x − 5   −   2  (3 − x )  − + 5  + 2 (3 − x )
3− x       x    x  x
x. Given f ( x) =
1
a then f ′ ( x ) = 2 = 2
−5 1  1 
x  − 5  − 5
 x   x 
1 3− x 1 3 1 3 2 3x − 2 x 2 5 3 x − 2 x 2 + 5 x3
− + 2 +5 − + 2 − +5 − +5 +
= x x = x x x
= x2 x = x3 1
= x3
1
2
1
2 1 10 x − 10 x 2 25 x − 10 x 2 + 25 x3
5   − + 25 +
 −   − 5 x2 x x3 1 x3
x  x 
=
5 x3 − 2 x 2 + 3 x
=
x/ 5 x 2 − 2 x + 3
=
( 5 x2 − 2 x + 3 )
25 x3 − 10 x 2 + x (
x/ 25 x 2 − 10 x + 1 25 x 2 − 10 x + 1 )
Example 2.2-2: Find f ′( 0) , f ′( 1) , and f ′(−2) for the following functions.
a. f (x ) = (x + 5) x 2 b. f ( x ) = 3x 2 + 1 c. f ( x ) = x −5 − 2 x −4 − 3x −2 + 1
1
d. f ( x ) = x −1 ( x + 2) e. f ( x ) = x 3 + 2 x + f. f ( x ) = x 2 ( x + 1)
x

g. f ( x ) =
x2 + 4
2
3x + 1
h. f ( x ) = x 5 − 2 x 2 + 3x + 10 ( )
i. f (x ) = x 2 + 3 (x − 1)
Solutions:
a. Given f (x ) = (x + 5) x 2 , then
f ′( x ) = (1 + 0 ) ⋅ x 2  +  2 x 2−1 ⋅ ( x + 5)  = x 2 + 2 x (x + 5) = x 2 + 2 x 2 + 10 x = 3x 2 + 10 x and
f ′( 0) = ( 3 ⋅ 02 ) + (10 ⋅ 0 ) = 0
f ′ (1) = ( 3 ⋅12 ) + (10 ⋅1) = 3 + 10 = 13
f ′ ( −2 ) = 3 ⋅ ( −2 )2  + (10 ⋅ −2 ) = ( 3 ⋅ 4 ) − 20 = 12 − 20 = −8
 
b. Given f ( x) = 3x 2 + 1 , then
f ′( x ) = (3 ⋅ 2) x 2−1 + 0 = 6x and
f ′( 0) = 6⋅0 = 0 f ′ (1) = 6 ⋅1 = 6 f ′ ( −2 ) = 6 ⋅ −2 = −12
c. Given f ( x ) = x −5 − 2 x −4 − 3x −2 + 1 , then
5 8 6
f ′( x ) = − 5 x −5−1 + (− 2 ⋅ −4) x −4−1 + (− 3 ⋅ −2) x −2−1 + 0 = −5 x −6 + 8 x −5 + 6 x −3 = − 6 + 5 + 3 and
x x x
5 8 6 5 8 6
f ′( 0) = − 6+ 5+ 3 = − + + f ′(0) is undefined due to division by zero
0 0 0 0 0 0
5 8 6 5 8 6
f ′ (1) = − 6+ 5+ 3 = − + + = 9
1 1 1 1 1 1
5 8 6 5 8 6
f ′ ( −2 ) = − 6
+ 5
+ 3 =
− + + = −0.078 − 0.25 − 0.75 = −1.078
( −2 ) ( −2 ) ( −2 ) 64 −32 −8
d. Given f ( x ) = x −1 ( x + 2) , then
x+2 1 1 2 1 2
f ′( x ) =  − x −1−1 ( x + 2 )  + (1 ⋅ x −1 ) =  − x −2 ( x + 2 )  + x −1 =  − 2  + = − − 2 + = − 2 and
 x  x x x x x
2 2
f ′( 0) = − 2 = − f ′(0) is undefined due to division by zero
0 0
2 2
f ′ (1) = − 2 = − = −2
1 1

2 2 1
f ′ ( −2 ) = − 2 =
− = −
( −2 ) 4 2
1
e. Given f ( x ) = x 3 + 2 x + = x 3 + 2 x + x −1 , then
x
f ′( x ) = 3x3−1 + 2 x1−1 − x −1−1 = 3x 2 + 2 − x −2 and
1 1 1
f ′ ( 0 ) = 3x 2 + 2 − x −2 = 3x 2 + 2 − 2 = 3 ⋅ 02 + 2 − 2 = 2 − f ′(0) is undefined due to division by zero
x 0 0
1 1 1
f ′ (1) = 3x 2 + 2 − x −2 = 3x 2 + 2 − 2 = 3 ⋅12 + 2 − 2 = 3 + 2 − = 3 + 2 − 1 = 4
x 1 1
1 1
f ′ ( −2 ) = 3x 2 + 2 − x −2 = 3 ⋅ ( −2 )2 + 2 − 2 =
3 ⋅ 4 + 2 − = 12 + 2 − 0.25 = 13.75
( −2 ) 4
f. Given f ( x ) = x 2 ( x + 1) , then
f ′( x ) =  2 x 2−1 ( x + 1)  + (1 ⋅ x 2 ) =  2 x ( x + 1)  + x 2 = 2 x 2 + 2 x + x 2 = 3x 2 + 2 x and
f ′( 0) = ( 3 ⋅ 02 ) + ( 2 ⋅ 0 ) = 0
f ′ (1) = ( 3 ⋅12 ) + ( 2 ⋅1) = 3 + 2 = 5
f ′ ( −2 ) = 3 ⋅ ( −2 )2  + ( 2 ⋅ −2 ) = ( 3 ⋅ 4 ) − 4 = 12 − 4 = 8
 
x2 + 4
g. Given f ( x ) = , then
3x 2 + 1
f ′( x ) = ( )   (
 3x 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 x  −  x 2 + 4 ⋅ 6 x 
)
 =
( 6 x3 + 2 x ) − ( 6 x3 + 24 x ) =
6 x3 + 2 x − 6 x3 − 24 x
= −
22 x
2 2 2 2
(3x2 + 1) (3x2 + 1) (3x2 + 1) (3x2 + 1)
22 ⋅ 0 0 0 0
f ′( 0) = − 2 = − 2 = − 2 = − = 0
(3 ⋅ 02 + 1) ( 0 + 1) 1 1
22 ⋅1 22 22 22
f ′ (1) = − 2 = − 2 =
− 2 = − = −1.375
(3 ⋅12 + 1) ( 3 + 1) 4 16
22 ⋅ −2 −44 44 44
f ′ ( −2 ) = − 2 = − 2 = 2 = 169 =
0.26
2
3 ⋅ ( −2 ) + 1 (12 + 1) 13
 

h. Given f ( x ) = x 5 − 2 x 2 + 3x + 10 , then
f ′( x ) = 5 x5−1 − 2 ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 3 + 0 = 5 x 4 − 4 x + 3
f ′( 0) = 5 ⋅ 04 − 4 ⋅ 0 + 3 = 0 − 0 + 3 = 3
f ′ (1) = 5 ⋅14 − 4 ⋅1 + 3 = 5 − 4 + 3 = 4
f ′ ( −2 ) = 5 ⋅ ( −2 )4 + ( −4 ⋅ −2 ) + 3 = ( 5 ⋅ 16 ) + 8 + 3 = 80 + 11 = 91
( )
i. Given f (x ) = x 2 + 3 (x − 1) , then
f ′( x ) [ (
= [ 2 x ⋅ (x − 1) ] + 1 ⋅ x 2 + 3 )] = 2 x 2 − 2 x + x 2 + 3 = 3x 2 − 2 x + 3
f ′( 0) = 3 ⋅ 02 − 2 ⋅ 0 + 3 = 0 − 0 + 3 = 3
f ′ (1) = 3 ⋅12 − 2 ⋅1 + 3 = 3 − 2 + 3 = 4
f ′ ( −2 ) = 3 ⋅ ( −2 )2 + ( −2 ⋅ −2 ) + 3 = 3 ⋅ 4 + 4 + 3 = 12 + 7 = 19
1
Example 2.2-3: Given g( x ) = + 1 and h( x ) = x , find f (x ) , f ′( x ) and f ′(0) .
x
x
a. f ( x ) = x g( x ) b. f ( x ) = 2 x 2 − 5h( x ) c. f ( x ) = g( x ) +
h( x )
d. h( x ) = 3x f ( x ) e. h( x ) = 1 − f ( x ) f. 3h( x ) = 2 x f ( x ) − 1
Solutions:
1
a. Given g( x ) = + 1 and f ( x ) = x g( x ) , then
x
1 
f ( x ) = x g (x ) = x ⋅  + 1 = 1 + x therefore f ′ ( x ) = 1 and f ′ ( 0 ) = 1
x 
b. Given h( x ) = x and f ( x ) = 2 x 2 − 5h( x ) , then

2
f ( x ) = 2 x 2 − 5h(x ) = 2 x 2 − 5 ⋅ x = 2 x − 5 x therefore f ′ ( x ) = (2 ⋅ 2 ) x 2−1 − 5 = 4 x − 5 and
f ′( 0) = (4 ⋅ 0) − 5 = −5
1 x
c. Given g( x ) = + 1 , h( x ) = x , and f ( x ) = g( x ) + , then
x h( x )
x 1  x 1  1 −1
f ( x) = g (x ) + =  + 1 + =  + 1 + 1 = +2 = x + 2 therefore f ′ ( x ) = − x −1−1 + 0
h( x ) x  x x  x
1 1 1
= − x −2 = − 2 and f ′ ( 0 ) = − 2 = − which is undefined due to division by zero.
x 0 0

d. Given h( x ) = x and h( x ) = 3x f ( x ) , then
h( x ) x 1
f ( x) = = = therefore, f ′ ( x ) = 0 and f ′ ( 0 ) = 0
3x 3x 3
e. Given h( x ) = x and h( x ) = 1 − f ( x ) , then

f ( x ) = 1 − h(x ) = 1 − x therefore, f ′ ( x ) = −1 and f ′ ( 0 ) = −1
f. Given h( x ) = x and 3h( x ) = 2 x f ( x ) − 1 , then
3h(x ) + 1 3x + 1 [ 2 x ⋅ 3] −  2 ⋅ ( 3x + 1)  6/ x − 6/ x − 2 2
f ( x) = = therefore, f ′ ( x ) = 2 = / 2/ = − 2
2x 2x ( 2x ) 4x 4x
1 1 1
= − 2 and f ′ ( 0 ) = − 2 = − which is undefined due to division by zero.
2x 2⋅0 0
Section 2.2 Practice Problems - Differentiation Rules Using the Prime Notation
1. Find the derivative of the following functions. Compare your answers with Practice Problem
number 1 in Section 2.1.
x 1
a. f (x ) = x 2 − 1 b. f (x ) = x 3 + 2 x − 1 c. f (x ) = d. f (x ) = −
x −1 x2
10 ax + b
e. f (x ) = 20 x 2 − 3 f. f (x ) = x 3 g. f (x ) = h. f (x ) =
x−5 cx
2. Differentiate the following functions:
a. f (x ) = x 2 + 10 x + 1 b. f (x ) = x 8 + 3x 2 − 1 c. f (x ) = 3x 4 − 2 x 2 + 5
(
d. f (x ) = 2 x 5 + 10 x 4 + 5 x ) e. f (x ) = a 2 x 3 + b 2 x + c 2 f. f (x ) = x 2 ( x − 1) + 3x
(
g. f (x ) = x 3 + 1 x 2 − 5 )( ) ( )
h. f (x ) = 3x 2 + x − 1 (x − 1) ( )
i. f (x ) = x x 3 + 5 x 2 − 4 x
x3 +1 x 5 + 2x 2 −1 x2
j. f (x ) = k. f (x ) = l. f (x ) =
x 3x 2 (x − 1) + 3x
1 2x x 3 + 3x − 1
m. f (x ) = x 2  2 +  n. f (x ) = (x + 1) ⋅ o. f (x ) =
 x x −1 x4
(
p. f (x ) = x 2 − 1  )
 2x 3 + 5 

 x
q. f (x ) =
3x 4 + x 2 + 2
x −1
r. f (x ) = x −1 +
x −2
1
 
3. Compute f ′(x ) at the specified value of x . Compare your answers with the practice problem
number 2 in Section 2.1.
a. f (x ) = x 3 at x = 1 b. f (x ) = 1+ 2 x at x = 0 c. f (x ) = x 3 + 1 at x = −1
d. f (x ) = x 2 (x + 2) at x = 2 e. f (x ) = x −2 + x −1 + 1 at x = 1 f. f (x ) = x + 2 at x = 10

4. Find f ′(0) and f ′(2) for the following functions:
a. f (x ) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 5 ( )
b. f (x ) = x 3 + 1 (x − 1) (
c. f (x ) = x x 2 + 1 )
d. f (x ) = 2 x 5 + 10 x 4 − 4 x e. f (x ) = 2 x −2 − 3x −1 + 5 x (
f. f (x ) = x −2 x 5 − x 3 + x )
x 1 ax 2 + bx
g. f (x ) = h. f (x ) = + x 3 i. f (x ) =
1+ x 2 x cx − d
5. Given f (x ) = x 2 + 1 and g (x ) = 2 x − 5 , find h(x ) and h ′(x ) .
a. h(x ) = x 3 f (x ) b. f (x ) = 3 + h(x ) c. 2 g (x ) = h(x ) − 1
d. 3h(x ) = 2 x g (x ) − 1 e. 3 [ f (x ) ] 2 − 2h(x ) = 1 f. h(x ) = g (x ) ⋅ 3 f (x )
g. 3h(x ) − f (x ) = 0 h. 2 g (x ) + h(x ) = f (x ) i. f (x ) = x 3 + 5 x 2 + h(x )

x3 +1
j. h(x ) = − f (x ) k. h(x ) = 2 f (x ) + g (x ) l. [ h(x ) ] 2 − f (x ) = 10
x
2 g (x ) 3 f (x ) 1 1
m. f (x ) = n. = o. f (x ) =
h( x ) h( x ) x h( x ) + 4

d
Calculus I 2.3 Differentiation Rules Using the Notation
dx
d
2.3 Differentiation Rules Using the Notation
dx
In the previous section the prime notation was used as a means to show the derivative of a
function. For example, derivative of the functions y = f ( x ) = x 2 + 3x + 1 was represented as
y ′ = f ′(x ) = 2 x + 3 . However, derivatives can also be represented by what is referred to as the
“double-d” notation. For example, the derivative of the function y = f (x ) = x 2 + 3x + 1 can be
dy d
shown as = f (x ) = 2 x + 3 . Following are the differentiation rules in the double-d notation
dx dx
form:
Rule No. 1 - The derivative of a constant function is equal to zero, i.e.,
d
if f ( x ) = k , then f ( x) = 0
dx
Rule No. 2 - The derivative of the identity function is equal to one, i.e.,
d
if f ( x ) = x , then f ( x) = 1
dx
d
Rule No. 3 - The derivative of the function f ( x ) = x n is equal to f ( x ) = n x n −1 , where n is a
dx
positive or negative integer.
Rule No. 4 (scalar rule) - If the function f ( x ) is differentiable at x , then a constant k
multiplied by f ( x ) is also differentiable at x , i.e.,
d d
dx
( k f ) x = k  dx f ( x )
[ ]
 
Rule No. 5 (summation rule) - If the function f ( x ) and g( x ) are differentiable at x , then their
sum is also differentiable at x , i.e.,
d d d
dx
[( f + g ) x ] = dx
f ( x) +
dx
g( x )
Rule No. 6 (product rule) - If the function f ( x ) and g( x ) are differentiable at x , then their
product is also differentiable at x , i.e.,
d  d d
 dx ( f ⋅ g ) (x ) =  f ( x ) g( x ) +  g( x ) f ( x )
   dx   dx 
Rule No. 7 - Using the rules 1 , 4 , 5 , and 6 we can write the formula for differentiating
polynomials, i.e.,
if f ( x ) = a n x n + a n−1 x n−1 + a n−2 x n−2 +  + a3 x 3 + a2 x 2 + a1 x1 + a0 then,
d
f ( x ) = n a n x n −1 + ( n − 1) a n −1 x n −2 + ( n − 2) a n −2 x n −3 +  + 3a3 x 2 + 2a 2 x + a1
dx
Rule No. 8 (quotient rule) - If the function f ( x ) and g( x ) are differentiable at x , then their
quotient is also differentiable at x , i.e.,

d
dx
d  d 
 d  f   dx f ( x ) g( x ) −  dx g( x ) f ( x )
   
    ( x) =
 dx  g   [ g( x )]2
Note 1 - depending on the letter used to express the terms of a function, the double-d notation of a
derivative is then shown as
da ( where a is equal to the letter used in the left hand side of the equation) .
db ( where b is equal to the letter used in the right hand side of the equation)
For example,
• if the function y is represented by f (x ) , i.e., y = f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 x , then its derivative is shown as
dy d
=
dx dx
f ( x) =
d 2
dx
(
x + 2x = 2x + 2 . )
• if the function y is represented by f (t ) , i.e., y = f (t ) = t 3 + 2t 2 + 4 , then its derivative is shown
as
dy d
=
dt dt
f (t) =
d 3
dt
(
t + 2t 2 + 4 = 3t 2 + 4t . )
• if the function u is represented by f (v ) , i.e., u = f ( v ) = v 3 + 3v , then its derivative is shown as
du d
=
dv dv
f (v ) =
d
dv
( )
v 3 + 3v = 3v 2 + 3 .
• if the function p is represented by f (r ) , i.e., p = f ( r ) = 2r 3 − 2r 2 − 3 , then its derivative is

shown as
dp d
=
dr dr
f (r) =
d
dr
(
2r 3 − 2r 2 − 3 = 3r 2 − 4r . )
• if the function y is represented by f (z ) , i.e., y = f ( z ) = z 5 + 3z 2 + 1 , then its derivative is shown
as
dy d
=
dz dz
f ( z) =
d 5
dz
(
z + 3z 2 + 1 = 5z 4 + 6z . )
• if the function v is represented by f (x ) , i.e., v = f ( x ) = x 8 + 4 , then its derivative is shown as
dv d
=
dx dx
f ( x) =
d 8
dx
( )
x + 4 = 8 x 7 , etc.
In the following examples the above rules are used in order to find the derivative of various
functions:
dy
Example 2.3-1: Find for the following functions.
dx
1
a. y = x 3 − 2 x 2 + 5 b. y = 4 x 5 − 3x 2 − 1 c. y = x 2 +
x
3x 2
d. y =
1+ x
e. y = 5x +
2x
2
x +1
(
f. y = x 3 x 2 + 1 )
(
g. y = (x + 1) x 2 − 3 ) h. y = 5 x (x + 1) i. y = 5 +
1− x
x
x − 3
j. y = x (x + 1) (x − 2) k. y = x 2   l. y = (x + 1) (x − 1)−2
 5 
Solutions:
dy d 3 d 3 d d
a.
dx
=
dx
(
x − 2 x2 + 5 ) =
dx
( )
x +
dx
(
−2 x 2 + ( 5)
dx
) = 3x 2 + ( −2 ⋅ 2 ) x + 0 = 3 x 2 − 4 x

d
dx
dy d
b.
dx
=
dx
(
4 x5 − 3 x 2 − 1 ) = dxd ( 4 x5 ) + dxd ( −3x2 ) + dxd ( −1) = (4 ⋅ 5) x 4 + (− 3 ⋅ 2) x + 0 = 20 x 4 − 6 x
c.
dy
dx
=
d  2 1
dx 
x + 
x
=
d
dx
(
x 2 + x −1 ) =
d 2
dx
x +
d −1
( )
dx
x ( ) 1
= 2x + ( − x −2 ) = 2x − x −2 = 2x − 2
x
( ) ( ) [ ( 1 + x )⋅ 6 x] − [ ( 3x 2 )⋅1]
 d 2   2 d 
dy d  3x 2  (1 + x ) dx 3x  −  3x dx (1 + x )  3 x2 + 6 x
d. =   =     = =
dx  1 + x  2 2
dx (1 + x ) ( 1 + x) 2 (1 + x )
dy d  2x  d d  2x  d 

( x2 + 1) dxd ( 2 x ) − 2 x dxd ( x2 + 1)
e. = 5x + 2  = (5x ) +  2  = (5x ) + 
dx  2
dx x +1 dx dx  x + 1  dx
( x2 + 1)

= 5+ 
( )
 x2 + 1 ⋅ 2 − [ 2 x ⋅ 2 x]

= 5+
2 x2 + 2 − 4 x2
= 5+
−2 x 2 + 2
2 2 2
( x2 + 1) ( x2 + 1) ( x 2 + 1)
dy d  3 2 d 3   3 d 2
f.
dx
=
dx 
(
x x + 1 
 ) = (
 2
) ( ) 
 x + 1 dx x  +  x dx x + 1 
   
( ) = ( x 2 + 1) ⋅ 3x 2 + x3 ⋅ 2 x = 5 x 4 + 3 x 2 or,
d
dy
dx
=
d  3 2
dx 
(
x x + 1 
 ) =
dx
( x +x ) =
5 3 d 5 d 3
dx
x +
dx
x = 5 x 5−1 + 3x 3−1 = 5 x + 3 x
4 2
dy d  d d 2
g.
dx
=
dx 
(
( x + 1) x 2 − 3  ) = (
 2
)   
 x − 3 dx ( x + 1)  + ( x + 1) dx x − 3 
   
( ) = ( )
 x 2 − 3 ⋅1 + ( x + 1) ⋅ 2 x 
  
= x 2 − 3 + 2 x 2 + 2 x = 3 x 2 + 2 x − 3 or,
dy
dx
=
d 
dx 
(
( x + 1) x 2 − 3  ) =
d
dx
(
x 3 − 3x + x 2 − 3 )= d 3 d 2 d
dx
x +
dx
x +
dx
(− 3x ) + d (− 3)
dx
= 3 x2 + 2 x − 3
dy d d d
h. = 5 x ( x + 1) = ( x + 1) ( 5 x )  + ( 5 x ) ( x + 1)  = ( x + 1) ⋅ 5 + [5 x ⋅1] = 5 x + 5 + 5 x = 10 x + 5 or,
dx dx  dx   dx 
dy
dx
=
d
dx
5 x ( x + 1) =
dx
( 5x + 5x) =
2 d
d
dx
d
5 x 2 + 5 x = (5 ⋅ 2 ) x 2−1 + 5 x1−1 = 10 x + 5
dx
 d   d 
dy d  1− x  d d 1− x  d  x dx (1 − x )  − (1 − x ) dx ( x )  [ x ⋅ −1] − (1 − x ) ⋅1
i. = 5+ = ( 5) +  = ( 5) +     = 0+
dx dx  x  dx dx  x  dx x2 x2

d
dx
−x −1+ x 1
= 2 = − 2
x x
dy d d  2 d 2
j.
dx
=
dx
[x (x + 1) (x − 2)] =
dx 
( )
x + x ( x − 2 ) 

= ( x − 2 )
 dx
(
x +x ) + ( x2 + x ) dxd ( x − 2)
= ( x − 2 ) ⋅ ( 2 x + 1)  + ( x 2 + x ) ⋅1 = 2 x 2 + x − 4 x − 2 + x 2 + x = 3 x 2 − 2 x − 2 or,
dy
dx
=
d
 x ( x + 1)( x − 2 ) 
dx 
=
d
dx
[( )
x 2 + x (x − 2 ) ] = dxd ( x 3
− 2x 2 + x 2 − 2x ) = dxd ( x 3
− x 2 − 2x )
=
d 3 d
dx
x +
dx
− x2 +
d
( )
dx
(− 2 x ) = 3x 3−1 + −2 x 2−1 − 2 x1−1 = 3x 2 − 2 x − 2 x 0 = 3 x 2 − 2 x − 2
dy d  2  x − 3   x − 3  d 2   2 d  x − 3   x −3
k.
dx
= x
dx   5 
=  
 5  dx
x + x
 
( ) ( )
dx  5 
= 
 5 
  2
 ⋅ 2x +  x
 
( ) ⋅  1⋅ 552− 0 
 2 x2 − 6 x   2 1  2 x2 − 6 x x2 2 x2 − 6 x + x2 3x 2 − 6 x 3 x ( x − 2)
= 

+x ⋅ 
 
= + = = = or,
 5  5 5 5 5 5 5
dy d  2  x − 3  d  x3 − 3 x 2 
 d 3
( 2   3
) (2 d 
5 dx x − 3x  −  x − 3x dx ( 5 ) 
   
)
= x =   =
dx dx   5  dx  5 
 52
=

( 2
) (
  3 2 
5 3x − 6 x  −  x − 3x ⋅ 0  ) =
(
5 3x 2 − 6 x − 0 ) =
(
5/ 3x 2 − 6 x ) =
3x 2 − 6 x
=
3 x ( x − 2)
2 2 2/ =1 5 5
5 5 5
dy d  d d
l. = −2
( x + 1)( x − 1)  = ( x − 1)−2 ( x + 1)  + ( x + 1) ( x − 1) 
−2
= ( x − 1)−2 ⋅1 + ( x + 1) ⋅ −2 ( x − 1)−3 
dx dx   dx   dx     
1 2 ( x + 1)
= ( x − 1)−2 − 2 ( x + 1)( x − 1)−3 = − or,
( x − 1) 2
( x − 1) 3
dy
=
d  −2
( x + 1)( x − 1)  =
d  x + 1 
=


2 d  
 
d 2
( x − 1) dx ( x + 1)  − ( x + 1) dx ( x − 1) 
 =
[ (x −1) ⋅1]2
dx dx  dx  ( x − 1)2  ( x − 1)
4
(x − 1)4
 
[ (x + 1)⋅ 2 (x − 1) ] (x − 1)2 − 2(x + 1) (x − 1) (x − 1)2/ − 2(x/ + 1/ ) (x − 1) 1 2 ( x + 1)

− = = = −
(x − 1) 4
(x − 1) 4
(x − 1) 4/ = 2
(x − 1) 4/ =3
( x − 1) ( x − 1) 3
2

d
dx
Example 2.3-2: Find the derivative of the following functions.
a.
d
dx
(
3x 2 + 5 x − 1 = ) b.
d
dx
(
8 x 4 + 3x 2 + x = ) c.
d
du [( )
u3 + 5 (u + 1) = ]
d.
d  2t 2 + 3t + 1

dt  t3
 =

e.
d
dt [( )
1 − t 2 (1 + t ) + t = ] f.
d  t 2 + 1
  =
dt  t 2 − 1
d  3  − 2t  d  u u2  d  s 3 + 3s 2 + 1
g. t   = h.  +  = i.   =
dt   4  du  1 − u 1 + u  ds  s3


j.
d  3
(  1 
 w + 1  
dw   w 
) = k.
d  2x 
  =
dx  1 + 2 x 
l.
d  s2 
  =
ds  1+ s 2 
[( ) ] d  4u 3 + 2 
d 3 2 d  x3 
m. t t + 1 ( 3t − 1) = n.   = o.  2  =
dt du  u 2  dx  x +1 
Solutions:
d
a.
dx
(
3x 2 + 5 x − 1 ) = dxd (3x2 ) + dxd (5x ) + dxd ( −1) = ( 3 ⋅ 2 ) x 2−1 + 5 x1−1 + 0 = 6 x + 5 x0 = 6 x + 5
d
b.
dx
(
8 x 4 + 3x 2 + x ) = dxd (8x4 ) + dxd (3x2 ) + dxd ( x ) = (8 ⋅ 4) x4−1 + (3 ⋅ 2) x2−1 + x1−1 = 32 x 3 + 6 x + 1
d  3 d 3 d
c. (
u + 5 ( u + 1)  ) = ( u + 1) (  
) (
u + 5  +  u3 + 5 )
( u + 1)  = ( u + 1) ⋅ 3u 2  + ( u3 + 5) ⋅1
du    du   du 
= 3u3 + 3u 2 + u3 + 5 = 4u3 + 3u2 + 5
d  2t 2 + 3t + 1 
3d 2
(   2
) ( d 3 
t dt 2t + 3t + 1  −  2t + 3t + 1 dt t 
   
) ( ) ( )
t 3 ⋅ ( 4t + 3)  −  2t 2 + 3t + 1 ⋅ 3t 2 
   
d.   = = 6
dt  t3 
 t 6
t
=
( 4t 4
)(
+ 3t 3 − 6t 4 + 9t 3 + 3t 2 )= 4t 4 + 3t 3 − 6t 4 − 9t 3 − 3t 2
=
−2t 4 − 6t 3 − 3t 2
=
− t 2 2t 2 + 6t + 3 ( )
t 6 t6 t6 t6
= −
(
t 2/ 2t 2 + 6t + 3 ) = − 2t 2
+ 6t + 3
6/ = 4 4
t t
e.
d 
dt 
( )
1 − t 2 (1 + t ) + t 

=
d
dt
[ (1 − t ) (1 + t ) ]+ dtd t =  (1 + t ) dtd (1 − t ) + ( 1 − t ) dtd ( 1 + t )  + 1
2 2 2
= {(1 + t ) ⋅ −2t  + (1 − t ) ⋅1} + 1 = ( −2t − 2t

2 2
+1− t2 +1) = −2t − 2t 2 + 1 − t 2 + 1 = −3t 2 − 2t + 2

d
dx
 2 d 2
(   2
) (
d 2 
) ( ) ( )  ( t 2 − 1) ⋅ 2t  −  ( t 2 + 1) ⋅ 2t 
 t − 1 dt t + 1  −  t + 1 dt t − 1   = ( 2t − 2t ) − ( 2t + 2t )
3 3
d  t2 +1   
f.   =     =
( t 2 − 1)
dt  t 2 − 1  2 2 2
2
t −1 ( ) (t 2 − 1)
2t 3 − 2t − 2t 3 − 2t − 4t
= 2 = 2
(t 2 − 1) ( t 2 − 1)
  d d 
4 (− 2t ) − (− 2t ) (4) 
d  3  2t   − 2t  d 3   3 d  − 2t   − 2t  2   3  dt dt 
g. t  −  =   t  + t   =   ⋅ 3t  + t
dt   4   4  dt   dt  4   4     4 2 
  

6t 3  3  [4 ⋅ −2] − [(− 2t ) ⋅ 0]  6t 3  3  − 8  6t 3 t 3 − 12t 3 − 4t 3 16t 3 3

= − + t   = − + t   = − − = = − = −2t
4   16  4   16  4 2 8 8
d  3  2t 
A second way of solving this problem is to simplify t  −  as follows:
dt   4 
 
d  3  2t  d  2t 4  / 4
 = d  − 2t  1 d 4 1 4t 3 3
t  −  = −   = − t = − ⋅ 4t 4−1 = − = −2t
dt   4  dt  4 
 dt  4/  2 dt 2 2
 2 
 d   d   d 2  2 d 
d  u u2  d  u  d  u2  (1 − u ) du u  − u du (1 − u )  (1 + u ) du u  − u du (1 + u ) 
h.  +  = +   =     +    
du  1 − u 1 + u  du  1 − u  du  1 + u  (1 − u )
2
(1 + u )
2
[(1 − u )⋅1] − [u ⋅ −1] + [(1 + u )⋅ 2u ] − [ u ]

2
⋅1 1− u + u 2u + u 2 − u 2 1 2u
= = 2
+ 2 = 2
+ 2
(1 − u )2 (1 + u )2 (1 − u ) (1 + u ) (1 − u ) (1 + u )
(
 3 d 3 2
 s ds s + 3s + 1 ) − ( s3 + 3s2 + 1) dsd s3   s 3 ⋅ ( 3s 2 + 6 s )  −  ( s 3 + 3s 2 + 1) ⋅ 3s 2 
d  s3 + 3s 2 + 1 
i.   =  =   
6

ds  s3 
 s6 s
=
( 3s 5
)(
+ 6 s 4 − 3s 5 + 9 s 4 + 3s 2 ) = 3s 5
+ 6s 4 − 3s5 − 9s 4 − 3s 2
=
−3s 4 − 3s 2
=
−3s 2 s 2 + 1
=
− 3 s2 +1 ( ) ( )
s 6 s6 s6 s 6/ =4 s4
j.
d  3
(  1 
 w + 1  
dw   w 
) =
d  3
dw 
(w + 1 w−1 
 ) =
d
dw
(
w3−1 + w−1 ) =
d 2 d −1
dw
w +
dw
w
1
= 2w − w−2 = 2w − 2
w
 d   d 
d  2x  (1 + 2 x ) dx ( 2 x )  − ( 2 x ) dx (1 + 2 x ) 
   
[(1 + 2 x )⋅ 2] − [2 x ⋅ 2] 2 + 4x − 4x 2
k. = = = 2 =
dx  1 + 2 x  (1 + 2 x )
2
(1 + 2 x ) 2
(1 + 2 x ) (1 + 2x )
2

d
dx
d  s2 


( 2 d 2  2 d
 
) 2 
 1 + s ds s  −  s ds 1 + s 

( ) ( )
 1 + s 2 ⋅ 2s  −  s 2 ⋅ 2s 
    2s + 2s3 − 2s3 2s
l.   = 2 = 2 = 2 = 2
ds  1 + s 2 
(1 + s2 ) (1 + s2 ) (1 + s2 ) (1 + s 2 )
d3 2 d 5 3 d 5 3
m.
dt 
( )
t t + 1 ( 3t − 1) 

=
dt 
( )
t + t ( 3t − 1) 

= ( 3t − 1)
 dt
(
t +t ) + (t 5 + t 3 ) dtd (3t − 1)
= ( 3t − 1) ⋅ ( 5t 4 + 3t 2 )  + ( t 5 + t 3 ) ⋅ 3 = (15t 5 + 9t 3 − 5t 4 − 3t 2 ) + ( 3t 5 + 3t 3 ) = 18t − 5t + 12t − 3t

5 4 3 2
Another way of solving this problem is by multiplication of the binomial terms using the FOIL
method prior to taking the derivative of the function as follows.
d3 2
dt 
( )
t t + 1 ( 3t − 1) 

=
d 3 3 2
dt
[ (
t 3t − t + 3t − 1 )] =
d
dt
(
3t 6 − t 5 + 3t 4 − t 3 ) = 18t 5 4
− 5 t + 12 t − 3 t
3 2
d  4u 3 + 2 
 2 d

3  
 
( 3 d 2
u du 4u + 2  −  4u + 2 du u 

) ( ) (u 2 ⋅12u 2 ) − ( 4u3 + 2) ⋅ 2u 12u 4 − 8u 4 − 4u
n.   = = =
du  u 2  u4 u4 u4
=
4u 4 − 4u
=
4u/ u 3 − 1
=
4 u3 − 1 (  u 3 −1  )
 u3 1
= 4 3  = 4 3 − 3
( ) 
 = 4  1 − 1 

4 4
/ =3 3  
u u u  u  u u   u3 
d  x 3 
 2


x +1
d 3  3 d
x − x
du   du
( 
x 2 +1 

) ( ) [ ( x + 1)⋅ 3x ]− ( x
2 2 3
⋅ 2x ) 3x 4 + 3x 2 − 2 x 4
o.   = = =
dx  x 2 +1 
x 2 +1
2
( ) ( x + 1) 2 2
( x + 1)
2 2
=
x 4 + 3x 2
=
x
2
(x 2
+3 )
( x + 1)
2 2
(x 2
+1 )
2
Example 2.3-3: Find the derivative of the following functions at the specified value.
d d  u 2 + 1
a.
dt
[
(t + 1)(t − 2) + 3t ] at t = 1 b.  
du  u3 − 1 
at u = 2
c.
d 

x −1 
 at x = 0 d.
 3
( 
d  x + 1 ( x − 1)  ) at x = 2
dx  ( x + 1)(2 x + 1)  dx  2x 2 
 
d  s 2 + 3s  d  z 2 + 3z − 5 
e.   at s = −1 f.   at z = 2
ds  s 2 + 1  dz  z 
Solutions:
d d d d d d
a. ( t + 1)( t − 2 ) + 3t  = ( t + 1)( t − 2 )  + ( 3t ) = ( t − 2 ) ( t + 1) + ( t + 1) ( t − 2 )  + ( 3t )
dt  dt  dt  dt dt  dt

d
dx
= ( t − 2 ) ⋅1 + ( t + 1) ⋅1 + 3 = ( t − 2 ) + ( t + 1) + 3 = t − 2 + t + 1 + 3 = 2t + 2
d
Therefore, at t = 1 ( t + 1)( t − 2 ) + 3t  = 2t + 2 = ( 2 ⋅1) + 2 = 2 + 2 = 4
dt 
( ) ( ) − (u 2 + 1) dud (u3 − 1)  ( u 3 − 1) ⋅ 2u  −  ( u 2 + 1) ⋅ 3u 2 

 3 d 2
d  u2 + 1   u − 1 du u + 1
b.   =  =    
( u3 − 1)
du  u 3 − 1  2 2
(u3 − 1)
=
2u 4 − 2u − 3u 4 − 3u 2
=
−u 4 − 3u 2 − 2u
= −
( 3
u u + 3u + 2 )
( u3 − 1)
2 2 2
(u3 − 1) (u3 − 1)
Therefore, at u = 2
d  u2 + 1 
 = −
(
u u 3 + 3u + 2 ) = −
2 ⋅  23 + ( 3 ⋅ 2 ) + 2 
  = −
2 ⋅16 32
2 = = −0.653
 3 −
du  u − 1 
u 3 −1
2
( ) ( 23 − 1)
2
7 49
d  x −1  d  x −1 


(2 d
)  
 
d 2 
 2 x + 3x + 1 dx ( x − 1)  − ( x − 1) dx 2 x + 3x + 1 

( )
c.   = =
dx  ( x + 1)( 2 x + 1)  dx  2 x 2 + 3x + 1  2
( 2 x2 + 3x + 1)
=
(
 )
 2 x 2 + 3x + 1 ⋅1 − ( x − 1) ⋅ ( 4 x + 3) 
  
=
( 2 x2 + 3x + 1) − ( 4 x2 + 3x − 4 x − 3) =
( 2 x2 + 3x + 1) − ( 4 x2 − x − 3)
2 2 2
( 2 x2 + 3x + 1) ( 2 x2 + 3x + 1) ( 2 x2 + 3x + 1)
2 x 2 + 3x + 1 − 4 x 2 + x + 3 −2 x 2 + 4 x + 4
= 2 = 2
( 2 x2 + 3x + 1) ( 2 x2 + 3x + 1)
Therefore, at x = 0
d 

x −1 
 =
−2 x 2 + 4 x + 4
=
( −2 ⋅ 02 ) + ( 4 ⋅ 0) + 4 =
4
= 4
dx  ( x + 1)( 2 x + 1)  2 2
( 2x 2
+ 3x + 1 ) ( )
 2 ⋅ 02 + [3 ⋅ 0] + 1

1
 3
( )
d  x + 1 ( x − 1) 

d  x 4 − x3 + x − 1 


2 d 4 3   4
 
3
( ) ( d 2 
 2 x dx x − x + x − 1  −  x − x + x − 1 dx 2 x 

) ( ) ( )
d.  = dx   =
dx  2 2 2

2 x
  2 x 
 2x 2
( )
( ) (
 2 x 2 4 x3 − 3 x 2 + 1  −  x 4 − x3 + x − 1 ⋅ 4 x 
    ) =
( 8 x5 − 6 x 4 + 2 x 2 ) − ( 4 x5 − 4 x 4 + 4 x 2 − 4 x )
4 x4 4 x4

d
dx
8 x5 − 6 x 4 + 2 x 2 − 4 x5 + 4 x 4 − 4 x 2 + 4 x
=
4 x5 − 2 x 4 − 2 x 2 + 4 x
=
2 x/ 2 x 4 − x3 − x + 2
=
(
2 x 4 − x3 − x + 2 )
4 4
4x 4x 4x 4
/ =3
2 x3
Therefore, at x = 2
 3
( 
d  x + 1 ( x − 1) 
=
)
2 x 4 − x3 − x + 2
=
2 ⋅ 24 − 23 − 2 + 2
=
24
= 1.5
( )
dx  2 x 2  2 x 3
2 ⋅ 23 16
   
d  s 2 + 3s 
 2
( d 2
) (   2 d 2
) (

 s + 1 ds s + 3s  −  s + 3s ds s + 1 
   
) ( ) ( )   (
 s 2 + 1 ( 2s + 3)  −  s 2 + 3s ⋅ 2s 
 )
e.   = 2 = 2
ds  s 2 + 1 
( s2 + 1) ( s2 + 1)
=
( 2s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 3) − ( 2s3 + 6s2 ) =
2s3 + 3s 2 + 2s + 3 − 2s3 − 6s 2
=
−3s 2 + 2s + 3
2 2 2
( s2 + 1) ( s2 + 1) ( s2 + 1)
 −3 ⋅ ( −1)2  + ( 2 ⋅ −1) + 3
d  s 2 + 3s  −3s 2 + 2s + 3   −3 − 2 + 3 1
Therefore, at s = −1   = 2 = 2 = = −
ds  s 2 + 1  22 2
(s 2
)
+1 ( )
 −12 + 1
 
d  z 2 + 3z − 5 
 d 2
(   2
) (d 
 z dz z + 3z − 5  −  z + 3z − 5 dz ( z ) 
   
) (
 z ⋅ ( 2 z + 3)  −  z 2 + 3z − 5 ⋅1
  )
f.   = 2
= 2
dz  z 
 z z
2 z 2 + 3z − z 2 − 3z + 5 z2 + 5
= =
z2 z2
d  z 2 + 3z − 5  z2 + 5 22 + 5 9
Therefore, at z = 2   = 2 = 2 = = 2.25
dz  z 
 z 2 4
Example 2.3-4: Given the functions below, find their derivatives at the specified value.
dy x 2 + 2x − 1 dv u2
a. , given y = at x = 2 b. , given v = at u = 4
dx x3 du 1− u
c.
dv
dx
(
, given v = x 3 + 1 3x 2 + 5 )( ) at x = 5 d.
du
dx
, given u =
3x
( x − 1) 2
at x = 2
Solutions:
dy d  x2 + 2 x − 1 
 3 d 2

(
 x dx x + 2 x − 1 ) − ( x2 + 2 x − 1) dxd ( x3 ) ( )( )
 x3 ( 2 x + 2 )  −  x 2 + 2 x − 1 3 x 2 
   
a. =   = 2 = 6
dx  x3 
dx  ( x3 ) x

d
dx
=
(
2 x 4 + 2 x3 − 3 x 4 + 6 x3 − 3 x 2 ) =
2 x 4 + 2 x3 − 3 x 4 − 6 x3 + 3 x 2
=
− x 4 − 4 x3 + 3 x 2
6
x 6
x x6
dy d  x2 + 2 x − 1  − x 4 − 4 x3 + 3 x 2 −24 − 4 ⋅ 23 + 3 ⋅ 22 −36
Therefore, at x = 2 = 
 3


= 6 = 6 = = −0.56
dx dx  x  x 2 64
( ) [(1 − u )⋅ 2u ] − [u 2 ⋅ −1]
 d 2   2 d 
dv d  u2  (1 − u ) du u  − u du (1 − u )  2u − 2u 2 + u 2 −u 2 + 2u
b. =   =     = = =
du  1 − u  2 2 2
du (1 − u ) (1 − u )2 (1 − u ) (1 − u )
dv d  u2  −u 2 + 2u − (4 )2 + (2 ⋅ 4 ) −16 + 8 −8
Therefore, at u = 4 =   = 2 = = = = −0.889
du du  1 − u  (1 − u ) (1 − 4) 2
(− 3) 2 9
dv d  3 dv dv
c.
dx
=
dx 
(
x + 1 3x 2 + 5 
 )( ) = ( 3x 2 + 5) ( x3 + 1) + ( x3 + 1) ( 3x 2 + 5) = ( 3x 2 + 5) ⋅ 3x 2 + ( x3 + 1) ⋅ 6 x
dx dx
= 9 x 4 + 15 x 2 + 6 x 4 + 6 x = 15 x 4 + 15 x 2 + 6 x
dv d  x2 + 2 x − 1 
Thus, at x = 5 =   = 15 x 4 + 15 x 2 + 6 x = 15 ⋅ 54 + 15 ⋅ 52 + 6 ⋅ 5 = 9375 + 375 + 30 = 9780
dx dx  x3 

 2 d   d 2 ( x − 1)2 ⋅ 3 − 3x ⋅ 2 ( x − 1) 
du d  3x  ( x − 1) du ( 3x )  − 3x du ( x − 1)      3 ( x − 1)2 − 6 x ( x − 1)
d. = =     = =
dx dx  ( x − 1)2  ( x − 1)
4
( x − 1)
4
( x − 1)4
 
=
( )
3 x 2 − 2x +1 − 6x 2 + 6x
=
3x 2 − 6 x + 3 − 6 x 2 + 6 x
=
− 3x 2 + 3
4
(x − 1) 4 ( x − 1) (x − 1)4
Therefore, at x = 2
du
=
d  3x 
=
− 3x 2 + 3
=
(− 3 ⋅ 2 )+ 3
2
=
−12 + 3
= −
9
= −9
dx dx  ( x − 1)2  (x − 1) 4
(2 − 1) 4 1 1
 
Section 2.3 - Differentiation Rules Using the d

dx
Notation
dy
1. Find for the following functions:
dx
1
a. y = x 5 + 3x 2 + 1 b. y = 3x 2 + 5 c. y = x 3 −
x
x2 1 x 2 + 2x
d. y = e. y = 4 x 2 + f. y =
1− x3 x −1 x3 +1
(
g. y = x 3 x 2 + 5 x − 2 ) h. y = x 2 (x + 3)(x − 1) i. y = 5 x −
1
x3

d
dx
j. y =
(x − 1)(x + 3) k. y = x
x −1 
l. y = x 2 (x + 3)−1
2

x  3 
x  x −3 1  1 2x −1 
m. y =    n. y = x 3 1 +  o. y =  
1+ x   5   x −1  x  3x + 1 
ax 2 + bx + c x3 − 2 5x
p. y = q. y = r. y =
bx 4
x −3 (1 + x ) 2
2. Find the derivative of the following functions:
a.
d
dt
(
3t 2 + 5t )= b.
d
dx
(
6 x 3 + 5x − 2 )= c.
d
du
(
u 3 + 2u 2 + 5 )=
d  t 2 + 2t  d  s 3 + 3s − 1  d  3 w 2 
d. = e. = f. w + =
dt  5  ds  s2 
 dw  1 + w 
g.
d 2
dt
[
t (t + 1) t 2 − 3 ( )] = h.
d
dx
[
(x + 1) x 2 + 5( )] = i.
d  u 2
−
u 
du  1 − u 1 + u 
=
d  3r 3 − 2r 2 + 1  d  3s 2 1  d  u 3 u + 1 
j. = k. −  = l. − =
dr  r 
 ds  s + 1 s 2
3 
 du  1 − u u 2 
3. Find the derivative of the following functions at the specified value.
a.
d 3
dx
(
x + 3x 2 + 1 ) at x = 2 b.
d
dx
[ ( x + 1) ( x − 1) ]
2
at x = 1 c.
d
ds
[ ] at s = 0
3s 2 (s − 1)
d  t 2 + 1  d  u3  d  w ( w + 1)
2
d. at t = −1 e.   at u = 1 f.   at w = 2
dt  t − 1  du  ( u + 1) 2  dw  3w 2 
g.
d
dv
[ ( v + 1)v ] at
2 3
v = −2 h.
d  x 3 
dx  x 2 +1 
at x = 0 i.
d  3  u 2 
u 
du   1 − u 
at u = 0
 
4. Given the functions below, find their derivatives at the specified value.
t 3 + 3t 2 + 1
a.
ds
dt
(
, given s = t 2 − 1 + (3t + 2) 2 ) at t = 2 b.
dy
dt
, given y =
2t
at t = 1
c.
dw
dx
, given w = x 2 + 1 ( )
2
+ 3x at x = −1 d.
dy
dx
(
, given y = x 2 x 3 + 2 x + 1 ) 2
+ 3x at x = 0

Calculus I 2.4 The Chain Rule
2.4 The Chain Rule

The chain rule is used for finding the derivative of the composition of functions. In general, the
chain rule for two and three differentiable functions are defined in the following way:
a. The chain rule for two differentiable functions f ( x ) and g( x ) is defined as:
d
( f  g )′ (x ) = { f [g (x )]} = f ′[ g( x ) ] ⋅ g ′( x )
dx
b. The chain rule for three differentiable functions f ( x ) , g( x ) and h( x ) is defined as:
d
( f  g  h) ′ ( x ) = [ f {g [h(x )]}] = f ′{g [h(x )]}⋅g ′[h(x )]⋅ h ′(x )
dx
The derivative of four or higher differentiable functions using the chain rule involves addition of
additional link(s) to the chain. Note that the pattern in finding the derivative of higher order
functions is similar to obtaining the derivative of two or three functions, given that they are
differentiable.
One of the most common applications of the chain rule is in taking the derivative of functions
that are raised to a power. In general, the derivative of a function to the power of n is defined as:
d n−1 d
dx
[ n
]
f ( x) = n f ( x) [ ⋅
dx
]
f ( x) = n f ( x) [ ]n−1 ⋅ f ′( x)
which means, the derivative of a function raised to an exponent, f ' (x ) , is equal to the exponent [ ] n
times the function raised to the exponent reduced by one, n [ f (x )] n −1 , multiplied by the derivative
of the function, f ' (x ) , i.e., n [ f (x )] n −1 ⋅ f ' (x ) .
Note that the key in using the chain rule is that we always take the derivative of the functions by
working our way from outside toward inside. The following examples show in detail the use of
chain rule in differentiating different types of functions. Students are encouraged to spend
adequate time working these examples.
Example 2.4-1: Find the derivative of the following functions. (It is not necessary to simplify
the answer to its lowest level. The objective is to learn how to differentiate using the chain rule.)
( )
3
a. f ( x ) = (3 − 5x ) −2 b. f ( x ) = (1 + x ) 6 c. f ( x ) = 1 + 2 x 2
3 3
( )
8  1  1
d. f ( x ) = x 3 − x 5 e. f ( x ) =  + x f. f ( x ) = 1 + 
 x2   x
2 2
( )  1   a x + b
4
g. f ( x ) = x + x 3 h. f ( x ) =   i. f ( x ) =  
1+ x2  cx −d
3 3 3
 1   θ2   r2 + r
j. f (t ) =   k. r(θ ) =   l. p(r ) =  
1+ t2  1+ θ   1+ r 
2
 t3  −1  3
( ) ( )
3 
m. g(u) = u3 + 3u 2 n. h( t ) =  + t 2  o. s(t ) =  1 + t 3 
 t 4 −1   

−1 −1 4
 x2 2x   θ   t3 
p. f ( x ) =  −  q. r(θ ) =   r. f (t ) =  
 3 5  1+ θ 2  1+ t2 
4 3
( ) ( ) ( )
 2   2  −3
s. f ( x ) =  x 3 + 2 x − x 2  t. f ( x ) =  x −1 + x −3 + x u. f ( x ) = 2 − x −1
   
5 −1
( ) ( )
 3   −3 
v. f ( x ) =  1 + 2 x 2 − x −2  w. f ( x ) =  2 − x −1 + 2x 3 
   
Solutions:
(
a. Given f ( x=) ( 3 − 5 x )−2 then f ′ ( x ) = − 2 ( 3 − 5 x )−2−1 ⋅ 0 − 5 x1−1 = − 2 ( 3 − 5 x )−3 ⋅ (− 5) = 10 ( 3 − 5 x )−3 )
(
b. Given f ( x )= (1 + x )6 then f ′ ( x ) = 6 ( 1 + x ) 6−1 ⋅ 0 + x1−1 = 6 ( 1 + x ) 5 ⋅1 = 6 ( 1 + x ) 5 )
3
c. Given f ( x )= (1 + 2 x 2 ) then f ′ ( x ) = 3 1 + 2 x 2 ( ) ⋅ ( 0 + 4 x ) = 3 (1 + 2 x )
3−1 2 −1 2 2
⋅ 4x (
= 12 x 1 + 2 x 2 ) 2
8
x ) ( x3 − x5 ) then f ′ ( x ) = 8 x 3 − x 5
d. Given f (= ( ) ⋅ ( 3x
8−1 3−1
− 5 x 5−1 ) = 8( x 3
− x5 ) ( 3x
7 2
− 5x 4 )
( ) ⋅ (− 2 x ) = 3 (x ) (− 2 x )
3 3 2
 1 3−1
e. Given f (=
x)

 2 + x = ( x −2 + x ) then f ′ ( x ) = 3 x −2 + x − 2 −1
+1
−2
+x −3
+1
x 
( ) ⋅ ( 0 − x ) = −3 x (1 + x−1 ) a
3 3 2
1 3−1
f. Given f ( x=) 1 +  = f ( x )= (1 + x −1 ) then f ′ ( x ) = 3 1 + x −1 −1−1 −2
 x
4
g. Given f ( x=) ( x + x3 ) then f ′ ( x ) = ( f  g )′ (x ) = 4 x + x 3 ( ) (1 + 3 x )
3 2
h. Given f ( x ) = 
1 
2
then f ′ ( x ) = 2 
 

1
2 −1 
⋅
[ ( 
 0 ⋅ 1 + x − [2 x ⋅1]
2

)] =  2 
⋅
−2 x
( )
 2  
 1 + x2   1 + x2  1 + x2 2
( )
2
1+ x   1+ x 2 
2 ⋅ −2 x −4 x −4 x
= = =
(1 + x )⋅ (1 + x )
2 2 2
(1 + x ) 2 1+ 2
(1 + x 2 )
3
2 2
 1 −1  −2
= (1 + x 2 ) = (1 + x 2 )

A second method is to rewrite f (x ) =  
2   and then take the
1+ x   
derivative of f ( x ) . Hence, f ′ ( x ) = − 2 1 + x 2 ( )−2 −1

⋅ ( 0 + 2x) = − 2 1+ x 2 ( )
−3
⋅ ( 2x) =
−4 x
3
(1 + x 2 )

2 −1
ax+b  
2
 ax + b   [a ⋅ (cx − d )] − [c ⋅ (ax + b )]
i. Given f ( x ) =   then f ′ ( x ) = 2   ⋅ 
cx−d   cx − d   (cx − d )2 
 a x + b   (acx − ad ) − (acx + bc )   a x + b   acx − ad − acx − bc   a x + b   − ad − bc 

= 2     = 2    / / / / //
 = 2    
 c x − d   (cx − d )2   c x − d   (cx − d )2   c x − d   (cx − d )2 
2 (a x + b )(− ad − bc ) − 2 (a x + b )(ad + bc ) −2 ( ax + b ) ( ad + bc )
= = = 3
(c x − d )(cx − d ) 2
(c x − d ) 1+ 2
( cx − d )
1
3
 1 
j. Given f ( t ) =  2  then f ′ ( t ) = 3  
3−1 
⋅
( 
0 ⋅ 1 + t 2 − 2t ⋅1 ) = 3 
 1
2
  − 2t



1+ t  2 
1+ t  
 1+ t 2 (
2 
 )  1 + t 2   1 + t 2 ( )2

3 −2t 3 ⋅ −2t −6t − 6t

= ⋅ = = =
2
(1 + t 2 ) (1 + t 2 )
2
(1 + t ) ⋅ (1 + t )
2 2 2 2
(1 + t ) 2 2+ 2
(1 + t 2 )
4
3
 1 −1  3 −3
= (1 + t 2 ) = (1 + t 2 )

A second method is to rewrite f (t ) =  
2   and then take the
1+ t   
derivative of f ( t ) . Hence, f ′ ( t ) = − 3 1 + t 2 ( ) −3−1

⋅ ( 0 + 2t ) = − 3 1+ t 2( ) −4
2t =
− 6t
4
(1 + t 2 )
k. Given
 θ2
r (θ ) = 
3

 then r ′ (θ ) =
 θ2
3


3−1
 [2θ ⋅ (1 + θ )] − 1 ⋅θ 2
⋅
[ ] = 3  θ 

2
2
 2θ + 2θ 2 − θ 2 
 
1+θ   1+θ   (1 + θ )2  1+θ   (1 + θ )2 
     
=
3θ 4
⋅
θ 2 + 2θ
=
(
3θ 4 ⋅ θ 2 + 2θ ) =
3θ 4 ⋅θ (θ + 2 )
=
3θ 4+1 (θ + 2 )
=
3θ
5
(θ + 2)
4
(1 + θ ) (1 + θ )
2 2
(1 + θ ) ⋅ (1 + θ )
2 2
(1 + θ ) 2+ 2
(1 + θ ) 4
(1 + θ )
l. Given
 r2 + r 
p(r ) =  
3
then p′ ( r ) =
 r2 +r 
3 
3−1
 [( 2r + 1) ( 1 + r )] − 1 ⋅ r + r
⋅
2
[( )]
 1+ r   1+ r   ( 1 + r )2 
   
2 2 2
 r2 +r   2r + 2r 2 + 1 + r − r 2 − r   r (1/ + r/ )  r + 2r + 1   (1/ + r/ )2/  2
= 3    = 3    = 3r 2   = 3r 2 ⋅1 = 3r
 (1+ r)
   ( 1 + r )2   (1/ + r/ )   ( 1 + r )2   (1/ + r/ )2/ 

3 3 3
 r2 +r   r (1 + r )   r (1/ + r/ ) 
A simpler way is to note that p(r ) =   =   =   = r 3 then p′ ( r ) = 3r 2
 (1/ + r/ ) 
 1+ r   (1 + r ) 
 
3
u ) ( u 3 + 3u 2 ) then g ′ ( u ) = 3 u 3 + 3u 2
m. Given g (= ( ) ⋅ [ 3u
3−1 2
+ ( 3 ⋅ 2) u ] = 3(u 3
+ 3u 2 ) ( 3u
2 2
+ 6u )
n. Given=
 t3
h (t )  4

+ t2 
2
then h′ ( t ) =
 t3
2

+t2 
2 −1
[(
 4 2 3 3
 t − 1 ⋅ 3t − t ⋅ 4t − 0
⋅
) ][ (


+ 2t 
)]
 t −1



 t 4 −1


  t 4 −1
2
( )

 t3   3t 6 − 3t 2 − 4t 6   t3   − t 6 − 3t 2 
= 2  4 + t 2   + 2t  = 2  4 + t 2   + 2t 
 t −1 

( t − 1)
4 2 
  t −1   t4 −1 ( ) 2 

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = −3(1 + t )
3 −4
−1  −3 −3−1
o. Given s(t ) =  1 + t 3  = 1 + t
3
then s ′ ( t ) = − 3 1 + t 3 ⋅ 0 + 3t 2 3
⋅ 3t 2

−4 9t 2
= −9t 2 (1 + t 3 ) = − 4
(1 + t 3 )
−1 −1−1 −2
 x2 2 x  x 2x  2  2 2 x 2x 2  2 2
p. Given f (=
x) 
 3
−  then f ′ ( x ) = −  −  ⋅ x −  = −  −   x− 
 5   3 5  3 5  3 5  3 5
q. Given  θ 
r (θ ) = 
−1
then r ′ (θ ) =
 θ 
−
−1−1 1 ⋅

⋅
(1 + θ 2 ) − 2θ ⋅θ  =
 θ 
−
−2 


1 + θ 2 − 2θ 2 
   2 
1+θ 2  1+θ 2  2
1+θ 2 

 (1 + θ 2 )   1+θ 2
 ( 
 )
2/
=  θ 
−
−2
⋅
1−θ 2
=
1+θ 2 
−  ⋅
1−θ 2
2
= −
(1 + θ 2 ) ⋅
1−θ 2 1−θ
= − 2
2
=
θ2 − 1

1+θ 2  2  θ  2
θ2 2/ θ2
(1 + θ 2 )   1+θ 2 ( ) (1 + θ 2 ) θ
r. Given
 t3 
f (t ) =  
4
then f ′ ( t ) =
 t3 
4 
4 −1 
⋅
2 2
( 3
 3t ⋅ 1 + t − 2t ⋅ t 

) = 4 
3 
 t 3   3t 2 + 3t 4 − 2t 4 
1+ t2  1+ t2  2 1+ t2   2 
    

1+ t2 ( 
 )   

1+ t2 ( 
 )
=
4t 9
⋅
3t 2 + t 4
=
4t 9
⋅
(
t2 3 + t2 ) =
(
4t 9+ 2 3 + t 2 )= 4t 11 3 + t 2 ( )
3
(1 + t 2 ) (1 + t 2 )
2 3
(1 + t 2 ) (1 + t 2 )
2
(1 + t ) 2 3+ 2
(1 + t 2 )
5

4
( ) ( ) ⋅ ( 3x )
4−1
2 2  2−1 
s. Given f ( x ) = ( x3 + 2 x ) − x 2  then f ′ ( x ) = 4  x 3 + 2 x  
 
− x2  ⋅  2 x 3 + 2 x 2
+ 2  − 2 x
      
( ) {[ 2( x )( )] }
3
 2 
= 4  x 3 + 2x − x2 ⋅ 3
+ 2x 3x 2 + 2 − 2x
 
( ) ( ) (− x )
3 3−1
2 2  2 −1  
t. Given f ( x ) = ( x −1 + x −3 ) + x  then f ′ ( x ) = 3  x −1 + x −3
    −1 −3 −2
+ x  2 x + x − 3 x − 4  + 1
       
( ) {[2 ( x ) (− x )] }
2
 2 
= 3  x −1 + x − 3 + x −1
+ x −3 −2
− 3 x −4 + 1
 
u. Given f ( x=) ( 2 − x −1 )
−3
then f ′ ( x ) = − 3 2 − x −1 ( )
−3−1
(
⋅ 0 + x −2 ) = −3(2 − x ) −1 −4 − 2
x =
−3x −2
4
( 2 − x−1 )
3
= − 4
(
x 2 2 − x −1 )
5
( ) ( )
3 5−1
3 3−1
(1 + 2 x ) − x  then f ′ ( x ) = 5  1 + 2 x
  
2   
v. Given f ( x ) = 2 −2
− x −2  ⋅ 3 1 + 2 x 2 ⋅ 4 x + 2 x − 2−1 
     
( ) ( )
4
 3   2 
= 5  1 + 2x 2 − x − 2  12 x 1 + 2 x 2 + 2 x −3 
   
−1
( ) ( )
−3 −1−1
−3 −3−1 − 2
( 2 − x ) + 2 x 
     
w. Given f ( x ) = −1 3
then f ′ ( x ) = −  2 − x −1 + 2 x3  ⋅ − 3 2 − x −1 ⋅ x + 6 x2 
     
−3 −2 −4
= −  ( 2 − x −1 ) + 2 x 3  ( )
   −2 
 −3 x 2 − x −1 + 6 x2 
   
Example 2.4-2: Find the derivative at x = 0 , x = −1 , and x = 1 in example 2.4-1 for problems a - g.
Solutions:
a. Given f ′( x) = 10 ( 3 − 5x ) −3 , then
−3 1 10
f ′( 0) = 10 3 − ( 5 ⋅ 0 )  = 10[3 − 0]−3 = 10 ⋅3−3 = 10 ⋅ 3 = = 0.37
3 27
−3 1 10
f ′ ( −1) = 10 3 − ( 5 ⋅ −1)  = 10[3 + 5]−3 = 10 ⋅8−3 = 10 ⋅ 3 = = 0.019
8 512

−3 −3 1 10 10
f ′ (1) = 10[ 3 − ( 5 ⋅ 1)] = 10[ 3 − 5] = 10 ⋅ ( −2) −3 = 10 ⋅ 3 = = − = −1.25
( −2) −8 8
b. Given f ′( x ) = 6 (1 + x ) 5 , then
f ′( 0) = 6 (1 + 0 )5 = 6 ⋅15 = 6 ⋅1 = 6
f ′ ( −1) = 6 (1 − 1)5 = 6 ⋅ 05 = 6 ⋅ 0 = 0
f ′ (1) = 6 (1 + 1)5 = 6 ⋅ 25 = 6 ⋅ 32 = 192
( )
2
c. Given f ′( x ) = 12 x 1 + 2 x 2 , then
f ′ ( 0 ) = ( 12 ⋅ 0 ) [ 1 + ( 2 ⋅ 0 ) ]
2
2
= 0 ⋅ ( 1 + 0 ) 2 = 0 ⋅ 12 = 0 ⋅ 1 = 0
f ′ ( −1) [
= ( 12 ⋅ −1) 1 + 2 ⋅ (− 1)2 ] 2
= − 12 ( 1 + 2) 2 = − 12⋅ 3 2 = −12⋅ 9 = −108
f ′ (1) [ ( ) ] = 12 (1 + 2) = 12⋅ 3 = 12⋅ 9 = 108

= ( 12 ⋅1) 1 + 2 ⋅12
2 2 2
d. Given f ′( x ) = 8 ( x − x ) ( 3x − 5 x ) , then
3 5 7 2 4
f ′( 0) = 8 ( 0 − 0 ) [ 3 ⋅ 0 − 5 ⋅ 0 ] = 8 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 0 = 8 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 0 = 0
3 5 7 2 4 7
f ′ ( −1) [
= 8 (− 1)3 − (− 1)5 ] [ 3 ⋅ (− 1)
7 2
− 5 ⋅ (− 1)4 ] = 8 [− 1 + 1] 7
[ 3 ⋅1 − 5 ⋅1] = 8 ⋅ 07 ⋅ −2 = 8 ⋅ 0 ⋅ −2 = 0
f ′ (1) (
= 8 13 − 15 ) [ 3 ⋅1
7 2
− 5 ⋅ 14 ] = 8 ( 1 − 1) 7
( 3 ⋅1 − 5 ⋅1) = 8 ⋅ 07 ( 3 − 5 ) = 8 ⋅ 0 ⋅ −2 = 0
2
( )(  1
)
  2
2 
e. Given f ′( x ) = 3 x −2 + x −2 x −3 + 1 = 3 + x  − + 1 , then
 x2   x3 
2 2
 1   2  1   2 
f ′( 0) = 3  + 0   − + 1 = 3  + 0   − + 1  f ′ (0) is undefined due to division by zero.
0 2
  0 3
  0   0 
2
 1   2 
f ′ ( −1) = 3 − 1  − + 1 = 3 (1 − 1) 2 (2 + 1) = 3 ⋅ 02 ⋅ 3 = 0
 (− 1) 2   (− 1) 3 
   
2
 1   2 
f ′ (1) = 3  2 + 1  − 3 + 1 = 3 (1 + 1) 2 (− 2 + 1) = 3 ⋅ 22 ⋅ −1 = 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ −1 = −12
1   1 
2
 1
f. Given f ′( x ) = −3x −2 1 + x −1 ( )
2
= −
(
3 1+ x −1 2
) = −
3 1 + 
 x
, then
2
x x2

2 2
 1  1
3 1 +  3 1 + 
 0  0
f ′( 0) = − = − f ′ (0) is undefined due to division by zero.
02 0
2
 1 
3 1 + 
 − 1 3 (1 − 1) 2 3⋅ 02 0
f ′ ( −1) = − = − = − = − = 0
(− 1)2 1 1 1
2
 1
3 1 + 
 1 3 (1 + 1) 2 3⋅ 2 2 3⋅ 4
f ′ (1) = − = − = − = − = −12
1 2 1 1 1
g. Given f ′( x ) = 4 x + x 3 ( ) (1 + 3x ), then
3 2
f ′( 0) (
= 4 0 + 03 ) (1 + 3 ⋅ 0 ) = 4 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 1 = 4 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 1 = 0
3 2 3
f ′ ( −1) [
= 4 − 1 + (− 1)3 ] [1 + 3 ⋅ (− 1) ]
3 2
= 4 ⋅ (− 1 − 1) 3 ⋅ ( 1 + 3) = 4 ⋅ (− 2) 3 ⋅ 4 = 4 ⋅ (−8) ⋅ 4 = −128
f ′ (1) (
= 4 1 + 13 ) (1 + 3 ⋅1 ) = 4 ⋅ (1 + 1) ⋅ (1 + 3) = 4 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 4 = 4 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 4 = 128
3 2 3 3
Example 2.4-3: Use the chain rule to differentiate the following functions. Do not simplify the
answer to its lowest term.
4
( ) ( ) ( )
d 2 5 d  2 3  d  2 3 
a. x +3 = b.  x + 5 + 1 = c.  u + 1 (u + 5) =
dx dx   du  
( ) ( )
 2 5  3 3
d  t +3 d  θ + 2θ 

( )
d  2 2 4
d.   = e.   = f.  r r +3  =
dt  t − 1  dθ  (θ + 1) 2  dr  
   
8
g.
d  2
du 
(
u +4 )(
6 3
u −1 

) = h.
d  3

dt 
( 3
t + 2t 2 + 1 t 2 + t + 1  =

)( ) i.
d  x 3 + 3x 
 
dx  1 − x 2 
=
3 2
d  ( 2 x + 5)  d  (1 − x ) 
2
d  x + 2
j.   = k.   = l.   =
dx  x − 2  dx  (1 + x ) 2  dx  x 3 + 2 x 
   
4
1 
( )( )
d  2 d  3 3 4
m. x + 3  = n.  2x + 1 x 2 + 1  =
dx  x + 5 dx  
Solutions:
a.
d 2
dx
(
x +3 )
5
(
= 5 x2 + 3 ) 5−1 d
dx
(
x2 + 3 ) = 5(x 2
+3) 4
⋅ 2x = 10 x ( x 2 + 3 )
4
4
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 −1 3
( )
d  2 3  3 d  2 3 3  3−1 d 
b.  x + 5 + 1 = 4  x 2 + 5 + 1 

x + 5 + 1 = 4  x 2 + 5 + 1 ⋅ 3 x 2 + 5 x 2 + 5 + 0
dx     dx      dx 

( ) (x )
3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3 2
3 2 3 2  
= 4  x 2 + 5 + 1 ⋅ 3 x 2 + 5 ⋅ 2 x  = 4  x 2 + 5 + 1 ⋅ 6 x x 2 + 5 = 24 x  x 2 + 5 + 1 2
+5
       
( )
d  2 3  d 2 3  3 d  3−1 d  
c. 
du 
u + 1 (u + 5)


= ( u + 5 )
 du
(
u + 1  +  u2 + 1
 
)
du


(



)
( u + 5)  = ( u + 5) ⋅ 3 u 2 + 1
du
u2 + 1 
 
( ) ( )
 2
( 3 
+  u + 1 ⋅1
 
) 
(
= (u + 5) ⋅ 3 u 2 + 1 ⋅ 2u   + u 2 + 1
  
) 2 
( ) 3
= 6u ( u + 5 ) ( u 2 + 1) + ( u 2 + 1)
2 3
5 5 5−1 d 5 
(
 2
d  t +3 )
5

 d 2
( t − 1) dt t + 3

( )  − (t 2 + 3) d
dt

( t − 1) 



2
( t − 1) ⋅ 5 t + 3 ⋅ (
dt )
 
t 2 + 3  −  t 2 + 3 ⋅1
  
( ) ( )
d.   = 2 = 2
dt  t − 1  ( t − 1) ( t − 1)
 
 2
(
( t − 1) ⋅ 5 t + 3 ) 4 
(
⋅ 2t  − t 2 + 3

) 5
(
10t ( t − 1) t 2 + 3 − t 2 + 3 ) (
4
)
5
= = 2
( t − 1)2 ( t − 1)
 3
(
d  θ + 2θ 
3
)

(θ + 1)
2 d
dθ
3 
(
θ 3 + 2θ  −  θ 3 + 2θ
3 d
dθ
2
(θ + 1)  ) ( )

( θ + 1) ⋅ 3 θ + 2θ

2 3
⋅(
3−1 d
dθ

θ 3 + 2θ 

) ( )
e. =     =
  4
dθ  (θ + 1) 2  (θ + 1) ( θ + 1) 4
 
3 2 3

(
−  θ 3 + 2θ

) ⋅ 2 (θ + 1)
2 −1
⋅
d
dθ

(θ + 1) 



2 3 2
(
  3 
(θ + 1) ⋅ 3 θ + 2θ ⋅ 3θ + 2  −  θ + 2θ ⋅ 2 (θ + 1) ⋅1
  
) ( ) ( )
= 4 = 4
(θ + 1) (θ + 1)

 3 ( θ + 1) θ + 2θ
2 3
( ) ( 3θ
2 2  
)
+ 2  −  2 θ 3 + 2θ
 
( ) 3
( θ + 1)

=
( θ + 1) 4
( )
d  2 2 4 4 d   d 2 4 4 4 −1 d
f. 
dr 
r r +3 

= (
 2
 r +3
 dr   dr
)
r 2  + r 2 r +3 

( ) =
 2
(   2
) 2
 r + 3 ⋅ 2r  +  r ⋅ 4 r + 3
  
⋅
dr

r2 + 3 

( ) ( )
4 3 4 3 3
= 2r ( r 2 + 3) +  4r 2 ( r 2 + 3) ⋅ 2r  = 2r ( r 2 + 3) + 8r 3 ( r 2 + 3) = 2r ( r 2 + 3 ) ( )
   r 2 + 3 + 4r 2 
 
 
( ) (u − 1) = (u − 1) dud (u + 4)  + (u + 4) dud (u − 1) = ( u − 1)⋅ 6 ( u ) ( )

d  2 6 3 6 6 3 2 6 −1 d 
g. u +4 3 2 2 3
+4 ⋅ u2 + 4 
du  du 
 2

( 6 2
+  u + 4 ⋅ 3u 

) 
( ) (
5
 
6

) 
5
 
(6
=  u 3 − 1 ⋅ 6 u 2 + 4 ⋅ 2u  + 3u 2 u 2 + 4  = 12u u 3 − 1 u 2 + 4  + 3u 2 u 2 + 4 

) ( )( ) ( )

(
= 3u u 2 + 4 ) [ 4 ( u − 1) + u ( u
5 3 2
+4 )]
h.
d  3
dt 
( )(
t + 2t 2 + 1 t 2 + t + 1 ) 3  2
(
 =  t + t + 1

) dtd ( t
3 3
) (
 
+ 2t 2 + 1  +  t 3 + 2t 2 + 1
 
d 2
dt
t + t +1 ) ( ) 3



( 3
) (  

) ( 3−1 d
dt
) (

 
3
)
=  t 2 + t + 1 ⋅ 3t 2 + 4t  +  t 3 + 2t 2 + 1 ⋅ 3 t 2 + t + 1 ⋅ t 2 + t + 1  =  t 2 + t + 1 ⋅ 3t 2 + 4t 

( ) ( ) ( )
 3

( 2 2 2
) ( 
+  t + 2t + 1 ⋅ 3 t + t + 1 ⋅ (2t + 1)

) (
= t2 + t +1 ) {[ t ( t
2 2
) ][ (
+ t + 1 ( 3 t + 4 ) + 3 t 3 + 2 t 2 + 1 ( 2 t + 1) ) ]}
d  x 3 + 3x 
8
 x 3 + 3x 
8−1
d  x 3 + 3 x 
7
 x 3 + 3 x  

1− x 2
d
dx
( 
 
) (
x 3 + 3x  −  x 3 + 3x
d
dx

1− x 2 

) ( ) ( )
i.   = 8  ⋅  = 8  ⋅
dx  1 − x 2   1− x 2 
  dx  1 − x 2   1− x 2 
  1− x 2
2
( )
 x 3 + 3x 
7
[( )( )] [(
1 − x 2 ⋅ 3 x 2 + 3 − x 3 + 3 x ⋅ (− 2 x ) ) ]  x 3 + 3x  1− x2
7
[( )( 3 x 2
)] [ (
+ 3 + 2x 2 x 2 + 3 )]
= 8  ⋅ = 8   ⋅
 1− x 2 
  1− x 2
2
( )  1− x 
2 
(1 − x ) 2 2
 d d
2 2 −1 ( x − 2) ( x + 2 )  − ( x + 2 ) ( x − 2 ) 
d  x + 2  x+2 d  x+2  x + 2   dx   dx 
j.   = 2  ⋅  = 2 ⋅
dx  x − 2   x−2 dx  x − 2   x−2 ( x − 2)
2
x+2  ( x − 2 ) ⋅1 − ( x + 2 ) ⋅1  x + 2  x/ − 2 − x/ − 2  x+2 −4 8( x + 2 )

= 2  ⋅ 2 = 2 ⋅ = 2 ⋅ = − 3
 x−2 ( x − 2)  x − 2  ( x − 2 )2  x − 2  ( x − 2 )2 ( x − 2)
 3−1 d
3
 2 d 3  3 d 2
(1 + x ) dx ( 2 x + 5 )  − ( 2 x + 5 ) dx (1 + x )  ( 1 + x ) ⋅ 3 ( 2 x + 5 )
2
( 2 x + 5)
d  ( 2 x + 5)       dx 
k.   = 4 =
dx  (1 + x ) 2 
  (1 + x ) ( 1 + x) 4
−

(2 x + 5) ⋅ 2(1 + x )

3 2 −1 d
dx
(1 + x )

=
[( 1 + x) 2
⋅ 3 ( 2 x + 5) 2 ⋅ 2 − ] [ ( 2 x + 5) 3
⋅ 2 ( 1 + x ) ⋅1 ] =
[6 ( 1 + x) 2
( 2 x + 5) 2 ]
(1 + x )4 ( 1 + x) 4 ( 1 + x) 4
−
[ 2 ( 2 x + 5) 3
( 1 + x )]
=
2(1/ + x/ ) (2 x + 5)2 [3(1 + x ) − (2 x + 5) ]
=
2(2 x + 5)2 (3 + 3 x − 2 x − 5)
=
2
2( 2 x + 5) ( x − 2)
3
( 1 + x) 4 (1 + x )4/ =3 (1 + x )3 (1 + x )
d  (1 − x ) 2 
 3

( d
) 2 
 
2 d 3 
 x + 2 x dx (1 − x )  − (1 − x ) dx x + 2 x 

( )  3
( )
 x + 2 x ⋅ 2 (1 − x )

2 −1 d
dx

⋅ (1 − x ) 

l.   = 2 = 2
dx  x 3 + 2x 
  ( x3 + 2 x ) ( x3 + 2 x )

 ( 1 − x )2 ⋅ ( 3 x 2 + 2 )   2 ( x3 + 2 x ) ( 1 − x ) ⋅ −1 −  ( 1 − x ) 2 ( 3 x 2 + 2 ) 
 ( ) ( )
 − 2 x 3 + 2 x (1 − x )  − (1 − x ) 2 3 x 2 + 2 
       
− = =
( x3 + 2 x ) ( x3 + 2 x )
2 2 2
( x3 + 2 x )
4 4 −1 3
d  2 1  1  d  1   1  d 2 d  1 
m. x + 3
dx 

x + 5
= 
4  x2 + 3


x +5
⋅  x2 + 3
dx  
x +5
= 4  x 2 +
 3  ⋅ 
x +5  dx
x +  3
dx
( ) 
 x + 5 
 2
3

1  
 3 d   d 3
(
 x + 5 dx (1)  − 1 ⋅ dx x + 5
  
) ( )   2
3
1   3 x2 

= 4 x + 3  ⋅ 2x + 2
 = 4 x + 3  2 x − 2
 x +5 


3
x +5 ( ) 


 x +5 

x3 + 5 
 ( )
( )( )
d  3 3 4 4 d 3  3 d 4
n. 
dx 
2x + 1 x 2 + 1 

= (
 2
 x +1
 dx
) (  
)
2 x3 + 1  +  2 x3 + 1
dx
(
x2 + 1 

) ( )
( ) ⋅ 3(2 x + 1)
4 3−1 d 3 4 −1 d  4 2 

( ) (
=  x 2 + 1 ⋅ 3 2 x3 + 1

) ⋅
dx
(  
) (
2 x3 + 1  +  2 x3 + 1 ⋅ 4 x 2 + 1
 
) ( ⋅
dx
)

 
(
x2 + 1  =  x 2 + 1 ) 3
⋅ 6x 2 

+ ( 2 x3 + 1)3 ⋅ 4 ( x 2 + 1)3 ⋅ 2 x  = 18 x 2 ( x 2 + 1)4 ( 2 x 3 + 1)2  + 8 x ( 2 x 3 + 1)3 ( x 2 + 1)3 

   
     
In some instances students are asked to find the derivative of a function y , where y is a function
of u and u is a function of x . We can solve this class of problems using one of two methods.
The first method, and perhaps the easiest one, is performed by substituting u into the y equation
and taking the derivative of y with respect to x . The second method is to find the derivative of
dy dy du
y by using the equation = ⋅ . This method is most often used in calculus books and can
dx du dx
be time consuming. For example, let’s find the derivative of the function y = u 2 + 1 where u = x + 1
using each of these methods.
First Method: Given the function y = u 2 + 1 where u = x + 1 , substitute u with x + 1 in the function
y and simplify, i.e., y = u 2 + 1 = ( x + 1)2 + 1 = x 2 + 2 x + 1 + 1 = x 2 + 2 x + 2 . Next, take the derivative
of y with respect to x , i.e.,

dy
dx
=
dy 2
dx
(
x + 2x + 2 ) = 2x 2 −1
+ 2 x1−1 + 0 = 2x + 2 .
dy du dy
Second Method: Given the function y = u 2 + 1 where u = x + 1 , find and , i.e., =
du dx du
du dy du
2u 2−1 + 0 = 2u and = x1−1 + 0 = x 0 = 1 . Next, substitute and in the equation
dx du dx
dy dy du dy dy
= ⋅ to find the derivative , i.e., = 2u ⋅1 = 2u . Substituting u = x + 1 in place of u we
dx du dx dx dx
dy
obtain = 2u = 2 (x + 1) = 2 x + 2 .
dx

The second method is generally beyond the scope of this book, therefore the first method is used
in order to solve this class of problems. Examples 2.4-4 and 2.4-5 below provide additional
examples as to how these types of problems are solved.
dy
Example 2.4-4: Find given:
dx
1
a. y = and u = 3x + 1 b. y = u 2 + 2u + 1 and u = 3x + 2
1+ u
u x +1
c. y = 2
and u = 5x + 1 d. y = u 2 + 1 and u =
1+ u x2 −1
( )
1+ u −1
e. y = and u = x 2 + 1 f. y = u3 + 1 and u = x 2 + 1
u3
Solutions:
1 1 1
a. Given y = and u = 3x + 1 , then y = = and
1+ u 1 + ( 3x + 1) 3x + 2
 d   d 
dy ( 3x + 2 ) dx (1)  − 1 ⋅ dx ( 3x + 2 )  0−3 3
=     = = −
dx 2 2 2
( 3x + 2 ) ( 3x + 2 ) ( 3 x + 2)
b. Given y = u 2 + 2u + 1 and u = 3x + 2 , then y = ( 3x + 2) 2 + 2( 3x + 2) + 1 = ( 3x + 2) 2 + 6 x + 5 and

dy d 2 d d d
= ( 3x + 2 ) + 6 x + 5 = 2 ( 3x + 2 )2−1 ⋅ ( 3x + 2 ) + 6 + 0 = 2 ( 3x + 2 ) ⋅ 3 + 6 = 18 ( x + 1)
dx dx dx dx dx
u (5x + 1)
c. Given y = 2
and u = 5x + 1 , then y = 2
and
1+ u 1 + ( 5x + 1)
dy
=


2 d  
 
d  2 
 1 + ( 5 x + 1)  dx ( 5 x + 1)  − ( 5 x + 1) ⋅ dx 1 + ( 5 x + 1)  
 =
{[ 1 + ( 5x + 1) ]⋅ 5 }− [( 5x + 1)⋅ 2 ( 5x + 1)⋅ 5 ]
2
dx 1 + ( 5 x + 1)2 
 
2
[1 + ( 5x + 1) ] 2 2
=
[ ][
5 1 + ( 5 x + 1) 2 − 10 ( 5 x + 1) 2 ] =
5 + 5 (5 x + 1) 2 − 10 (5 x + 1) 2
=
5 − 5 (5 x + 1) 2
[1 + ( 5x + 1) ] 2 2
[1 + (5x + 1) ] 2 2
[1 + ( 5 x + 1) ]
2 2
2
x +1  x +1 
d. Given y = u 2 + 1 and u = , then y =   +1 and
x2 −1  x 2 − 1
dy   x + 1 2−1 d  x + 1  
 2
 x + 1  
x −1 (
d
dx )
 
d
( x + 1)  − ( x + 1) ⋅ x 2 − 1 
dx 
( )
= 2   ⋅  2  + 0 = 2 2  ⋅
  x2 − 1  2
dx

dx  x − 1  
  x −1 x −12
( )
= 2 ⋅
 2
(  
)
 x + 1   x − 1 ⋅1 − ( x + 1) ⋅ 2 x 

=
 
 x + 1   x2 − 1 − 2 x2 − 2 x 
2 ⋅

x + 1  x2 + 2 x + 1 
= 2  2  ⋅  −

    2 
 x2 − 1  2
 x 2 − 1   2
x2 − 1 ( ) 
x2 − 1 ( 
 )  x − 1   x 2 − 1 
 ( ) 

2 2 3 3
x + 1 ( x + 1) ( x + 1)( x + 1) ( x + 1)  x +1 
= −2  2  ⋅ 2 =
−2 2 = −2 3 =
−2  2 
 x −1
( x2 − 1) ( x2 − 1)( x2 − 1) ( x2 − 1)  x −1
e. Given y =
1+ u 2
and u = x + 1 , then y =
(
1+ x 2 + 1 ) =
x2 + 2
u3
( x + 1) ( x + 1)
2 3 2 3
3 d 3 3 2 d
dy
 2
(
 x +1 ⋅
 dx )
 
(
x2 + 2  −  x2 + 2 ⋅
 
d 2
dx ) (
x +1 

) ( ) 
(
 2
)
  2
 
2
 x + 1 ⋅ 2x −  x + 2 ⋅ 3 x + 1 (
dx ) (

x2 + 1 

) ( )
= 6 = 6
dx
( x2 + 1) ( x2 + 1)
3  2 3 2
 2
( 2
) 2
( ) (

2x x + 1  −  x + 2 ⋅ 3 x + 1 ⋅ 2x 
   
) 
(
2
2 x x + 1

)  
 2
( 2
 − 6 x x + 2 x + 1 )( ) 

= 6 = 6
( x2 + 1) ( x 2 + 1)
−1  3
( ) ( ) ( )
2 −1  −3
f. Given y = u + 1 and u = x + 1 3
, then y =  x2 +1  +1 = x2 +1 +1
 
 
= −3( x 2 + 1) ⋅ ( x + 1) + 0 = −3( x + 1) ⋅ 2 x = −6 x ( x + 1) = −
dy −3−1 d 2 2 −4 2 −4 6x
 4
dx  dx  ( x + 1)
2
Example 2.4-5: Find y ′ given that:

3u 2
a. y = 3u3 − 1 and u = x 2 + 1 b. y = and u = x 2
1+ u
u +1 1 − 5u
c. y = and u = x 2 + 3 d. y = 2 and u = 1 − x
u −1 u
u 1
e. y = 2
and u = 2 x − 1 f. y = u + and u = (2 x − 1) 4
u +1 4
2u 1+ x
g. y = 2
and u = x + 2 h. y = u 4 − 1 and u =
(u − 1) 1− x
Solutions:
( )
3
a. Given y = 3u3 − 1 and u = x 2 + 1 , then y = 3 x 2 + 1 − 1 and
y′ = 3⋅3 x 2 +1 ( ) 3−1
⋅ 2x − 0 ( )
= 9 x 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 x = 18 x ( x 2 + 1)
2 2
3u 2 3x 4
b. Given y = and u = x 2 , then y = and
1+ u 1+ x 2
y′ =  (  )( )
 3 ⋅ 4 x 4−1 ⋅ 1 + x 2  −  2 x ⋅ 3x 4 

=
( )
12 x3 1 + x 2 − 6 x5
=
12 x3 + 6 x5
=
(
6 x3 2 + x2 )
2 2 2 2
(1 + x2 ) (1 + x2 ) (1 + x2 ) (1 + x 2 )

c. Given y=
u +1
and u = x + 3 , then y = 2( x + 3) + 1 = x + 4 and 2
2
u −1
( x + 3) − 1 x + 2 2 2
y′ =
[ 2x 2 −1
⋅ ( x + 2 ) ]− [ 2 x
2
⋅ ( x + 4) ]
=
[ 2x ( x + 2) ]− [2x ( x + 4) ]
2 −1 2 2 2
=
2 x3 + 4 x − 2 x3 − 8 x
=
−4 x
( x + 2) 2 2
( x + 2) 2 2
( x2 + 2 )
2
( x 2 + 2)
2
1 − 5u 1 − 5(1 − x ) 1 − 5 + 5x 5x − 4
d. Given y = 2
and u = 1 − x , then y = 2
= 2
=
u (1 − x ) (1 − x ) (1 − x ) 2
y′ =
[ 5 ⋅ (1 − x) ]− [ 2 ( 1 − x)
2 2−1
⋅ −1 ⋅ ( 5 x − 4) ] =
2
5 (1 − x ) −  −2 (1 − x )( 5 x − 4 ) 
=
5 ( 1 − x ) 2 + 2 ( 1 − x ) ( 5 x − 4)
4
( 1 − x) 4 (1 − x ) ( 1 − x) 4
=
( ) (
5 x2 − 2 x + 1 + 2 5x − 4 − 5x2 + 4 x ) =
5 x 2 − 10 x + 5 − 10 x 2 + 18 x − 8
=
−5 x 2 + 8 x − 3
4 4 4
(1 − x ) (1 − x ) (1 − x )
u 2x − 1
e. Given y = 2
and u = 2 x − 1 , then y = and
u +1 ( 2 x − 1) 2 + 1
2 2 −1 2
2 ⋅ ( 2 x − 1) + 1 −  2 ( 2 x − 1) ⋅ 2 ⋅ ( 2 x − 1)  2 ⋅ ( 2 x − 1) + 1 −  4 ( 2 x − 1) ⋅ ( 2 x − 1) 
y′ =     =  
2 2
( 2 x − 1)2 + 1 ( 2 x − 1)2 + 1
   
=
2
2 ( 2 x − 1) + 2 − 4 ( 2 x − 1)
2
=
2 − 2 ( 2 x − 1)
2
=
[
2 1 − (2 x − 1)2 ] =
−2 [ ( 2 x − 1) 2
−1 ]
( 2 x − 1)2 + 1
 
2
( 2 x − 1)2 + 1
 
2
[ (2x − 1) + 1] 2 2
[ ( 2 x − 1) 2
+1 ] 2
1 1
f. Given y = u + and u = ( 2 x − 1) 4 , then y = ( 2 x − 1) 4 + and
4 4
3
y′ = 4 ( 2 x − 1)4−1 ⋅ 2 + 0 = 4 ( 2 x − 1)3 ⋅ 2 = 8 ( 2 x − 1)
2u 2( x + 2) 2x + 4
g. Given y = 2
and u = x + 2 , then y = 2
=
(u − 1) ( x + 2 − 1) ( x + 1) 2
y′ =
[ 2 ⋅ ( x + 1) ]− [ 2 ( x + 1)
2 2 −1
⋅ ( 2 x + 4) ] =
2
2 ( x + 1) − 2 ( x + 1)( 2 x + 4 )
=
( ) (
2 x2 + 2 x + 1 − 2 2 x2 + 6 x + 4 )
4 4
( x + 1) 4
( x + 1) ( x + 1)
=
2 x 2 + 4 x + 2 − 4 x 2 − 12 x − 8
=
−2 x 2 − 8 x − 6
=
(
− 2 x 2 + 4x + 3 )
( x + 1)
4
( x + 1)
4
( x + 1) 4

4
1+ x 1+ x 
h. Given y = u 4 − 1 and u = , then y =   − 1 and
1− x  1− x 
 1+ x 
4 −1 [1⋅ (1 − x )] − [− 1⋅ (1 + x )] 3
1 + x  (1 − x ) + (1 + x ) 1+ x 
3
2
y′ = 4  ⋅ −0 = 4   ⋅ 2 = 4   ⋅ 2
 1− x  (1 − x )2 1− x  (1 − x )  1 − x  (1 − x )
3
 (1 + x )3 2  8 (1 + x )3 8 (1 + x )
= 4 ⋅  = = 5
 (1 − x )3 (1 − x )2  (1 − x )3+ 2 (1 − x )
Section 2.4 Practice Problems - The Chain Rule
1. Find the derivative of the following functions. Do not simplify the answer to its lowest term.
(
a. y = x 2 + 2 ) 3
(
b. y = x 2 + 1 ) −2
(
c. y = x 3 − 1 ) 5
2 4
  2 
1  1 1+ x
d. y = 1 −  e. y = 2 x 3 + f. y =  3 
 x2  3x 2  r 
[ ]
3 −1
x +1 3 x
g. y = x 2   h. y = x ( x + 1)2 + 2 x i. y =  − 2 x 3 
 3  3 
3
(
j. y = x + 3x + 1 3 2
) 4
k.
 t2
y=
1+ t 2



(
l. y = 1 + x −2 )
−1
 
2
m. y =
(x + 1)−2 n. y = 
 
 +
1 1
o. y =
x3
− x2
3 3 x 3
x 1− x  x +2
2. Find the derivative of the following functions at x = 0 , x = 1 , and x = −1 .

2
(
a. y = x 3 + 1 ) 5
(
b. y = x 3 + 3x 2 − 1 ) 4
c. y = 
x 
 +1
x

3
d. y = x x + 1 ( 2
) 2 3
e. y = x + 2 x + 1 ( 2
) 3
f.
 x2
y=
1+ x 2



 
5 2
g. y = 
 

x
(
h. y = x 2 + 1 ⋅ ) 3 1
i. y = 
 x3 
 + 5x
x −1 
2
 x +1 x2  
3. Use the chain rule to differentiate the following functions.
a.
d  (t + 1)3 
 2  = b.

(
d  u 2 +1 ) 3 
 = c.
d

 ( 2 x + 1) 3 
 =
dt  t  du  3u 4  dx  ( 1 − x ) 2 
 
d.
d  3 2
( 
x − 1 ( 2 x + 1) 3  = ) e.
d  3
s − 2
1 

2
= f.

(
d  t 2 −1 
3
) =

dx  ds dt  t 2 + 1 
  s + 6
 

2 2  
g.
d  2
(
 u +1  )
3 1  
  = h.
d  θ 2 +3 
  = i.
d  r7  =
du 
  u + 1   dθ  ( θ − 1) 
3 dr  2
(
 r + 2r ) 3

4. Given the following y functions in terms of u find y ′ .

u u
a. y = 2u 2 − 1 and u = x − 1 b. y = and u = x3 c. y = and u = x 2 + 1
u −1 1 + u2
1 1 u2
d. y = u 2 − and y = x 4 e. y = u 4 and u = f. y = and u = x − 1
2 1− x 2 (u + 1)3

Calculus I 2.5 Implicit Differentiation
2.5 Implicit Differentiation

In many instances an equation is explicitly represented in the form where y is the only term in
the left-hand side of the equation. In these instances y ′ is obtained by applying the
differentiation rules to the right hand side of the equation. However, for cases where y is not
explicitly given, we must either first solve for y (if y can be factored) and then differentiate or
use the implicit differentiation method. For example, to differentiate the equation x y = x 2 + y we
can either solve for y by bringing the y terms to one side of the equation and then differentiate
as follows:
x2
x y = x2 + y ; x y − y = x 2 ; y( x − 1) = x 2 ; y = therefore, y ′ is equal to:
x −1
y′ =
[2x 2 −1
][ ]
⋅ (x − 1) − 1 ⋅ x 2
=
[2 x(x − 1)] − x 2
=
2x 2 − 2x − x 2
=
2
x − 2x
2
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)2 ( x − 1) 2 ( x − 1)
or, we can use the implicit differentiation method as shown below.
2x − y
x y = x2 + y ; (1⋅ y + y ′ ⋅ x ) = 2 x 2 −1 + y ′ ; y + y ′x = 2 x + y ′ ; y ′x − y ′ = 2 x − y ; y ′( x − 1) = 2 x − y ; y ′ =
x −1
x2
Substituting y = into the y ′ equation we obtain:
x −1
x2 2 x( x − 1) − x 2 2 x( x − 1) − x 2
y′ =
2x − y
=
2x −
x −1 = x −1 = x −1 =
[2 x( x − 1) − x ]⋅1 =
2 2
x − 2x
x −1 x −1 x −1 x −1 ( x − 1) ⋅ ( x − 1) ( x − 1)
2
Note that the key in using the implicit differentiation method is that the chain rule must be
applied each time we come across a term with y in it. Following are additional examples
showing the two methods of differentiation when y is not explicitly given:
Example 2.5-1: Given xy + x = y + 3 , find y ′ .
Solution:
First Method: Let’s solve for y by bringing the y terms to the left-hand side of the equation,
−x + 3
i.e., xy + x = y + 3 ; y (x − 1) = − x + 3 ; y =
x −1
We can now solve for y ′ using the differentiation rule for division.
[− 1⋅ (x − 1)] − [1⋅ (− x + 3)] − x/ + 1 + x/ − 3 −2
y′ = = = 2
(x − 1)2 (x − 1) 2
( x − 1)
Second Method: Use the implicit differentiation method to solve for y ′ , i.e., given
y +1
xy + x = y + 3 then, (1 ⋅ y + y ′ ⋅ x ) + 1 = y ′ + 0 ; y +1 = y ′ − y ′x ; y ′(1 − x ) = y + 1 ; y ′ =
1− x

−x + 3
x −1
−x + 3 −x + 3 1
[(− x + 3)⋅1] + [1⋅ (x − 1)] − x/ + 3 + x/ − 1 2 2
+1 +
y +1 x −1 x −1 1 (x − 1)⋅1 x −1 x −1 x −1
y′ = y′ = = = = = = =
1− x 1− x 1− x 1− x 1− x 1− x 1− x
1
2 ⋅1 2 2 −2
= = = − =
(x − 1)⋅ (1 − x ) (x − 1)⋅ −(x − 1) (x − 1)(x − 1) ( x − 1)
2
Example 2.5-2: Given x 2 y + 5 = y + 2 x , find y ′ .

Solution:
First Method: Let’s solve for y by bringing the y terms to the left-hand side of the equation,
( )
i.e., x 2 y − y = 2 x − 5 ; y x 2 − 1 = 2 x − 5 ; y =
2x − 5
x2 −1
We can now solve for y ′ using the differentiation rule for division.
y′ =
[2 ⋅ (x − 1)]− [2x
2 2 −1
⋅ (2 x − 5) ] =
2 x 2 − 2 − 4 x 2 + 10 x
=
2
−2 x + 10 x − 2
(x − 1) 2 2
( x2 −1 )
2
(x 2
−1 )
2
Second Method: Use the implicit differentiation method to solve for y ′ , i.e., given
x 2 y + 5 = y + 2x ( )
then, 2 x ⋅ y + y ′ ⋅ x 2 + 0 = y ′ + 2 x 1−1 ; 2 xy + y ′x 2 = y ′ + 2 ; y ′x 2 − y ′ = 2 − 2 xy
( )
; y ′ x 2 − 1 = 2 x − 2 xy ; y ′ =
2 − 2 xy
x2 −1
2x − 5
x2 −1
2 − 2x ⋅
2x − 5
2−
4 x 2 − 10 x ( ) (
2 x 2 − 1 − 4 x 2 − 10 x ) 2 x 2 − 2 − 4 x 2 + 10 x
y′ =
2 − 2 xy
= x2 −1 = x2 −1 = x2 −1 = x2 −1
x2 −1 x2 −1 x2 −1 x2 −1 x2 −1
−2 x 2 + 10 x − 2 −2 x 2 + 10 x − 2
= x2 −1 = x2 −1 =
(−2 x + 10x − 2) ⋅1 = −2 x + 10 x − 2
2 2
x2 −1 x2 −1 ( x − 1) ⋅ ( x − 1)
2
( x − 1)
2 2 2
In the previous examples, to find y ′ we could either first solve for y and then differentiate or use
the implicit differentiation rule. However, sometimes we can not simply solve for y by bringing
the y terms to the left-hand side of the equation. In these instances, as is shown in the following
examples, we can only use implicit differentiation in order to differentiate y .

dy
Example 2.5-3: Given x 2 y 2 + y = 3 y 3 − 1 , find y ′ = .
dx
Solution:
d 2 2 d
dx
(
x y +=
y
dx
)
3 y3 − 1 ( ) ; ( 2 x ⋅ y2 + 2 y2−1y′ ⋅ x2 ) + y′ = (3 ⋅ 3) y3−1 ⋅ y′ − 0 ; 2 xy 2 + 2 yy ′x 2 + y ′ =
9 y2 y′
2 xy 2
−2 xy 2 ; y ′ ( 2 x 2 y − 9 y 2 + 1) =
; 2 x2 y y′ − 9 y 2 y′ + y′ = −2 xy 2 ; y ′ = −
2 x2 y − 9 y2 + 1
dy
Example 2.5-4: Given xy + x 2 y 2 + y 3 = 10 x , find in terms of x and y .
dx
Solution:
d d
dx
( )
xy + x 2 y 2 + y3 =(10 x )
dx
; ( y + x y′) + ( 2 x y 2 + 2 x2 y y′) + 3 y 2 y′ =
10
2
−2 x y − y + 10
; x y ′ + +2 x 2 y y ′ + 3 y 2 y ′ = −2 x y 2 − y + 10 ; y ′ ( x + +2 x 2 y + 3 y 2 ) = −2 x y 2 − y + 10 ; y ′ = 2 2
x + 2x y + 3 y
dy
Example 2.5-5: Given 3x 3 y 3 + 2 y 2 = y + 1 , find in terms of x and y .
dx
Solution:
; 3( 3 x 2 y 3 + 3 y 2 y ′x3 ) + ( 4 y y ′ ) =
d d
dx
(
3 x3 y 3 + 2 y 2 =
dx
)( y + 1) y ′ + 0 ; 9 x 2 y 3 + 9 x3 y 2 y ′ + 4 y y ′ =
y′
9 x2 y3
−9 x 2 y3 ; y ′ ( 9 x3 y 2 + 4 y − 1) =
; 9 x3 y 2 y ′ + 4 y y ′ − y ′ = −9 x 2 y3 ; y ′ = −
9 x3 y2 + 4 y − 1
dy
Example 2.5-6: Given x y + x 3 y 3 = 5 , find in terms of x and y .
dx
Solution:
d d
dx
(
x y + x3 y 3 =
dx
)
( 5) ; (1 ⋅ y + y ′ ⋅ x ) + ( 3x 2 ⋅ y3 + 3 y 2 y ′ ⋅ x3 ) =0 ; y + x y ′ + 3 x 2 y 3 + 3 x3 y 2 y ′ =
0
3 x2 y3 + y
−3x 2 y3 − y ; y ′ ( x + 3x3 y 2 ) =
; x y ′ + 3 x3 y 2 y ′ = −3x 2 y3 − y ; y ′ = − 3 2
x + 3x y
Example 2.5-7: Given 3x y + y = x 2 + y 2 , find ( ) dy

dx
in terms of x and y .
Solution:
d d 2
dx
( 3x y + =
y)
dx
x + y2 ( ) ; 3( 1 ⋅ y + y ′ ⋅ x ) + y ′ = 2 x + 2 y y ′ ; 3 y + 3 x y ′ + y ′ = 2 x + 2 y y ′
2x − 3 y
; 3x y ′ + y ′ − 2 y y ′ = 2 x − 3 y ; y ′ ( 3x + 1 − 2 y )= 2 x − 3 y ; y ′ =
3x − 2 y + 1

1 1 dy
Example 2.5-8: Given + = 10 x , find in terms of x and y .
x y2 dx
Solution:
d  1 1  d d −1 d
+ =
dx  x y 2  dx
(10 x ) ;
dx
(
x + y −2 =
dx
(10 x ) ) ; − x −2 − 2 y −3 y ′ =
10 ; −2 y −3 y ′ =
x −2 + 10
1 1 + 10 x 2
x −2 + 10 2
+ 10
x2
(
y 3 1 + 10 x 2 ) y
3
 1 
; y′ = ; y′ = x ; y′ = ; y′ = ; y′ = −  2
+ 10 
− 2y −3 −2 −2 − 2x 2 2 x 
y3 y3
dy
Example 2.5-9: Given xy 2 + yx 2 = x 2 , find in terms of x and y .
dx
Solution:
d d
dx
(
xy 2 + yx 2 =x 2
dx
) ( ) ; (1⋅ y2 + 2 y y′ ⋅ x ) + ( y′ ⋅ x2 + 2 x ⋅ y ) =
2x ; y 2 + 2 x y y′ + x2 y′ + 2 x y =
2x
− y2 − 2 x y + 2 x
− y 2 − 2 x y + 2 x ; y′ ( x2 + 2 x y ) =
; 2 x y y′ + x2 y′ = − y2 − 2x y + 2x ; y′ = 2
x + 2x y
2
dy
Example 2.5-10: Given y + x 3 y = y , find 3 in terms of x and y .
dx
Solution:
d  23  d
 y + x3 y  =

dx   (y) ;
2 32 −1
3
y ( 2 −1
3
)
⋅ y ′ + 3x 2 ⋅ y + y ′ ⋅ x 3 = y ′ ; y 3 y ′ + 3x 2 y + x 3 y ′ = y ′
 dx
2 − 13 2 −1  − 3x 2 y
; y y ′ + x 3 y ′ − y ′ = −3 x 2 y ; y ′ y 3 + x 3 − 1 = −3 x 2 y ; y′ =
3 3  2 − 13
y + x3 −1
3
1 dy
Example 2.5-11: Given xy + y 2 = y 8 , find in terms of x and y .
dx
Solution:
d d  1 1 18 −1 1 8 −7
dx
( )
xy + y 2 = y 8 
dx  
; (1 ⋅ y ) + ( y ′ ⋅ x )  + 2 yy
=′
8
y ⋅ y′ ; y + x y′ + 2 y y′ =y y′
8
1 −7 1  −7  y
; x y′ + 2 y y′ − y 8 y′ =
− y ; y′ x + 2 y − y

8=

−y ; y′ = −
8  8  −7
x + 2 y − 18 y 8
dy
Example 2.5-12: Given xy 2 + y = x 2 + 3 , find in terms of x and y .
dx
Solution:
d d 2
dx
(
xy 2 + =
y
dx
)
x +3 ( ) ; (1⋅ y2 ) + ( 2 y y′ ⋅ x ) + y′ = 2 x + 0 ; y 2 + 2 xy y ′ + y ′ =
2 x ; 2 xy y ′ + y ′ = 2 x − y 2
2
2x − y
; y ′ ( 2 xy + 1) = 2 x − y 2 ; y ′ =
2 xy + 1

dy
Example 2.5-13: Given x 4 y 3 + y 2 = x + 4 , find in terms of x and y .
dx
Solution:
d 4 3 d
dx
(
x y + y2 =
dx
)
( x + 4) ; (
 ) ( )
 4 x3 ⋅ y 3 + 3 y 2 y ′ ⋅ x 4  + 2 y y ′ =
 1+ 0 ; 4 x3 y 3 + 3 x 4 y 2 y ′ + 2 y y ′ =
1
1 − 4 x3 y3
1 − 4 x3 y 3 ; y ′ ( 3 x 4 y 2 + 2 y ) =
; 3x 4 y 2 y ′ + 2 y y ′ = 1 − 4 x3 y 3 ; y ′ = 4 2
3x y + 2 y
dy
Example 2.5-14: Given y 6 + x 3 y 5 + x 2 = 5 , find in terms of x and y .
dx
Solution:
d 6 3 5 d
(
y + x y + x 2 =( 5 ) ) ; 6 y5 y ′ + ( 3x 2 ⋅ y5 ) + ( 5 y 4 y ′ ⋅ x3 )  + 2 x =
0 ; 6 y 5 y ′ + 3 x 2 y 5 + 5 x3 y 4 y ′ + 2 x =
0
dx dx
3 x 2 y5 + 2 x
−3x 2 y5 − 2 x ; y ′ ( 6 y5 + 5 x3 y 4 ) =
; 6 y 5 y ′ + 5 x3 y 4 y ′ = −3x 2 y5 − 2 x ; y ′ = − 5 3 4
6 y + 5x y
Section 2.5 Practice Problems - Implicit Differentiation
Use implicit differentiation method to solve the following functions.

a. x 2 y + x = y b. x y − 3x 2 + y = 0 c. x 2 y 2 + y = 3y 3
d. x y + y 3 = 5 x e. 4 x 4 y 4 + 2 y 2 = y − 1 f. x y + x 2 y 2 − 10 = 0
1
g. x y 2 + y = x 2 h. x y 3 + x 3 y = x i. y 2 + x 2 y = x
1
j. x 2 y + y 2 = y 4 k. x + y 2 = x 2 − 3 l. x 4 y 2 + y = −3
m. y 7 − x 2 y 4 − x = 8 n. (x + 3) 2 = y 2 − x o. 3x 2 y 5 + y 2 = − x

Calculus I 2.6 The Derivative of Functions with Fractional Exponents
2.6 The Derivative of Functions with Fractional Exponents

The derivative of a function f ( x ) with fractional exponent is obtained by applying the chain rule
in the following way:
a a
d a
dx
[
f ( x) ]b =
b
[
f ( x) ] b −1 ⋅ dxd [ f ( x )]
a
For example, the derivative of f ( x ) = x b is equal to
a a a a a −b
d b a b −1 d a b −1 a b −1 a b
x = x ⋅ x = x ⋅1 = x = x
dx b dx b b b
Note that the steps in finding the derivative of a function with fractional exponent is similar to
finding the derivative of a function that is raised to a power as discussed in Section 2.4. The
following examples illustrate how to obtain the derivative of exponential functions:
Example 2.6-1: Find the derivative for the following exponential expressions.
1 1
( ) ( )
2
a. y = x 3 b. y = 3x 2 3
c. y = 3x 3 + 2 x 4
2 2
( ) ( )
3
d. y = 3x 2 + 6 x 5
e. y = (2 x + 1) 4 f. y = 3x 2 + 8 7
( ) ( )
1
( ) + (2x + 1)
3 2 1 1
g. y = x 2 3 5 h. y = x x 2 + 1 3 i. y = ( x + 1) 2 x 2 + 3 3
j. y=
( x + 1)
2 2
k. y =
( x + 3) 5
1
l. y =
x3
x 2 2
x3 (x + 1) 3
1
m. y = (x + 1) ⋅ 1
x7
Solutions:
2
2 23 −1 2 2 −1 2 2 −3 2 −1 2 1 2 1 2
a. Given y = x 3 then y ′ = x = x 3 1 ⋅1 = x 3 = x 3 = ⋅ 1 = ⋅ 3 = 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 x 3 x
x3
Note that the answer does not necessarily need to be in radical form. We can simply stop
2 − 13
when y ′ = x . However, for review purposes only, the answer to some of the problems are
3
shown in radical form (see Sections 1.1 and 1.2 from Mastering Algebra – Advanced Level to
review the subjects of exponents and radicals).
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 1 −1 1−3
1 6 −2 1
b. Given y = ( 3x 2 ) 3 then y ′ = 3x 2 3 ⋅ 6x = x 3x 2 3 1
= 2 x 3x 2 3
= 2 x 3x 2 3
= 2x
3 3
( 3x )
2
2 3
1 1 2 x/ 2
= 2x = 2x = =
( 3x ) 3 3 3
3 2 2 9 x4 x/ 9 x 9x

( ) ( ) ( 9x ) ( ) ( 9x )
1 −1 1 −1
3 1 1
c. Given
= y 3x + 2 x 4
then y ′ = 3x 3 + 2 x 4 2
+2 = 3x 3 + 2 x 4 1 2
+2
4 4
( ) ( 9x ) ( ) ( 9x ) 9x 2 + 2
1− 4
1 1 −3 9x 2 + 2
= 3x 3 + 2 x 4 2
+2 = 3x 3 + 2 x 4 2
+2 = =
4 4
( ) ( 3x )
3 3
4 3
4 3x 3 + 2 x 4 4 + 2x
2
( ) ( ) ( )
2−5
( )
2 −1 2 −1
2 12 12
d. Given
= y 3x + 6 x
2 5
then y ′ = 3x 2 + 6 x 5 ( 6 x + 6) = 3x 2 + 6 x 5 1 ( x + 1) = 3x 2 + 6 x 5 ( x + 1)
5 5 5
12 ( x + 1)
=
12
(
3x 2 + 6 x ) −3
5 ( x + 1) = 12
( x + 1)⋅ 1
=
12
⋅
x +1
=
5
( 3x ) 5 5
( 3x ) ( 3x )
5 3 3 3
2 2 5 2
+ 6x 5 + 6x 5 + 6x
3 3 3 6 3 1 3 3− 4 3 1
e. Given =
y ( 2 x + 1) 4 then y ′ = (2 x + 1) 4 −1 ⋅ 2 = (2 x + 1) 4 − 1 = (2 x + 1) 4 = (2 x + 1) − 4
4 4 2 2
3 1 3 1 3
= ⋅ = ⋅ = 4
2 (2 x + 1) 14 2 4 2x + 1 2 2x + 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 −1 2 −1 2−7
2 12 x 12 x
f. Given=y ( 3x 2 + 8) 7 then y ′ = 3x 2 + 8 7 ⋅ 6x = 3x 2 + 8 7 1
= 3x 2 + 8 7
7 7 7
=
12 x
(
3x 2 + 8 ) −5
7
=
12 x
⋅
1
=
12 x
⋅
1
=
12 x
( 3x ) 7 7
( 3x ) ( 3x )
7 7 5 5 5
2 2 7 2
+8 7 +8 7 +8
( )
1 3 2 3 2 32 −1 3 3 2 2 −1 6 3 1
g. Given y = x 2 3 + ( 2 x + 1) 5 = x 3 + ( 2 x + 1) 5 then y ′ = x + (2 x + 1) 5 −1 ⋅ 2 = x 3 1 + (2 x + 1) 5 − 1
3 5 3 5
2 2 −3 3 6 3− 5 2 −1 6 2 2 1 6 1 2 6
= x + (2 x + 1) 5 = x 3 + (2 x + 1) − 5 = ⋅ 1 + ⋅ = +
3 5 3 5 3 3 5 (2 x + 1) 2 3
x 5 3 x 5 5 (2 x + 1)2
( ) ( )   2
( x + 1)  
( ) 4x 2 2
( )
2  2 2 −1 2 2 −1

h. Given y = x x 2 + 1 3
then y ′ = 1 ⋅ x 2 + 1 3  +   2 3 ⋅ 2 x ⋅ x  = x 2 +1 3 + x +1 3 1
     3   3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (x ) 4x 2
2−3
2
4x 2 2 2
4x 2 2 −1 2
4x 2 3 2 2
= x 2 +1 3 + x +1 3
= x 2 +1 3 + x +1 3
= x 2 +1 3 + = +1 +
( )
3 3 1 3
3 x 2 +1 3 3 x2 +1
( ) ( ) (x )
1 1 1 1 1  1 1 −1 1
i. Given y = ( x + 1) 2 x 2 + 3 3
then y ′ =  ( x + 1) 2 −1 ⋅1 ⋅ x 2 + 3 3  +  2
+3 3 ⋅ 2 x ⋅ ( x + 1) 2 
 2   3 

   
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1   2x 2 − 2  1
−1 1 ⋅ x2 + 3 1  +  2 x ⋅ ( x + 1) 2 ⋅ 1 
1 1
 ( x + 1) 2 ⋅ x + 3 ⋅ ( x + 1)
2
= 3
+ x +3 3 2  = 3 ⋅  
2 
( )
2 1 2
   3  ( x + 1) 2  
3
x2 + 3
 
3
(x )
2 1
2 x ( x + 1) 2
3
+3 3
x2 + 3 2x x + 1
= + = +
(x )
1 2
2 x +1 2
2 ( x + 1) 2
(
3 x +3
2
) 3 3
3 2
+3
(
  1 2
)   
( )
1 −1 1 
⋅ 2 x  ⋅ x  − 1 ⋅ x 2 + 1 2x 2 2
( ) −1
( )
2 2 1
1
  x +1  − x 2 +1
j. Given y =
( 2
x +1 ) 2
then y ′ =
  2    
= 2
x +1 2 2
x x2 x2
x2
1
(
− x 2 +1 )
1
2
x2
− x2 + 1
x 2 − x 2 +1 ( ) −1
( x + 1)
1
2 2
2
x2 + 1 x +1 x2 + 1 −1
= = 2
= = =
x 2 x x 2 x2 x2 x2 + 1
2 
1 1 −1 2 2 −1 1 1 2 −4  2 −
1 1
1  ( x + 3) 5 ⋅ x 3  −  x 3 ⋅ ( x + 3) 5   x 3 (x + 3) 5  −  x 3 (x + 3)5 
( x + 3) 5  5   3   5   3 
k. Given y = 2 then y ′ = 4
= 4
x3 x3 x3
2 1 2 1 3
1 x3 2 ( x + 3) 5 x3 2(x + 3) 5 x2 25 x + 3
⋅ − ⋅ − −
5 (x + 3) 54 3 1
5(x + 3) 5
4 1
5 5 ( x + 3) 4 33 x
= x3 = 3x 3 =
4 4 3
x3 x3 x4
3
3 x 3−1 ⋅ ( x + 1) 23  −  2 ( x + 1) 23 −1 ⋅ x 3  3 x 2 ( x + 1) 23  −  2 x ( x + 1)− 13 
   
x3    3 
  3 
l. Given y = 2
then y ′ = 4
= 4
( x + 1) 3 (x + 1) 3 ( x + 1) 3
2 x3 2x 3 2x 3
3 x 2 (x + 1) 3 −
2
1 3x 2 3
(x + 1)2 − 3x 2 3
( x + 1)2 −
3 ( x +1) 3 33 x + 1 33 x + 1
= = =
( x + 1)
4
3
3
(x + 1)4 ( x + 1) 3 x + 1
1
 1 
1 1 −1  x +1 1
1 ⋅ x 7  −  x 7 ⋅ (x + 1)
1
x + 1 − 76 x7 − ⋅ 6
1 x +1 7 x7 − x 7
m. Given y = (x + 1) ⋅ = then y ′ =     = 7 = x7
2 2 2
1
x 17
x7 x7 x7 x7
7 x +1
7 x − x +1 ⋅ 1 x−
7
7 7 6
x 7 x6
= 7 2
= 7
x x2

d
Example 2.6-2: Find of the following functions.
dx
( )
1
d  − 23  d 1 d 3
a. x = b. (x + 1)− 4 = c. x +1 8 =
dx  
 dx dx
( ) ( ) ( )
7 −2 −1
d d d
d. 3x 2 + 4 x 8 = e. x x 2 +1 3 = f. 3x 3 + 4 3 =
dx dx dx
1
d  ( x + 1)− 2 
( )
1
d  5
g.  = h. d 2
x + 3x + 5 4 = i.  (x + 1)(x − 1) 4  =
dx  x  dx dx  
 
d  x 2 
( ) ( )
−1  3 2 1 
d 2 d
j. x +5 6 = k. x 5 x +1 4
 = l.  =
dx dx   dx  ( x + 1)− 13 
 
Solutions:
d  − 23  2 − 23 −1 d 2 − 2 −1 2 −2 −3 2 −5 2 1 −2 −2
a. x  = − x ⋅ ( x ) = − x 3 1 ⋅1 = − x 3 = − x 3 = − ⋅ 5 = =
dx  
 3 dx 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 x5
3
3x x 2
x
d 1 1 1 d 1 1 1 1 −1− 4 1 5
b. (x + 1)− 4 = − (x + 1)− 4 −1 ⋅ (x + 1) = − (x + 1)− 4 − 1 ⋅1 = − (x + 1) 4 = − (x + 1)− 4
dx 4 dx 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
= − ⋅ = − = −
4 (x + 1)
5
4 4 4 ( x + 1)5 4 ( x + 1) 4 x + 1
( ) ( ) ( ) = 18 (x + 1) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 1 −1 1−8 −7
d 3 1 3 d 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3
c. x +1 8 = x +1 8 ⋅ x +1 8 1 ⋅ 3x 2 = x x +1 8 = x x +1 8
dx 8 dx 8 8
3 2 1 3x 2 3 x2
= x ⋅ = =
8
(x + 1)
3
7
8 (
8 x3 +1 8 )
7
8
8
(x + 1)
3 7
( ) ( ) ( ) = 78 (3x ) ( )
7 7 −1 7 −1 7 −8
d 7 d 7
d. 3x 2 + 4 x 8
= 3x 2 + 4 x 8 ⋅ 3x 2 + 4 x 2
+ 4x 8 1 ⋅ (6 x + 4 ) = 3x 2 + 4 x 8 ⋅ (6 x + 4 )
dx 8 dx 8
7(6 x + 4 )
=
7
(
3x 2 + 4 x ) −1
8 ⋅ (6 x + 4 ) =
7
⋅
6x + 4
=
8
(3x )
8 1 8
2
+ 4x 8 8 3 x2 + 4 x
e.
d
dx
( −2
x x 2 +1 3 ) = x 2 +1( ) −2
3 ⋅
d
dx
x + x⋅
d 2
dx
−2
x +1 3 ( ) (
= x 2 +1 ) −2
3 ⋅1 − x ⋅
2 2
3
( − 2 −1
x +1 3 )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
−2 − 2 −1 −2 −2 −3 −2 −5
2x 2 2x 2 2x 2
= x 2 +1 3 − x +1 3 1 = x 2 +1 3 − x +1 3
= x2 + 1 3 − x +1 3
3 3 3

1 2x 1 1 2x 1 2x
= − ⋅ = − = −
(x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1) ( ) (x + 1)
2 3 5 2 5 2 2
3 3 3 2 3
2 3 2 3 2
3 2
3 x2 +1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) = − 13 (3x ) 9x 2
( )
−1 − 1 −1 − 1 −1 −1−3
d 1 d
f. 3x 3 + 4 3
= − 3x 3 + 4 3 ⋅ 3x 3 + 4 3
+4 3 1 ⋅ 9x 2 = − 3x 3 + 4 3
dx 3 dx 3
= − 3x 2 3x 3 + 4 ( )
−4
3
= − 3x 2 ⋅
1
= −
3x 2
= −
3 x2
(3x 3
+4 )
4
3 3
(3x 3
+4 ) 4 (3 x + 4) 3 3
3 x3 + 4
 d −1   −1 d   1 − 1 −1 d   −1 
1
d  ( x + 1)− 2   x ⋅ dx ( x + 1) 2  − ( x + 1) 2 ⋅ dx ( x )  x ⋅ − 2 ( x + 1) 2 ⋅ dx ( x + 1) − ( x + 1) 2 ⋅1
g.  =    
=  
dx  x  2 2
  x x
 x − 1 −1  −1 x x
− 2 ( x + 1) 2 1 ⋅1 − ( x + 1) 2
−1− 2 1 −3 1
− (x + 1) 2 − (x + 1)− 2 − ( x + 1) 2 − ( x + 1)− 2
  2 2
= = =
x2 x2 x2
( ) ( ) ( ) = 14 (x2 + 3x + 5) − ( )
1 1 −1 1 1 1− 4
d 2 1 2 d 2 1 2
h. x + 3x + 5 4 = x + 3x + 5 4 ⋅ x + 3x + 5 4 1 ⋅ (2 x + 3) = x + 3x + 5 4 ⋅ (2 x + 3)
dx 4 dx 4
( )
3
1 2 − 2x + 3 1 2x + 3 1 2x + 3
= x + 3 x + 5 4 (2 x + 3) = ⋅ = ⋅ =
(x2 + 3x + 5) ( )
4 4 3 4 3 3
4 2
4 x + 3x + 5 4 4  x 2 + 3 x + 5 
 
d 
(x + 1)(x − 1) 4  = (x − 1) 4 d (x + 1) + (x + 1) d (x − 1) 4  = (x − 1) 4 ⋅1 + (x + 1)⋅ 5 (x − 1) 4 −1 ⋅ d (x − 1)
5 5 5 5 5
i. 
dx    dx   dx     4 dx 
5  5 5 1  5  5 5− 4  5 5 1
= (x − 1) 4 + (x + 1) ⋅ (x − 1) 4 − 1 ⋅1 = (x − 1) 4 + (x + 1) ⋅ (x − 1) 4  = ( x − 1)4 + ( x + 1)( x − 1)4
 4   4  4
( ) ( ) ( ) = − 16 (x ) ( ) ( )
−1 − 1 −1 d − 1 −1 −1− 6 −7
d 2 1 2 2x 2 x 2
j. x +5 6 = − x +5 6 ⋅ x2 + 5 2
+5 6 1 ⋅ 2x = − x +5 6
= − x +5 6
dx 6 dx 6 3
x 1 x 1 x
= − ⋅ = − ⋅ = −
3
(x 2
+5 )
7
6
3 6
(x 2
+5 )
7 ( 2
3 x +5 ) 6
x2 + 5
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1  2 1 1 1 1 −1
d  3 2 d 53   53 d 2  3 3 −1   3 1 2 d 2 
k. x 5 x +1 4  =  x +1 4 x  + x x +1 4  =  x 2 +1 4 ⋅ x 5  + x 5 x +1 4 ⋅ x +1 
dx    dx   dx   5   4 dx 
 3
1− 4 
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 2 1 3 −1   3 1 −1   1 3− 5 
1 3  2 x ⋅ x 5
2 2
=  x + 1 4 ⋅ x 5 1  +  x 5 x + 1 4 1 ⋅ 2 x =  x + 1 4 ⋅ x 5  +  ⋅ x 2 +1 4 

 5   4   5   4 


 −2 8
1  3
= ( )
 3 x 5 ⋅ x2 + 1 4  +  x 5 ⋅ x2 + 1 − 4 
 5   2  ( )
   
d  x 2 
 = d  x 2 ( x + 1) 13   1 d 2  2 d 1
l.
dx  ( x + 1)− 13  dx   = ( x + 1) 3 dx x  +  x dx ( x + 1) 3 
 
1  1 1 d  1  1 1 1  1 x2 2
= (x + 1) 3 ⋅ 2 x  +  x 2 ⋅ (x + 1) 3 −1 ⋅ (x + 1) = 2 x (x + 1) 3 +  x 2 ⋅ (x + 1) 3 − 1 ⋅1 = 2 x ( x + 1)3 + ( x + 1)− 3
   3 dx   3  3
Example 2.6-3: Find y ′(1) in example 5.6-1 a through i .

Solutions:
In Example 2.6-1 we obtained the derivative of the exponential functions a through e to be equal
to the following:
2 2 2
a. Given y ′ = 3
then y ′(1) = 3
= = 0.67
3 x 3 1 3
2x 2 ⋅ −3 6 6 6
b. Given y ′ = then y ′(1) = = −3 = − 0.33
= − = −2.88
3
9x 4
3
9 ⋅ 14 9 9 2.08
9x 2 + 2 9 ⋅ 12 + 2 11 11 11
c. Given y ′ = then y ′(1) = = = = = 3.29
(3x ) (3 ⋅1 ) 4 3 0.25 3.343
4 3 3 4 3 3
5 125
+ 2x + 2 ⋅1
12(x + 1) 12(1 + 1) 24 24 24
d. Given y ′ = then y ′(1) = = = = = 1.28
(3x ) (3 ⋅1 ) 5 0.2 5 ⋅ 3.74
5 2 3 5 2 3 5 729 5 ⋅ 729
5 + 6x 5 + 6 ⋅1
3 3 3 3 3 3
e. Given y ′ = 4
then y ′(1) = 4
= 4
= 4
= 0.25
= = 1.14
2 2x + 1 2 2 ⋅1 + 1 2 2 +1 2 3 2⋅3 2 ⋅1.32
Section 2.6 Practice Problems - The Derivative of Functions with Fractional Exponents
1. Find the derivative of the following exponential expressions.

( )
1 1 1
a. y = x 5 b. y = 4x 3 2 c. y = (2 x + 1) 3
( ) y = (2 x + 3 x ) ( )
1 3 2
d. y = 2 x 2 + 1 8 e. 3 5 f. y = x 3 + 8 3
y = (x ) − (3 x − 1) y = (x + 1)
1 1 1 2 1
g. 3 2
3 h. y = x 2 (x + 1) 8 i. 3 5 +x2
(x + 1)
1
j. y =
x +1
k. y=
2 2
l. y =
(x + 1)2
x2
2 1
x3 x3

d
2. Use the notation to find the derivative of the following exponential expressions.
dx
2
( )
1
d  15  d 1 d 2
a. x  = b. (x − 1) 2 = c. x +1 3 =
dx  
 dx dx
1
d  ( x − 1) 2 
(−1
) ( )
1
d 3 d 3
d. x +1 4 = e. = f. x + 2x 8 =
dx dx  x 2  dx
 
   
( )( )  = d  x5
 3 1
d 2 d  3 1  =  =
g.  x +1 x 3 h. x ⋅ i.
dx   dx  3 
( ) ( )
dx 1 2
   x 2 +1 2   x + 1 3 
( ) ( )
 3 2 1  3 2 −1 
d  1 1 d d
j.  (x − 1) 2 (x + 1) 3  = k. x x +1 2  l. x x +1 3  =
dx   dx   dx  

Calculus 1 2.7 The Derivative of Radical Functions
2.7 The Derivative of Radical Functions

In this section finding the derivative of radical expressions and the steps as to how it is calculated
is discussed. The derivative of radical functions is found by using the following steps:
3
First - Write the radical expression in its equivalent fraction form, i.e., write x 3 as x 2 .
Second - Apply the differentiation rules to find the derivative of the exponential expression.
Third – Change the answer from an expression with fractional exponent to an expression with
radical expression (optional).
The following examples show the steps in solving functions containing radical terms. Students
who have difficulty with simplifying radical expressions may want to review radicals addressed
in Chapter 5 of the “Mastering Algebra - An Introduction”.
Example 2.7-1: Find the derivative for the following radical expressions.
a. f ( x ) = x 3 + 1 b. f ( x ) = x 2 + 3x + 1 c. f ( x ) = 2 x 5 + 1
d. f (u) = 5 u3 + 3u e. f (t ) = t 2 + t + 1 f. g( x ) = x 2 x 3 + x − 5
1
g. h( w) = 3 w 2 + 1 h. f ( z ) = 4 z 3 − z 2 + z i. f ( x ) =
2
x +1
3
x θ +1 r3
j. f ( x ) = k. r (θ ) = l. p(r ) =
x2 −1 θ 2 +1 r3 −1
3 2
u −1 t +1 r2 −1
m. g(u) = n. h(t ) = o. s(r ) =
u +1 t3 r −1
Solutions:
( )
1
a. Given f ( x ) = x3 +1 = x 3 + 1 2 , then
( ) ( ) ( ) x2 x2
1 −1 −1 −1
1 3 1 3 3 3 3
f ′( x ) = x + 1 2 ⋅ 3 x 3−1 = x + 1 2 ⋅ 3x 2 = x 2 x 3 + 1 2 = =
2 2 2
(x + 1) 2
2 1
3 2 x3 + 1
( )
1
b. Given f ( x ) = x 2 + 3x + 1 = x 2 + 3x + 1 2 , then
( ) ( ) ( )
1 −1 −1
1 2 1 2 2x + 3 2x + 3
f ′( x ) = x + 3 x + 1 2 ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 3 x1−1 = x + 3 x + 1 2 ⋅ (2 x + 3) = =
2 2
( )
1
2 x 2 + 3x + 1 2 2 x 2 + 3x + 1
( )
1
c. Given f ( x ) = 2 x 5 + 1 = 2 x 5 + 1 2 , then
5
( ) ( ) ( ) 1/ 0/ x 4 5 x4
1 −1 −1
1 1
f ′( x ) = 2 x 5 + 1 2 ⋅ 2 × 5 x 5−1 + 0 = 2 x 5 + 1 2 ⋅10 x 4 = =
2 2
( )
1
2/ 2 x 5 + 1 2 2 x5 + 1
3
d. Given f (u) = 5 u3 + 3u = u 5 + 3u , then
3 53 −1 3 −2 3 −2 3 3
f ′(u) = u + 3u 1−1 = u 5 + 3u 0 = u 5 + 3 = 2
+3 = +3
5 5 5 5
5 u2
5u 5

1
e. Given f (t ) = t 2 + t + 1 = t 2 + (t + 1) 2 , then
1 1 1 1 1 1
f ′(t ) = 2t 2−1 + (t + 1) 2 −1 ⋅ t 1−1 = 2t + (t + 1)− 2 ⋅ t 0 = 2t + = 2t +
2 2 2(t + 1)
1
2
2 t +1
( )
1
f. Given g( x ) = x 2 x 3 + x − 5 = x 2 x 3 + x − 5 2 , then
( ) ( ) ⋅ (3x ) ( ) ( )
 1  1 −1  1 −1
1 1 3
g ′( x ) = 2 x 2−1 x 3 + x − 5 2  +  x 3 + x − 5 2 3−1
+ x1−1 + 0  x 2 = 2 x x 3 + x − 5 2 + x + x−5 2
   2  2
( )
= 3x 2 + 1 x 2 = 2 x x 3 + x − 5 2 + ( )
1
(3x + 1) x 2 2
= 2 x x3 + x − 5 +
(
x2 3 x2 + 1 )
2 (x + x − 5)
1
3 2 2 x3 + x − 5
1
g. Given h( w) = 3 w 2 + 1 = w 2 + 1 3 , then ( )
( ) ( ) = 13 (w + 1)
1 −1 −2
1 2 2w 2w
h ′( w) = w + 1 3 2 w 2−1 + 0 2 3 ⋅ 2w = =
3
( ) (w )
2 2
3 2
3 w2 +1 3 3 +1
1
h. Given f ( z ) = 4 3
z − z2 + z (
= z3 − z2 ) 4 +z, then
f ′( z ) =
1 3
(
z − z2 ) (3z
1 −1
4 3−1
− 2z 2 −1
)+ 1 = (z 3
− z2 ) (3z
−3
4 2
− 2z ) + 1 = 3(3z − 2 z ) + 1 = 3z 2 2
− 2z
+1
4(z − z ) 4 (z )
4 4 3
3
2 4 4 3 2 3
−z
i. Given f ( x ) =
1
=
1
(
= x 2 +1 ) −1
2 , then
(x + 1) 2 1
x +1 2 2
f ′( x ) = − (x + 1) (2 x + 0) = − 12/ (x + 1)
1 2 − 1 −1 2 −1 2 −3 −x −x −x
2 2 ⋅ 2/ x = = =
2
(x + 1)
2
3
2 2
( x + 1)
2 3
(x + 1)
2
x2 +1
x x
j. Given f ( x ) = = , then
(x − 1)
2 1
x −1 2 2
(x − 1) x2
1
1 ⋅ (x − 1)  −  (x − 1) (2 x ) (x − 1) ( )
  1 1 1 −1  1 1 −1  2 2
2 2 2 −1 2 −
2 2 − 0 ⋅ x 2 −  x 2 − 1 2 ⋅ 2/ x 2 
(x − 1)
1
2

  2     2/  2
f ′( x ) = = =
x 2 −1 x 2 −1 x 2 −1
(x − 1) (x − 1) ⋅ (x − 1) (x − 1) − x
1 1 1 1+1
2 2 2
2 x2 2 2 − x2 2 2 2 2
x/ 2/ − 1 − x/ 2/
−
(x − 1) (x − 1) (x − 1) (x − 1)
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= = = =
x 2 −1 x 2 −1 x 2 −1 x 2 −1
1 1 1 1 1
= − = − = − = − = −
(x2 − 1) (x2 − 1)
1
2
(x − 1)
2
1 +1
2 (x2 − 1)
3
2
(x − 1)
2 3
(x − 1)
2
x2 −1

θ3 +1 θ 3 +1
k. Given r (θ ) = = , then
) (θ
1
θ 2 +1 2
+1 2
( + 0 )(θ + 1)  −  (θ ) (2θ )( ) ( ) ( )
 3−1  1 1 1 −1   2 2 1  1 2 −1
2 2 2 −1
 3θ 2 +1 2 + 0 θ 3 +1  3θ θ + 1 2
 − θ +1 2
  2      2
r ′(θ ) = =
θ 2 +1 θ 2 +1
3θ 2 θ 2 + 1 ( )
1
2 −
(
2θ θ 3 + 1 ) (
6θ 2 θ 2 + 1 − 2θ 4 − 2θ )
=
(
2θ θ + 1 3
) =
(
2 θ 2 +1 )
1
2
=
(
2 θ 2 +1 )
1
2
=
6θ 4 + 6θ 2 − 2θ 4 − 2θ
θ 2 +1 θ 2 +1 θ 2 +1
( ) (θ )
1
2 θ 2 +1 2 2
+1
=
4θ 4 + 6θ 2 − 2θ
=
(
2/ θ 2θ 3 + 3θ − 1 ) = θ (2θ + 3θ − 1) = θ (2θ + 3θ − 1) 3 3
(
2 θ 2 +1 )
1 +1
2 2/ (θ + 1) 2
(θ + 1)
3
2 (θ + 1) θ + 1 2 3 2 2
r3 r3
l. Given p(r ) = = , then
(r − 1)
1
r3 −1 3 2
(r − 1)  −  12 (r − 1) (3r ) ( ) ( )

 3−1 1 1 −1   2 3 1  −1 
3 2 3 2 3−1 2 − 1 r 3 − 1 2 3r 2 ⋅ r 3
3r −0   3r r − 1   
       2 
p ′( r ) = =
r 3 −1 r 3 −1
(
3r 2 r 3 − 1 )
1
2 −
3r 5
3r 2 r 3 − 1( )
1
2 −
3r 5 ( )
6r 2 r 3 − 1 − 3r 5 6r 5 − 6r 2 − 3r 5
( ) ( ) 2(r − 1) ( )
1 1 1 1
2 r 3 −1 2 2 r 3 −1 2 3 2 2 r 3 −1 2
= = = =
r 3 −1 r 3 −1 r 3 −1 r 3 −1
=
3r 5 − 6r 2
=
3r 2 r 3 − 2 ( ) =
3r 2 r 3 − 2( )= 3r 2 r 3 − 2( )= (
3r 2 r 3 − 2 )
(
2 r 3 −1 r 3 −1)( )
1
2 2 r 3 −1( )
1 +1
2 (
2 r 3 −1 )
3
2 2 r 3 −1( )
3
(
2 r 3 −1 ) r 3 −1
m. Given g(u) =
u −1
=
(u − 1) 2 , then
1
u +1 (u + 1) 2
1 1 −1 1  1 1 −1 1 1 −1 1  1 −1 1
 2 (u − 1) 2 (u + 1) 2  −  2 (u + 1) 2 (u − 1) 2   2 (u − 1) 2 (u + 1) 2  −  2 (u + 1) 2 (u − 1) 2 
       
g ′( u) = =
u +1 u +1
 (u + 1) 12   (u − 1) 12 
 −  2(u + 1) − 2(u − 1) 2/ u/ + 2 − 2/ u/ + 2 4
 2(u − 1) 12   2(u + 1) 12  1 1 1 1 1 1
    4(u − 1) (u + 1) 2 2 4(u − 1) (u + 1) 2 2 4(u − 1) (u + 1) 2 2
= = = =
u +1 u +1 u +1 u +1
4/ 1 1
= = =
4/ (u + 1) (u − 1) (u + 1)
1
2
1
2 (u + 1) (u + 1) (u − 1)
1
2
1
2
(u + 1) u+1 u −1

n. Given h(t ) =
3 2
t +1
=
(t + 1) 2 3
, then
3
t3 t 2
( ) ⋅ (2t ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 −1  3  3 3 −1 1 1 2 −2  3 3 1 2 1
2 −1
 t +1 3 + 0  t 2 −  t 2 ⋅ t 2 +1 3   t + 1 3 ⋅ 2t  t 2 −  t 2 t + 1 3 
 3   2   3   2 
h ′( t ) = =
t3 t3
( )
1
 5  5 3 12 2
t t +1 3
( )
1
 −  3 t 2 t 2 +1 3 
1
 2t 2 2t 2
(
−2  3 1 2
) ( ) −2
 2 1+ 3 2 1
  2 
 t 2 t +1 3  −  t 2 t +1 3 
( ) ( )
2 2
  1
 3   2   3 t 2 + 1 3  3 t 2 +1 3
= = =
t3 t3 t3
( ) ( )
5 1 2
3 12 2
2t 2 − t t +1 3 ⋅3 t 2 +1 3
2 5
9 12 2
(
1+ 2
) 9 t t 2 +1( )
3(t + 1)
2
2
3 2t 2 − t t +1 3 3 2t 2 t −
2 2
= = =
t3
( ) (t )
2 2
3
3t 3 t 2 + 1 3 3t 3 2
+1
r2 −1 r 2 −1
o. Given s(r ) = = 1
, then
r −1 (r − 1) 2
(
 )
 2r 2−1 − 0 (r − 1) 12  −  1 (r − 1) 12 −1 r 2 − 1 
  2 

( )  1  1 −1 2 
2r (r − 1) 2  −  2 (r − 1) 2 r − 1  ( )
s ′( r ) = =
r −1 r −1
 2
2r (r − 1) 12  −  r − 1 ( )   2r (r − 1) 12

  2
 −  r −1 ( )  4r (r − 1) − r 2 − 1( ) 4r 2 − 4r − r 2 + 1
   1   1   1  1 1
 2(r − 1) 2     2(r − 1) 2  2(r − 1) 2 2(r − 1) 2
= = = =
r −1 r −1 r −1 r −1
3r 2 − 4r + 1 3r 2 − 4r + 1
= =
2(r − 1) (r − 1) 2
1
2(r − 1) r − 1
Example 2.7-2: Use the chain rule to differentiate the following radical expressions.
1   x + 2   x 2 
a. d b. d c. d

 x−   
dx  x  dx  3x + 1  dx  x 2 + 1 
 x3 
d. d   e. d  3 x2 + x −2  f. d 5 x3 + 1
dt  x + 1  dx   dx
 
Solutions:
 
d  1  d  12 1  d  12 − 12  d 12 d − 12 1 1 −1 1 − 1 −1
a.  x −  =  x − 1 = x −x = x − x = x2 + x 2
dx  x dx  dx   dx dx 2 2
 x 2  

Calculus I 2.7 The Derivative of Radical Functions
1 − 12 1 − 32 1 1 1 1 1 1
= x + x = 1
+ 3
= + = +
2 2 2 x 2 x3 2 x 2x x
2x 2 2x 2
−1
 [ 1 ⋅ ( 3 x + 1) ] − [ 3 ⋅ ( x + 2 ) ]
1 1 −1 
d  x+2  d  x+2 2 1  x+2 2 d  x+2  1  x+2  2 
b.   =   =   ⋅   =    
dx  3 x + 1  dx  3 x + 1  2  3x + 1  dx  3 x + 1  2  3x + 1   ( 3x + 1) 2 
 
1
1  3/ x/ + 1 − 3/ x/ − 6 
  = 1 
 −5 
 = − 5 5 (3 x + 1) 2
= 1  2   ( 3 x + 1) 2 
= −
 x + 2  2  ( 3 x + 1)
1 1 1
  x+2 2    x+2 2 2 (x + 2 ) 2 ( 3 x + 1) 2
 ( 3 x + 1)
2
2  2  2
 3x + 1   3x + 1   3x + 1 
5 5 5 5
= − 1
= − = − 4 −1
= −
−1 2− 1 1 3
2 (x + 2) ( 3x + 1) ( 3x + 1) 1
2
2 (x + 2 ) ( 3x + 1) 2
1
2 2 2 (x + 2) 2 ( 3x + 1) 2 2 (x + 2) 2 ( 3x + 1) 2 2
5 5
= − = −
2 ( x+2 ) ( 3x + 1) 3 2 ( )
x + 2 (3 x + 1) 3 x + 1
( ) ( ) ( 2x )
1  1 −1 
( x + 1) ( ) 1
1 1
d 2 d 2x x 2 + 1 2 2 −1
+ 0  x2
2
2 2 x − x2 x 2 +1 2 2−
 x +1 2
d  x 2
d x dx dx 2 
c.   = = =
( x + 1) x 2 +1 x 2 +1
dx  x 2 + 1  dx 1
2 2
( ) x3
1
( ) ( ) 2x x 2 +1
1 1 −1  2−
2
−  x 2 +1 ⋅ 2/ x  ⋅ x 2
( ) ( ) ( x + 1)
2x x +1 2 2 1 −1 1
 2/  2x x 2 +1 2− x3 x 2 +1 2 2 2
= = =
x 2 +1 x 2 +1 x 2 +1
( ) ( x + 1) ( )
1 1
2x x 2 +1 2 2 2− x3 2x x 2 +1 − x 3
( x + 1) ( x + 1)
1 1
2 2
2 2 2x 3 + 2x − x 3 x 3 + 2x x 3 + 2x
= = = = =
x 2 +1 x 2 +1 ( x + 1) ( x + 1) ( x + 1) ( x + 1)
1 1 +1 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
=
x 3 + 2x
=
(
x x2 + 2 )
( x + 1)2 3 (x 2
+1 ) x +1 2
 d 32   32 d   3 32 − 1   32 
 3   ( x + 1) ⋅ x  −  x ( x + 1)  ( x + 1) ⋅ x  −  x ⋅1
d  x 3  d  x2   dx   dx   2   
d.   =   = =
dt  x +1 
 
dt  x +1  (x + 1) 2
(x + 1) 2
 
3 12 3
3 12 + 1 3 12 3
3 32 3 12 3 3  3 3 1 1 32 3 12
x (x + 1) − x 2 x + x −x2 x + x −x2  − 1 x 2 + x 2 x + x
2 2 2 2 2 2  2 2 2
= = = = =
(x + 1) 2 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1) 2

3 1
x 2 + 3x 2 3 1
2 x 2 + 3x 2 x3 + 3 x x x +3 x x ( x + 3)
= = = = =
(x + 1) 2 2 (x + 1) 2
2 (x + 1) 2
2 (x + 1) 2
2 ( x + 1) 2
2−3
d 3 2 −2  d  23  d 23 d − 2 2 23 − 1 2 3 2 −1
e.  x +x  =  x + x− 2  = x + x = x − 2 x − 2 −1
= x − 2 x − 3 = x 3 − 2 x −3
dx   
dx   dx dx 3 3 3

2 2 2 2
= − = 3
−
1
x 3 3 x x3
3x 3
( ) ( ) ( ) = 15 ( x + 1) ( 3x ) = 15 ( x + 1)
1 1 −1 −4 −4
d 5 3 d 1 3 d
f. x +1 = x3 +1 5
= x +1 5 ⋅ x3 +1 3 5 3 −1
+0 3 5 ⋅ 3x 2
dx dx 5 dx
=
(
3x 2 x 3 + 1 ) −4
5
=
3x 2
=
3x 2
( ) (x )
5 4
5 3 4
5 x3 +1 5 5 +1
Example 2.7-3: Use the chain rule to differentiate the following radical expressions.
a. y = x 3 x 2 − 1 b. y = 3x 2 + x + 1 c. y = x 3 + x 2 + 1
d. y = 5 x 5 + x 2 − 1 e. y = x 2 − 1 ⋅ x + 1 f. y = x ( x + 1)3
(x )
5
g. y = 2
+ 5x − 1 h. y = x2 3 x + 1 i. y = (x − 1) 3 3 x 5
Solutions:
( )
1
a. Given y = x 3 x 2 − 1 = x 3 x 2 − 1 2 , then
( ) ( ) ( )   2x 4 2
( ) ( )
 1  1 2 1 −1   1 1 −1  2 2 1 
y′ = 3x 2 ⋅ x 2 − 1 2  +  x −1 2 ⋅ 2 x ⋅ x 3  = 3 x 2 x 2 − 1 2
+ x −1 2 1
 = 3 x x − 1 2

   2     2   
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x4
 4 2 1− 2  1 −1 1
x4
+ x x −1 2  = 3x 2 x 2 − 1 2 + x 4 x 2 −1 2
= 3x 2 x 2 − 1 2 + = 3x2 x2 − 1 +
( x − 1)
1
  2 2 x2 − 1
1
b. Given y = 3x 2 + x + 1 = 3x 2 + (x + 1) 2 , then
1 −1 1
1 1 1− 2 1 1 1
y′ = (3 ⋅ 2) x 2 − 1 + (x + 1) 2 = 6 x + (x + 1) 2 = 6 x + (x + 1) − 2 = 6 x + = 6x +
2 2 2 1
2 x +1
2 (x + 1) 2
( )
1
c. Given y = x 3 + x 2 + 1 = x 3 + x 2 + 1 2 , then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1− 2
1 3 1 −1  3x 2 + 2 x  3 1 −1  3x 2 + 2 x  3
y′ = x + x 2 +1 2 ⋅ 3x 2 + 2 x =   x + x 2 +1 2 1
=   x + x2 + 1 2
2  2   2
   

 3x 2 + 2 x  3
=   x + x 2 +1 ( ) −1
2
 3x 2 + 2 x 
=  ⋅ 1
=
3x2 + 2x
 2 
(x )
2 1
    3
+ x 2 +1 2 2 x3 + x2 + 1
( )
1
d. Given y = 5 x 5 + x 2 − 1 = x 5 + x 2 − 1 5 , then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1− 5
1 5 1 −1  5x 4 + 2x  5 1 −1  5x 4 + 2 x  5
y′ = x + x 2 −1 5 ⋅ 5x 4 + 2 x =   x + x 2 −1 5 1
=   x + x 2 −1 5
5  5   5
   
 5x 4 + 2x  5
=   x + x 2 −1 ( ) −4
5
 5x 4 + 2 x 
=  ⋅ 1
=
5x 4 + 2x
 5 
(x ) (x )
5 4
  5 5
  5
+ x 2 −1 5 5 + x2 −1 4
( )
1 1
e. Given y = x 2 − 1 ⋅ x + 1 = x 2 − 1 2 ⋅ (x + 1) 2 , then
( ) ( ) ( x − 1) ( )
1 1 −1 1   1 −1 1   2/ x 1 −1 1  1 
1 1 1
y′ =  x 2 −1 2 ⋅ 2x ⋅ (x + 1) 2  + (x + 1) 2 ⋅ x 2 −1 2
 =  2 2 1 ⋅ (x + 1) 2  +  (x + 1) 2 − 1 ⋅ x 2 − 1 2

2     2/
   2 
   
( ) −1
( ) ( )
 1  1 1  1 1
1 1 1
= x x 2 −1 2 ⋅ (x + 1) 2  +  (x + 1) − 2 ⋅ x 2 − 1 2
 =  x ⋅ ⋅ (x + 1) 2  +  ⋅ x 2 −1 2 
( x − 1) 
1 1
   2   2 2   2 ( x + 1) 2 
 1   1  x x +1 x2 −1
= x ⋅ ⋅ x + 1 +  ⋅ x 2 − 1 = +
 x 2 −1   2 x +1  x2 −1 2 x +1
 
1
f. Given y = x ( x + 1)3 = x 2 (x + 1) 3 , then
1 1 −1   1  (x + 1) 3 1 −1  1  (x + 1) 3 −1   1
⋅ (x + 1) 3  + 3 (x + 1) 2 ⋅ x 2   (x + 1) x 2   + 3 ( x + 1) x 2 
2 2
y′ =  x2 =  ⋅x2 1+ 3 =  x 2
2     2     2   

(x + 1) 3 ⋅ 1  + 3 ( x + 1) 2 x 12  ( x + 1) 3 + 3 x ( x + 1) 2
=    =
 1
2  2 x
 x2   
( ) ( ) ( )
5 5 5
=  x 2 + 5 x − 1 
2 2
g. Given y = x + 5x − 1 = x 2 + 5 x − 1 2 , then
 
5 ( 2 x + 5) 5 ( 2 x + 5)
( ) ( ) ( )
5 −1 5 −1 5−2
5 2
y′ = x + 5x − 1 2 ⋅ ( 2 x + 5) = ⋅ x 2 + 5x − 1 2 1
= ⋅ x 2 + 5x − 1 2
2 2 2
=
5 ( 2 x + 5)
⋅ x 2 + 5x − 1( )
3
2
=
5 ( 2 x + 5)
⋅ (x 2
+ 5x − 1 ) 3
=
5 ( 2 x + 5) x 2 + 5 x − 1( ) x 2 + 5x − 1
2 2 2
1
h. Given y = x2 3 x + 1 = x 2 (x + 1) 3 , then

1  2
1 1 1   x 1 −1 1 x2 1− 3
y′ = 2 x ⋅ (x + 1) 3  +  (x + 1) 3 − 1 ⋅ x 2  = 2 x (x + 1) 3  +  (x + 1) 3 1 = 2 x (x + 1) 3 + (x + 1) 3
  3     3  3
1 x2 2 1 x2 1 x2
= 2 x (x + 1) 3 + (x + 1) − 3 = 2 x (x + 1) 3 + ⋅ = 2x 3 x + 1 +
3 3 (x + 1) 23 3 3 ( x + 1) 2
( )
1 5
i. Given y = (x − 1) 3 3 x 5 = (x − 1) 3 x 5 3 = (x − 1) 3 x 3 , then
5−3
 5  5 5 −1   5  5   53 2  5
2
3 
y′ = 3 (x − 1) 2 ⋅ x 3  +  x 3 ⋅ (x − 1) 3  = 3x 3 (x − 1) 2  +  x 3 (x − 1) 3  = 3 x (x − 1)  +  x 3 (x − 1) 
 3     3      3 
3 53 2
= 3 x x 2 ( x − 1) 2 + x ( x − 1) 3
3
dy
Example 2.7-4: Find by implicit differentiation.
dx
3
a. x+ y = 10 b. x2 + y2 = x c. x2 + 5 y3 = 2
2
5 2
d. 2x + 1 = y 2 e. x +1 = y 3 f. 4
x2 y2 = x
g. 7 x y 2 = 3x 2 h. x3 + y 3 = 2 i. x 2 −1 = x y
Solutions:
( ) d  12 1
d d 1 12 − 1 d 1 1 −1 d 1 −1 1 −1
a. x+ y = (10) ; x + y2  = 0
  ; x ⋅ (x ) + y 2 ⋅ ( y ) = 0 ; x 2 ⋅1 + y 2 ⋅ y ′ = 0
dx dx dx   2 dx 2 dx 2 2
1
1 −1 1 − 1 1 y′ 1 1 1
1 y′ 1
1 1 −y2 − y y
; y 2 y ′ = − x 2 ; ⋅ 1 = − ⋅ 1 ; 2/ y 2 ⋅ ⋅ 1 = 2/ y 2 ⋅ − ⋅ 1 ; y ′ = 1 ; y ′ = ; y′ = −
2 2 2 2 2 2 2/ 2
/ x x
y x y2 x2 x2
( )
1
( ) −1
( )
1 −1
d  2 d 1 2 1 2
b. 2
 x +y = (x ) ; d x 2 + y 2 2=1 ; x + y2 2 

d 2 d 2
x + y  =1 ; x + y 2 2 (2 x + 2 y y ′) = 1
dx   dx dx 2  dx dx  2
( )
1
x2 + y2 − x
( ) 2 x2 + y2
1
2x + 2 y y′ 2
2 − 2x
; =1 ; 2x + 2 y y′ = 2 x + y2 2 ; y′ = ; y′ =
( ) 2y y
1
2 x2 + y2 2
( ) +(y )
 1 1 
d 3 2 5 3  d d  23 3
2 2 −1 d 3 3 −1 d
c.  x + y = (2) ; d  x 2 3 3 5
=0 ;  x + y 5  = 0 ; x 3 ⋅ (x ) + y 5 ⋅ ( y ) = 0
dx   dx dx   dx   3 dx 5 dx
2
2 −1 3 −2 3 −2 − 2 − 13 3y′ −2 1 2
− 10 y 5 10 5 y 2
; x 3 ⋅ 1 + y 5 ⋅ y′ = 0 ; y 5 y ′ = x ; = ; 9 x 3 y ′ = −10 y 5 ; y ′ = ; y′ = −
3 5 5 3 2 1 1
93 x
5 y 5 3x 3 9x 3

( ) ( );
1
d 1 1− 2 1
d d 2
(2 x + 1) 2 = 2 y ⋅ d ( y )
1
d. 2x +1 = y ; 6 x + (x + 1) 2 ; (2 x + 1) − 2 ⋅ 2 x = 2 y ⋅ y ′
dx dx dx dx 2 2
1
−1 x (2 x + 1) − 2 x x
; 2 y y ′ = x (2 x + 1) 2 ; y′ = ; y′ = ; y′ =
2y 1
2 y (2 x + 1) 2 2 y 2x + 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1
 d  y 3 
1 −1
d 5 2 d 2 32 −1 d 1 2  d d  2 23 − 1 d
⋅ (y)  dx x + dx (1) = 3 y ⋅ (y)
2
e.  x +1 = ; x 2 +1 5 = y ; x +1 5 ⋅
dx   dx   dx 3 dx 5   dx
( ) −4
( ) −4
( )
4
1 2 2 − 13 2 − 13 2x 2 2 y′ 2x 1
; x +1 5 ⋅ 2x = y ⋅ y′ ; y y′ = x +1 5
; = ; 10 x 2 + 1 5 y ′ = 6 x y 3
5 3 3 5
( )
1 4
3y 3 5 x 2 +1 5
1
6x y 3 3x3 y
; y′ = ; y′ =
(
10 x 2 + 1 )
4
5 5
5
(x 2
+1 4 )
( ) ( ) ( )
−3
( ) ( )
1 1 −1
d 4 2 2  d 1 2 2 1 2 2
f.  x y = (x ) ; d x 2 y 2 4=1 ; x y 4  d
 dx x 2 2 
y  = 1 ; x y − 1 4 2 xy 2 + 2 x 2 y y ′ = 1
dx   dx dx 4   4
;
2 xy 2 + 2 x 2 y y ′
=1 ;
(
2 xy 2 + x 2 y y ′ ) = 1 ; xy 2
+ x 2 y y′ = 2 x 2 y 2 −1 ( )
3
4 (
; x 2 y y ′ = 2 x 2 y 2 − 1 4 − xy 2 )
3
( ) ( )
3 3
4 x 2 y 2 −1 4 4 x 2 y 2 −1 4
( ) ( )
3 3
2 x 2 y 2 −1 4 xy 2 2 x2 y2 −1 4 y
; y′ = − ; y′ = 2
−
x2 y x2 y x y x
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (1 ⋅ y
−6
)
1 1 −1
d 7 2  d d 1 d 1
g.  xy  = 3x 2 ; xy 2 7 = 6x ; xy 2 7 ⋅ xy 2 = 6 x ; xy 2 7 2
+ 2 y y′ ⋅ x = 6x
dx   dx dx 7 dx 7
13 12
y 2 + 2 y y ′x
( ) ( ) y 7 − y2
6 6 42 x 7
; = 6x ; y 2 + 2 y y ′x = 6 x ⋅ 7 xy 2 7 ; 2 y y ′x = 42 x xy 2 7− y 2 ; y′ =
( ) 2x y
6
7 xy 2 7
( ) ( ) −1
( ) ( )
1 1 −1
d  3 d 1 3 1 3
h. 3
 x +y = (2) ; d x 3 + y 3 2 =0 ; x + y3 2 
⋅
d 3 d 3
x + y =0 ; x + y 3 2 ⋅ 3x 2 + 3 y 2 y ′ = 0
dx   dx dx 2  dx dx  2
3x 2 3
2
x + y3 ( ) −1
2 +
3y 2 y′ 3
2
x + y3 ( ) −1
2 =0 ;
3y 2 y′ 3
2
x + y3 ( ) −1
2 =−
3x 2 3
2
(
x + y3 ) −1
2
; y 2 y′ = − x 2 ; y ′ = −
x2
y2
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 −1
d  2  d (x y ) d d 1 2
i.  x −1  = ; x 2 −1 2 = 1⋅ y + x⋅ (y) ; x −1 2 ⋅ 2x = y + x y ′ ; x x 2 −1 2 = y + x y′
dx   dx dx dx 2

; y + x y′ = x x −1 ( 2
) −1
2
; x y′ = x x −1 ( 2
) −1
2 −y ; y′ =
x x2 −1( ) −1
2 −y
x
Example 2.7-5: Compute the derivative for the following Radical expressions.
a.
d
dx
(
2x + x )= b.
d
dx
( x +1 )= c.
d 3 2 
 x +1 =
dx  
d.
d  3
x+ x 
dx  
= e.
d  5 
 x − 3
dx  
= f.
d
dx
(
x3 x +1 )=
d  x +1 d  1  d  x 2 
g.   = h. = i.  =
dx  x  dx  x +1  dx  3 x 

Solutions:
a.
d
dx
(
2x + x )= d
dx
2x +
d
dx
x =
d
dx
2x +
d 12
dx
1 1 −1
x = 2+ x2
2
1 −1 1
= 2+ x 2 = 2+ 1 = 2+
2
1
2 x
2x 2
b.
d
dx
( x +1 )= d
dx
1
(x + 1) 2 =
1
2
1
(x + 1) 2 − 1 ⋅1 =
1
2
1
(x + 1) − 2 =
1
1
=
1
2 x +1
2 (x + 1) 2
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 −2
d 3 2  d 1 2 2x 2 2x 2x
c.  x +1 = x 2 +1 3 = x +1 3 ⋅ 2x = x +1 3
= =
dx   dx 3 3
(
3 x 2 +1 )
2
3 3
3
(x 2
+1 ) 2
d  3 d  3  d d 32 3 3 −1 3 1 3
d. x+ x  = x+ x2  = x+ x = 1+ x 2 = 1+ x 2 = 1 + x
dx   dx  
 dx dx 2 2 2
d  5  d  52  d 52 d 5 52 − 1 5 32 5 5x x
e.  x − 3 =  x − 3 =
  x + (− 3 ) = x + 0 = x = x3 =
dx   dx   dx dx 2 2 2 2
f.
d
dx
(
x3 x +1 )= d
dx
 x 3 (x + 1) 12 

1 d 3 3 d 1 1 3 1 1 −1
 = (x + 1) 2 dx x + x dx (x + 1) 2 = (x + 1) 2 ⋅ 3 x + x ⋅ 2 (x + 1) 2
2
1 1
1 x3 1 1 x3 3 x 2 (x + 1) 2 ⋅ 2 (x + 1) 2 + x 3 6 x 2 (x + 1) + x 3
= 3x (x + 1)
2
2 + (x + 1) − 2 = 3x (x + 1) +
2
2 = =
2 2 (x + 1) 2
1
2 (x + 1) 2
1
2 x +1
6x 3 + 6x 2 + x 3 7x 3 + 6x 2 x 2 (7 x + 6 )
= = =
2 x +1 2 x +1 2 x +1
 12 d   d 12   12   1 1 −1 
   x ⋅ (x + 1) − (x + 1) ⋅ x   x ⋅1 − (x + 1) ⋅ x 2 
d  x +1 d  x +1  dx   dx     2 
g.   = = =
dx  x  dx  12  x x
 x 

1 1
1  1 −1
1
x +1 x 2 ⋅ 2 x 2 − (x + 1) 2x − x −1 x −1
x2 − (x + 1) ⋅ x 2  x2 − 1 1
2 2 x x −1
=  
= 2x 2 = 2x 2 = = 2 x =
x x x x x 2x x
 1 d   d 1
1
(x + 1) 2 ⋅ dx (1) − 1 ⋅ dx (x + 1) 2 
1
0 − (x + 1) 2 − 1
d  1  d  1  d  1 
     2
h. =   =
 = =
dx  x +1  dx  x +1  dx  (x + 1) 12 x +1 x +1
 
1
1 1 −
− (x + 1) − 2 2 (x + 1) 2
1
1 1 1 1
= 2 = = − = − = − = −
x +1 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1)
1
2 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1)
3
2 2 (x + 1) 3 2 ( x + 1) x + 1
 2  6−1 5 5 2 3
d  x 2 
 = d x  d  2 − 13  d 2 − 13 d d 3 5 3 −1 5 3 5 x2
i. = x ⋅x  = x = x 3 = x = x = x =
dx  3 x 
 dx  13 
 dx  
 dx dx dx 3 3 3
x 
Example 2.7-6: Evaluate the derivative of the following equations at the given values.
( x + 1)
2 3
a. y = at x = 2 b. y = 3 x + x +2 at x = 10 c. y = x x 2 + 1 at x = 5
6x + 1 1
d. y = 3 2 x + 3 x 2 at x = 2 e. y = 2
at x = 3 f. y = at x = −5
x 2
x +1
5x + 1
g. y = at x = 3 h. y = x x 2 − 10 + 2 x at x = 5 i. y = x 2 ( x + 1)3 at x = 1
2x + 1
x2 +1 x5 +1 x +1
j. y = 2
at x = 0 k. y = at x = 2 l. y = at x = 1
1− x 2x x3 +1
Solutions:
( x + 1) ( )
3
2 3
a. Given y = = x 2 + 1 2 , then
( ) ( 2x ) ( ) ( )
3 −1 3−2 1
3 2 2 −1 3 2
y′ = x +1 2 +0 = x +1 2 ⋅ 2/ x = 3x x 2 + 1 2
= 3x x 2 + 1
2 2/
Substituting x = 2 in place of x in the y ′ equation we obtain the following value:
y′ = (3 ⋅ 2) 2 2 + 1 = 6 5 = 13.42
1 1
b. Given y = 3 x + x +2 = x 3 + x 2 + 2 , then
1 13 − 1 1 12 − 1 1 −2 1 −1 1 1 1 1
y′ = x + x +0 = x 3 + x 2 = 2
+ 1
= +
3 2 3 2 3 x2
3 2 x
3x 3 2x 2

1 1 1 1
y′ = 2
+ 1
= + = 0.072 + 0.158 = 0.23
3 ⋅ 4.634 2 ⋅ 3.162
3 ⋅10 3 2 ⋅10 2
( )
1
c. Given y = x x 2 + 1 = x x 2 + 1 2 , then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
 1  1 −1  1 1 −1  1 −1
1
y ′ = 1 ⋅ x 2 + 1 2  +  x 2 + 1 2 ⋅ 2 x 2 − 1 + 0 ⋅ x = x 2 + 1 2 +  x 2 +1 2 ⋅ 2/ x 2  = x 2 + 1 2 + x 2 x 2 +1 2
   2   2/ 
(x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1) + x
1 1 1+1
( ) 2x 2 + 1
2 2
2
1
x2 2 2 + x2 2 2 2 2
x 2 +1+ x 2
= x +1 + 2
= = = =
(x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1)
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 x 2 +1

2 ⋅ 52 +1 2 ⋅ 25 + 1 50 + 1 51
y′ = = = = = 10
(5 + 1)
1 1 1 5.1
2 2 (25 + 1) 2 26 2
1 2
d. Given y = 3 2 x + 3 x 2 = (2 x ) 3 + x 3 , then
2 −1 −1
1
(2 x ) 3 − 1 + 2 x 3 = 1 (2 x )− 3 + 2 x 3 = 1 2 + 21 = 1 2
1 2
y′ = +
3
3 3 3 3 3(2 x ) 3 3 x 3 33 (2 x )2 3 x

1 2 1 2 1 2
y′ = 2
+ 1
= 2
+ 1
= + = 0.132 + 0.53 = 0.662
3 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 2) 3 ⋅ 2.53 3 ⋅1.26
3 3⋅ 2 3 3⋅ 4 3 3⋅ 2 3
1
e. Given y =
6x + 1
=
(6 x ) 2 + 1 , then
x2 2
x
 1 1 −1  2   2 −1  1   1 −1  2   1 
  (6 x ) 2 ⋅ 6 + 0 ⋅ x  − 2 x ⋅ (6 x ) 2 + 1    (6 x ) 2 ⋅ 6 ⋅ x  − 2 x ⋅ (6 x ) 2 + 1 
 2       2     
y′ = =
x4 x4
1 1
3 x 2 (6 x ) − 2 − 2 x(6 x ) 2 − 2 x
=
x4

1 1 1 1
3 ⋅ 3 2 ⋅ (6 ⋅ 3) − 2 − 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ (6 ⋅ 3) 2 − 2 ⋅ 3 27 ⋅ (18) − 2 − 6 ⋅ (18) 2 − 6 (27 ⋅ 0.236) − (6 ⋅ 4.243) − 6
y′ = 4
= =
3 81 81
6.372 − 25.458 − 6 25.086

= = − = −0.31
81 81

1 1
f. Given y = = , then
(x + 1)
1
x2 +1 2 2
0 ⋅ (x + 1)  −  (x + 1) ⋅ (2 x ) ( )
  1 1 1 −1  1 −1 
2 2 2−1
2 2 + 0 ⋅1 0 −  x 2 +1 2 ⋅ 2/ x 
y′ =

  2   
=  2/ 
=
(
− x x 2 +1 ) −1
2
x 2 +1 x 2 +1 x 2 +1
−x −x −x −x −x
= = = = =
(x + 1)(x + 1)
2 2
1
2 ( 1+ 1
x 2 +1 2 ) (x + 1)
2
3
2 (x + 1)
2 3
(x + 1)
2
x 2 +1
Substituting x = −5 in place of x in the y ′ equation we obtain the following value:

−5 5 5 5
y′ = − = = = = 0.038
[(− 5) + 1] 2 3
(25 + 1) 3 17576 132.57
g. Given y =
5x + 1
=
(5 x + 1) 2 , then
2x + 1 2x + 1
1 1 −1
 2 (5 x + 1) 2 ⋅ 5 x

1−1
( 
 
) 1
+ 0 ⋅ (2 x + 1) −  2 x1 − 1 + 0 (5 x + 1) 2 

( ) 2.5(5 x + 1) − 12 ⋅ (2 x + 1) − 2(5 x + 1) 12 
   
y′ = =
(2 x + 1)2 (2 x + 1)2

2.5(15 + 1) − 12 ⋅ (6 + 1) − 2(15 + 1) 12  17.5 ⋅ (16) − 12  − 2⋅ (16) 12 
y′ =
   
=
   
=
[17.5 ⋅ 0.25] − [2 ⋅ 4] = −0.074
(6 + 1)2 72 49
( )
1
h. Given y = x x 2 − 10 + 2 x = x x 2 − 10 2 + 2 x , then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
 1   1 −1  1  −1 
y′ = 1 ⋅ x 2 − 10 2  + 0.5 x 2 − 10 2 ⋅ 2 x 2 − 1 − 0 ⋅ x  + 2 x1 − 1 = x 2 − 10 2 +  x 2 x 2 − 10 2
+2
     
( ) ( )
1  −1  1  −1 
y′ = 5 2 − 10 2 + 5 2 5 2 − 10 2
+2 = 15 2 + 25 ⋅15 2
+2 = 3873
. + [ 25 ⋅ 0.258] + 2 = 12.323
   
3
i. Given y = x 2 ( x + 1)3 = x 2 (x + 1) 2 , then
y′

3
 2
3 3 
 
3
( 3 1
= 2 x 2−1 ⋅ (x + 1) 2  +  (x + 1) 2 − 1 ⋅ x1−1 + 0 ⋅ x 2  = 2 x(x + 1) 2  +  x 3 (x + 1) 2 
 2 
)
3  
3 3 1  3 1
y′ = 2(1 + 1) 2  +  (1 + 1) 2  =  2 ⋅ 2 2  +  ⋅ 2 2  = 5.657 + 2121
. = 7.778
  2  2    

1
x2 +1  x 2 +1 2
j. Given y = =   , then
 1− x 2 
1− x2  
( ) ( )
1 −1 − −1 1
 2 2   2  2 x − 2/ x 3/ + 2/ x 3/ + 2 x 
1  x 2 + 1  2  2
 2x 1 − x + 2x x +1  = 1  x + 1  
 2
 = 1  x +1
 2 4x
y′ = 
2  1 − x 2  
 1− x ( )
2 2 

2  1 − x 2  
 1− x 2 2 

2  1 − x 2 
1− x 2
2
( ) ( )
−1
1  0 +1 2 4⋅0 1 − 12
y′ =   ⋅ = ⋅1 ⋅ 0 = 0
2  1− 0  (1 − 0)2 2
(x + 1)
1
x5 +1 5 2
k. Given y = = , then
2x 2x
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 5 1 −1   1   5 5 −1   1 
 x +1 2 5x 4 ⋅ 2/ x  − 2 x1 − 1 ⋅ x 5 + 1 2
 5 x x + 1 2 5
 − 2 ⋅ x + 1 2

 2/       
y′ = =
(2 x )2 4x 2

160(32 + 1) − 12  − 2 ⋅ (32 + 1) 12 
    [160 ⋅0.174] − [2 ⋅ 5.744] .
27.8 − 115
y′ = = = = 1.02
4⋅4 16 16
x +1 x +1
l. Given y = = , then
(x + 1)
3 1
x +1 3 2
1 ⋅ (x + 1)  −   (x + 1) (3x ) (x + 1) ( )
    1 1 1 −1   1   1 −1  
3 2 3 2 2
+ 0  (x + 1)  3 2 −   x 3 + 1 2 3 x 2  (x + 1) 

   2       2  
y′ = =
x3 +1 x3 +1
3 2
x (x + 1)
(x + 1) (x + 1) 2(x + 1) − 3x ( )
1 1 1
(x + 1)
3 3 3 3
3
1
2 2
2 3x 3 + 3x 2 2 2 − 3x 2 2 x 3 + 1 − 3x 3 − 3x 2
− −
(x + 1) ( ) 2(x + 1) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
3 2 2 x3 +1 2 3 2 2 x3 +1 2
= = = =
x3 +1 x3 +1 x3 +1 x3 +1
2 x 3 + 2 − 3x 3 − 3x 2 − x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 − x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 − x 3 − 3x 2 + 2
= = = =
( ) (x + 1) ( ) (x + 1) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 +1 3
2 x3 +1 2 3
2 x3 +1 2 3
2 x3 +1 2 2 x3 +1 2
y′ =
( )
− 13 − 3 ⋅12 + 2
=
−1 − 3 + 2
=
−2/
=
−1
= −0.354
2(1 + 1)3
3 3 2/ ⋅ 2.828 2.828
2 2⋅2 2

Section 2.7 Practice Problems - The Derivative of Radical Functions
1. Find the derivative of the following radical expressions. Do not simplify the answer to its
lowest
term.
a. y = x 2 + 1 b. y = x 3 + 3x − 5 c. y = x 2 + x − 1
x +1 x2
d. y = e. y = f. y = x 3 + 3x 2
x 2
x −1
4
x2 + 3 x 3 −1 x3
g. y = h. y = i. y =
x +1 x x2 x
d
2. Use the notation to find the derivative of the following radical expressions.
dx
d  2 1 d  x  d  x 3 
a.  x +  = b. = c. =
dx  x dx  x −1 
 dx  x +1 
d  x + 5  d  3 x  d  2 x 
d. = e. x + = f. 1+  =
dx  x  
dx  x  dx  x3 

3. Find the derivative of the following radical expressions.
a.
d  3  d (x )
 x + y=
dx   dx
b.
d
dx
( x + y3 = ) d
dx
(2) c.
d
dx
(x y ) = d
dx
( x)
d.
d
dx
( )
y + x3 = 0 e.
d  4 2
 x +y =
dx 
d
 dx
(x ) f.
d
dx
( x +1 = ) dx
( )
d 3
y
g.
d
dx
(
x y2 + x =
d
dx
(2) ) h.
d  3 d
 x  + (x y ) = 0
dx   dx
i.
d
dx
( x + 3y = ) d
dx
(y)
4. Evaluate the derivative of the following radical expressions for the specified values of x .
a. y = 3x 3 + x 2 at x = 1 (
b. y = x 2 + 1 x at x = 0 ) c. y =
x 2 −1
at x = 2
4x 2
x x 2 +1
d. y = at x = 1 e. y = x 3 + 1 + 4 x 3 at x = 0 f. y = at x = 3
x 2 +1 x3

Calculus I 2.8 Higher Order Derivatives
2.8 Higher Order Derivatives

If the function y = f ( x ) is differentiable, then we can form a new function y ′ = f ′( x ) which is
referred to as the first derivative of y = f ( x ) . Consequently, if y ′ = f ′( x ) is differentiable, then
we can form another new function y ′′ = f ′′( x ) called the second derivative of y = f ( x ) . This
process of obtaining a new function can continue as long as we have differentiability. First,
second, third, and higher order derivatives are denoted in various notations. In general, however,
first, second, third, and nth derivatives are shown in the following forms:
dy d
y′ = f ′( x ) = = f ( x) = D y = D f ( x)
dx dx
d2y d  dy  d2 d d 
y ′′ = f ′′( x ) = =   = f ( x) = f ( x ) = D 2 y = D 2 f ( x )
dx 2 dx  dx  dx 2 dx  dx 
d3y d  d2 y d3 d  d2 
y ′′′ = f ′′′( x ) = = 
2
 = f ( x ) =  2
f ( x )  = D3 y = D3 f ( x )
dx 3 dx  dx  dx 3 dx  dx 

dny d  d n −1 y  dn d  d n −1 
yn = f n ( x) = f ( x)  n −1 f ( x )  = D y = D f ( x )
n n
=   = =
dx n dx  dx n −1  dx n dx  dx 
Students are encouraged to become familiar with these notations for finding the derivative of
different functions. Note that the prime notation is not used beyond the third derivative. In
general, the fourth or higher derivatives are shown as y 4 = f 4 ( x ) ; y 5 = f 5 ( x ) ; y 6 = f 6 ( x ) ;  ;
yn = f n
( x ) instead of y iv = f iv
(x ) ; yv = f v
(x ) ; y v i = f v i (x ) , etc. For example, given
f ( x) = x 6 + x 3 + 1 , then f ′ ( x ) = 6 x 5 + 3x 2 , f ′′( x ) = 30 x 4 + 6 x , f ′′′( x ) = 120 x 3 + 6 , f 4 ( x ) = 360 x 2 ,
f 5 ( x ) = 720 x , f 6
( x ) = 720 , and all derivatives higher than
are equal to zero. The following 7
examples show in detail how higher order derivatives are obtained:
Example 2.8-1: Find the second derivative of the following functions.
a. f ( x ) = 5x 8 − 3x 3 + 1 (
b. f ( x ) = x 3 x 2 + x + 5 ) c. f ( x ) = x 2 +
1
x
u3 − 1 1
( )
2
d. f (u) = e. g( x ) = x 2 + 3
f. h( x ) = a 2 + x 3
u +1 x
(
g. f ( x ) = x 2 + 1 )
−1
h. r (θ ) = θ 2 +
1
3
(
i. s(r ) = r 2 r 2 + 1 )
3
(θ + 1)
t 3 + t 2 +1 1 x3
j. f ( t ) = k. p( r ) = r 2 − l. f ( x ) =
10 r x +1
Solutions:
a. Given f ( x ) = 5x 8 − 3x 3 + 1 , then
f ′( x ) = ( 5 ⋅ 8) x 8−1 − ( 3 ⋅ 3) x 3−1 + 0 = 40 x 7 − 9 x 2 and

f ′′( x ) = ( 40 ⋅ 7) x 7 −1 − ( 9 ⋅ 2) x 2 −1 = 280 x 6 − 18 x
(
b. Given f ( x ) = x 3 x 2 + x + 5 , then )
f ′( x ) [ ( )] [( ) ] [ (
= 3x 3−1 ⋅ x 2 + x + 5 + 2 x 2−1 + 1x 1−1 + 0 ⋅ x 3 = 3x 2 x 2 + x + 5 + ( 2 x + 1) ⋅ x 3 )] [ ]
= 3x 4 + 3x 3 + 15x 2 + 2 x 4 + x 3 = 5 x 4 + 4 x 3 + 15 x 2 and
f ′′( x ) = ( 5 ⋅ 4) x 4 −1 + ( 4 ⋅ 3) x 3−1 + (15 ⋅ 2) x 2 −1 = 20 x 3 + 12 x 2 + 30 x

1
c. Given f ( x ) = x 2 + , then
x
f ′( x ) = 2 x 2 −1 +
[0 ⋅ x] − (1⋅ 1) = 2x +
0−1
= 2x −
1
2
x x 2
x2
A second way is to rewrite f ( x ) as f (x ) = x 2 + x −1 and find its derivative, i.e.,
1
f ′( x ) = 2 x 2 −1 − 1 ⋅ x −1−1 = 2 x − x −2 = 2 x − and
x2
2
f ′′( x ) = 2 x 1−1 + ( −1⋅ −2) x −2 −1 = 2 x 0 + 2 x −3 = 2 + 2 x −3 = 2 +
x3
u3 − 1
d. Given f (u) = , then
u +1
f ′( x ) =
[ (3u 3−1
) ] [(
− 0 ⋅ (u + 1) − u 1−1 + 0 ⋅ u 3 − 1 )( )]
=
(
3u 2 ⋅ ( u + 1) − u 3 − 1 ) = 3u 3
+ 3u 2 − u 3 + 1
=
2u 3 + 3 u 2 + 1
(u + 1)2 ( u + 1) 2 ( u + 1) 2 ( u + 1)2
f ′′( x ) =
[ (2 ⋅ 3u 3−1
) ][
+ 3 ⋅ 2u 2−1 + 0 ⋅ (u + 1)2 − 2(u + 1)2−1 ⋅ 2u 3 + 3u 2 + 1 ( )]
(u + 1)4
=
[ (6u 2
) ][
+ 6u (u + 1)2 − 2(u + 1) 2u 3 + 3u 2 + 1 ( )]
=
[ (6u 2
) ][ (
+ 6u (u + 1)2 + (− 2u − 2 ) 2u 3 + 3u 2 + 1 )]
(u + 1) 4
(u + 1) 4
1
e. Given g( x ) = x 2 + , then
x3
g ′( x ) = 2 x 2−1 +
(0 ⋅ x )− (3x
3 3−1
)
⋅1
= 2x +
−3x 2
= 2x −
3x 2/
= 2x −
3
x 6
x 6
x 6/ = 4
x4
A second way is to rewrite g( x ) as g (x ) = x 2 + x −3 and find its derivative, i.e.,

3
g ′( x ) = 2 x 2 −1 − 3 ⋅ x −1− 3 = 2 x − 3x −4 = 2 x − and
x4
12
g ′′( x ) = 2 x1−1 + (− 3 ⋅ −4 )x −4−1 = 2 x 0 + 12 x −5 = 2 + 12 x −5 = 2 +
x5
( )
2
f. Given h( x ) = a 2 + x 3 , then
( ) ⋅ (0 + 3x ) = 2(a ) ( )
2 −1
h ′( x ) = 2 a 2 + x 3 3−1 2
+ x 3 ⋅ 3x 2 = 6 x 2 a 2 + x 3 = 6a 2 x 2 + 6 x 5 = 6 x 5 + 6a 2 x 2
(
h ′′( x ) = ( 6 ⋅ 5) x 5−1 + 6a 2 ⋅ 2 x 2 −1 = 30 x 4 + 12a 2 x )
( )
−1
g. Given f ( x ) = x 2 + 1 , then
( ) ( ) = −( x + 1) ( )
 −1−1  −2  −2
f ′( x ) = −1⋅ x 2 + 1  ⋅ 2x
2 −1
+0 2
 ⋅ 2x = −2x x 2 + 1
  

( ) ( ) ( 
) 
( ) ( ) 
−2  −2 −1 −2  −3
f ′′( x ) = −2 1 ⋅ x 2 + 1 + −2 x 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 x 2 −1 + 0   = −2 x 2 + 1 + −2 x 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 x 
     
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
 −2 −3  −2 −3
= −2 x 2 + 1 − 4x x 2 + 1  = −2 x 2 + 1 + 8x x 2 + 1
 
1
h. Given r (θ ) = θ 2 + , then
(θ + 1) 3
r ′ (θ ) = 2θ 2−1 +
[ 0 ⋅ (θ + 1) ]− [3(θ + 1) ⋅1]3 3−1
= 2θ +
0 − 3 (θ + 1)
2
= 2θ −
3 (θ + 1)
2/
= 2θ −
3
and
(θ + 1) 6
(θ + 1) 6
(θ + 1) 6/ = 4
(θ + 1) 2
r ′′(θ ) = 2θ 1−1 −
[ 0 ⋅ (θ + 1) ]− [2(θ + 1) 2 2 −1
⋅3 ] = 2−
0 − 6 (θ + 1)
= 2+
6 (θ/ + 1/ )
= 2+
6
(θ + 1)4 (θ + 1) 4 (θ + 1) 4/ = 3
(θ + 1) 3
( )
3
i. Given s( r ) = r 2 r 2 + 1 , then
( ) ( ) ⋅ (2r ) ( )   ( )
 3  3−1   3 2 
s ′(r ) = 2r 2 −1 ⋅ r 2 + 1  + 3 r 2 + 1 2 −1
+ 0 ⋅r2 = 2 r r 2 + 1  + 3 r 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 r  ⋅ r 2
     
( ) ( )
3 2
= 2r r 2 + 1 + 6 r 3 r 2 + 1 and

( ) ( ) ⋅ (2r   
) ( ) ( ) ⋅ ( 2r ) 
3  3−1 2  2 −1 
s ′′( r ) = 2 1 ⋅ r 2 + 1  + 3 r 2 + 1 2 −1
+ 0  ⋅ r  + 63r 3−1 ⋅ r 2 + 1  + 2 r 2 + 1 2 −1
+ 0 ⋅r3
         


( ) ( )   
( ) [( 
) ]
3  3−1 2
= 2  r 2 + 1 + 3 r 2 + 1 ⋅ 2r  ⋅ r  + 63r 2 r 2 + 1  + 2 r 2 + 1 ⋅ 2r ⋅ r 3 
      

( 3 
) 2  
( )
2 
= 2  r 2 + 1 + 6 r 2 r 2 + 1   + 6   3 r 2 r 2 + 1  + 4 r 4 r 2 + 1 
   
( ) [ ( )]
   
3 2
t + t +1
j. Given f (t ) = , then
10
f ′( t ) =
[ (3t 3−1
) ][ (
+ 2t 2−1 + 0 ⋅10 − 0 ⋅ t 3 + t 2 + 1 )]
=
(
10 3t 2 + 2t − 0 ) =
10 (
/ / 3t 2 + 2t )= 3 t 2 + 2t
and
10 2 100 100
/ / / = 10 10
f ′′( t ) =
[ (3 ⋅ 2t 2 −1
) ][ (
+ 2t 1−1 ⋅10 − 0 ⋅ 3t 2 + 2t )]
=
10 ( 6t + 2) − 0
=
/ / ( 6t + 2)
10
=
2/ (3t + 1)
=
3t + 1
10 2 100 100
/ / / = 10 1/ 0/ = 5 5
1
k. Given p(r ) = r 2 − which is equal to p(r ) = r 2 − r −1 , then
r
(
p ′(r ) = 2r 2 −1 − −1 ⋅ r −1−1 = 2r + r −2 and )
p ′′( r ) = 2r 1−1 − 2r −2 −1 = 2r 0 − 2r −3 = 2 − 2r −3
x3
l. Given f ( x ) = , then
x +1
f ′( x ) =
[ 3x 3−1
] [(
⋅ ( x + 1) − 1 ⋅ x 1−1 + 0 ⋅ x 3 ) ] = 3x 2
( x + 1) − x 3
=
3x 3 + 3x 2 − x 3
=
2x 3 + 3 x 2
and
( x + 1) 2 ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 1) 2
f ′′( x ) =
{[(2 ⋅ 3) x 2
]
+ ( 3 ⋅ 2) x ⋅ ( x + 1)
2
} − {2( x + 1) ⋅ (2 x 3
+ 3x 2 )} = [ (6 x 2
) ][ (
+ 6 x ( x + 1 ) 2 − 2( x + 1) 2 x 3 + 3 x 2 )]
( x + 1) 4 ( x + 1)4
d3y
Example 2.8-2: Find for the following functions.
dx 3
x 2 + 3x + 1
( )
−2
a. y = (1 − 5x )3 b. y = a − bx 2 c. y =
x +1
1 1 ax 2 + b x2 +1
d. y = x 5 + x 4 + x e. y = f. y =
5 4 c x3
Solutions:
a. Given y = (1 − 5x )3 , then
y′ ( )
= 3(1 − 5x ) 3−1 ⋅ 0 − 5x 1−1 = 3 (1 − 5x ) 2 ⋅ ( −5) = −15 (1 − 5 x)
2
y ′′ ( )
= ( −15 ⋅ 2) (1 − 5x ) 2 −1 ⋅ 0 − 5x 1−1 = −30 (1 − 5x ) ⋅ ( −5) = 150 (1 − 5 x)

y ′′′ (
= 150 0 − 5x 1−1 = 150 ⋅ ( −5) = −750 )
( )
−2
b. Given y = a − bx 2 , then
( ) ( ) ( )
−2 −1 −3 −3
y′ = −2 a − bx 2 ⋅ ( 0 − 2bx ) = −2 a − bx 2 ⋅ ( −2bx ) = 4 bx a − bx 2
( ) 
( ) 
( ) ( )
 −3  −3−1   −3   −4 
y ′′ = ( 4b ⋅ 1) a − bx 2  + −3 a − bx
2
⋅ ( 0 − 2bx )  ⋅ ( 4bx )  = 4b a − bx 2  + 6bx a − bx
2
⋅ ( 4bx ) 
        
( ) ( )
 −3   −4 
= 4b a − bx 2 2 2
 +  24 b x a − bx
2

   
( ) ( )( ) + (−96b x )(a − bx )
 −3−1   −4 2 −4 −1 
y ′′′ = −12b a − bx 2 ⋅ ( −2bx )  +  48b 2 x ⋅ a − bx 2 2 2
⋅ ( −2bx ) 
   
( ) ( ) ( )
 −4   −4 −5 
= 24b 2 x a − bx 2 2
 + 48 b x a − bx
2
+ 192b 3 x 3 a − bx 2 
   
x 2 + 3x + 1
c. Given y = , then
x +1
y′ =
[ (2x 2 −1
) ] [(
+ 3 x1−1 + 0 ⋅ (x + 1) − x1−1 + 0 ⋅ x 2 + 3 x + 1 )( )]
=
[ (2 x + 3)⋅ (x + 1) ] − [1⋅ (x 2 + 3x + 1) ]
(x + 1)2 (x + 1)2
=
(2 x 2
+ 2 x + 3x + 3 − x 2 + 3x + 1 ) ( ) =
2 x 2 + 5x + 3 − x 2 − 3x − 1
=
x 2 + 2x + 2
( x + 1) 2 ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 1) 2
y ′′ =
[ (2x 2 −1
) ][
+ 2 x1−1 + 0 ⋅ (x + 1)2 − 2(x + 1)2−1 ⋅ x 2 + 2 x + 2 ( )]
=
[ (2x + 2)(x + 1) ]− [2(x + 1) (x
2 2
+ 2x + 2 )]
(x + 1)4 (x + 1)4
=
[ (2x + 2) (x + 1) ]− [2(x + 1) (x 2 2
+ 2x + 2 )]
=
[2x 3
][
+ 6 x 2 + 6 x + 2 − 2 x 3 + 6 x 2 + 8x + 4 ]
(x + 1)4 (x + 1)4
2 x 3 + 6x 2 + 6x + 2 − 2 x 3 − 6x 2 − 8x − 4 −2 x − 2
= =
( x + 1) 4
( x + 1)4
y ′′′ =
[ (− 2x 1−1
) ][
+ 0 ⋅ (x + 1)4 − 4(x + 1)4−1 ⋅ (− 2 x − 2 ) ] =
[− 2 (x + 1) ]+ [ (x + 1) (8 x + 8) ]
4 3
(x + 1)8 ( x + 1)8

1 1
d. Given y = x 5 + x 4 + x , then
5 4
1 1
y′ = ⋅ 5x 5−1 + ⋅ 4 x 4 −1 + x 1−1 = x 4 + x 3 + 1 y ′′ = 4 x 4 −1 + 3x 3−1 + 0 = 4 x 3 + 3 x 2 and
5 4
y ′′′ = ( 4 ⋅ 3) x 3−1 + ( 3 ⋅ 2) x 2 −1 = 12x 2 + 6 x

ax 2 + b
e. Given y = , then
c
y′ =
[ (a ⋅ 2x 2 −1
) ][ (
+ 0 ⋅ c − 0 ⋅ ax 2 + b )]
=
( 2ax ⋅ c) − 0
=
2acx
/
=
2ax
y ′′ =
2a
and y ′′′ = 0
c 2
c 2
c 2/ =1 c c
x2 +1
f. Given y = , then
x3
y′ =
[ (2x 2 −1
) ][
+ 0 ⋅ x 3 − 3 x 3−1 ⋅ x 2 + 1 ( )]
=
[2x ⋅ x ]− [3x ⋅ (x + 1) ]
3 2 2
=
2 x 4 − 3x 4 − 3x 2
=
− x 4 − 3x 2
x6 x6 x6 x6
=
(
− x 2/ x 2 + 3 ) = −
x2 + 3
x 6/ = 4 x4
y ′′ = −
[ (2x 2 −1
) ][
+ 0 ⋅ x 4 − 4 x 4−1 ⋅ x 2 + 3 ( )]
= −
[2x ⋅ x ]− [4 x ⋅ (x + 3) ]
4 3 2
= −
2 x 5 − 4 x 5 − 12 x 3
x8 x8 x8
= −
−2 x 5 − 12 x 3
=
(
x 3/ 2 x 2 + 12 )= 2 x 2 + 12
x8 x 8/ =5 x5
y ′′′ =
[ (4x 2 −1
) ][
+ 0 ⋅ x 5 − 5 x 5−1 ⋅ 2 x 2 + 12 ( )]
=
[ 4x ⋅ x ]− [5x ⋅ (2x5 4 2
+ 12 )]
=
4 x 6 − 10 x 6 − 60 x 4
x10 x10 x 10
=
−6 x 6 − 60 x 4
=
(
x 4/ −6 x 2 − 60 ) = − 6x 2
+ 60
6
x 10 x 10
/ / =6
x
Example 2.8-3: Find f ′′(0) and f ′′(1) for the following functions.
1
a. f ( x ) = 6x 7 + 7 x 2 − 2 b. f (x ) = x 5 (x − 1)2 c. f ( x ) = x −
x
x3 +1 1
d. f ( x ) = e. f ( x ) = x 3 − f. f ( x ) = (ax + b) 2
x x +1
( x + 1) 2
g. f ( x ) = ( x − 1) −2 h. f ( x ) =
x
(
i. f ( x ) = ( x + 1) x 2 + 1 + 5 )
1+ x 1 1
j. f ( x ) = (1 + 5x )3 k. f (x ) = 3
l. f ( x ) = x 3 + x 2 + x + 10
x 3 2

Solutions:
a. Given f ( x ) = 6 x 7 + 7 x 2 − 2 , then
f ′( x ) = 6 ⋅ 7 x 7−1 + 7 ⋅ 2 x 2−1 − 0 = 42 x 6 + 14 x and f ′′( x ) = 42 ⋅ 6 x 6−1 + 14 ⋅ 1x 1−1 = 252 x 5 + 14
Therefore, f ′′(0) = 252 ⋅ 05 + 14 = 0 + 14 = 14 and f ′′(1) = 252 ⋅15 + 14 = 252 + 14 = 266
b. Given f ( x ) = x 5 ( x − 1) 2 , then
( ) 2
[ ] 2
f ′( x ) = 5x 5−1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ ( x − 1) + 2( x − 1) ⋅ 1 ⋅ x 5 = 5x 4 ( x − 1) + 2 x 5 ( x − 1) = 5x 4 ( x − 1) + 2 x 6 − 2 x 5 and
2
[ 2
]
f ′′( x ) = 5 ⋅ 4 x 4−1 ( x − 1) + 2( x − 1) ⋅ 5x 4 + 2 ⋅ 6 x 6−1 − 2 ⋅ 5x 5−1 = 20 x 3 ( x − 1) + 10 x 4 ( x − 1) + 12 x 5 − 10 x 4
2
( )
= 20 x 3 x 2 − 2 x + 1 + 10 x 5 − 10 x 4 + 12 x 5 − 10 x 4 = 20 x 5 − 40 x 4 + 20 x 3 + 22 x 5 − 20 x 4
= 42 x 5 − 60 x 4 + 20 x 3 Therefore,
f ′′(0) = 42 ⋅ 0 5 − 60 ⋅ 0 4 + 20 ⋅ 0 3 = 0 and f ′′(1) = 42 ⋅15 − 60 ⋅14 + 20 ⋅13 = 42 − 60 + 20 = 2

1
c. Given f ( x ) = x − , then
x
0 ⋅ x − 1⋅1 1 0 ⋅ x − 2x ⋅1 2x 2
f ′( x ) = 1 − 2
= 1+ 2
and f ′′( x ) = 0 + 4
= − 4
= −
x x x x x3
2 2 2 2
Therefore, f ′′(0) = − = − which is not defined and f ′′(1) = − = − = −2
0 3 0 13 1
x3 +1
d. Given f ( x ) = , then
x
f ′( x ) =
[3x ⋅ x]− [1⋅ (x + 1) ]
2 3
=
3x 3 − x 3 − 1
=
2x 3 − 1
and
x2 x2 x2
f ′′( x ) =
[6x 2
][ (
⋅ x 2 − 2x ⋅ 2x 3 −1 )]
=
6x 4 − 4x 4 + 2x
=
2x 4 + 2x
=
(
2 x/ x 3 + 1 ) = 2(x + 1)
3
x4 x4 x4 x 4/ =3 x3
Therefore, f ′′(0) =
(
2 03 + 1 )= 2
which is not defined and f ′′(1) =
(
2 13 + 1 )= 4
= 4
0 3 0 3
1 1
1
e. Given f ( x ) = x 3 − , then
x +1
0 ⋅ ( x + 1) − 1 ⋅ 1 1
f ′( x ) = 3x 3−1 − 2
= 3x 2 + and
( x + 1) ( x + 1) 2

2 2−1
0 ⋅ ( x + 1) − 2( x + 1) ⋅1 2( x + 1) 2
f ′′( x ) = 3 ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 4
= 6x − 4
= 6x − Therefore,
( x + 1) ( x + 1) ( x + 1)3
2 2 2 2 2 1
f ′′(0) = 6 ⋅ 0 − 3
= − = −2 and f ′′(1) = 6 ⋅ 1 − 3
= 6 − 3 = 6 − = 6 − = 5.75
(0 + 1) 1 (1 + 1) 2 8 4
f. Given f ( x ) = (ax + b) 2 , then

2−1
f ′( x ) = 2(ax + b) ⋅ a = 2a(ax + b) = 2a 2 x + 2ab and f ′′( x ) = 2a 2 + 0 = 2a 2
Therefore, f ′′(0) = 2a 2 and f ′′(1) = 2a 2

Note that since f ′′( x ) is independent of x , f ′′( x ) is equal to 2a 2 for all values of x .
g. Given f ( x ) = ( x − 1) −2 , then
f ′( x ) = −2( x − 1)
−2 −1
⋅ 1 = −2( x − 1)
−3
[ ]
and f ′′( x ) = −2 ⋅ −3( x − 1) −3−1 ⋅ 1 = 6( x − 1) −4 Therefore,
−4 6 6 6 6
f ′′(0) = 6(0 − 1) = = = 6 and f ′′(1) = 6(1 − 1) −4 = 4 = which is undefined
( −1) 4 1 0 0
h. Given f ( x ) =
( x + 1) 2 , then
x
f ′( x ) =
[2 (x + 1) 2 −1
][
⋅1 ⋅ x − 1 ⋅ (x + 1)2 ] =
2 x ( x + 1) − ( x + 1)
2
=
2x 2 + 2x − x 2 − 2x − 1
=
x2 −1
and
2 2
x2 x x x2
f ′′( x ) =
[ 2x ⋅ x ]− [2x ⋅ (x − 1) ]
2 2
=
2x 3 − 2x 3 + 2x
=
2x
=
2
4
x 4
x 4
x x3
2 2 2 2
Therefore, f ′′(0) = = which is undefined and f ′′(1) = = = 2
0 3 0 13 1
( )
i. Given f ( x ) = ( x + 1) x 2 + 1 + 5 = x 3 + x + x 2 + 1 + 5 = x 3 + x 2 + x + 6 , then
f ′( x ) = 3x 2 + 2 x + 1 and f ′′( x ) = 6 x + 2
Therefore, f ′′(0) = 6 ⋅ 0 + 2 = 2 and f ′′(1) = 6 ⋅ 1 + 2 = 8

j. Given f ( x ) = (1 + 5x )3 , then
f ′( x ) = 3(1 + 5x )3−1 ⋅ 5 = 15(1 + 5x ) 2 and f ′′( x ) = 0 ⋅ (1 + 5x ) 2 + 2(1 + 5x ) ⋅ 5 ⋅ 15 = 150(1 + 5x )
Therefore, f ′′(0) = 150(1 + 5 ⋅ 0) = 150 and f ′′(1) = 150(1 + 5 ⋅ 1) = 150(1 + 5) = 150 ⋅ 6 = 900

1+ x
k. Given f ( x ) = , then
x3
1 ⋅ x 3 − 3x 2 (1 + x ) x 3 − 3x 2 − 3x 3 −2 x 3 − 3x 2 − x 2/ (2 x + 3) −2 x − 3
f ′( x ) = 6
= 6
= 6
= =
6/ = 4
x x x x x4
f ′′(x ) =
[ − 2 ⋅ x ]− [4x (− 2x − 3) ]
4 3
=
− 2 x 4 + 8 x 4 + 12 x 3
=
6 x 4 + 12 x 3
=
6 x 3/ (x + 2 )
=
6 x + 12
8 8/ = 5
x x 8
x 8
x x5
6 ⋅ 0 + 12 12 6 ⋅1 + 12 18
Therefore, f ′′(0) = = which is not defined and f ′′(1) = = = 18
0 5 0 5
1 1
1 3 1 2
l. Given f ( x ) = x + x + x + 10 , then
3 2
3 3−1 2 2−1
f ′( x ) = x + x + x 1−1 + 0 = x 2 + x + 1 and f ′′( x ) = 2 x 2 −1 + x1−1 + 0 = 2 x + 1
3 2
Therefore, f ′′(0) = 2 ⋅ 0 + 1 = 1 and f ′′(1) = 2 ⋅ 1 + 1 = 3
dy d 2 y d3y
Example 2.8-4: Find , 2 , and 3 for the following functions.
dx dx dx
1
a. y = x 4 + 5x 3 + 6 x 2 + 1 b. y = x + c. y = x( x + 1)3
x
( ) 1
−2
d. y = x 2 + 1 e. y = x 3 + 3x 2 + 10 f. y =
1+ x
1 x3 +1
g. y = x − h. y = ax 3 + bx i. y =
x x2
Solutions:
a. Given y = x 4 + 5x 3 + 6 x 2 + 1 , then
dy d 4 d d d
= x + 5 x 3 + 6 x 2 + 1 = 4 x 4−1 + (5 ⋅ 3) x 3−1 + (6 ⋅ 2) x 2−1 + 0 = 4 x 3 + 15 x 2 + 12 x
dx dx dx dx dx
d2y d 3 d d
2
= 4 x + 15 x 2 + 12 x = (4 ⋅ 3) x 3 −1 + (15 ⋅ 2) x 2 −1 + (12 ⋅ 1) = 12 x 2 + 30 x + 12
dx dx dx dx
d3y d 2 d d
= 12 x + 30 x + 12 = (12 ⋅ 2) x 2 −1 + (30 ⋅ 1) x1−1 + 0 = 24 x 1 + 30 x 0 = 24 x + 30
3 dx dx dx
dx
1
b. Given y = x + which is the same as y = x + x −1 , then
x
dy
dx
=
d
dx
x+
d −1
dx
x = 1 + −1 ⋅ x −1−1 = 1 − x −2 ( )
d2y
dx 2
=
d
dx
1−
d −2
dx
x = 0 − −2 ⋅ x −2−1 = 2 x −3 ( )

d3y d −3
= 2 x = (2 ⋅ −3) x −3 −1 = −6 x −4
3 dx
dx
c. Given y = x( x + 1)3 , then

dy
dx
 d   d 
= ( x + 1)3 x  +  x ( x + 1)3  =
 dx   dx 
[( x + 1) ⋅1] + [ x ⋅ 3( x + 1) ⋅1] = ( x + 1)
3 3−1 3
+ 3 x( x + 1)
2
d2y
dx 2
=
d
dx 
d
dx  
d
dx 
[ ][ ][
( x + 1)3 + 3( x + 1) 2 x  + 3x ( x + 1) 2  = 3( x + 1)3−1 ⋅ 1 + 3( x + 1) 2 ⋅ 1 + 3x ⋅ 2 ( x + 1) 2−1 ⋅ 1 ]
2
= 3( x + 1) 2 + 3( x + 1) 2 + 6 x ( x + 1) = 6( x + 1) + 6 x ( x + 1)
d3y
dx 3
= 6
d
dx
(x + 1)2 +  6(x + 1) d
 dx
  d
  dx

x  + 6 x (x + 1) 

= [12(x + 1) 2 −1
]{ [
⋅1 + [6(x + 1) ⋅1] + 6 x ⋅(x + 1)1−1 ⋅1 ]}
= 12(x + 1) + 6(x + 1) + 6 x(x + 1)0 = 18(x + 1) + 6 x = 18 x + 18 + 6 x = 24 x + 18 = 6(4 x + 3)
d. Given y = ( x + 1) −2 , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx [ d
]
( x + 1) −2 = −2( x + 1) −2 −1 ⋅ ( x + 1) = −2( x + 1) −3 ⋅1 = −2 ( x + 1) −3
dx
d2y
dx 2
= −2
d
dx
( x + 1) −3 [ ] dxd ( x + 1) = 6 ( x + 1)
= ( −2 ⋅ −3) ( x + 1) −3−1 ⋅ −4
⋅ 1 = 6 ( x + 1)
−4
d3y
dx 3
= 6
d
dx
( x + 1) −4 = [(6⋅ −4) ( x + 1) ] ⋅ dxd ( x + 1) = −24 ( x + 1)
−4 −1 −5
⋅ 1 = −24 ( x + 1)
−5
e. Given y = x 3 + 3x 2 + 10 , then
dy d 3 d d d 3 d
= x + 3x 2 + 10 = x + 3 x 2 + 0 = 3x 3−1 + (3 ⋅ 2) x 2−1 = 3 x 2 + 6 x
dx dx dx dx dx dx
d2y d d d d
2
= 3x 2 + 6 x = 3 x 2 + 6 x = (3 ⋅ 2) x 2 −1 + (6 ⋅ 1) = 6 x + 6
dx dx dx dx dx
d3y d d d
3
= 6x + 6 = 6 x + 0 = 6 ⋅1 = 6
dx dx dx dx
1
f. Given y = , then
1+ x
 d   d 
dy (1 + x ) dx 1 − 1 ⋅ dx (1 + x ) 0 − (1 ⋅ 1) 1
   
= = = −
dx (1 + x ) 2
(1 + x ) 2
(1 + x ) 2

2
d y
= −
 2 d   d 2
(1 + x ) dx 1 − 1 ⋅ dx (1 + x ) 
= −
[
0 − (1 ⋅ 2 ) (1 + x )2−1 ] =
2(1/ + x/ )
=
2
dx 2
(1 + x ) 4
(1 + x ) 4
(1 + x) 4/ = 3
(1 + x ) 3
3 d  
[ ]
 d 3
d3y (1 + x ) dx 2 − 2 ⋅ dx (1 + x )  0 − (2 ⋅ 3) (1 + x )3−1 6 (1 + x )
2/
6
   
= = = − = −
dx 3
(1 + x ) 6
(1 + x ) 6
(1 + x) 6/ = 4
(1 + x ) 4
1
g. Given y = x − which is the same as y = x − x −1 , then
x
dy d d −1
= x− x = 1 + x −1−1 = 1 + x −2
dx dy dx
d2y d d −2
2
= 1+ x = 0 − 2 x −2−1 = −2 x −3
dx dy dx
d3y d −3
3
= −2 x = ( −2 ⋅ −3) x −3−1 = 6 x −4
dx dy
h. Given y = ax 3 + bx , then
dy d d d 3 d
= ax 3 + bx = a x + b x = (a ⋅ 3) x 3−1 + (b ⋅ 1) x 1−1 = 3ax 2 + bx 0 = 3ax 2 + b
dx dx dx dx dx
d2y d d d 2
2
= 3ax 2 + b = 3a x +0 = (3a ⋅ 2) x 2−1 = 6ax
dx dx dx dx
d3y d d
3
= 6ax = 6a x = 6a ⋅ 1 = 6a
dx dx dx
x3 +1
i. Given y = , then
x2
 2 d 3
(   3
) d 2
 x dx x + 1  −  x + 1 dx x 
   
( ) d d 
x 2  x 3 + 1 − x 3 + 1 ⋅ 2 x( ) [ ] (
x 2 3x 3−1 + 0 − 2 x x 3 + 1 )
dy  dx dx 
= = =
dx x 4
x4 x 4
=
3x 4 − 2 x 4 − 2 x
=
x 4 − 2x
=
(
x/ x 3 − 2 ) =
x3 − 2
x4 x4 x 4/ =3 x3
2
 3 d 3
(  3
) d 3
 x dx x − 2  −  x − 2 dx x 
   
( ) d
x3  x3 −
d 
(
2  − x 3 − 2 ⋅ 3x 2 ) [ ] (
x 3 3 x 3−1 − 0 − 3 x 2 x 3 − 2 )
d y  dx dx 
2
= = =
dx x 6
x6 x 6
3x 5 − 3x 5 + 6 x 2 6 x 2/ 6
= = =
x 6
x 6/ = 4
x4

d3y
=
x4
d
dx
6−6
d 4
dx
x
=
( x ⋅ 0) − (6 ⋅ 4)x
4 4−1
=
0 − 24 x 3
= −
24 x 3/
= −
24
dx 3
x8 x 8
x 8
x 8/ =5
x5
Example 2.8-5: Find y ′ and y ′′ for the following functions. Do not simplify the answer to its
lowest term.
a. x 2 + y 2 = 2 b. xy + y 2 = 1 c. 1 + x 2 y 2 = x d. x 3 y + y = 1
Solutions:
−2 x
a. Given x 2 + y 2 = 2 , then y ′ is equal to 2 x 2−1 + 2 y ⋅ y ′ = 0 ; 2 x + 2 y y ′ = 0 ; 2 y y ′ = −2 x ; y ′ =
2y
x (1⋅ y ) − ( y ′ ⋅ x ) y ′′ = − y − y ′ x
; y′ = − and y ′′ = − ;
y y2 y2
b. Given xy + y 2 = 1 , then y ′ is equal to (1 ⋅ y + y ′ ⋅ x ) + 2 y ⋅ y ′ = 0 ; y + y ′ x + 2 y y ′ = 0 ; y ′ ( x + 2 y ) = − y
y [y ′ ⋅ (x + 2 y ) ] − [ (1 + 2 y ′)⋅ y ] xy ′ + 2 y y ′ − y − 2 y y ′ xy ′ − y
; y′ = − and y ′′ = − ; y ′′ = − ; y ′′ = −
x + 2y ( x + 2 y )2 ( x + 2 y) 2
( x + 2 y) 2
c. Given 1 + x 2 y 2 = x , then y ′ is equal to 0 + 2 x ⋅ y 2 + 2 y y ′ ⋅ x 2 ( ) =1 ; 2x y 2 + 2 y y ′ x 2 = 1
2 2 1 − 2 x y2 {[0 − 2(1⋅ y 2
+ 2 yy ′ ⋅ x ) ] (2 x y ) }− {2(2 xy + x y ′)(1 − 2 xy )}
2 2 2
; 2 y y ′ x = 1 − 2x y ; y′ = and y ′′ =
2x2 y (2 x y ) 2 2
; y ′′ =
( ) (
−4 x 2 y y 2 + 2 xyy ′ − 2 2 xy + x 2 y ′ 1 − 2 xy 2 )( )
4 2
4x y
(
d. Given x 3 y + y = 1 ; y x 3 + 1 = 1 ; y = ) 1
, then y ′ =
[0 ⋅ (x + 1) ]− [3x ⋅1 ]
3 2
=
− 3x 2
and
x3 +1 (x + 1) 3 2
(x + 1)
3 2
 3
( 2
) [( )
3 2
− 6 x ⋅ x + 1  − 2 x + 1 ⋅ 3 x ⋅ −3 x
2
] ( )
2
− 6 x x 3 + 1 + 18 x 4 x 3 + 1 ( ) = 6 x(x + 1)[ − (x + 1)+ 3x ]
3 3 3
y ′′ = − =
(x + 1)
3 4
(x + 1)
3 4
(x + 1) 3 4
=
(
6 x − x 3 − 1 + 3x 3 ) =
(
6x 2x 3 −1 )
(x + 1)
3 3
(x + 1)
3 3

Example 2.8-6: Find the first, second, and third derivative of the following functions.
a. f (x ) = 6 x 7 + 7 x 2 − 2 b. f ( x ) = 3x 4 − 2 x 2 + 5x + 9
c. f ( x ) = x −4 + 3x −3 + x −2 + x d. f ( x ) = x 7 + 6 x 5 + 8 x + 3x −3
3 2 1
e. f ( x ) = 3
+ 2
+ f. f ( x ) = x (2 x + 1)3
x x x
1
g. f ( x ) = x 3 + h. f ( x ) = ( x + 1) 2 − x 3
x3
Solutions:
a. Given f ( x ) = 6 x 7 + 7 x 2 − 2 , then
f ′( x ) = (6 ⋅ 7) x 7−1 + (7 ⋅ 2) x 2−1 − 0 = 42 x 6 + 14 x
f ′′( x ) = (42 ⋅ 6) x 6−1 + 14 x 1−1 = 252 x 5 + 14
f ′′′( x ) = (252 ⋅ 5) x 5−1 + 0 = 1260 x 4
b. Given f ( x ) = 3x 4 − 2 x 2 + 5x + 9 , then
f ′( x ) = (3 ⋅ 4) x 4−1 − (2 ⋅ 2) x 2−1 + 5x1−1 + 0 = 12 x 3 − 4 x + 5
f ′′( x ) = (12 ⋅ 3) x 3−1 − 4 x 1−1 = 36 x 2 − 4
f ′′′( x ) = (36 ⋅ 2) x 2−1 − 0 = 72x
c. Given f ( x ) = x −4 + 3x −3 + x −2 + x , then
f ′( x ) = −4 x −4−1 + (3 ⋅ −3) x −3−1 − 2 x −2−1 + x1−1 = −4 x −5 − 9 x −4 − 2 x −3 + 1
f ′′( x ) = ( −4 ⋅ −5) x −5−1 + ( −9 ⋅ −4) x −4−1 + ( −2 ⋅ −3) x −3−1 + 0 = 20 x −6 + 36 x −5 + 6 x −4
f ′′′( x ) = (20 ⋅ −6) x −6−1 + (36 ⋅ −5) x −5−1 + (6 ⋅ −4) x −4−1 = −120 x −7 − 180 x −6 − 24 x −5
d. Given f ( x ) = x 7 + 6 x 5 + 8 x + 3x −3 , then
f ′( x ) = 7 x 7−1 + (6 ⋅ 5) x 5−1 + 8 x 1−1 + (3 ⋅ −3) x −3−1 = 7 x 6 + 30 x 4 + 8 − 9 x −4
f ′′( x ) = (7 ⋅ 6) x 6−1 + (30 ⋅ 4) x 4−1 + 0 + ( −9 ⋅ −4) x −4−1 = 42 x 5 + 120 x 3 + 36 x −5
f ′′′( x ) = (42 ⋅ 5) x 5−1 + (120 ⋅ 3) x 3−1 + (36 ⋅ −5) x −5−1 = 210 x 4 + 360 x 2 − 180 x −6

3 2 1
e. Given f ( x ) = 3
+ 2 + which is equal to f ( x ) = 3x −3 + 2 x −2 + x −1 , then
x x x
f ′( x ) = (3 ⋅ −3) x −3−1 + (2 ⋅ −2) x −2−1 − x −1−1 = −9 x −4 − 4 x −3 − x −2
f ′′( x ) = ( −9 ⋅ −4) x −4−1 + ( −4 ⋅ −3) x −3−1 + ( −1 ⋅ −2) x −2−1 = 36 x −5 + 12 x −4 + 2 x −3
f ′′′( x ) = (36 ⋅ −5) x −5−1 + (12 ⋅ −4) x −4−1 + (2 ⋅ −3) x −3−1 = −180 x −6 − 48 x −5 − 6 x −4
f. Given f ( x ) = x (2 x + 1)3 , then
f ′( x ) [ ][ ] 3
= 1 ⋅ (2 x + 1)3 + 3(2 x + 1)3−1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ x = ( 2 x + 1) + 6 x ( 2 x + 1)
2
[
f ′′( x ) = 3(2 x + 1)
3−1
][ 2
⋅ 2 + 6 ⋅ (2 x + 1) + 2 (2 x + 1)
2−1
⋅ 2 ⋅ 6x ] = 6(2x + 1) 2 2
+ 6(2 x + 1) + 24 x (2 x + 1)
2
= 12( 2 x + 1) + 24 x ( 2 x + 1)
f ′′′( x ) [ ][ ]
= (12 ⋅ 2)(2 x + 1) 2−1 ⋅ 2 + 24 ⋅ (2 x + 1) + (2 x + 1)1−1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 24 x = 48 (2 x + 1) + [24 (2 x + 1) + 48 x ]
= 72 ( 2 x + 1) + 48 x
1
g. Given f ( x ) = x 3 + which is equal to f ( x ) = x 3 + x −3 , then
x3
f ′( x ) = 3x 3 −1 − 3x −3 −1 = 3 x 2 − 3 x −4
f ′′( x ) = (3 ⋅ 2) x 2−1 + ( −3 ⋅ −4) x −4−1 = 6 x + 12 x −5
f ′′′( x ) = 6 x 1−1 + (12 ⋅ −5) x −5−1 = 6 x 0 − 60 x −6 = 6 − 60 x −6
h. Given f ( x ) = ( x + 1) 2 − x 3 , then
[
f ′( x ) = 2( x + 1)
2−1
]
⋅ 1 − 3x 3−1 = 2( x + 1) − 3x 2 = 2 x + 2 − 3x 2 = −3 x 2 + 2 x + 2
f ′′( x ) = ( −3 ⋅ 2) x 2−1 + 2 x 1−1 + 0 = −6 x + 2 x 0 = −6 x + 2
f ′′′( x ) = −6 x1−1 + 0 = −6 x 0 = −6
Section 2.8 Practice Problems - Higher Order Derivatives
1. Find the second derivative of the following functions.

a. y = x 3 + 3x 2 + 5 x − 1 b. y = x 2 (x + 1)2 c. y = 3x 3 + 50 x

d. y = x 5 +
1
x 2
e. y =
x3
x +1
− 5x 2 (
f. y = x 3 x 2 − 1 )
x 8 − 7 x 5 + 5x 1 1
g. y = x 4 + h. y = x 2 − i. y = − 3x
10 x +1 x2
2. Find y ′′′ for the following functions.
1
a. y = x 5 + 6 x 3 + 10 b. y = x 2 + c. y = 4 x 3 (x − 1)2
x
x x −1
d. y = e. y = x 8 − 10 x 5 + 5 x − 10 f. y = + 5x 3
x +1 x2
3. Find f ′′(0) and f ′′(1) for the following functions.
a. f (x ) = 6 x 5 + 3x 3 + 5 b. f (x ) = x 3 (x + 1)2 c. f (x ) = x + (x − 1)2
d. f (x ) = (x − 1)−3 (
e. f (x ) = (x − 1) x 2 + 1) (
f. f (x ) = x 3 − 1 + 2 x) 2

Chapter 3
Differentiation (Part II)
3.1 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions ............................................................ 140
d  tan 2 x  d  sin 3 x  d  sin 4 x 

=;   =;   =
dx  cot x  dx  cos 2 x  dx  x + 3 
3.2 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions .............................................. 158
d
dx
[ (
tan −1 x 2 + 3 )] =;
d  3 x 2
dx  arc tan


x 
=;
d  arc sin x

dx  x

+ 5x 3 

=
3.3 Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions .................................. 166

d
dx
(
e ln x tan x ) =;
dx
e (
d cos 5 x −3 x
e ) =;
d
dx
[
ln x 3 + ln (csc x ) ] =
3.4 Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions .................................................................. 181

d
dx
(
sinh x 3 + cosh 3 x ) =;
d
dx
(
sinh x 2 + cosh x 2 ) =;
d 1 
 sinh 3 x + 10 x 
dx  6 
=
3.5 Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions .................................................... 187

d
dx
(
sinh −1 x 2 + ln x 3 ) =;
d
dx
(
tanh −1 2 x + ln e x ) =;
d
dx
(
tanh −1 x 3 + 5 x ) =
3.6 Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms Using L’Hopital’s Rule ................................ 193
e x − e10 x 3 − 25 x 2 x 2 − ln x
lim x → 10 = ; lim x → 5 = ; lim x →+ ∞ =
x − 10 x 3 − 125 3 x 2 + 3 ln x

Calculus I 3.1 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
Chapter 3 – Differentiation (Part II)

The objective of this chapter is to improve the student’s ability to solve additional problems
involving derivative of functions that was not addressed in the previous chapter. The derivative
of trigonometric functions is addressed in Section 3.1. Finding the derivative of inverse
trigonometric functions is discussed in Section 3.2. How to obtain the derivative of exponential
and logarithmic expressions is addressed in Section 3.3. Differentiation of hyperbolic and
inverse hyperbolic functions is addressed in Sections 3.4 and 3.5, respectively. Finally,
evaluation of indeterminate forms of the type 00 , ∞∞ , 0 ⋅ ∞ , ∞ − ∞ , 1∞ , ∞ 0 , 0 0 using L’Hopital’s
rule is discussed in Section 3.6. Each section is concluded by solving examples with practice
problems to further enhance the student’s ability.
3.1 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
The differential formulas involving trigonometric functions are defined as:
Table 3.1: Differentiation Formulas for Trigonometric Functions

d du d du
sin u = cos u ⋅ cot u = − csc 2 u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
cos u = − sin u ⋅ sec u = sec u tan u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
tan u = sec 2 u ⋅ csc u = − csc u cot u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
In the following examples we will solve problems using the above differentiation formulas:
Example 3.1-1: Find the derivative of the following trigonometric functions:
a. y = sin 8 x − cos 3x b. y = sin 3x 4 c. y = cos x 2 + tan x 3
(
d. y = tan 1 + 3x 2 ) e. y = sin x 3 + cos x f. y = cos 3 x
g. y = sec 5 x h. y = sin 6 3 x 2 i. y = x 3 sin 2 3x
j. y = (x + 1) cot x 2 k. y = sin 5 x l. y = csc 5 x

Solutions:
dy d
a. Given y = sin 8 x − cos 3x then = (sin 8 x − cos 3x ) = cos 8 x ⋅ d 8 x + sin 3x ⋅ d 3x = 8 cos 8 x + 3 sin 3 x
dx dx dx dx
b. Given y = sin 3x 4 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sin 3 x 4 ) = cos 3x 4
⋅
d
dx
3x 4 = cos 3x 4 ⋅12 x 4−1 = 12 x 3 cos 3 x 4
c. Given y = cos x 2 + tan x 3 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cos x 2 + tan x 3 ) = − sin x 2 ⋅
d 2
dx
x + sec 2 x 3 ⋅
d 3
dx
x

= − sin x 2 ⋅ 2 x + sec 2 x 3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = − 2 x sin x 2 + 3 x 2 sec2 x 3
d. Given y = tan 1 + 3x 2 ( ) then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
tan 1 + 3 x 2( ) (
= sec 2 1 + 3x 2 ⋅ ) dxd (1 + 3x ) 2
( )
= sec 2 1 + 3x 2 ⋅ ( 0 + 6 x )
( )
= sec 2 1 + 3x 2 ⋅ 6 x = 6 x sec 2 1 + 3 x 2 ( )
3 1
dy d  d  
e. Given y = sin x 3 + cos x then =  sin x 3 + cos x  =  sin x 2 + cos x 2 
dx dx   dx  

3 3
d d 1
d 32 1
d 12 3
3 3 −1 1
1 1 −1
= sin x 2 + cos x 2 = cos x 2 ⋅ x − sin x 2 ⋅ x = cos x 2 ⋅ x 2 − sin x 2 ⋅ x 2
dx dx dx dx 2 2
3 1 1 3 3 1
3 1 − 12 3 12 1 −1 1 3 1
= cos x 2 ⋅ x 2 − sin x 2 ⋅ x = x cos x 2 − x 2 sin x 2 = x cos x 2 − sin x 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 x
f. Given y = cos 3 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
cos 3 x =
d
dx
(
cos x
3
) = 3 ( cos x ) ⋅
2 d
dx
(
cos x )
= 3 ( cos x ) ⋅ − sin x ⋅ ( x) = 3 ( cos x ) ⋅ − sin x ⋅ ( ) 2 ⋅ − sin

2 d 2 d 12 1 12 −1
x = 3 cos x x⋅ x
dx dx 2
= 3 ( cos x ) ⋅ − sin x ⋅ x ( )
2 1 −1 3 − 12 2 3
2 = − x cos x ⋅ sin x = − cos 2 x sin x
2 2 2 x
g. Given y = sec 5 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
sec 5 x =
d
dx
(
sec x 5 ) = 5 ( sec x ) 4 ⋅
d
dx
(
sec x )
( x)
1 −1 −1
d 1 5
= 5 sec 4 x ⋅ sec x tan x ⋅ = 5 sec 4 x ⋅ sec x tan x ⋅ x 2 = sec 4 x ⋅ sec x tan x ⋅ x 2
dx 2 2
5 5
= sec 4 x ⋅ sec x tan x = sec5 x tan x
2 x 2 x
2 2 6 2 5 2 2 2
63 2 6 dy d     d d 23
h. Given y = sin x = sin x3 then =  sin x 3  = 6  sin x 3  ⋅ sin x 3 = 6 sin 5 x 3 ⋅ cos x 3 ⋅ x
dx dx  
 
 dx
 dx
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 −1
2 − 13 12 2 2 4
= 6 sin 5 x 3 ⋅ cos x 3 ⋅ x 3 = 6 sin 5 x 3 ⋅ cos x 3 ⋅ x = 3 sin 5 x 3 ⋅ cos x 3 = sin 5 x 3 cos x 3
3 3 3
3 x x
i. Given y = x 3 sin 2 3x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 3 sin 2 3 x ) = sin 2 3x ⋅
d 3
dx
d
x + x 3 ⋅ sin 2 3 x
dx

d d d
= sin 2 3x ⋅ 3x 2 + x 3 ⋅ (sin 3x )2 = 3x 2 sin 2 3x + x 3 ⋅ 2 sin 3x ⋅ sin 3 x = 3x 2 sin 2 3x + x 3 ⋅ 2 sin 3x ⋅ cos 3x ⋅ 3x
dx dx dx
= 3x 2 sin 2 3x + x 3 ⋅ 2 sin 3x ⋅ cos 3x ⋅ 3 = 3 x 2 sin 2 3 x + 6 x 3 sin 3 x cos 3 x
j. Given y = (x + 1) cot x 2 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ (x + 1) cot x ] 2
= cot x 2
d
dx
(x + 1) + (x + 1) d cot x 2
dx
d 2
= cot x 2 ⋅1 + (x + 1) ⋅ − csc 2 x 2 ⋅ x = cot x 2 − (x + 1) ⋅ csc 2 x 2 ⋅ 2 x = cot x 2 − 2 x ( x + 1) csc2 x 2
dx
dy d 1 1
(sin 5 x ) 2 −1 d sin 5 x (sin 5 x )− 2 ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ d 5 x
1 1 1 1
k. Given y = sin 5 x = (sin 5 x ) 2 then = (sin 5 x ) 2 = =
dx dx 2 dx 2 dx
1 1 5 cos 5 x 5 cos 5 x
= (sin 5 x )− 2 ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5 = ⋅ = ⋅
2 2 (sin 5 x ) 12 2 sin 5 x
dy d 1
(csc 5 x ) 2 −1 d csc 5 x
1 1 1
l. Given y = csc 5 x = (csc 5 x ) 2 then = (csc 5 x ) 2 =
dx dx 2 dx
1 1 5 csc 5 x cot 5 x
(csc 5 x )− 2 ⋅ − csc 5 x cot 5 x ⋅ d 5 x
1 1
= = (csc 5 x )− 2 ⋅ − csc 5 x cot 5 x ⋅ 5 = − ⋅
2 dx 2 2 (csc 5 x ) 12
5 1 5 5 1 1 5
= − ⋅ csc 5 x ⋅ (csc 5 x ) − 2 ⋅ cot 5 x = − ⋅ (csc 5 x ) 1 − 2 ⋅ cot 5 x = − ⋅ (csc 5 x ) 2 ⋅ cot 5 x = − csc 5 x cot 5 x
2 2 2 2

csc x sin x 2
a. y = b. y = c. y = sin 5 x
x2 x+3
d. y = sin x 5 e. y = sin 5 x (
f. y = tan x 2 + 1 )
(
g. y = tan x 2 + 1 ) 3
h. y = tan 3 x 2 + 1 ( ) i. y = cos x 3
j. y = cos 3 x k. y = csc 10 x l. y = csc x10
csc x dy d  csc x 
(x 2
⋅ dx )(
d csc x − csc x ⋅ d x 2
dx
) x 2 ⋅ − csc x cot x − csc x ⋅ 2 x
a. Given y = then =   = =
x2 dx dx  x 2  x4 x4
− x 2 csc x cot x − 2 x csc x − x/ csc x(x cot x + 2 ) − csc x ( x cot x + 2)

= = =
x4 x 4/ = 3 x3

sin x 2 dy d  sin x 2 

[ (x + 3)⋅ d
dx
][ d ( x + 3)
sin x 2 − sin x 2 ⋅ dx ]
b. Given y= then = =
x+3 dx dx  x + 3 
 (x + 3)2
(x + 3)⋅ cos x 2 ⋅ dxd x 2 − sin x 2 ⋅1 (x + 3)⋅ cos x 2 ⋅ 2 x − sin x 2 2 x ( x + 3) cos x 2 − sin x 2

= = =
(x + 3)2 (x + 3)2 ( x + 3) 2
dy d d
c. Given y = sin 5 x then = sin 5 x = cos 5 x ⋅ 5x = cos 5 x ⋅ 5 = 5 cos 5 x
dx dx dx
dy d d 5
d. Given y = sin x 5 then = sin x 5 = cos x 5 ⋅ x = cos x 5 ⋅ 5 x 4 = 5 x 4 cos x 5
dx dx dx
dy d d d d
e. Given y = sin 5 x then = sin 5 x = (sin x )5 = 5(sin x )4 ⋅ sin x = 5 (sin x )4 ⋅ cos x ⋅ x
dx dx dx dx dx
= 5 (sin x )4 ⋅ cos x ⋅1 = 5 sin4 x cos x
(
f. Given y = tan x 2 + 1 then ) dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
tan x 2 + 1 ) (
= sec 2 x 2 + 1 ⋅ ) dxd ( x + 1)2
= 2 x sec 2 x 2 + 1 ( )
g. Given y = tan x 2 + 1( ) 3
then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
tan x 2 + 1
3
( ) (
= sec 2 x 2 + 1 ⋅ ) 3 d
dx
(
x 2 +1
3
)
( ) (
3
= sec 2 x 2 + 1 ⋅ 3 x 2 + 1 ⋅ ) 2 d 2
dx
(
x +1 ) = sec ( x + 1) ⋅ 3 ( x + 1)
2 2 3 2 2
⋅ 2x (
= 6x x 2 + 1 ) 2
(
sec 2 x 2 + 1 ) 3
( ) [ (
h. Given y = tan 3 x 2 + 1 = tan x 2 + 1 )] 3
then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ (
tan x 2 + 1
3
)] [ (
= 3 tan x 2 + 1 )] 2
⋅
d
dx
(
tan x 2 + 1 )
( ) (
= 3 tan 2 x 2 + 1 ⋅ sec 2 x 2 + 1 ⋅ ) dxd ( x + 1) = 3 tan ( x + 1)⋅ sec ( x + 1)⋅ 2 x
2 2 2 2 2 (
= 6 x tan 2 x 2 + 1 sec 2 x 2 + 1 ) ( )
dy d d 3
i. Given y = cos x 3 then = cos x 3 = − sin x 3 ⋅ x = − sin x 3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = − 3 x 2 sin x 3
dx dx dx
dy d d d
j. Given y = cos 3 x = (cos x )3 then = (cos x )3 = 3 (cos x )2 ⋅ cos x = 3 (cos x )2 ⋅ − sin x ⋅ x
dx dx dx dx
= 3 (cos x )2 ⋅ − sin x ⋅1 = − 3 sin x (cos x ) 2
dy d d
k. Given y = csc 10 x then = csc 10 x = − csc 10 x cot 10 x ⋅ 10 x = − 10 csc 10 x cot 10 x
dx dx dx

dy d d 10
l. Given y = csc x10 then = csc x10 = − csc x10 cot x10 ⋅ x = − 10 x 9 csc x10 cot x10
dx dx dx
Example 3.1-3: Find the derivative of the following trigonometric functions.

a. y = csc10 x b. y = sec 5 x 4 c. y = sec 4 5 x 4
d. y = sec x ⋅ cot x e. y = sin 2 x ⋅ sec (x + 1) ( )

f. y = sin x 2 + 1 ⋅ cos 2 x
g. y = sin 2 x + cos 2 x h. y = 4 + cos 4 x i. y = sin 2 x 2
j. y = sec 2 x − tan 2 x k. y = cos 1 − x 2 ( ) l. y = cos 2 (3x + 2)

Solutions:
a. Given y = csc10 x then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
csc10 x ) = 10 csc 9
x⋅
d
dx
csc x = 10 csc 9 x ⋅ − csc x cot x ⋅
d
dx
x
= 10 csc 9 x ⋅ − csc x cot x ⋅1 = − 10 csc 10 x cot x
b. Given y = sec 5 x 4 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sec 5 x 4 ) = sec 5x 4
⋅ tan 5 x 4 ⋅
d
dx
( )
5x4 = sec 5 x 4 ⋅ tan 5 x 4 ⋅ (5 ⋅ 4)x 4−1
= sec 5 x 4 ⋅ tan 5 x 4 ⋅ 20 x 3 = 20 x 3 sec 5 x 4 tan 5 x 4
(
c. Given y = sec 4 5 x 4 = sec 5 x 4 )
4
then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sec 5 x 4
4
) (
= 4 sec 5 x 4 ⋅ )
3 d
dx
(
sec 5 x 4 ) = 4(sec 5x ) ⋅ sec 5x
4 3 4
= × tan 5 x 4 ⋅
d
dx
( ) = 4( sec 5x ) ⋅ sec 5x
5x 4 4 3 4
⋅ tan 5 x 4 ⋅ 20 x 3 (
= 80 x 3 sec 5 x 4 ) 4
tan 5 x 4
dy d  d   d 
d. Given y = sec x ⋅ cot x then = (sec x ⋅ cot x ) =  cot x ⋅ sec x  +  sec x ⋅ cot x 
dx dx  dx   dx 

=  cot x ⋅ sec x tan x ⋅

d  
x  +  sec x ⋅ − csc 2 x ⋅
dx  
d 
x
dx 
(
= (cot x ⋅ sec x tan x ⋅1) + sec x ⋅ − csc 2 x ⋅1 )
(
= cot x ⋅ sec x tan x + sec x ⋅ − csc 2 x = sec x tan x cot x − csc 2 x )
e. Given y = sin 2 x ⋅ sec (x + 1) then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[
sin 2 x ⋅ sec (x + 1) ] = sec (x + 1) ⋅
d
dx
d
sin 2 x + sin 2 x ⋅ sec (x + 1)
dx
d d
= sec (x + 1) ⋅ 2 sin x ⋅ cos x ⋅ x + sin 2 x ⋅ sec (x + 1) ⋅ tan (x + 1) ⋅ (x + 1) = sec (x + 1) ⋅ 2 sin x ⋅ cos x ⋅1
dx dx

+ sin 2 x ⋅ sec (x + 1) tan (x + 1) ⋅1 = 2 sin x cos x sec (x + 1) + sin 2 x sec (x + 1) tan (x + 1)
= sin x sec ( x + 1) [ 2 cos x + sin x tan ( x + 1) ]
( )
f. Given y = sin x 2 + 1 ⋅ cos 2 x then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ ( )
sin x 2 + 1 ⋅ cos 2 x ] = cos 2
x⋅
d
dx
( )

sin x 2 + 1 


( )
d
+ sin x 2 + 1 ⋅ cos 2
 dx

x


= cos 2 x ⋅ cos x 2 + 1 ⋅

( ) dxd ( x + 1)  + sin ( x + 1)⋅ 2 cos x ⋅ dxd cos x
2 2
[ ( ) ][ (
= cos 2 x ⋅ cos x 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 x + sin x 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 cos x ⋅ − sin x) ] ( )
= 2 x cos 2 x cos x 2 + 1 − 2 sin x cos x sin x 2 + 1 ( )
g. Given y = sin 2 x + cos 2 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sin 2 x + cos 2 x ) =
d
dx
sin 2 x +
d
dx
cos 2 x = 2 sin x ⋅
d
dx
sin x
d d d
= + 2 cos x ⋅ cos x = 2 sin x ⋅ cos x ⋅ x + 2 cos x ⋅ − sin x ⋅ x = 2 sin x ⋅ cos x ⋅1 + 2 cos x ⋅ − sin x ⋅1
dx dx dx
= 2 sin x cos x − 2 sin x cos x = 0
A second way of solving this problem is by noting that sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 . Therefore, given
y = sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sin 2 x + cos 2 x )= d
dx
(1 ) = 0
dy d 1
(4 + cos 4 x ) 2 −1 ⋅ d (4 + cos 4 x )
1 1 1
h. Given y = 4 + cos 4 x = (4 + cos 4 x ) 2 then = (4 + cos 4 x ) 2 =
dx dx 2 dx
1 1 d d  1 1  d  1 1
= (4 + cos 4 x )− 2 ⋅ 4 + cos 4 x  = (4 + cos 4 x )− 2 ⋅  0 − sin 4 x ⋅ 4x  = (4 + cos 4 x )− 2 ⋅ (− 4 sin 4 x )
2  dx dx  2  dx  2
2
4/ sin 4 x 1 1 2 sin 4 x
= − ⋅ (4 + cos 4 x )− 2 = − 2 sin 4 x ⋅ (4 + cos 4 x )− 2 = − 1
2/ (4 + cos 4 x ) 2
i. Given y = sin 2 x 2 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sin 2 x 2 ) = dxd ( sin x ) 2 2
= 2 sin x 2 ⋅
d
dx
sin x 2 = 2 sin x 2 ⋅ cos x 2 ⋅
d 2
dx
x
= 2 sin x 2 ⋅ cos x 2 ⋅ 2 x = 4 x sin x 2 cos x 2

j. Given y = sec 2 x − tan 2 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sec 2 x − tan 2 x ) =
d
dx
sec 2 x −
d
dx
tan 2 x = 2 sec x ⋅
d
dx
sec x
d d d
= − 2 tan x ⋅ tan x = 2 sec x ⋅ sec x tan x ⋅ x − 2 tan x ⋅ sec 2 x ⋅ x = 2 sec 2 x ⋅ tan x ⋅1 − 2 tan x ⋅ sec 2 x ⋅1
dx dx dx
= 2 sec 2 x tan x − sec 2 x 2 tan x = 0
A second way of solving this problem is by noting that sec 2 x − tan 2 x = 1 . Therefore, given
y = sec 2 x − tan 2 x = 1 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sec 2 x − tan 2 x ) =
d
dx
(1 ) = 0
k. Given y = cos 1 − x 2 ( ) then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ (
cos 1 − x 2 )] (
= − sin 1 − x 2 ⋅ ) dxd ( 1 − x )
2 (
= 2 x sin 1 − x 2 )
l. Given y = cos 2 (3x + 2) then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
[
cos 2 (3 x + 2 ) ]= d
dx
[ cos (3x + 2) ]2 = 2 cos (3x + 2) ⋅
d
dx
cos (3 x + 2)
d
= 2 cos (3x + 2) ⋅ − sin (3x + 2) ⋅ (3x + 2) = 2 cos (3x + 2) ⋅ − sin (3x + 2) ⋅ 3 = − 6 cos (3 x + 2) sin (3 x + 2)
dx
Note that since sin 2 α = 2 sin α cos α the above answer can also be written as:
dy
= − 6 cos (3x + 2) sin (3x + 2) = − 3 ⋅ [2 sin (3x + 2) cos (3x + 2) ] = − 3 ⋅ [ sin 2 ⋅ (3x + 2) ] = − 3 sin (6 x + 4)
dx

sin 2 x tan 2 x
a. y = x 2 sin 3 2 x b. y = c. y =
cos x cot x
d. y = sec 2 10 x e. y = cos 3 2 x f. y = x 3 cot x 5

sin 2 x
g. y = h. y = cos 2 ( 1 + 3x ) i. y = x 5 cot 3 x
x
sin 3 x sin 4 x
j. y = tan 4 x sin 5 x k. y = l. y =
cos 2 x x+3
Solutions:
a.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 2 sin 3 2 x ) = sin 3 2 x ⋅
d 2
dx
d
x + x 2 ⋅ sin 3 2 x
dx
= sin 3 2 x ⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ 3 sin 2 2 x ⋅
d
dx
sin 2 x
d
= 2 x sin 3 2 x + x 2 ⋅ 3 sin 2 2 x ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ 2x = 2 x sin 3 2 x + x 2 ⋅ 3 sin 2 2 x ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ 2 = 2 x sin 3 2 x + 6 x 2
dx

× sin 2 2 x cos 2 x = 2 x sin 2 2 x ( sin 2 x + 3 x cos 2 x )
dy d  sin 2 x 
( cos x ⋅ d
dx
)(
sin 2 x − sin 2 x ⋅ dx
d cos x ) ( cos x ⋅ 2 sin x ⋅ dxd sin x )− ( sin 2 x ⋅ − sin x )
b. = = =
dx dx  cos x  cos 2 x cos 2 x
( cos x ⋅ 2 sin x ⋅ cos x ) + sin 3 x 2 sin x cos 2 x + sin 3 x (

sin x 2 cos 2 x + sin 2 x )
= = =
cos 2 x cos 2 x cos 2 x
dy d  tan 2 x 
( cot x ⋅ d
dx
)(
tan 2 x − tan 2 x ⋅ dx
d cot x ) ( cot x ⋅ 2 tan x ⋅ dxd tan x )− ( tan 2 x ⋅ − csc 2 x )
c. = = =
dx dx  cot x  cot 2 x cot 2 x
( cot x ⋅ 2 tan x ⋅ sec x)+ tan2 2

x csc 2 x (
tan x 2 cot x sec2 x + tan x csc2 x )
= 2
= 2
cot x cot x
d.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sec 2 10 x ) = 2 sec 10 x ⋅
d
dx
( sec 10 x ) = 2 sec 10 x ⋅ sec 10 x tan 10 x ⋅
d
dx
(10 x ) = 2 sec 10 x ⋅ sec 10 x
d
× tan 10 x ⋅10 ⋅ x = 2 sec 2 10 x tan 10 x ⋅10 = 20 sec 2 10 x tan 10 x
dx
e.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cos 3 2 x ) = 3 cos 2 2 x ⋅
d
dx
( cos 2 x ) = 3 cos 2 2 x ⋅ − sin 2 x ⋅
d
dx
2x = 3 cos 2 2 x ⋅ − sin 2 x ⋅ 2 ⋅
d
dx
x
= 3 cos 2 2 x ⋅ − sin 2 x ⋅ 2 = − 6 cos 2 2 x sin 2 x
f.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 3 cot x 5 ) = cot x 5 ⋅
d 3
dx
d
x + x 3 ⋅ cot x 5
dx
= cot x 5 ⋅ 3x 2 + x 3 ⋅ − csc 2 x 5 ⋅
d 5
dx
x
= 3x 2 cot x 5 − x 3 ⋅ csc 2 x 5 ⋅ 5 x 4 = 3x 2 cot x 5 − 5 x 7 csc 2 x 5 = x 2 3 cot x 5 − 5 x 5 csc 2 x 5 ( )
dy d  sin 2 x 
( x⋅ d
dx
)(
sin 2 x − sin 2 x ⋅ dx
d x ) ( x ⋅ 2 sin x ⋅ dxd sin x )− ( sin 2 x ⋅1)
g. = = =
dx dx  x  x2 x2
( x ⋅ 2 sin x ⋅ cos x ) − sin 2 x 2 x sin x cos x − sin 2 x sin x (2 x cos x − sin x )

= = =
x 2
x 2 x2

h.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[
cos 2 ( 1 + 3 x ) ] = 2 cos ( 1 + 3x ) ⋅
d
dx
cos ( 1 + 3 x ) = 2 cos ( 1 + 3x ) ⋅ − sin (1 + 3x ) ⋅
d
dx
( 1 + 3x )
 d d 
= − 2 cos ( 1 + 3x ) ⋅ sin (1 + 3x ) ⋅  1 + 3x  = − 2 cos ( 1 + 3x ) ⋅ sin (1 + 3x ) ⋅ (0 + 3) = − 6 cos ( 1 + 3 x ) sin (1 + 3 x )
 dx dx 
i.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 5 cot 3 x ) = cot 3 x ⋅
d 5
dx
d
x + x 5 ⋅ cot 3 x
dx
= cot 3 x ⋅ 5 x 4 + x 5 ⋅ 3 cot 2 x ⋅
d
dx
cot x
= 5 x 4 cot 3 x + x 5 ⋅ 3 cot 2 x ⋅ − csc 2 x ⋅

d
dx
x (
= 5 x 4 cot 3 x − x 5 ⋅ 3 cot 2 x ⋅ csc 2 x ⋅1 = x 4 cot 2 x 5 cot x − 3 x csc 2 x )
dy d d d d d
j. = (tan 4 x sin 5 x ) = tan 4 x ⋅ sin 5 x + sin 5 x ⋅ tan 4 x = tan 4 x ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5 x + sin 5 x ⋅ sec 2 4 x ⋅ 4 x
dx dx dx dx dx dx
= tan 4 x ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5 + sin 5 x ⋅ sec 2 4 x ⋅ 4 = 5 tan 4 x cos 5 x + 4 sin 5 x sec2 4 x
dy d  sin 3 x  (cos 2 x ⋅ dxd sin 3x )− (sin 3x ⋅ dxd cos 2 x ) (cos 2 x ⋅ cos 3x ⋅ dxd 3x )− (sin 3x ⋅ − sin 2 x ⋅ dxd 2 x )
k. =   = =
dx dx  cos 2 x  cos 2 2 x cos 2 2 x
( cos 2 x ⋅ cos 3x ⋅ 3) − ( sin 3x ⋅ − sin 2 x ⋅ 2) 3 cos 3 x cos 2 x + 2 sin 3 x sin 2 x

= =
cos 2 x2 cos2 2 x
dy d  sin 4 x 
[ (x + 3)⋅ dxd sin 4 x]− [sin 4 x ⋅ dxd (x + 3) ] [ (x + 3)⋅ cos 4 x ⋅ dxd 4 x]− [sin 4 x ⋅1 ]
l. =   = =
dx dx  x + 3  (x + 3)2 ( x + 3) 2
[ (x + 3)⋅ cos 4 x ⋅ 4] − sin 4 x 4 ( x + 3) cos 4 x − sin 4 x

= =
(x + 3)2 ( x + 3) 2

a. sin y = cot 3x b. cos 3 y = tan 5 x c. sin ( y + 1) = cos x 2
d. sin y = cos 10 x e. tan (3 y + 2) = sin 5 x f. sec 2 y = csc x
g. x cos y = sin (x + y ) h. x 2 sin 2 y = cos (3x + 5 y ) i. x tan y = cot x

dy
a. Given sin y = cot 3x , let’s take the derivative on both sides of the equation to obtain = y′ .
dx
d d 3 csc 2 3 x
cos y ⋅ y = − csc 2 3 x ⋅ 3 x ; cos y ⋅ y ′ = − csc 2 3x ⋅ 3 ; y ′ = −
dx dx cos y

dy
b. Given cos 3 y = tan 5 x , let’s take the derivative on both sides of the equation to obtain = y′ .
dx
d d 5 sec 2 5 x
− sin 3 y ⋅ 3 y = sec 2 5 x ⋅ 5 x ; − sin 3 y ⋅ 3 y ′ = sec 2 5 x ⋅ 5 ; − 3 sin 3 y ⋅ y ′ = 5 sec 2 5 x ; y ′ = −
dx dx 3 sin 3 y
dy
c. Given sin ( y + 1) = cos x 2 , let’s take the derivative on both sides of the equation to obtain = y′ .
dx
d 2 x sin x 2
cos ( y + 1) ⋅ ( y + 1) = − sin x 2 ⋅ d x 2 ; cos ( y + 1) ⋅ y ′ = − sin x 2 ⋅ 2 x ; y ′ = −
dx dx cos ( y + 1)
dy
d. Given sin y = cos 10 x , let’s take the derivative on both sides of the equation to obtain = y′ .
dx
d d 10 sin 10 x
cos y ⋅ y = − sin 10 x ⋅ 10 x ; cos y ⋅ y ′ = − sin 10 x ⋅10 ; y ′ = −
dx dx cos y
dy
e. Given tan (3 y + 2) = sin 5 x , let’s take the derivative on both sides of the equation to obtain = y′ .
dx
d 5 cos 5 x
sec 2 (3 y + 2 ) ⋅ (3 y + 2) = cos 5 x ⋅ d 5 x ; sec 2 (3 y + 2) ⋅ 3 y ′ = cos 5 x ⋅ 5 ; y ′ =
dx dx 3 sec 2 (3 y + 2 )
dy
f. Given sec 2 y = csc x , let’s take the derivative on both sides of the equation to obtain = y′ .
dx
d d d
2 sec y ⋅ sec y = − csc x cot x ⋅ x ; 2 sec y ⋅ sec y tan y ⋅ y = − csc x cot x ⋅1 ; 2 sec 2 y tan y ⋅ y ′ = − csc x cot x
dx dx dx
− csc x cot x csc x cot x

; y′ = ; y′ = −
2
2 sec y tan y 2 sec 2 y tan y
dy
g. Given x cos y = sin (x + y ) , let’s take the derivative on both sides of the equation to obtain = y′ .
dx
d d d d d d 
cos y ⋅ x + x ⋅ cos y = cos (x + y ) ⋅ (x + y ) ; cos y ⋅1 + x ⋅ − sin y ⋅ y = cos (x + y ) ⋅  x + y
dx dx dx dx  dx dx 
; cos y ⋅1 + x ⋅ − sin y ⋅ y ′ = cos (x + y ) ⋅ (1 + y ′) ; cos y − x sin y y ′ = cos (x + y ) + y ′ cos (x + y )
; − x sin y y ′ − y ′ cos (x + y ) = cos (x + y ) − cos y ; x sin y y ′ + y ′ cos (x + y ) = cos y − cos (x + y )
cos y − cos ( x + y )
; − y ′ [x sin y + cos (x + y ) ] = cos y − cos (x + y ) ; y ′ = −
x sin y + cos ( x + y )
dy
h. Given x 2 sin 2 y = cos (3x + 5 y ) , let’s take the derivative on both sides of the equation to obtain = y′ .
dx
d 2 d d d
sin 2 y ⋅ x + x 2 ⋅ sin 2 y = − sin (3 x + 5 y ) ⋅ (3 x + 5 y ) ; sin 2 y ⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ cos 2 y ⋅ 2 y = − sin (3 x + 5 y )
dx dx dx dx

d d 
×  3x + 5 y  ; sin 2 y ⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ cos 2 y ⋅ 2 y ′ = − sin (3x + 5 y ) ⋅ (3 + 5 y ′) ; 2 x sin 2 y + 2 y ′ x 2 cos 2 y
 dx dx 
= −3 sin (3 x + 5 y ) − 5 y ′ sin (3 x + 5 y ) ; 2 y ′ x 2 cos 2 y + 5 y ′ sin (3 x + 5 y ) = −3 sin (3 x + 5 y ) − 2 x sin 2 y
3 sin (3 x + 5 y ) + 2 x sin 2 y
[
; y ′ 2 x 2 cos 2 y + 5 sin (3x + 5 y ) ] = −3 sin (3 x + 5 y ) − 2 x sin 2 y ; y′ = −
[2 x 2
cos 2 y + 5 sin (3 x + 5 y ) ]
dy
i. Given x tan y = cot x , let’s take the derivative on both sides of the equation to obtain = y′ .
dx
d d d d
tan y ⋅ x + x ⋅ tan y = − csc 2 x ⋅ x ; tan y ⋅1 + x ⋅ sec 2 y ⋅ y = − csc 2 x ⋅1 ; tan y + x ⋅ sec 2 y ⋅ y ′ = − csc 2 x
dx dx dx dx
csc 2 x + tan y
x ⋅ y ′ ⋅ sec 2 y = − csc 2 x − tan y ; y′ = −
x sec 2 y
Example 3.1-6: Find the first and second derivative of the following trigonometric functions:
a. y = sin 5 x b. y = sin 2 5 x c. y = cos ( 10 x + 3)
d. y = tan 2 x e. y = tan x 2 f. y = tan 2 x

g. y = sin 3x + cos 3x h. y = x sin x i. y = tan (5 x + 1 )
j. y = sin x − x cos x k. y = 2 + sin 2 x (

l. y = sin x 2 ) 2
Solutions:
dy d d
a. = (sin 5 x ) = cos 5 x ⋅ (5 x ) = cos 5 x ⋅ 5 = 5 cos 5 x
dx dx dx
d2y d d
2
= (5 cos 5 x ) = − 5 sin 5 x ⋅ 5x = − 5 sin 5 x ⋅ 5 = −25 sin 5 x
dx dx dx
b.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sin 2 5 x ) =
d
dx
(sin 5 x )2 = 2 sin 5 x ⋅
d
dx
(sin 5 x ) = 2 sin 5 x ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅
d
dx
(5 x ) = 10 sin 5 x cos 5 x
d2y d d  d d

2
= (10 sin 5 x cos 5 x ) = 10 (sin 5 x cos 5 x ) = 10 cos 5 x ⋅ (sin 5 x ) + sin 5 x ⋅ ( cos 5 x )
dx dx dx  dx dx 
(
= 10 (cos 5 x ⋅ 5 cos 5 x − 5 sin 5 x ⋅ sin 5 x ) = 10 5 cos 2 5 x − 5 sin 2 5 x ) (
= 50 cos 2 5 x − sin 2 5 x )
Note that since sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α the first derivative can also be written as:

dy d2y d
= 5 (2 sin 5 x cos 5 x ) = 5 (sin 2 ⋅ 5 x ) = 5 sin 10 x . Thus, 2
= 5 ⋅ cos 10 x ⋅ 10 x = 50 cos 10 x
dx dx dx
dy d d
c. = [ cos ( 10 x + 3) ] = − sin ( 10 x + 3) ⋅ ( 10 x + 3) = − sin ( 10 x + 3) ⋅10 = − 10 sin ( 10 x + 3)
dx dx dx
d2y d d
2
= − [ 10 sin ( 10 x + 3) ] = − 10 cos ( 10 x + 3) ⋅ ( 10 x + 3) = − 10 cos ( 10 x + 3) ⋅10 = − 100 cos ( 10 x + 3)
dx dx dx
dy d d
d. = ( tan 2 x ) = sec 2 2 x ⋅ (2 x ) = sec 2 2 x ⋅ 2 = 2 sec 2 2 x
dx dx dx
d2y
dx 2
=
d
dx
(
2 sec 2 2 x ) = 2⋅
d
dx
( sec 2 x )2 = 2 ⋅ 2 sec 2 x ⋅
d
dx
sec 2 x = 4 sec 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x tan 2 x ⋅
d
dx
2x
= 4 sec 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x tan 2 x ⋅ 2 = 8 sec 2 x sec 2 x tan 2 x = 8 sec 2 2 x tan 2 x
e.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
tan x 2 ) = sec 2 x 2 ⋅
d
dx
x2 ( ) = sec 2 x 2 ⋅ 2 x = 2 x sec 2 x 2
d2y
dx 2
=
d
dx
(
2 x sec 2 x 2 ) =
d
dx
(
2 x sec x 2
2
) (
= sec x 2 ) 2
⋅
d
dx
2x + 2x ⋅
d
dx
sec x 2
2
( )
( )
= sec x 2 2 ⋅ 2 + 2 x ⋅ 2 sec x 2 ⋅ ( ) dxd ( sec x ) = ( sec x )
2 2 2
( )
⋅ 2 + 2 x ⋅ 2 sec x 2 ⋅ sec x 2 tan x 2 ⋅
d 2
dx
x
= sec 2 x 2 ⋅ 2 + 2 x ⋅ 2 sec 2 x 2 tan x 2 ⋅ 2 x = 2 sec 2 x 2 + 8 x 2 sec 2 x 2 tan x 2 = 2 sec 2 x 2 1 + 4 x 2 tan x 2 ( )
f.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
tan 2 x )= d
dx
(tan x )2 = 2 tan x ⋅
d
dx
tan x = 2 tan x ⋅ sec 2 x ⋅
d
dx
x = 2 tan x ⋅ sec 2 x ⋅1 = 2 tan x sec 2 x
d2y
dx 2
=
d
dx
(
2 tan x sec 2 x ) 
= 2  sec 2 x ⋅

d
dx
d
dx

tan x + tan x ⋅ sec 2 x 


= 2  sec 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x + tan x ⋅ 2 sec x ⋅

d
dx

sec x 

(
= 2 sec 4 x + tan x ⋅ 2 sec x ⋅ sec x tan x ) (
= 2 sec 4 x + 2 sec 2 x tan 2 x ) (
= 2 sec 2 x sec 2 x + 2 tan 2 x )
dy d d d d d
g. = ( sin 3x + cos 3x )= sin 3 x + cos 3 x = cos 3x ⋅ 3 x − sin 3 x ⋅ 3x = 3 cos 3 x − 3 sin 3 x
dx dx dx dx dx dx
d2y d d d d d
2
= (3 cos 3x − 3 sin 3x ) = 3 cos 3 x − 3 sin 3 x = − 3 sin 3x ⋅ 3 x − 3 cos 3 x ⋅ 3 x
dx dx dx dx dx dx

= − 3 sin 3x ⋅ 3 − 3 cos 3x ⋅ 3 = − 9 sin 3x − 9 cos 3x = − 9(sin 3 x + cos 3 x )
dy d d d
h. = (x sin x ) = sin x ⋅ x + x ⋅ sin x = sin x ⋅1 + x ⋅ cos x = sin x + x cos x
dx dx dx dx
d2y d d d d  d d 
2
= (sin x + x cos x ) = sin x + (x cos x ) = cos x ⋅ x +  cos x ⋅ x + x ⋅ cos x 
dx dx dx dx dx  dx dx 
= cos x ⋅1 + (cos x ⋅1 − x ⋅ sin x ) = cos x + cos x − x sin x = 2 cos x − x sin x
dy d d
i. = [ tan ( 5 x + 1 ) ] = sec 2 ( 5 x + 1) ⋅ ( 5x + 1 ) = sec 2 ( 5 x + 1) ⋅ 5 = 5 sec 2 ( 5 x + 1)
dx dx dx
d2y
dx 2
=
d
dx
[
5 sec 2 ( 5 x + 1) ] = 5 ⋅ dxd [ sec ( 5x + 1) ] = 5 ⋅ 2 sec ( 5x + 1)⋅ dxd sec ( 5x + 1)
2
d
= 10 sec ( 5 x + 1) ⋅ sec ( 5 x + 1) tan ( 5 x + 1) ⋅ (5 x + 1) = 10 sec 2 ( 5 x + 1) tan ( 5 x + 1) ⋅ 5 = 50 sec2 ( 5 x + 1) tan ( 5 x + 1)
dx
dy d d d d  d d 
j. = ( sin x − x cos x )= sin x − (x cos x ) = cos x ⋅ x −  cos x ⋅ x + x ⋅ cos x 
dx dx dx dx dx  dx dx 
= cos x ⋅1 − (cos x ⋅1 − x ⋅ sin x ) = cos x − cos x + x sin x = x sin x
d2y d d d
2
= (x sin x ) = sin x ⋅ x + x ⋅ sin x = sin x ⋅1 + x ⋅ cos x = sin x + x cos x
dx dx dx dx
k.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
( 2 + sin 2 x ) =
d
dx
1
(2 + sin 2 x ) 2 =
1
2
(2 + sin 2 x ) 2 −1 ⋅ d (2 + sin 2 x )
1
dx
=
1
2
1
(2 + sin 2 x )− 2
d d  1 1 1 1 cos 2 x
×  2 + sin 2 x  = (2 + sin 2 x )− 2 × ( 0 + 2 cos 2 x ) = ⋅ ⋅ 2/ cos 2 x =
 dx dx  2 2/ (2 + sin 2 x ) 12 2 + sin 2 x
 (2 + sin 2 x ) 12 ⋅ d cos 2 x  −  cos 2 x ⋅ d (2 + sin 2 x ) 12 

   
d y2
d  cos 2 x 
  dx   dx 
= =
dx 2 dx  2 + sin 2 x  2 + sin 2 x
 
 (2 + sin 2 x ) 12 ⋅ − sin 2 x ⋅ d 2 x  −  cos 2 x ⋅ 1 (2 + sin 2 x ) 12 −1 ⋅ d (2 + sin 2 x )  (2 + sin 2 x ) 12 ⋅ − sin 2 x ⋅ 2 

 dx   2 dx   
     
= =
2 + sin 2 x 2 + sin 2 x

1  1   −1 
−  cos 2 x ⋅ 12/ (2 + sin 2 x )− 2 ⋅ 2/ cos 2 x   − 2 sin 2 x ⋅ (2 + sin 2 x ) 2  −  cos 2 x ⋅ (2 + sin 2 x ) 2 
2
     
=
2 + sin 2 x 2 + sin 2 x
l.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sin x 2 ) 2
= 2 sin x 2 ⋅
d
dx
sin x 2 = 2 sin x 2 cos x 2 ⋅
d 2
dx
x = 2 sin x 2 cos x 2 ⋅ 2 x = 4 x sin x 2 cos x 2
Note that since sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α the first derivative can also be written as:
dy
dx
( )
= 2 x 2 sin x 2 cos x 2 = 2 x sin 2 x 2 and the second derivative is equal to the following:
d2y
dx 2
=
d
dx
(
2 x sin 2 x 2 ) 
= 2 sin 2 x 2 ⋅

d
dx
d
dx

x + x ⋅ sin 2 x 2 


= 2 sin 2 x 2 ⋅1 + x ⋅ cos 2 x 2 ⋅

d
dx

2x 2 

(
= 2 sin 2 x 2 + x ⋅ cos 2 x 2 ⋅ 4 x ) (
= 2 sin 2 x 2 + 4 x 2 cos 2 x 2 ) = 2 sin 2 x 2 + 8 x 2 cos 2 x 2

a. y = sin x 2 + 4 x 3 + 7 b. y = 10 sin (− 5 x ) c. y = cot (5 x + 3)
d. y = 5 cos (4 x − 1) e. y = sin 2π x + 3x 2 f. y = sec 3x + 10 x 2
g. y = sin x − cos x + 3 h. y = 5 sin 8 x − 3x 2 + 2 x i. y = 7 csc (x + 10) + 10 x
a.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sin x 2 + 4 x 3 + 7 )= d
dx
sin x 2 +
d
dx
4x 3 +
d
dx
7 = cos x 2 ⋅
d 2
dx
x + (4 ⋅ 3) x 2 + 0 = cos x 2 ⋅ 2 x + 12 x 2
= 2 x cos x 2 + 12 x 2 = 2 x cos x 2 + 6 x ( )
dy d d
b. = [ 10 sin (− 5 x ) ] = 10 cos (− 5 x ) ⋅ (− 5 x ) = 10 cos (− 5 x ) ⋅ −5 = − 50 cos (− 5 x )
dx dx dx
dy d d
c. = [ cot (5 x + 3) ] = − csc 2 (5 x + 3) ⋅ (5 x + 3) = − csc 2 (5 x + 3) ⋅ 5 = − 5 csc 2 ( 5 x + 3)
dx dx dx
dy d d
d. = [ 5 cos (4 x − 1) ] = − 5 sin (4 x − 1) ⋅ (4 x − 1) = − 5 sin (4 x − 1) ⋅ 4 = − 20 sin (4 x − 1)
dx dx dx
e.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sin 2π x + 3 x 2 )= d
dx
d
sin 2π x + 3 x 2
dx
= cos 2π x ⋅
d
dx
2π x + 6 x = 2π cos 2π x + 6 x
f.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sec 3 x + 10 x 2 ) =
d
dx
d
sec 3 x + 10 x 2
dx
= sec 3x tan 3x ⋅
d
dx
3 x + 20 x = 3 sec 3 x tan 3 x + 20 x

g.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
sin( x − cos x + 3 ) =
d
dx
sin x−
d
dx
d
cos x + 3
dx
= cos x ⋅
d
dx
x + sin x⋅
d
dx
x +0
1 1 cos x sin x cos x + sin x

= cos x ⋅ + sin x⋅ = + =
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x
h.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
5 sin 8 x − 3 x 2 + 2 x )= d
dx
d
5 sin 8 x − 3 x 2 +
dx
d
dx
2x = 5 cos 8 x ⋅
d
dx
8x − 6 x + 2 = 40 cos 8 x − 6 x + 2
dy d d d d
i. = [ 7 csc (x + 10) + 10 x ] = 7 csc (x + 10) + 10 x = − 7 csc (x + 10) cot (x + 10) ⋅ (x + 10) + 10
dx dx dx dx dx
= − 7 csc (x + 10) cot (x + 10) ⋅1 + 10 = − 7 csc ( x + 10) cot ( x + 10) + 10
dy
Example 3.1-8: Given the following trigonometric functions find .
dx
a. y = 1+ cos t and x = t + sin t b. y = 1 + t 2 and x = t sin t
c. y = sin 3 θ and x = cos 2 θ d. y = sin 3 α and x = cos 3 α
e. y = t e t and x = e t cos t f. y = 5 ln 3t 2 and x = ln t 3
g. y = e t cos t and x = t ln t h. y = sin 2 t and x = sec 4 t
i. y = cos 2 (θ + 1) and x = sin θ 2 j. y = 3 sin ω and x = cos 3ω 2
k. y = 3 t 2 and x = 1 + t l. y = θ − θ and x = θ 2 cos θ

Solutions:
dy d d d dx
a. Given y = 1+ cos t and x = t + sin t then = ( 1+ cos t ) = 1+ cos t = − sin t and
dt dt dt dt dt
d d d dy dt dy ⋅ dt dy − sin t
= ( t + sin t ) = t + sin t = 1+ cos t Therefore = = =
dt dt dt dx dt dt ⋅ dx dx 1 + cos t
b. Given y = 1 + t 2 and x = t sin t then

dy
dt
=
d
dt
(
1+ t 2 ) =
d
dt
d
1+ t 2
dt
= 0 + 2t = 2t and
dx
dt
d d d dy dt dy 2t
= t sin t = sin t ⋅ t + t ⋅ sin t = sin t ⋅1 + t ⋅ cos t = sin t + t cos t So = =
dt dt dt dx dt dx sin t + t cos t
dy d d d
c. Given y = sin 3 θ and x = cos 2 θ then = sin 3 θ = (sin θ ) 3 = 3 sin 2 θ ⋅ sin θ
dθ dθ dθ dθ
dx d d d
= 3 sin 2 θ cos θ and = cos 2 θ = ( cos θ ) 2 = 2 cos θ ⋅ cos θ = 2 cos θ ⋅ − sin θ
dθ dθ dθ dθ

dy dθ dy 3 sin 2 θ cos θ 3
= − 2 sin θ cos θ Therefore = = = − sin θ
dx dθ dx − 2 sin θ cos θ 2
dy d d d
d. Given y = sin 3 α and x = cos 3 α then = sin 3 α = (sin α ) 3 = 3 sin 2 α ⋅ sin α
dα dα dα dα
dx d d d
= 3 sin 2 α cos α and = cos 3 α = ( cos α ) 3 = 3 cos 2 α ⋅ cos α = 3 cos 2 α ⋅ − sin α
dα dα dα dα
dy dα dy 3 sin 2 α cos α sin α

= − 3 sin α cos 2 α Therefore = = 2
= − = − tan α
dx dα dx − 3 sin α cos α cos α
dy d t d d
e. Given y = t e t and x = e t cos t then = te = et ⋅ t + t ⋅ et = e t ⋅1 + t ⋅ e t = e t + t e t
dt dt dt dt
dx d t d t d
= e t ( 1 + t ) and = e cos t = cos t ⋅ e + e t ⋅ cos t = cos t ⋅ e t + e t ⋅ − sin t = e t cos t − e t sin t
dt dt dt dt
dy dt dy et ( 1+ t ) 1+ t
= e t ( cos t − sin t ) Therefore = = =
dx dt dx e t
( cos t − sin t ) cos t − sin t
dy d 1 d 2 1 30t 10
f. Given y = 5 ln 3t 2 and x = ln t 3 then = 5 ln 3t 2 = 5⋅ 2
⋅ 3t = 5⋅ 2
⋅ 6t = 2
= and
dt dt 3t dt 3t 3t t
dx d 1 d 3 1 3t 2 3 dy dt dy 10 t 10
= ln t 3 = ⋅ t = ⋅ 3t 2 = = Therefore = = =
dt dt t 3 dt t 3
t 3 t dx dt dx 3 t 3
dy d t d t d
g. Given y = e t cos t and x = t ln t then = e cos t = cos t ⋅ e + e t ⋅ cos t
dt dt dt dt
dx d d d
= cos t ⋅ e t + e t ⋅ − sin t = e t cos t − e t sin t = e t ( cos t − sin t ) and = t ln t = ln t ⋅ t + t ⋅ ln t
dt dt dt dt
1 dy dt dy e t ( cos t − sin t )
= ln t ⋅1 + t ⋅ = ln t + 1 Therefore = =
t dx dt dx ln t + 1
h. Given y = sin 2 t and x = sec 4 t then

dy
dt
=
d
dt
sin 2 t =
d
dt
sin ( t ) 2 = 2 sin t⋅
d
dt
sin t
d 1 sin t cos t dx d
= 2 sin t ⋅ cos t ⋅ t = 2 sin t ⋅ cos t ⋅ − = − and = sec 4 t
dt 2 t t dt dt

=
d
dt
(sec t )4 = 4 sec 3 t ⋅
d
dt
sec t = 4 sec 3 t ⋅ sec t tan t ⋅
d
dt
t = 4 sec 4 t ⋅ tan t ⋅ −
1
2 t
2 sec 4 t tan t dy dt dy − sin t cos t t sin t cos t

= − Therefore = = 4
= 4
t dx dt dx − 2 sec t tan t t 2 sec t tan t
dy d d
i. Given y = cos 2 (θ + 1) and x = sin θ 2 then = cos 2 (θ + 1) = [ cos (θ + 1) ] 2
dθ dθ dθ
d d
= 2 cos (θ + 1) ⋅ cos (θ + 1) = 2 cos (θ + 1) ⋅ − sin (θ + 1) ⋅ (θ + 1) = −2 cos (θ + 1) ⋅ sin (θ + 1) ⋅1
dθ dθ
dx d d 2
= − 2 sin (θ + 1) cos (θ + 1) and = sin θ 2 = cos θ 2 ⋅ θ = cos θ 2 ⋅ 2 θ = 2 θ cos θ 2
dθ dt dt
dy dθ dy −2 sin (θ + 1) cos (θ + 1) sin (θ + 1) cos (θ + 1)

Therefore = = = −
dx dθ dx 2 θ cos θ 2 θ cos θ 2
dy d dx d
j. Given y = 3 sin ϕ and x = cos 3ϕ 2 then = 3 sin ϕ = 3 cos ϕ and = cos 3ϕ 2
dϕ dϕ dϕ dt
d dy dϕ dy 3 cos ϕ cos ϕ
= − sin 3ϕ 2 ⋅ 3ϕ 2 = − sin 3ϕ 2 ⋅ 6ϕ = − 6ϕ sin 3ϕ 2 So = = = −
dt dx dϕ dx − 6ϕ sin 3ϕ 2
2ϕ sin 3ϕ 2
dy d 3 2 d 23 2 2 −1 2 −1 2 2
k. Given y = 3 t 2 and x = 1 + t then = t = t = t3 = t 3 = = 3
and
dt dt dt 3 3 1
3 t
3t 3
dx
dt
=
d
dt
(
1+ t ) =
d
dt
1+
d
dt
t = 0+
1
=
1
So
dy dt
dx dt
=
dy
dx
=
2 33 t
=
2⋅2
3
t
=
4
3 t 3
t
2 t 2 t 1 2 t 1⋅ 3 t
l. Given y = θ − θ and x = θ 2 cos θ then

dy
dθ
=
d
dθ
θ− θ ( ) =
d
dθ
θ−
d
dθ
θ = 1−
1
2 θ
=
2 θ −1
2 θ
and
dx
dθ
=
d
dt
(
θ 2 cos θ ) = cos θ ⋅
d 2
dt
d
θ + θ 2 ⋅ cos θ
dt
= cos θ ⋅ 2θ + θ 2 ⋅ − sin θ = 2θ cos θ − θ 2 sin θ
dy dθ dy 2 θ −1 2 θ 2 θ −1
Therefore = = =
dx dθ dx 2
2θ cos θ − θ sin θ (
2 θ 2θ cos θ − θ 2 sin θ )

Section 3.1 Practice Problems – Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
1. Find the derivative of the following trigonometric functions:

a. y = sin (3x + 1) b. y = 5 cos x 3 c. y = x 3 cos x 2
d. y = sin 5 x ⋅ tan 3x e. y = tan 2 x 3 f. y = cot ( x + 3)3
g. y = x 5 cos x 7 h. y = sec 4 x 3 i. y = sec 3x 2 + x 3
j. y = tan x 5 k. y = tan 5 x (
l. y = csc x3 + 1 )
a. y =
tan x
b. y =
(
sin x 3 + 1 ) c. y =
sec x
csc x x2 csc x 3
d. y = x 5 tan x 3 e. y = x 5 sin x 2 f. y = ( x + 5) 2 cos x
g. y = x 2 tan 3 x 5 h. y = x + sin x 3 (
i. y = sin 1 + x 5 )
j. y = cot 2 x 3 k. y = sin 3 ( 1 + 5 x ) l. y = x 5 csc x 3

a. y = sin 7 x b. y = cos x 3 c. y = cot x 3
d. y = x 3 tan x 2 e. y = cot ( x + 9) (
f. y = sin 2 x 3 + 5 x + 2 )
g. y = sin x + 3 h. y = sin x 2 + cos x 3 i. y = x 2 sin x 3

Calculus I 3.2 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
3.2 Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The differential formulas involving inverse trigonometric functions are defined as:
Table 3.2-1: Differentiation Formulas for Inverse Trigonometric Functions
d d 1 du d d 1 du
arc sin u = sin −1 u = ⋅ arc cot u = cot −1 u = − ⋅
dx dx dx dx dx 2 dx
1− u 2 1+ u
d d 1 du d d 1 du
arc cos u = cos −1 u = − ⋅ arc sec u = sec −1 u = ⋅
dx dx 1− u 2 dx dx dx u u −1 dx
2
d d 1 du d d 1 du
arc tan u = tan −1 u = ⋅ arc csc u = csc −1 u = − ⋅
2 dx
dx dx 1+ u dx dx u u − 1 dx
2
Let’s differentiate some inverse trigonometric functions using the above differentiation formulas.
Example 3.2-1: Find the derivative of the following inverse trigonometric functions:
a. y = arc sin (3x − 4 ) b. y = arc sin x 2 c. y = tan −1 x 2 + 1 ( )
sin −1 x
d. y = x 2 arc sin 2 x e. y = f. y = cos x 2 + arc cos x 2
3x
5 cos −1 x
g. y = ( 1 + x ) cot −1 x h. y = arc tan i. y =
x cos x
arc sin x
j. y = k. y = x 5 + arc tan x l. y = arc cot 3 x 2
cos x
Solutions:
dy d 1 d 3
a. Given y = arc sin (3x − 4) then = [arc sin (3x − 4) ] = ⋅ (3x − 4) =
dx dx 1 − ( 3x − 4) 2 dx 1 − ( 3 x − 4 )2
3 3 3
= = =
(
1 − 9 x 2 + 16 − 24 x ) 1 − 9 x 2 − 16 + 24 x − 9 x 2 + 24 x − 15
b. Given y = arc sin x 2 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
arc sin x 2 )= 1
⋅
d 2
dx
x =
1
⋅ 2x =
2x
1− x 4 1− x 4 1 − x4
(
c. Given y = tan −1 x 2 + 1 then ) dy
=
d
[ (
tan −1 x 2 + 1 )] = 1
⋅
d
(x 2 +1 ) =
1
⋅ 2x
dx dx
(
1+ x +1 2
)2 dx
(
1+ x +1 2
) 2
1 2x
= ⋅ 2x = 4
1 + x 4 + 2x +1 x + 2x + 2
d. Given y = x 2 arc sin 2 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 2 arc sin 2 x ) = arc sin 2 x ⋅
d 2
dx
d
x + x 2 ⋅ arc sin 2 x
dx

1 d 1 2x 2
= arc sin 2 x ⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ ⋅ 2 x = 2 x arc sin 2 x + x 2 ⋅ ⋅ 2 = 2 x arc sin 2 x +
1 − (2 x )2 dx 1 − 4x 2 1 − 4x 2
e. Given y =
sin x
then
dy
=
d  sin −1
−1
x 
=
( 3x ⋅ d
dx
)(
sin −1 x − sin −1 x ⋅ dx
d 3x ) =
3x ⋅
1− x
1
2
− sin −1 x ⋅ 3
3x dx dx  3 x 
 (3x ) 2
9x 2
3 x −3 1− x 2 sin −1 x
3x − 3 sin −1 x
1− x 2 1− x 2 3 x − 3 1 − x 2 sin −1 x x − 1 − x 2 sin −1 x
= = = =
9 x2 9x 2 9x 2 1 − x 2 3 x2 1 − x2
f. Given y = cos x 2 + arc cos x 2 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cos x 2 + arc cos x 2 ) =
d
dx
cos x 2 +
d
dx
arc cos x 2
 
d 2 −1 d 2 1  1 
= − sin x 2 ⋅ x + ⋅ x = − sin x 2 ⋅ 2 x − ⋅ 2 x = − 2 x  sin x 2 + 
dx 1− x 4 dx 1− x 4  4 
1− x 

g. Given y = ( 1 + x ) cot −1 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ ( 1 + x) cot x] −1
= cot −1 x ⋅
d
dx
(1 + x ) + (1 + x )⋅ d cot −1 x
dx
−1 1+ x
= cot −1 x ⋅1 + ( 1 + x ) ⋅ = cot −1 x −
1+ x 2 1+ x2
5 dy d  5 1 d 5 1 −5 1 −5
h. Given y = arc tan then =  arc tan  = ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅
x dx dx  x 1+ ()
5 2
x
dx x 1+ 25
x2
x 2 2
x + 25
x2
x2
x2 −5 5 x 2/ 5
= ⋅ = − = −
2
x + 25 x 2
(
x 2/ x 2 + 25 ) 2
x + 25
i. Given y =
cos −1 x
then
dy
=
d  cos −1 x 
=
( cos x ⋅ d
dx
)(
cos −1 x − cos −1 x ⋅ dx
d cos x )
cos x dx dx  cos x  ( cos x ) 2
cos x ⋅ −1
2
(
− cos −1 x ⋅ − sin x ) − cos x
2
+ sin x cos −1 x
1− x 1− x − cos x + 1 − x 2 sin x cos−1 x
= = =
cos 2 x cos 2 x 1 − x 2 cos2 x
arc sin x dy d  arc sin x ( cos x ⋅ dxd arc sin x )− ( arc sin x ⋅ dxd cos x )
j. Given y= then =   =
cos x dx dx  cos x 
 ( cos x )2

cos x
cos x ⋅ 1 − ( arc sin x ⋅ − sin x ) + sin x arc sin x
1− x 2 1− x 2 cos x + 1 − x 2 sin x arc sin x
= = =
cos 2 x cos 2 x 1 − x 2 cos2 x
k. Given y = x 5 + arc tan x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 5 + arc tan x ) =
d 5 d
dx
x +
dx
arc tan x
−1
1 d 1 d 12 1 1 12 −1 x 2 1
= 5x +4
⋅ x = 5x + ⋅ 4
x = 5x 4 + ⋅ x = 5x 4 + = 5 x4 +
1+ ( x )2 dx 1 + x dx 1+ x 2 2 (1 + x ) 2 x (1 + x )
2
dy d d 1 d 23
l. Given y = arc cot 3 x 2 then = 3
arc cot x 2 = arc cot x 3 = − 4
⋅ x
dx dx dx dx
1+ x 3
1 2 23 −1 1 2 − 13 1 2 1 2 2
= − ⋅ x = − ⋅ x = − ⋅ = − ⋅ = −
1+
4
x3
3
1+
4
x3
3
1+
4
x3
3 x 3
1+ x
3 4 3 x 3 3
3 x 1+ x 3 x ( )
x2 1 x
a. y = arc cos b. y = arc cot c. y = cot −1 x − tan x
a 3 5
(
d. y = tan −1 x 2 + 3 ) e. y=
arc sin x
x
+ 5x 3 f. y = cos x + tan −1 x
3x 2
g. y = h. y = sin x + sin −1 x i. sin 3 y = arc tan 5 x
arc tan x
j. cos y = sin −1 x k. sin ( y + 1) = arc cos x 2 l. cot y = tan −1 x

Solutions:
x2 dy d x2 1 d x2 1 2x
a. Given y = arc cos then = arc cos = − ⋅ = − ⋅
a dx dx a 2 dx a 2 a
1 −  x2  1 −  x2 
a  a 
 
1 2x 1 2x 1 2x a/ 2x 2x
= − ⋅ = − ⋅ = − ⋅ = − ⋅ = −
x 4 a 2
a −x 4 a 1 2
a −x 4 a 2
a −x 4 a/ a − x4
2
1− a
a2 a2
1 x dy d 1 x 1 d  x 1 −1 d x
b. Given y = arc cot then =  arc cot  =  arc cot  = ⋅
3 5 dx dx  3 5 3 dx  5 3 1+ x (5 ) 2 dx 5

1 −1 1 1 −1 1 −25 5
= ⋅ = = = −
3 1 + x2 5
25
15 25 + x
25
2 15 25 + x 2 (
3 25 + x 2 )
c. Given y = cot −1 x − tan x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cot −1 x − tan x ) =
d
dx
cot −1 x −
d
dx
tan x = −
1
1+ x 2
− sec 2 x
(
d. Given y = tan −1 x 2 + 3 then ) dy
=
d
(
tan −1 x 2 + 3 ) =
1
⋅
d
(
x2 + 3 ) =
2x
dx dx
(
1+ x 2 + 3 ) 2 dx
(
1+ x 2 + 3 ) 2
2x 2x
= =
(
1 + x 4 + 9 + 6x 2 ) x + 6 x 2 + 10
4
arc sin x dy d  arc sin x 

( dxd arc sin x ⋅ x )− ( dxd x ⋅ arc sin x )
e. Given y= + 5x 3 then =  + 5x 3  = + 15 x 2
x dx dx  x  x2
 
 x⋅ 1  − ( arc sin x ⋅1 ) x − arc sin x −
 1− x 2  1− x 2 x − arc sin x 1− x2
  2
+ 15 x 2
= + 15 x = + 15 x 2 =
x2 x2 x 2
1− x 2
f. Given y = cos x + tan −1 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cos x + tan −1 x ) =
d
dx
cos x +
d
dx
tan −1 x = − sin x +
1+ x2
1
3x 2 dy d  3 x 2 

( arc tan x ⋅ d
dx
)(
3 x 2 − 3 x 2 ⋅ dx
d arc tan x )
g. Given y= then = =
arc tan x dx dx  arc tan x  arc tan 2 x
( arc tan x ⋅ 6 x ) −  3x 2 ⋅ 1 

2
6 x arc tan x − 3 x 2 ( )
6 x 1 + x 2 arc tan x − 3 x 2
 1+ x 2  1+ x
= = =
arc tan 2 x arc tan 2 x ( 1 + x ) arc tan
2 2
x
h. Given y = sin x + sin −1 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sin x + sin −1 x ) =
d
dx
sin x +
d
dx
sin −1 x = cos x +
1
1− x2
i. Given sin 3 y = arc tan 5 x let’s take the derivative of both sides of the equation to obtain:
5
d 1 d 1 5 1+ 25 x 2
cos 3 y ⋅ 3 y = ⋅ 5x ; cos 3 y ⋅ 3 y ′ = ⋅5 ; 3 cos 3 y ⋅ y ′ = ; y′ =
dx 1 + (5 x ) 2 dx
1 + 25 x 2 1 + 25 x 2 3 cos 3 y

5
1+ 25 x 2 5 ⋅1 5
; y′ = ; y′ = ; y′ =
3 cos 3 y
1 (1 + 25x ) ⋅ 3 cos 3 y
2
(
3 1 + 25 x 2 ) cos 3 y
j. Given cos y = sin −1 x let’s take the derivative of both sides of the equation to obtain:
1 1
d 1 d 1 1 1− x 2 1− x 2
− sin y ⋅ y= ⋅ x ; − sin y ⋅ y ′ = ⋅1 ; − sin y ⋅ y ′ = ; y′ = ; y′ = −sin y
dx 1 − x 2 dx 1− x 2 1− x 2 − sin y
1
1 ⋅1 1
; y′ = ; y′ = −
1 − x 2 ⋅ − sin y 1 − x 2 sin y
k. Given sin ( y + 1) = arc cos x 2 let’s take the derivative of both sides of the equation to obtain:
d −1 d 2 −1 −2 x
cos ( y + 1) ⋅ ( y + 1) = ⋅ x ; cos ( y + 1) ⋅ y ′ = ⋅ 2 x ; cos ( y + 1) ⋅ y ′ =
dx 1− x 4 dx 1− x 4
1− x 4
−2 x −2 x
1− x 4 1− x 4 −2 x ⋅1 2x
; y′ = ; y′ = ; y′ = ; y′ = −
cos ( y + 1) cos ( y +1)
1 − x 4 ⋅ cos ( y + 1) 1 − x 4 cos ( y + 1)
1
l. Given cot y = tan −1 x let’s take the derivative of both sides of the equation to obtain:
1 1
2d 1 d 2 1 2 1 1+ x 2 1+ x 2
− csc y ⋅ y=
2
⋅ x ; − csc y ⋅ y ′ = ⋅1 ; − csc y ⋅ y ′ = ; y′ = ; y′ =
dx 1 + x dx 1+ x 2 1+ x 2 2
− csc y −csc 2 y
1
1 ⋅1 1
; y′ = ; y′ = −
(1 + x ) ⋅ − csc
2 2
y (1 + x ) csc
2 2
y
a. y = x 3 sin −1 x b. y = arc sin 2 x c. y = sin −1 x 2
d. y = arc tan 2 x 3 + 1 ( ) e. y = arc cot 3 2 x f. y = cot x ⋅ cot −1 x
g. y = arc csc 10 x h. y = arc csc x10 i. y = arc csc10 x

Solutions:
dy d 3 d 3 d 1 x3
a. = x sin −1 x = sin −1 x ⋅ x + x 3 ⋅ sin −1 x = sin −1 x ⋅ 3x 2 + x 3 ⋅ = 3 x 2 sin −1 x +
dx dx dx dx 1− x 2 1− x2

dy d d d 1 2arc sin x
b. = arc sin 2 x = ( arc sin x )2 = 2arc sin x ⋅ ( arc sin x ) = 2arc sin x ⋅ =
dx dx dx dx 1− x 2 1− x2
dy d 1 d 2 1 2x
c. = sin −1 x 2 = ⋅ x = ⋅ 2x =
dx dx 1− x 4 dx 1− x 4 1 − x4
d.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[
arc tan 2 x 3 + 1( )] =
d
dx
[
arc tan x 3 + 1 ( )] 2
= 2 arc tan x 3 + 1 ⋅ ( ) dxd arc tan ( x + 1) 3
(
= 2 arc tan x 3 + 1 ⋅ ) 1 + ( x 1 + 1) d
x3 +1
⋅ ( ) (
= 2 arc tan x 3 + 1 ⋅ ) 1
⋅ 3x 2 =
(
6 x 2 arc tan x 3 + 1 )
3 2 dx
1+ x3 +1( ) 2
(
1+ x3 +1 ) 2
dy d d d −1 d
e. = arc cot 3 2 x = (arc cot 2 x )3 = 3 (arc cot 2 x )2 ⋅ arc cot 2 x = 3 (arc cot 2 x )2 ⋅ ⋅ 2x
dx dx dx dx 1 + (2 x ) 2 dx
−1 − 6 ( arc cot 2 x )2
= 3 (arc cot 2 x )2 ⋅ ⋅2 =
1 + 4x 2 1 + 4x 2
f.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cot x ⋅ cot −1 x ) = cot −1 x ⋅
d
dx
d
cot x + cot x ⋅ cot −1 x
dx
= cot −1 x ⋅ − csc 2 x + cot x ⋅
−1
1+ x 2
2 −1 cot x (1 + x ) csc
2 2
x cot −1 x + cot x
= − csc x cot x− = −
1+ x 2 1+ x2
dy d 1 d 1 1
g. = ( arc csc 10 x ) = − 10 x
⋅ = − ⋅ 1/ 0/ = −
dx dx 10 x (10 x )2 − 1 dx 1/ 0/ x 100 x 2 − 1 x 100 x 2 − 1
h.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
arc csc x10 )=− 1 d 10
dx
⋅x = −
1
⋅10 x 9 = −
10
x 10
x 20
−1 x10 x 20
−1 x x 20 − 1
i.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
arc csc10 x )= d
dx
( arc csc x )10 = 10 ( arc csc x )9 ⋅
d
dx
arc csc x = 10 ( arc csc x )9 ⋅
−1
x x 2 −1
10 ( arc csc x )9 −1 − 10 ( arc csc x ) 9

= ⋅ =
1 x x 2 −1 x x2 −1

Example 3.2-4: Given that the inverse sine function is given by y = sin −1 x ⇔ x = sin y where
π π d 1
− ≤ y≤ and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 , show that sin −1 x = .
2 2 dx 1− x 2
Solution:
d d d dy 1
Given sin y = x then sin y = x ; cos y ⋅ y =1 ; =
dx dx dx dx cos y
dy 1 d 1
Since y = sin −1 x we can state that = ; sin −1 x =
dx cos y dx cos y
To express cos y in terms of x we can use the relation sin 2 y + cos 2 y = 1 ; cos 2 y = 1 − sin 2 y
d 1 1
; cos 2 y = 1 − x 2 . Therefore, cos y = 1 − x 2 and we have shown that sin −1 x = =
dx cos y 1 − x2
Example 3.2-5: Given that the inverse sine function is given by y = cos −1 x ⇔ x = cos y where
d −1
0≤ y ≤π and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 , show that cos −1 x = .
dx 1− x 2
Solution:
d d d dy 1 −1
Given cos y = x then cos y = x ; − sin y ⋅ y =1 ; = =
dx dx dx dx − sin y sin y
dy −1 d −1
Since y = cos −1 x we can state that = ; cos −1 x =
dx sin y dx sin y
To express sin y in terms of x we can use the relation sin 2 y + cos 2 y = 1 ; sin 2 y = 1 − cos 2 y
d −1 −1
; sin 2 y = 1 − x 2 . Therefore, sin y = 1 − x 2 and we have shown that cos−1 x = =
dx sin y 1 − x2
Example 3.2-6: Given that the inverse tangent function is given by y = tan −1 x ⇔ x = tan y where
π π d 1
− y for all x , show that tan −1 x = .
2 2 dx 1+ x 2
Solution:
d d d dy 1
Given tan y = x then tan y = x ; sec 2 y ⋅ y =1 ; =
dx dx dx dx sec 2 y
dy 1 d 1
Since y = tan −1 x we can state that = ; tan −1 x =
dx sec 2 y dx sec 2 y
To express sec 2 y in terms of x we can use the relation sec 2 y − tan 2 y = 1 ; sec 2 y = 1 + tan 2 y
d 1 1
; sec 2 y = 1 + x 2 . Therefore, we have shown that tan −1 x = =
dx sec y 1 + x 2
2
Example 3.2-7: Given that the inverse tangent function is given by y = cot −1 x ⇔ x = cot y where
d −1
0 y π for all x , show that cot −1 x = .
dx 1+ x 2

Solution:
d d d dy 1 −1
Given cot y = x then cot y = x ; − csc 2 y ⋅ y =1 ; = =
dx dx dx dx − csc y csc 2 y
2
dy −1 d −1
Since y = cot −1 x we can state that = ; cot −1 x =
dx csc 2 y dx csc 2 y
To express csc 2 y in terms of x we can use the relation csc 2 y − cot 2 y = 1 ; csc 2 y = 1 + cot 2 y
d −1 1
; csc 2 y = 1 + x 2 . Therefore, we have shown that cot −1 x = =−
2
dx csc y 1+ x2
Note: Similar steps can be taken to show that:

d 1
1. sec −1 x = where the inverse secant function is given by y = sec −1 x ⇔ x = sec y for
dx x x 2 −1
π 3π
0≤ y or π ≤ y and x ≥ 1 or x ≤ −1 and
2 2
d −1
2. csc −1 x = where the inverse cosecant function is given by y = csc −1 x ⇔ x = csc y for
dx x x 2 −1
π 3π
0 y or π y≤ and x ≥ 1 or x ≤ −1 .
2 2
Section 3.2 Practice Problems – Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1. Find the derivative of the following inverse trigonometric functions:

a. y = sin −1 3x b. y = x 3 + arc cos 5 x c. y = x 5 arc tan x 4
(
d. y = arc sin x 3 + 2 ) e. y = arc cot
1
x 3
f. y =
arc sin 3 x
x2
tan −1 x x3
g. y = h. y = − arc sin x i. y = x + cos −1 x
x x+5
a. y = x 2 + arc sin ax b. y = cos −1 6 x c. y = x + arc sin x 3
d. y = arc tan 2 x e. y = x − arc tan x 2 f. y = x 2 − arc sin x
g. y = tan −1 x 3 h. y = tan −1 5 x i. y = arc sin 5 x 2

Calculus I 3.3 Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
3.3 Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

When differentiating logarithmic functions the following two rules should be kept in mind:
1. The derivative of a logarithmic function to the base e , i.e., log e x = ln x is equal to:
dy d
= ( log e x ) = 1 ⋅ log e e = 1 ⋅1 = 1
dx dx x x x
or,
dy d
= ( ln x ) = 1 (1 )
dx dx x
2. The derivative of a logarithmic function to the base other than e , i.e., log a x is equal to:
dy d
= ( log a x ) = 1 log a x (2)
dx dx x
Let’s differentiate some logarithmic functions using the above differentiation formulas.
Example 3.3-1: Find the derivative of the following logarithmic functions:
a. y = ln 5 x b. y = ln x 3 c. y = 5 ln 3x 2
(
d. y = ln x 2 + x + 3 ) e. y = ln x 2 + x + 1 ( ) 4
f. y = x 2 ln (x + 1)
g. y = x ln x − x h. y = x 2 ln x − x 3 i. y = ln ( ln x + 1)
ln x 2 x +1 
j. y = 3
k. y = ln   l. y = ln (sin 3x + cos 5 x )
x  −3
x
Solutions:
dy d 1 d 1 5/ 1
a. Given y = ln 5 x then = ( ln 5 x ) = ⋅ ( 5x) = ⋅5 = =
dx dx 5 x dx 5x 5/ x x
b. Given y = ln x 3 then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
ln x 3 ) =
x
1
3
⋅
d
dx
x3( ) =
1
3
⋅ 3x 2 =
3 x 2/
3/ =1
=
3
x
x x
c. Given y = 5 ln 3x 2 then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
5 ln 3 x 2 ) = 5⋅
1
2
⋅
d
dx
3x 2 ( ) =
5
2
⋅ 6x =
30 x/
2/ =1
=
3/ 0/
3/ x
=
10
x
3x 3x 3x
d. Given y = ln x 2 + x + 3( ) then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ (
ln x 2 + x + 3 )] = 2
1 d
x + x + 3 dx
x2 + x + 3
⋅ ( ) =
2x + 1
2
x + x+3
e. Given y = ln x 2 + x + 1( ) 4
then
dy
=
d
[ (
ln x 2 + x + 1 )] 4
=
1
⋅
d
(
x 2 + x +1 ) 4
dx dx
(x 2
+ x +1 ) 4 dx
=
1
[( )
⋅ 4 x 2 + x + 1 3⋅ (2 x + 1) ] =
(
4 x 2 + x +1 ) 3/
⋅ (2 x + 1)
=
4 (2 x + 1)
=
8x + 4
(x 2
)
+ x +1 4
(x 2
+ x +1 ) 4/ =1 2
x + x +1 x2 + x +1

f. Given y = x 2 ln (x + 1) then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[
x 2 ln (x + 1) ] 
= ln ( x + 1) ⋅

d
dx
( )
 
 
d
dx

x 2  +  x 2 ⋅ [ ln (x + 1) ]

 1 d   1  x2
= [ ln (x + 1) ⋅ 2 x] +  x 2 ⋅ ⋅ (x + 1) = [ ln (x + 1) ⋅ 2 x] +  x 2 ⋅ ⋅1 = 2 x ln ( x + 1) +
 x + 1 dx   x +1  x +1
dy d
g. Given y = x ln x − x then =
d
(x ln x − x ) =
d
(x ln x ) − d (x ) 
= x ⋅ (ln x ) + ln x d (x ) − d (x )
dx dx dx dx  dx dx  dx
 1 d x 
= x ⋅ ⋅ (x ) + ln x ⋅1 − 1 =  / + ln x  − 1 = 1 + ln x − 1 = ln x
 x dx   x/ 
h. Given y = x 2 ln x − x 3 then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 2 ln x − x 3 ) =
d
dx
(
x 2 ln x −
d
dx
)
x3 ( ) 
= ln x ⋅

d
dx
( ) d
dx

x 2 + x 2 ⋅ (ln x )

−
d
dx
( )
x3

= ln x ⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ ⋅

1 d
(x ) − 3x 2
x dx 
  1
= 2 x ln x + x 2 ⋅ ⋅1 − 3x 2 = 2 x ln x +
 x 
 − 3x
x/ 
2
 x 2/ =1 

= 2 x ln x + x − 3x 2 = − 3 x 2 + x ( 2 ln x + 1)
dy 1 d 1 d d  1 1 d 
i. Given y = ln ( ln x + 1) then = ⋅ (ln x + 1) = ⋅  (ln x ) + (1) = ⋅  ⋅ ( x ) + 0
dx ln x + 1 dx ln x + 1  dx dx  ln x + 1  x dx 
1 1  1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ 1 + 0 = ⋅ =
ln x + 1  x  ln x + 1 x x ( ln x + 1)
ln x 2 dy d  ln x 2 

[x 3 d ln x 2
⋅ dx ( ) ] − [ ln x 2 d x3
⋅ dx ( )]  x2 
[
 x 3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2 x  − ln x 2 ⋅ 3 x 2 ]
j. Given y = then = = =
x3 dx dx  x 3 
 x6 x6
2 x 4/ = 2
2/
(
− 3 x 2 ln x 2 ) (
2 x 2 − 3 x 2 ln x 2 ) (
x 2 2 − 3 ln x 2 ) 2 − 3 ln x 2
= x = = =
x6 x6 x 6/ = 4 x4
 x +1  dy d  x +1  1 d  x +1  1
[ (x − 3)⋅ dxd (x + 1) ] − [ (x + 1)⋅ dxd (x − 3) ]
k. Given y = ln   then = ln   = ⋅   = ⋅
 x−3 dx dx  x − 3  x +1
x −3
dx  x − 3  x +1
x −3
( x − 3) 2
1 [ (x − 3)⋅1 ] − [ (x + 1)⋅1 ] 1
1
(x − 3) − (x + 1) 1 ⋅ (x − 3) (x − 3) − (x + 1) x − 3 x/ − 3 − x/ − 1
= ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅
x +1
(x − 3)2 x +1
( x − 3) 2 (x + 1)⋅1 (x − 3)2 x + 1 (x − 3)2
x −3 x −3

(x − 3) ⋅ −4 4
= = −
x +1 (x − 3)2/ =1 ( x + 1) ( x − 3)
dy 1 d 1 d
l. Given y = ln (sin 3x + cos 5 x ) then = ⋅ (sin 3 x + cos 5 x ) = ⋅[ sin 3 x
dx sin 3 x + cos 5 x dx sin 3 x + cos 5 x dx
d 1 3 cos 3 x − 5 sin 5 x
+ (cos 5 x ) ] = ⋅ (3 cos 3 x − 5 sin 5 x ) =
dx sin 3 x + cos 5 x sin 3 x + cos 5 x
Example 3.3-2: Find the derivative of the following logarithmic expressions:

( )
a. y = x 3 + 1 ⋅ ln x 2 b. y = sin ( ln 3x ) − cos ( ln 5 x ) c. y = x 2 ln x − x
( )
d. y = ln x 3 − 1 − ln (sec x ) e. y =
ln x 3
x5
+x f. y = ln (sec 5 x + tan 5 x )
1
g. y = sin ( ln x ) + x h. y = sin ( ln x ) + cos ( ln x ) i. y = x 5 ( ln x + 3)
3
 x2 
j. y = ln x 3 + ln (csc x ) k. y = ln  

l. y = ln (sec x + csc x )
 x + 1 
Solutions:
(
a. Given y = x 3 + 1 ⋅ ln x 2 then ) dy
dx
d
= 
 dx
( )
 d
x 3 + 1 ⋅ ln x 2  + 
  dx
( 
)(
ln x 2 ⋅ x 3 + 1  = 3 x 2 ln x 2

)
 1 d
( )( 
x 2 ⋅ x3 +1  ) 2  1 2 
⋅ 2 x/ ⋅ x 3 + 1  ( ) 2 2
(
2 x3 +1 )
+ ⋅ = 3 x ln x +  = 3 x ln x +
x 2 dx
 x 2/ =1
 x
dy d d d
b. Given y = sin ( ln 3x ) − cos ( ln 5 x ) then = [ sin ( ln 3x ) − cos ( ln 5 x ) ] = sin ( ln 3 x ) − cos ( ln 5 x )
dx dx dx dx
1 d
= cos ( ln 3x ) ⋅
d d
ln 3 x + sin ( ln 5 x ) ⋅ ln 5 x = cos ( ln 3x ) ⋅ ⋅ (3x ) + sin ( ln 5 x )⋅ 1 ⋅ d (5 x )
dx dx 3 x dx 5 x dx
1 1 3/ cos ( ln 3 x ) 5/ sin ( ln 5 x ) cos ( ln 3 x ) sin ( ln 5 x )

= cos ( ln 3x ) ⋅ ⋅ 3 + sin ( ln 5 x ) ⋅ ⋅ 5 = + = +
3x 5x 3/ x 5/ x x x
c. Given y = x 2 ln x − x then
dy
dx

= 
 dx
d
( )
x 2 ⋅ ln x +
dx
d
 dx 
d
( ln x )⋅ x 2  − (x ) = 2 x ⋅ ln x + ⋅ (x )⋅ x 2  − 1
x dx 
1 d
 1  x 2/ =1 
= 2 x ⋅ ln x + ⋅1 ⋅ x 2  − 1 = 2 x ln x +  −1 = 2 x ln x + x − 1
 x   x/ 

(
d. Given y = ln x 3 − 1 − ln (sec x ) then ) dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ ( )
ln x 3 − 1 − ln (sec x ) ] =
d
dx
( d
)
ln x 3 − 1 − ln (sec x )
dx
= 3
1 d
x 3 −1 −
⋅ ( 1 d
sec x dx
)
⋅ (sec x ) =
1
x 3 −1
⋅ 3x 2 −
1
sec x
⋅ sec x tan x =
3 x2
x3 − 1
− tan x
x − 1 dx
e. Given y =
ln x 3
+x then
dy
=
d  ln x 3 
+ x =
d  ln x 3 
+ d x =
(x 5
⋅ dx )(
d ln x 3 − ln x 3 ⋅ d x 5
dx
) +1
x5 dx dx  x 5 
 dx  x 5  dx
 x10
 x 5 ⋅ 1 ⋅ d x 3  − ln x 3 ⋅ 5 x 4

 x 3 dx


( )  x3 
(
 x 5 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 3 x 2  − 5 x 4 ln x 3
  ) 
 x 3/ 
 (
 3 x 7/ = 4  − 5 x 4 ln x 3 )
= +1 = +1 = +1
x10 x10 x10
( 3 x )− ( 5 x
4 4
ln x 3 ) (
x 4/ 3 − 5 ln x 3 ) 3 − 5 ln x 3
= +1 = +1 = +1
x10 x 1/ 0/ = 6 x6
dy d 1 d
f. Given y = ln (sec 5 x + tan 5 x ) then = [ ln (sec 5 x + tan 5 x ) ] = ⋅ [ (sec 5 x + tan 5 x ) ]
dx dx sec 5 x + tan 5 x dx
1 d d  1  d d 
= ⋅  sec 5 x + tan 5 x  = ⋅  sec 5 x tan 5 x ⋅ 5 x + sec 2 5 x ⋅ 5 x 
sec 5 x + tan 5 x  dx dx  sec 5 x + tan 5 x  dx dx 
sec 5 x tan 5 x ⋅ 5 + sec 2 5 x ⋅ 5 5 sec 5 x (tan 5 x + sec 5 x )

= = = 5 sec 5 x
sec 5 x + tan 5 x (sec 5 x + tan 5 x )
dy d d d d
g. Given y = sin (ln x ) + x then = [ sin (ln x ) + x] = sin (ln x ) + x = cos (ln x ) ⋅ (ln x ) + 1
dx dx dx dx dx
1 d 1 cos ( ln x )
= cos (ln x ) ⋅ ⋅ x +1 = cos (ln x ) ⋅ ⋅1 + 1 = +1
x dx x x
dy d d d
h. Given y = sin (ln x ) + cos (ln x ) then = [ sin (ln x ) + cos (ln x )] = sin (ln x ) + cos (ln x )
dx dx dx dx
d d d 1 d 1 d
= sin (ln x ) + cos (ln x ) = cos (ln x ) ⋅ (ln x ) − sin (ln x )⋅ d (ln x ) = cos (ln x ) ⋅ ⋅ x − sin (ln x ) ⋅ ⋅ x
dx dx dx dx x dx x dx
1 1 cos (ln x ) sin (ln x ) 1

= cos (ln x ) ⋅ ⋅1 − sin (ln x ) ⋅ ⋅1 = − = [ cos ( ln x ) − sin ( ln x ) ]
x x x x x
1 dy 1d 5 d 1 4 d d  5
i. Given y = x 5 (ln x + 3) then = x ⋅ (ln x + 3) + (ln x + 3)⋅ x 5  = 5 x (ln x + 3) +  ln x + 3  x 
3 dx 3  dx dx  3  dx dx  

1 4 1 d  5 1 4 1  5 1 4 x 5/ = 4 
= 5 x ( ln x + 3) +  ⋅ (x ) + 0  ⋅ x  = 5 x ( ln x + 3) +  ⋅1 ⋅ x  = 5 x ( ln x + 3) + 
3  x dx   3 x   3  x/ 
=
1
3
[
5 x 4 ( ln x + 3) + x 4 ] =
5 4
3
x ( ln x + 3) +
x4
3
=
5 x 4 ln x 15 x 4 x 4
3
+
3
+
3
=
5 x 4 ln x 16 x 4
3
+
3
or,
1 1 dy 1d 5 d
Given y = x 5 ( ln x + 3) = x 5 ln x + x 5 then =  x ⋅ ( ln x ) + (ln x )⋅ x 5  + d x 5
3 3 dx 3  dx dx  dx
1 4 1 d  1 4 1  1 4 x 5/ = 4 
= 5 x ⋅ (ln x ) + ⋅ (x ) ⋅ x 5  + 5 x 4 = 5 x ⋅ ( ln x ) + ⋅1 ⋅ x 5  + 5 x 4 = 5 x ln x +  + 5x
4
3 x dx  3 x  3  x/ 
=
1
[
5 x 4 ln x + x 4 + 5 x 4 ] =
5 x 4 ln x x 4
+ + 5x 4 =
5 x 4 ln x x 4 5 x 4
+ + =
5 x 4 ln x
+
( )(
x 4 ⋅1 + 5 x 4 ⋅ 3 )
3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 ⋅1
5 x 4 ln x x 4 + 15 x 4 5 x 4 ln x 16 x 4
= + = +
3 3 3 3
j. Given y = ln x 3 + ln (csc x ) then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
[
ln x 3 + ln (csc x ) ] =
d
dx
ln x 3 +
d
dx
ln (csc x )
=
1
3
⋅
dx
( )
d 3
x +
1 d
⋅ (csc x )
csc x dx
=
1
3
⋅ 3x 2 +
1
csc x
⋅ − csc x cot x =
3 x 2/
3/ = 2
−
csc x cot x
csc x
=
3
x
− cot x
x x x
 x2  dy 1 d  x 2 
1
1
[ (x + 1)⋅ (x ) ]− [x
d
dx
2 2 d ( x + 1)
⋅ dx ]
k. Given y = ln   then = ⋅  = ⋅
 
 x +1 dx x2 dx  x + 1  x2 (x + 1)2
x +1 x +1
1 ⋅ (x + 1) [ (x + 1)⋅ 2 x ] − [ x 2 ⋅1 ] (x + 1) ⋅ 2 x 2 + 2 x − x 2 (x/ + 1/ ) ⋅ x 2 + 2 x x/ (x + 2 ) x+2

= ⋅ = = = =
x 2 ⋅1 (x + 1)2 x2 (x + 1)2 x 2 (x + 1)2/ =1 x 2/ =1 (x + 1) x ( x + 1)
dy d 1 d
l. Given y = ln (sec x + csc x ) then = [ ln (sec x + csc x ) ] = ⋅ (sec x + csc x )
dx dx sec x + csc x dx
1 sec x tan x − csc x cot x

= ⋅ (sec x tan x − csc x cot x ) =
sec x + csc x sec x + csc x

Example 3.3-3: Find the derivative of the following logarithmic functions:

ln (sec 5 x ) x +1
a. y = 2
b. y = ln csc x 2 c. y = ln
x sin x
d. y = tan ln x 2 ( ) e. y = cot ln 3x 5 ( ) f. y = tan (ln x ) − cot (ln x )
g. y = sin 5 x + ln (sin 5 x ) h. y = ln x 2 + 1 i. y = x ⋅ ln x 2 + 3 ( )
j. y = ln 3 x − 1 ( )
k. y = ln 1 + x 2 + 2 arc tan x l. y = ln (arc tan 3x ) + 3x 2
Solutions:
dy d ln sec 5 x
[x 2
⋅ dx ][
d ln sec 5 x − ln sec 5 x ⋅ d x 2
dx
]  x 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ d (sec 5 x )  − [ ln (sec 5 x ) ⋅ 2 x ]
 sec 5 x dx 
a. = = =
dx dx x2 x4 x4
 x2 d 5 x  − 2 x ln sec 5 x
=
 sec 5 x
⋅ sec 5 x ⋅ tan 5 x ⋅ dx

=
(x 2
)
⋅ tan 5 x ⋅ 5 − 2 x ln sec 5 x
=
( 5x 2
)
tan 5 x − 2 x ln sec 5 x
4 4
x x x4
x/ ( 5 x tan 5 x − 2 ln sec 5 x ) 5 x tan 5 x − 2 ln (sec 5 x )

= =
x 4/ = 3 x3
b.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
ln csc x 2 ) =
csc x
1
2
⋅
d
dx
csc x 2 =
csc x
1
⋅ − csc x 2 ⋅ cot x 2 ⋅
2
d 2
dx
x =
1
csc x 2
⋅ − csc x 2 ⋅ cot x 2 ⋅ 2 x
1
= ⋅ − c/ s/ c/ x 2/ ⋅ cot x 2 ⋅ 2 x = − 2 x cot x 2
c/ s/ c/ x 2/
dy d  x +1  1d  x +1 
1
1
[⋅ sin x ⋅ dxd (x + 1) ]− [ (x + 1)⋅ dxd sin x] 1 ⋅ sin x
c. =  ln  = ⋅  
x +1 dx  sin x 
= =
dx dx  sin x    x +1
(sin x ) 2 (x + 1)⋅1
sin x sin x
[ sin x ⋅1 ] − [ (x + 1)⋅ cos x] s/ i/n/ x/ sin x − (x + 1) cos x 1 sin x − (x + 1) cos x sin x − ( x + 1) cos x
× = ⋅ = ⋅ =
(sin x )2 x +1 (sin x )2/ =1 x +1 sin x ( x + 1) sin x
d.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ (
tan ln x 2 ) ] = sec ( ln x )⋅ dxd ln x
2 2 2
= sec 2 ln x 2 ⋅ ( ) x1 ⋅ dxd x2
2
(
= sec 2 ln x 2 ⋅ ) x1 ⋅ 2 x
2
2
( 2
)x 2 x/ (
2 sec 2 ln x 2 )
= sec ln x ⋅ 2/ =1
=
x
e.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ (
cot ln 3 x 5 )] (
= − csc 2 ln 3x 5 ⋅ ) dxd ( ln 3x ) 5
= − csc 2 ln 3x 5 ⋅ ( ) 3x1 5
⋅
d
dx
( )
3x 5

2
( 5
) 3x 1 4
5
1/ 5/ x 4/ csc 2 ln 3x 5 ( ) (
5 csc 2 ln 3 x 5 )
= − csc ln 3x ⋅ ⋅15 x = − = −
5
3/ x 5/ = 1 x
dy d d d d
f. = [ tan (ln x ) − cot (ln x ) ] = tan (ln x ) − cot (ln x ) = sec 2 (ln x ) ⋅ (ln x ) + csc 2 (ln x ) d (ln x )
dx dx dx dx dx dx
= sec 2 (ln x ) ⋅ ⋅
1 d
x dx
1 d
x + csc 2 (ln x ) ⋅ ⋅
x dx
x
1
= sec 2 (ln x ) ⋅ ⋅1 + csc 2 (ln x ) ⋅ ⋅1 =
x
1
x
1
x
[
sec 2 ( ln x ) + csc 2 ( ln x ) ]
dy d d d d 1 d
g. = [ sin 5 x + ln (sin 5 x ) ] = sin 5 x + ln (sin 5 x ) = cos 5 x 5x + ⋅ (sin 5 x )
dx dx dx dx dx sin 5 x dx
1 d 1 5 cos 5 x  1 
= cos 5 x ⋅ 5 + ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5 x = 5 cos 5 x + ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5 = 5 cos 5 x + = 5 cos 5 x 1 + 
sin 5 x dx sin 5 x sin 5 x  sin 5 x 
( ) ( )
1 1 −1
dy d   1 d 1 d 1 1 2 d
h. = 2
 ln x +1  = ⋅ x 2 +1 = x 2 +1 2 =
⋅ x + 1 2 ⋅ (2 x + 1)
⋅
dx dx   x 2 + 1 dx x 2 + 1 dx x 2 −1 2 dx
( ) −1
( )
1 −1
1 1 2 1 2/ x 2 x 1 x 1
= x + 1 2 1 ⋅ 2x
⋅ = x +1 2 =
⋅ ⋅ = ⋅
x 2 + 1 2/ ( x + 1) ( x + 1) ( x + 1)
1 1 1
x2 + 1 2 x 2 +1 2 2 2 2 2 2
x x
= =
( x + 1)
1+ 1 2
2 2 2 x +1
i.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ (
x ⋅ ln x 2 + 3 )] =
d  12 2 
 x ⋅ ln x + 3 
dx 
( ) 
(
dx dx
) d
= ln x 2 + 3 ⋅ x 2  +  x 2 ⋅ ln x 2 + 3 
1   1
d
( )
    
( )1 ( ) ( )1
 1 −1   1   −1   1 
1d 1
= ln x 2 + 3 ⋅ x 2  +  x 2 ⋅ 2
x2 + 3 ⋅ = ln x 2 + 3 ⋅ x 2
 + x 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2x 
 2   x + 3 dx   2   x +3 
(
ln x 2 + 3 ) + 2x ⋅ x 1
2 (
ln x 2 + 3 ) 2x x
= 1 2
== +
2
x +3 2 x x +3
2x 2
j.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
ln 3 x − 1 ) = 3
x −1
1d 3
dx
x −1⋅ = 3
1
x −1
d
dx
⋅
1
(x − 1) 3 = 3
1
x −1
1
3
1
(x − 1) 3 −1
⋅ = 3
x −1
11
3
⋅
2
(x − 1)− 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= ⋅ = ⋅ = = = =
3 ( x − 1)
3 2 1 2 1+ 2 1+ 2 3/
x − 1 3(x − 1) 3 (x − 1) 3 3(x − 1) 3 3 (x − 1) 3 3 3 (x − 1) 3 3 (x − 1) 3/

k.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ ( )
ln 1 + x 2 + 2 arc tan x ]= d
dx
(
ln 1 + x 2 +
d
dx
)
(2 arc tan x ) =
1
1+ x 2
⋅
d
dx
( )
1+ x 2 + 2 ⋅
1
2
⋅
1 + x dx
d
x
1 1 2x 2 2x + 2 2 (1 + x )
= ⋅ 2x + 2 ⋅ ⋅1 = + = =
1+ x 2 1+ x 2 1+ x 2 1+ x 2 1+ x 2 1+ x2
l.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[
ln (arc tan 3 x ) + 3 x 2 ] =
d
dx
ln (arc tan 3 x ) +
d
dx
3x 2 ( ) =
1 d
⋅ (arc tan 3 x ) + 6 x
arc tan 3 x dx
1 1 d 1 1 3
= ⋅ ⋅ 3x + 6 x = ⋅ ⋅ 3 + 6x = + 6x
arc tan 3 x 1 + (3 x ) dx
2 arc tan 3 x 1 + 9 x 2 ( 1 + 9 x ) arc tan 3 x
2
When differentiating exponential functions the following two rules should be kept in mind:
dy du
Given y = e u , then = eu ⋅
dx dx
dy du
Given y = a u , then = a u ⋅ ln a ⋅
dx dx
Let’s differentiate some exponential functions using the above differentiation formulas.
Example 3.3-4: Find the derivative of the following exponential functions:
a. y = e10 x b. y = x e 2 x c. y = x 2 e 5 x
2
d. y = (x + 8) e 3 x e. y = e sin 5 x f. y = e 5 x sin 2 x
g. y = e 2 x cos 3x h. y = e ln x tan x i. y = e x + arc sin x

x
j. y = e 5 x arc cos x k. y = e e l. y = e cos 5 x e −3 x
Solutions:
a. Given y = e10 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
e10 x ) = e10 x ⋅
d
dx
( 10 x ) = e10 x ⋅10 = 10 e 10 x
b. Given y = x e 2 x then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
x e 2x( ) = e 2x ⋅
d
dx dx
( )
(x ) + x ⋅ d e 2 x = e 2 x ⋅1 + x ⋅ e 2 x ⋅
d
dx
2x
= e 2x + x ⋅ e 2x ⋅ 2 = e 2x + 2x e 2x = e 2 x ( 1 + 2 x)
c. Given y = x 2 e 5 x then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 2 e 5x ) = e 5x ⋅
d
dx
( )
x2 + x2 ⋅
d
dx
e 5x ( ) = e 5x ⋅ 2x + x 2 ⋅ e 5x ⋅
d
dx
5x
= e 5 x ⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ e 5 x ⋅ 5 = 2 x e 5 x + 5 x 2 e 5 x = x e 5 x (2 + 5 x )

dy d 
(x + 8) e 3x  = e 3x ⋅ d (x + 8) + (x + 8)⋅ d  e 3x 
2 2 2 2
d. Given y = (x + 8) e 3 x then =  
dx dx    dx   dx  

2
 
 2 d
dx


2 2 2 2
= e 3 x ⋅1 + (x + 8) ⋅ e 3 x ⋅ 3x 2  = e 3 x + (x + 8) ⋅ e 3 x ⋅ 6 x = e 3 x [ 1 + 6 x (x + 8)] = e 3 x 6 x 2 + 48 x + 1 ( )
e. Given y = e sin 5 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
e sin 5 x ) = e sin 5 x ⋅
d
dx
(sin 5 x ) = e sin 5 x ⋅ 5 cos 5 x = 5 cos 5 x e sin 5 x
f. Given y = e 5 x sin 2 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
e 5 x sin 2 x ) 
= sin 2 x ⋅

d
dx
( ) + e
e 5x 5x
⋅
d
dx
(sin 2 x )


= sin 2 x ⋅ e 5 x ⋅

d   d 
5 x + e 5 x ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ 2 x 
dx   dx 
[ ][ ]
= sin 2 x ⋅ e 5 x ⋅ 5 + e 5 x ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ 2 = e 5 x ( 5 sin 2 x + 2 cos 2 x )
g. Given y = e 2 x cos 3x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
e 2 x cos 3 x ) 
= cos 3x ⋅

d
dx
( )
 
 
d
dx

e 2 x  + e 2 x ⋅ (cos 3 x )


= cos 3x ⋅ e 2 x ⋅

d   d 
2 x + e 2 x ⋅ − sin 3 x ⋅ 3 x 
dx   dx 
[ ][
= cos 3x ⋅ e 2 x ⋅ 2 + e 2 x ⋅ − sin 3x ⋅ 3 = e 2 x (2 cos 3 x − 3 sin 3 x ) ]
h. Given y = e ln x tan x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
e ln x tan x ) 
=  tan x ⋅

d
dx
e ln x( ) + e ln x
⋅
d
dx
( tan x )


=  tan x ⋅ e ln x ⋅

d
dx 
[
(ln x ) + e ln x ⋅ sec 2 x ] = tan x ⋅ e ln x 1
[
⋅  + e ln x ⋅ sec 2 x
x
]=e ln x  tan

 x
x 
+ sec 2 x 

dy d  x d d d 2x d
i. Given y = e x + arc sin x then =  e + arc sin x  = ex + arc sin x = e + arc sin x
dx dx   dx dx dx dx
x
x x e2 1
d x 1 d 1 1
= e2 ⋅ + ⋅ x = e2 ⋅ + ⋅1 = +
dx 2 2 2
1 − x 2 dx 1− x 2 1− x2
j. Given y = e 5 x arc cos x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
e 5 x arc cos x ) 
= arc cos x ⋅

d
dx
( ) + e
e 5x 5x
⋅
d
dx
( arc cos x )

   

=  arc cos x ⋅ e 5 x ⋅

d  
5x  +  e 5x ⋅ −
dx  
1
⋅
d
dx

x

(
= arc cos x ⋅ e 5 x ⋅ 5 +  e 5 x ⋅ − ) 

1 
⋅1
 1− x 2   1 − x 2 

 
1 e 5x  1 
= arc cos x ⋅ 5e 5 x − e 5 x ⋅ = 5e 5 x arc cos x − = e 5 x  5arc cos x − 
1− x 2 1− x 2  1 − x 2 

x dy d ex x d x x d x x x
k. Given y = e e then = e = ee ⋅ e = ee ⋅ e x ⋅ x = e e ⋅ e x ⋅1 = e e e x = e e +x
dx dx dx dx
l. Given y = e cos 5 x e −3 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
e cos 5 x e −3 x ) = e −3 x
⋅
d
dx
(
e cos 5 x ) + e cos 5 x
⋅
d
dx
( 
e −3 x 

)

= e −3 x ⋅ e cos 5 x ⋅

d
dx
( cos 5 x ) + e cos 5 x ⋅ e −3x ⋅ d (− 3x )
  dx 

= e −3 x ⋅ e cos 5 x ⋅ − sin 5 x ⋅

d 
[
5 x + e cos 5 x ⋅ e −3 x ⋅ −3
dx 
]
[ ][ ]
= e −3 x ⋅ e cos 5 x ⋅ − sin 5 x ⋅ 5 + e cos 5 x ⋅ e −3 x ⋅ −3 = − 5 sin 5 x e −3 x e cos 5 x − 3e cos 5 x e −3 x
= − e cos 5 x e −3 x (5 sin 5 x + 3) = − ecos 5 x − 3 x ( 5 sin 5 x + 3)
Example 3.3-5: Differentiate the following exponential functions

2 e 3x
a. y = e ln x − e − x b. y = c. y = x 3 e −5 x
cot 5 x
2 2
d. y = e 3 x ⋅ arc cos x 2 e. y = ln e x + arc tan x + x 3 f. y = e x − arc sin x
2
g. y = e ln x + x 3 h. y = arc sin e x i. y = x arc sin e 3 x
Solutions:
2 dy d  ln x 2  d ln x 2 d − x 2 d d
a. Given y = e ln x + e − x then = e − e −x  = e − e = e ln x ⋅ ln x 2 − e − x ⋅ (− x )
2
ln x 2 1 d 2 ln x 2 1 2e ln x
= e ⋅ ⋅ x − e −x ⋅ −1 = e ⋅ ⋅ 2 x/ + e −x
= + e−x
x 2 dx
x 2/ =1 x
e 3x dy d  e 3 x 
[ cot 5x ⋅ ( e ) ]− [ e
d
dx
3x 3x d ( cot 5 x )
⋅ dx ]
cot 5 x dx dx  cot 5 x  cot 2 5 x
[ cot 5x ⋅ e 3x
][
d 3 x − e 3 x ⋅ − csc 2 5 x ⋅ d 5 x
⋅ dx dx
] cot 5 x ⋅ e 3 x ⋅ 3 + e 3 x ⋅ csc 2 5 x ⋅ 5 (
e 3 x 3 cot 5 x + 5 csc 2 5 x )
= = =
cot 2 5 x cot 2 5 x cot 2 5 x
c. Given y = x 3 e −5 x then
dy
dx
=
dx
(
d 3 −5 x
x e
 d
)   d   d 
=  x 3 ⋅ e −5 x  +  e −5 x ⋅ x 3  =  x 3 ⋅ e −5 x ⋅ (− 5 x )
 dx   dx   dx 

[
+ e −5 x ⋅ 3x 2 ] = (x 3
)(
⋅ e −5 x ⋅ −5 + e −5 x ⋅ 3 x 2 ) = − 5 x 3 e −5 x + 3x 2 e −5 x = x 2e −5 x (− 5 x + 3)
d. Given y = e 3 x arc cos x 2 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
e 3 x arc cos x 2 ) = arc cos x 2 ⋅
d 3x
dx
d
e + e 3 x ⋅ arc cos x 2
dx
d 1 d 2 1
= arc cos x 2 ⋅ e 3 x ⋅ 3x + e 3 x ⋅ − ⋅ x = arc cos x 2 ⋅ e 3 x ⋅ 3 + e 3 x ⋅ − ⋅ 2x
dx 1− x 4 dx 1− x 4
2 xe 3 x  2x 
= 3e 3 x arc cos x 2 − = e 3 x  3 arc cos x 2 − 
4 
1− x 4  1− x 
2 dy d  x2 3 d 2 d d 3
e. Given y = ln e x + arc tan x + x 3 then =  ln e + arc tan x + x  = ln e x + arc tan x + x
dx dx   dx dx dx
2
1 d x2 1 1 2 d 2 1 ex 1 1
= ⋅ e + + 3x 2 = ⋅ex ⋅ x + + 3x 2 = ⋅ 2x + + 3x 2 = 3x 2 + 2x +
e x2 dx 1+ x 2
e x2 dx 1+ x 2
e x2 1+ x 2
1+ x2
2 dy d  x2  d x2 d 2 d 1
f. Given y = e x − arc sin x then =  e − arc sin x  = e − arc sin x = e x ⋅ x2 −
dx dx   dx dx dx 1− x 2
2 1 2 1
= e x ⋅ 2x − = 2x e x −
1− x 2
1− x2
2 dy d  ln x 2  d ln x 2 d 3 2 d
g. Given y = e ln x + x 3 then = e + x3  = e + x = e ln x ⋅ ln x 2 + 3 x 2
2
ln x 2 1 d 2 ln x 2 1 ln x 2 2 2e ln x
= e ⋅ ⋅ x + 3x 2 = e ⋅ ⋅ 2 x/ + 3 x 2
= e ⋅ + 3x 2 = + 3x 2
x 2 dx
x 2/ =1 x x
h. Given y = arc sin e x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
arc sin e x ) =
1
⋅
d x
dx
e =
1
⋅ex ⋅
d
dx
x =
ex
1− e 2x 1− e 2x 1 − e 2x
i. Given y = x arc sin e 3 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x arc sin e 3 x ) = arc sin e 3x
⋅
d
dx
d
x + x ⋅ arc sin e 3 x
dx
1 d 3x 1 d 3 xe 3 x
= arc sin e 3 x ⋅1 + x ⋅ ⋅ e = arc sin e 3 x + x ⋅ ⋅ e 3x ⋅ 3x = arc sin e 3 x +
1 − e 6x dx 1 − e 6x dx 1 − e 6x

• In order to find the derivative of the functions of the form y = x g (x ) first multiply both sides of
the equation by natural logarithm ( log e = ln ) and then apply the logarithmic rules prior to taking
the derivative. The following examples show how to differentiate this class of functions:
Example 3.3-6: Find the derivative of the following functions:

a. y = x x , x 0 b. y = x sin x , x 0 c. y = (sin x ) x , x 0
1 x
d. y = x x , x 0 e. y = x ln x , x 0 f. y = x e
Solutions:
d d
a. The function y = x x is equivalent to ln y = ln x x ; ln y = x ln x thus ln y = x ln x
dx dx
1 dy d d 1 1 1
; ⋅ = ln x ⋅ x + x ⋅ ln x ; ⋅ y ′ = ln x ⋅1 + x ⋅ ; ⋅ y ′ = ln x + 1 ; y ′ = y ( ln x + 1) ; y ′ = x x ( ln x + 1)
y dx dx dx y x y
b. The function y = x sin x is equivalent to ln y = ln x sin x ; ln y = sin x ln x thus:
d d 1 dy d d 1 1
ln y = sin x ln x ; ⋅ = ln x ⋅ sin x + sin x ⋅ ln x ; ⋅ y ′ = ln x ⋅ cos x + sin x ⋅
dx dx y dx dx dx y x
1 sin x  sin x   sin x 

; ⋅ y ′ = ln x cos x + ; y ′ = y  ln x cos x +  ; y′ = x sin x  ln x cos x + 
y x  x   x 
c. The function y = (sin x ) x is equivalent to ln y = ln ( sin x ) x ; ln y = x ln ( sin x ) thus:
d d 1 dy d d 1 1
ln y = x ln ( sin x ) ; ⋅ = ln ( sin x ) ⋅ x + x ⋅ ln (sin x ) ; ⋅ y ′ = ln ( sin x ) ⋅1 + x ⋅ ⋅ cos x
dx dx y dx dx dx y sin x
1 x cos x
; ⋅ y ′ = ln ( sin x ) + ; y ′ = y [ ln ( sin x ) + x cot x ] ; y′ = (sin x )x [ ln ( sin x ) + x cot x ]
y sin x
1 1
1
d. The function y = x x is equivalent to ln y = ln x x ; ln y = ln x thus:
x
d d 1  1 dy d 1 1 d 1 1 1 1 1 ln x 1
ln y =  ⋅ ln x  ; ⋅ = ln x ⋅ + ⋅ ln x ; ⋅ y ′ = ln x ⋅ − + ⋅ ; ⋅ y′ = − +
dx dx  x  y dx dx x x dx y x2 x x y x2 x2
1
 1 − ln 1  1 − ln xx
x x
; y ′ = y   ; y′ = xx   = y′ = ( 1 − ln x )
 x2   x2  x2

e. The function y = x ln x is equivalent to ln y = ln x ln x ; ln y = ln x ⋅ ln x = ln y = ln 2 x thus:
d d 2 1 dy d 1 1 d 1 1 1 1
ln y = ln x ; ⋅ = 2 ln x ⋅ ln x ; ⋅ y ′ = 2 ln x ⋅ ⋅ x = ⋅ y ′ = 2 ln x ⋅ ⋅1 = ⋅ y ′ = 2 ln x ⋅
dx dx y dx dx y x dx y x y x
1 2 ln x  2 ln x   ln x 
; ⋅ y′ = ; y′ = y   ; y ′ = 2 x ln x  
y x  x   x 
x x
f. The function y = x e is equivalent to ln y = ln x e ; ln y = e x ln x thus:
d d x 1 dy d x d 1 d 1 d
ln y = e ln x ; ⋅ = ln x ⋅ e + e x ⋅ ln x ; ⋅ y ′ = ln x ⋅ e x ⋅ x +ex ⋅ ⋅ x
dx dx y dx dx dx y dx x dx
1 1 1 ex  1 x  1
; ⋅ y ′ = ln x ⋅ e x ⋅1 + e x ⋅ ⋅1 ; ⋅ y ′ = e x ln x + ; y ′ = y e x  ln x +  ; y ′ = x e e x  ln x + 
y x y x  x  x

a. y = x 3e b. y = (sin x ) π c. y = x 5
d. y = x 2π e. y = x ln a f. y = x sin θ + x 3
Solutions:
dy
a. Given y = x 3e then = 3e x 3e −1
dx
Note that we could have solved this problem, and other problems in this example, by first
multiplying both sides of the equation by natural logarithm ( log e = ln ) and taking the
derivative as shown below. However, this is a more difficult way of solving this class of
functions and is not recommended.
d d 1 dy 1 d 3e 1 1
y = x 3e ; ln y = ln x 3e then ln y = ln x 3e ; ⋅ = ⋅ x ; ⋅ y′ = ⋅ 3e x 3e −1
dx dx y dx x 3e dx y x 3e
(
; y ′ = y 3e x 3e−1 ⋅ x −3e ) (
; y ′ = y 3e x 3e−1−3e ) (
; y ′ = y 3e x −1 ) (
; y ′ = x 3e 3e x −1 ) ; y ′ = 3e x 3e −1
dy d
b. Given y = (sin x )π then = π (sin x )π −1 ⋅ sin x = π (sin x ) π − 1 cos x
dx dx
5
dy 5 52 −1 5 32 5 5
c. Given y = x 5
= x 2 then = x = x = x3 = x x
dx 2 2 2 2

dy d 2π
d. Given y = x 2π then = x = 2π x 2π − 1
dx dx
dy d ln a
e. Given y = x ln a then = x = ln a x ln a − 1
dx dx
f. Given y = x sin θ + x 3 then

dy
dx
=
dx
x(
d sin θ
+ x3 ) =
d sin θ d 3
dx
x +
dx
x = sin θ x sin θ − 1 + 3 x 2
dy
Note: The problems in this example can be written in the standard form of y = x a where is
dx
equal to y ′ = a x a −1 . Therefore, students should not get confused if the constant a is replaced
1
1
with numbers such as 3, , e, e2 , α , π , η , sin θ , etc. The process of finding the derivative
3
remains the same.
• The derivative of the functions of the form a u = e u ln a is equal to the following:
d u d u ln a d d u du du
a = e = e u ln a ⋅ u ln a = e u ln a ⋅ ln a ⋅ u = e ln a ⋅ ln a ⋅ = a u ln a Thus,
dx dx dx dx dx dx
d u du
a = a u ln a
dx dx
The following examples show how to differentiate this class of functions:

a. y = 2 x b. y = 5 sin x c. y = π x
1 x3
d. y = 10 x e. y = 10 ln x f. y = 5 e
Solutions:
dy d x d
a. Given y = 2 x then = 2 = 2 x ⋅ ln 2 ⋅ x = 2 x ⋅ ln 2 ⋅1 = ( ln 2) 2 x
dx dx dx
dy d sin x d
b. Given y = 5 sin x then = 5 = 5 sin x ⋅ ln 5 ⋅ sin x = 5 sin x ⋅ ln 5 ⋅ cos x = ( ln 5) 5 sin x cos x
dx dx dx
dy d x d
c. Given y = π x
then = π = π x ⋅ ln π ⋅ x = π x ⋅ ln π ⋅1 = ( ln π ) π x
dx dx dx
1
1
dy d 1 1
d 1 1
1 ( ln 10 ) 10 x
d. Given y = 10 x then = 10 x = 10 x ⋅ ln 10 ⋅ = 10 x ⋅ ln 10 ⋅ − = −
dx dx dx x x2 x2

dy d d 1 ( ln 10 ) 10 ln x
e. Given y = 10 ln x then = 10 ln x = 10 ln x ⋅ ln 10 ⋅ ln x = 10 ln x ⋅ ln 10 ⋅ =
dx dx dx x x
x3 dy d e x3 x3 d x3 x3 3 d 3 x3 3
f. Given y = 5 e then = 5 = 5 e ⋅ ln 5 ⋅ e = 5 e ⋅ ln 5 ⋅ e x ⋅ x = 5 e ⋅ ln 5 ⋅ e x ⋅ 3x 2
dx dx dx dx
x3 3
= ( ln 5 ) 3 x 2 5 e e x
Section 3.3 Practice Problems – Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
1. Find the derivative of the following logarithmic functions:

a. y = ln 10 x b. y = 10 ln 5 x 3 c. y = ln x 2 + 3 ( )
d. y = x 3 ln x e. y = x ln x − 5 x 2 (
f. y = x 3 + 2 ln x 2 )
( )
g. y = sin ln x 2 h. y = ln csc x i. y = ln x 3
y = cos ( ln x )
2 x +1
j. k. y = ln l. y = x 3 ln x + 5 x
x −1
2. Find the derivative of the following exponential and trigonometric functions:

a. y = x3e2 x (
b. y = x 2 + 3 e3 x ) c. y = esin 3 x
2
d. y = eln x e. y = e9 x sin 5 x f. y = e2 x arc sin x
ex
g. y = (x − 5) e− x h. y = e ln (x +1) i. y =
tan x
j. y = 3x ⋅ e x k. y = x3arc sin x l. y = e5 x cos (5 x + 1)

Calculus I 3.4 Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions
3.4 Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions

Hyperbolic functions are defined as:
Table 3.4-1: Hyperbolic Functions
e x − e −x cosh x e x + e−x
sinh x = coth x = = where x ≠ 0
2 sinh x e x − e −x
e x + e −x =
1
=
2
cosh x = sec h x
2 cosh x e x + e −x
sinh x e x − e −x =
1
=
2
where x ≠ 0
tanh x = = csc h x
cosh x x
e +e −x sinh x e x − e −x
The differential formulas involving hyperbolic functions are defined as:

Table 3.4-2: Differentiation Formulas for Hyperbolic Functions
d du d du
sinh u = cosh u ⋅ coth u = − csc h 2 u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
cosh u = sinh u ⋅ sec h u = − sec h u tanh u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
tanh u = sec h 2 u ⋅ csc h u = − csc h u coth u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
Let’s differentiate some hyperbolic functions using the above formulas:

Example 3.4-1: Find the derivative of the following hyperbolic functions:
a. y = 5 sinh 6 x b. y = sinh x 3 + cosh 3x c. y = cosh 2 5 x 3
d. y = x 3 sinh x e. y = sinh x 2 + cosh x 2 (

f. y = tanh 3x 2 − 1 )
1
g. y = sinh 3x + 10 x h. y = ln cosh 3x i. y = ln tanh 3x 3
6
Solutions:
dy d d
a. Given y = 5 sinh 6 x then = (5 sinh 6 x ) = 5 cosh 6 x ⋅ ( 6x) = 5 cosh 6 x ⋅ 6 = 30 cosh 6 x
dx dx dx
b. Given y = sinh x 3 + cosh 3x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sinh x 3 + cosh 3 x ) =
d
dx
(
sinh x 3 +
d
dx
)(cosh 3x )
d 3 d
= cosh x 3 ⋅ x + sinh 3 x ⋅ 3 x = cosh x 3 ⋅ 3x 2 + sinh 3x ⋅ 3 = 3 x 2 cosh x 3 + 3 sinh 3 x
dx dx
c. Given y = cosh 2 5 x 3 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cosh 2 5 x 3 ) = dxd ( cosh 5x ) 3 2
= 2 cosh 5 x 3 ⋅
d
dx
cosh 5 x 3
d
= 2 cosh 5 x 3 ⋅ sinh 5 x 3 ⋅ 5x 3 = 2 cosh 5 x 3 ⋅ sinh 5 x 3 ⋅15 x 2 = 30 x 2 sinh 5 x 3 cosh 5 x 3
dx

d. Given y = x 3 sinh x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 3 sinh x ) = sinh x ⋅
d 3
dx
d
x + x 3 ⋅ sinh
dx
x
d 1 − 12 x 3 cosh x
= sinh x ⋅ 3x 2 + x 3 ⋅ cosh x ⋅ x = 3x 2 sinh x + x 3 cosh x ⋅ x = 3 x 2 sinh x +
dx 2 2 x
e. Given y = sinh x 2 + cosh x 2 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sinh x 2 + cosh x 2 )= d
dx
sinh x 2 +
d
dx
cosh x 2
d 2 d 2
= cosh x 2 ⋅ x + sinh x 2 ⋅ x = cosh x 2 ⋅ 2 x + sinh x 2 ⋅ 2 x = 2 x cosh x 2 + 2 x sinh x 2
dx dx
(
f. Given y = tanh 3x 2 − 1 then ) dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ (
tanh 3 x 2 − 1 ) ] = sec h (3x − 1)⋅ dxd (3x − 1)
2 2 2 (
= 6 x sec h 2 3 x 2 − 1 )
1 dy d 1  d 1  d
g. Given y = sinh 3x + 10 x then =  sinh 3 x + 10 x  =  sinh 3 x  + 10 x
6 dx dx  6  dx  6  dx
1 d 3 1
= cosh 3 x ⋅ 3 x + 10 = cosh 3 x + 10 = cosh 3 x + 10
6 dx 6 2
dy d 1 d 1 d
h. Given y = ln cosh 3x then = ( ln cosh 3x ) = ⋅ ( cosh 3 x ) = ⋅ sinh 3 x ⋅ 3 x
dx dx cosh 3 x dx cosh 3 x dx
1 sinh 3 x
= ⋅ sinh 3 x ⋅ 3 = 3⋅ = 3 tanh 3 x
cosh 3 x cosh 3 x
i. Given y = ln tanh 3x 3 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
ln tanh 3 x 3 ) =
1
tanh 3 x 3
⋅
d
dx
(
tanh 3 x 3 ) =
sec h 2 3 x 3
tanh 3 x 3
⋅
d
dx
3x 3
sec h 2 3 x 3 9 x 2 sec h 2 3 x 3
= ⋅ 9x 2 =
tanh 3 x 3 tanh 3 x 3
Example 3.4-2: Find the derivative of the following hyperbolic functions:

1 sinh x 2 sinh 10 x 2
a. y = coth b. y = c. y =
x2 cosh (x + 1) cosh 3 x 5
sinh e 3 x
d. y = e. y = x 2 sinh x 2 f. y = (x + 1) cosh x
cosh x 3
g. y = sinh x 3 + cosh x h. y = x 3 sinh 2 5 x i. y = csc h x + 3 x 2

Solutions:
1 dy d  1  1 d 1 1 −2 2 1
a. Given y = coth then =  coth  = − csc h 2 ⋅ = − csc h 2 ⋅ = csc h 2
x 2 dx dx  x2  x 2 dx x 2 x 2
x 3
x 3
x2

sinh x 2 dy d  sinh x 2 
[ cosh (x + 1)⋅ d
dx
][ d cosh ( x + 1)
sinh x 2 − sinh x 2 ⋅ dx ]
cosh (x + 1) dx dx  cosh (x +1)  cosh 2 (x + 1)
[cosh (x + 1) cosh x 2
][
d x 2 − sinh x 2 sinh (x + 1) ⋅ d (x + 1)
⋅ dx dx
] [cosh (x + 1) cosh x 2
][
⋅ 2 x − sinh x 2 sinh (x + 1) ⋅1 ]
= =
cosh 2 (x + 1) cosh 2 (x + 1)
2 x cosh x 2 cosh ( x + 1) − sinh ( x + 1) sinh x 2

=
cosh 2 ( x + 1)
sinh 10 x 2 dy d  sinh 10 x 2 

[ cosh 3x 5
][
d sinh 10 x 2 − sinh 10 x 2 ⋅ d cosh 3 x 5
⋅ dx dx
]
c. Given y= then = =
cosh 3 x 5 dx dx  cosh 3 x 5 
 cosh 2 3 x 5
[ cosh 3x 5
⋅ cosh 10 x 2 d
dx
][
10 x 2 − sinh 10 x 2 ⋅ sinh 3 x 5 d
dx
3x 5 ] [ cosh 3x 5
⋅ cosh 10 x 2 ⋅ 20 x ]
= =
cosh 2 3 x 5 cosh 2 3 x 5
=
[
− sinh 10 x 2 ⋅ sinh 3x 5 ⋅15 x 4 ] =
20 x cosh 10 x 2 cosh 3 x 5 − 15 x 4 sinh 3 x 5 sinh 10 x 2
cosh 2 3 x 5 cosh 2 3 x 5
sinh e 3 x dy d  sinh e 3 x 

[ cosh x 3
][
d sinh e 3 x − sinh e 3 x ⋅ d cosh x 3
⋅ dx dx
]
d. Given y = then = =
cosh x 3 dx dx  cosh x 3 
 cosh 2 x 3
cosh x 3 ⋅ cosh e 3 x ⋅ dx
d e 3 x − sinh e 3 x ⋅ sinh x 3 ⋅ d x 3
dx cosh x 3 ⋅ cosh e 3 x ⋅ 3 e 3 x − sinh e 3 x ⋅ sinh x 3 ⋅ 3 x 2
= =
cosh 2 x 3 cosh 2 x 3
3 e 3 x cosh e 3 x cosh x 3 − 3 x 2 sinh x 3 sinh e 3 x

=
cosh 2 x 3
e. Given y = x 2 sinh x 2 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 2 sinh x 2 ) = sinh x 2 ⋅
d 2
dx
d
x + x 2 ⋅ sinh x 2
dx
d 2
= sinh x 2 ⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ cosh x 2 ⋅ x = 2 x sinh x 2 + x 2 ⋅ cosh x 2 ⋅ 2 x = 2 x sinh x 2 + 2 x 3 cosh x 2
dx
dy d d
f. Given y = (x + 1) cosh x then = [ (x + 1) cosh x] = cosh x ⋅ (x + 1) + (x + 1)⋅ d cosh x
dx dx dx dx
= cosh x ⋅1 + (x + 1) ⋅ sinh x = cosh x + ( x + 1) sinh x

dy d  d d
g. Given y = sinh x 3 + cosh x then =  sinh x 3 + cosh x  = sinh x3 + cosh x
dx dx   dx dx
3 3
d d 1
d 32 1
d 12 3
3 3 −1 1
1 1 −1
= sinh x 2 + cosh x 2 = cosh x 2 ⋅ x + sinh x 2 ⋅ x = cosh x 2 ⋅ x 2 + sinh x 2 ⋅ x 2
dx dx dx dx 2 2
3 1 1 3
3 1 − 12 3 12 1 −1 1 3 x 1
= cosh x 2 ⋅ x 2 + sinh x 2 ⋅ x = x cosh x 2 + x 2 sinh x 2 = cosh x3 + sinh x
2 2 2 2 2 2 x
h. Given y = x 3 sinh 2 5 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 3 sinh 2 5 x ) = sinh 2 5 x ⋅
d 3
dx
d
x + x 3 ⋅ sinh 2 5 x
dx
d d
= sinh 2 5 x ⋅ 3x 2 + x 3 ⋅ 2 sinh 5 x ⋅ sinh 5 x = sinh 2 5 x ⋅ 3x 2 + x 3 ⋅ 2 sinh 5 x ⋅ cosh 5 x ⋅ 5x
dx dx
= sinh 2 5 x ⋅ 3x 2 + x 3 ⋅ 2 sinh 5 x ⋅ cosh 5 x ⋅ 5 = 3 x 2 sinh 2 5 x + 10 x 3 sinh 5 x cosh 5 x
dy d  3 2  d d 3 2 d d 23
i. Given y = csc h x + 3 x 2 then =  csc h x + x  = csc h x + x = csc h x + x
d 2 2 −1 2 −1 2
= − csc h x coth x ⋅ x+ x3 = − csc h x coth x ⋅1 + x 3 = − csc h x coth x + 3
dx 3 3 3 x
Example 3.4-3: Find the first and second derivative of the following hyperbolic functions:
a. y = sinh 8 x b. y = sinh 2 3x c. y = cosh (10 x + 3)
d. y = cosh x (
e. y = sinh x 2 + 1 ) f. y = x sinh x
g. y = cosh 3x − x 2 h. y = tanh 5 x i. y = coth x 2

Solutions:
dy d d
a. = (sinh 8 x ) = cosh 8 x ⋅ ( 8x) = cosh 8 x ⋅ 8 = 8 cosh 8 x
dx dx dx
d2y d d
2
= ( 8 cosh 8 x ) = 8 sinh 8 x ⋅ ( 8x) = 8 sinh 8 x ⋅ 8 = 64 sinh 8 x
dx dx dx
b.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sinh 2 3 x ) =
d
dx
( sinh 3x )2 = 2 sinh 3x ⋅
d
dx
sinh 3 x = 2 sinh 3x ⋅ cosh 3x ⋅
d
dx
3x
= 2 sinh 3x ⋅ cosh 3x ⋅ 3 = 6 sinh 3 x cosh 3 x

d2y d d  d d 
2
= (6 sinh 3x cosh 3x ) = 6 ( sinh 3x cosh 3x ) = 6 cosh 3x ⋅ sinh 3 x + sinh 3 x ⋅ cosh 3 x 
dx dx dx  dx dx 
 d d 
= 6 cosh 3x ⋅ cosh 3x ⋅ 3 x + sinh 3 x ⋅ sinh 3 x ⋅ 3 x  = 6(cosh 3x ⋅ cosh 3x ⋅ 3 + sinh 3x ⋅ sinh 3x ⋅ 3)
 dx dx 
(
= 6 3 cosh 2 3x + 3 sinh 2 3x ) (
= 18 cosh 2 3 x + sinh 2 3 x )
dy d d
c. = cosh ( 10 x + 3) = sinh ( 10 x + 3) ⋅ (10 x + 3) = sinh ( 10 x + 3) ⋅10 = 10 sinh ( 10 x + 3)
dx dx dx
d2y d d
2
= [ 10 sinh ( 10 x + 3) ] = 10 cosh ( 10 x + 3) ⋅ ( 10 x + 3) = 10 cosh ( 10 x + 3) ⋅10 = 100 cosh ( 10 x + 3)
dx dx dx
d.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
cosh ( x ) = sinh x ⋅
d
dx
( x) = sinh x ⋅
d 12
dx
x = sinh x⋅
1 − 12
2
x =
sinh
2 x
x
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 d 2 d 2 d
2
d  sinh x  1 x ⋅ dx sinh x − sinh x ⋅ dx x 1 x ⋅ cosh x ⋅ dx x
2 2 2 2
d y 1 d sinh x2
= = ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅
dx 2 dx  2 x  2 dx 1 2 x 2 x
  x2
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
−
− sinh x 2 ⋅ 12 x 2 2 1
−
2 1
− x/ ⋅ cosh x 2 ⋅ 1 − sinh x 2 ⋅ 1
1 x ⋅ cosh x ⋅ 2 x − sinh x ⋅ 2 x
2 2 2
1 2 x/ 2 x
= ⋅ = ⋅
1 2 x 2 x
1 1 sinh x x cosh x − sinh x

1 ⋅ cosh x 2 − sinh x 2 ⋅ 1 cosh x−
1 2 2 x 1 x x x cosh x − sinh x
= ⋅ = ⋅ = =
2 x 4 x 4x 4x x
e.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
sinh x 2 + 1 ( ) = cosh x 2 + 1 ⋅ ( ) dxd ( x + 1) 2
( )
= cosh x 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 x = 2 x cosh x 2 + 1 ( )
d2y
dx 2
=
d
dx
[
2 x cosh x 2 + 1 ( )] = 2
d
dx
[x cosh x 2 + 1 ( )] 

d
dx
d
dx
( 
= 2 cosh x 2 + 1 ⋅ x + x ⋅ cosh x 2 + 1 

) ( )

( )
2 cosh x 2 + 1 ⋅1 + x ⋅ sinh x 2 + 1 ⋅

d
dx

x 2 +1 

( ) ( ) [ ( )
= 2 cosh x 2 + 1 + 2 x 2 sinh x 2 + 1 ( )]
dy d d d d
f. = x sinh x = sinh x ⋅ x + sinh x ⋅ x = sinh x ⋅1 + cosh x ⋅ x⋅x = sinh x + x cosh x
dx dx dx dx dx

d2y d d d d d d
2
= (sinh x + x cosh x ) = sinh x + x cosh x = cosh x ⋅ x + cosh x ⋅ x+ cosh x ⋅ x
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
= cosh x ⋅1 + cosh x ⋅1 + sinh x ⋅ x = cosh x + cosh x + x sinh x = 2 cosh x + x sinh x
g.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cosh 3 x − x 2 ) =
d
dx
cosh 3 x −
d 2
dx
x = sinh 3x ⋅
d
dx
3x − 2 x = sinh 3x ⋅ 3 − 2 x = 3 sinh 3 x − 2 x
d2y d d d d
2
= (3 sinh 3x − 2 x ) = 3 sinh 3 x − 2x = 3 cosh 3x ⋅ 3x − 2 = 3 cosh 3x ⋅ 3 − 2 = 9 cosh 3 x − 2
dx dx dx dx dx
dy d d
h. = ( tanh 5 x ) = sec h 2 5 x ⋅ (5 x ) = sec h 2 5 x ⋅ 5 = 5 sec h 2 5 x
dx dx dx
d2y
dx 2
=
d
dx
(
5 sec h 2 5 x ) = 5 ⋅ 2 sec h 5x ⋅ dxd sec h 5x = 5 ⋅ 2 sec h 5 x ⋅ − sec h 5 x tanh 5 x ⋅
d
dx
5x
= − 5 ⋅ 2 sec h 5 x ⋅ sec h 5 x tanh 5 x ⋅ 5 = − 50 sec h 2 5 x tanh 5 x
i.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
coth x 2 ) = − csc h x 2 ⋅
d 2
dx
x = − csc h x 2 ⋅ 2 x = − 2 x csc h x 2
d2y
dx 2
=
d
dx
(
− 2 x csc h x 2 ) = − 2 dxd ( x csc h x ) 2 
= − 2  csc h x 2 ⋅

d
dx
d
dx

x + x ⋅ csc h x 2 

(
= − 2 csc h x 2 ⋅1 − x ⋅ csc h x 2 coth x 2 ⋅ 2 x ) (
= − 2 csc h x 2 − 2 x 2 coth x 2 ) (
= − 2 csc h x 2 1 − 2 x 2 coth x 2 )
Section 3.4 Practice Problems – Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions
Find the derivative of the following hyperbolic functions:

a. y = cosh x 3 + 5 ( ) b. y = x 3 sinh x c. y = (x + 6) sinh x 3
d. y = ln (sinh x ) e. y = e sinh x f. y = cosh 3x 5
g. y =
tanh 2 x
x
h. y = coth
x
1
3
(
i. y = x 2 + 9 tanh x )
j. y = sinh 3 x 2 k. y = tanh 5 x l. y = x 5 coth ( x 3
+1 )

Calculus I 3.5 Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
3.5 Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Inverse hyperbolic functions are defined as:
Table 3.5-1: Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
1  x +1
sinh −1 x = ln  x + x 2 + 1  for all x coth −1 x = ln   x2 1
  2  x −1 
 1+ 1− x 2 
cosh −1 x = ln  x + x 2 − 1  x ≥1
  sec h −1 x = ln  
 0 x ≤1
 x
 
1 1+ x   1
tanh −1 x = ln  x2 1 1 + x 2 

2  1− x  csc h −1 x = ln  +  x≠0
 x x
 
The differential formulas involving inverse hyperbolic functions are defined as:
Table 3.5-2: Differentiation Formulas for Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
d 1 du d 1 du
sinh −1 u = ⋅ coth −1 u = 2
⋅ u 1
dx u 2 +1 dx dx 1− u dx
d 1 du d −1 du
cosh −1 u = ⋅ u 1 sec h −1u = ⋅ 0 u 1
dx u −1 dx
2 dx u 1− u 2 dx
d 1 du d −1 du
tanh −1 u = ⋅ u 1 csc h −1u = ⋅ u≠0
dx 2 dx dx dx
1− u u 1+ u 2
Let’s differentiate some inverse hyperbolic functions using the above formulas:
Example 3.5-1: Find the derivative of the following inverse hyperbolic functions:
a. y = sinh −1 10 x b. y = cosh −1 x 2 c. y = sinh −1 x
d. y = x tanh −1 x 3 e. y = sinh −1 e 2 x f. y = x 3 + coth −1 x

sinh −1 x
g. y = cosh −1 x + e 2 x h. y = i. y = sec h −1e x
3x
Solutions:
dy d 1 d 1 10
a. Given y = sinh −1 10 x then = sinh −1 10 x = 10 x =
⋅ ⋅10 =
dx dx (10 x )2 + 1 dx 100 x 2 + 1 100 x 2 + 1
dy d 1 d 2 1 2x
b. Given y = cosh −1 x 2 then = cosh −1 x 2 = ⋅ x = ⋅ 2x =
dx dx
(x ) 2 2
−1
dx x −14
x4 −1
dy d 1 d 1 d 12 1 1 12 −1
c. Given y = sinh −1 x then = sinh −1 x = ⋅ x = x⋅ = x⋅
dx dx
( x ) 2 +1 dx x + 1 dx x +1 2

1 1 − 12 1 1 1
= x ⋅ = ⋅ =
x +1 2 x +1 2 x 2 x x +1
d. Given y = x tanh −1 x 3 then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x tanh −1 x 3 ) = tanh −1 x 3 ⋅
d
dx
d
x + x ⋅ tanh −1 x 3
dx
1 d 3 1 3 x3
= tanh −1 x 3 ⋅1 + x ⋅ ⋅ x = tanh −1 x 3 + x ⋅ ⋅ 3x 2 = tanh −1 x 3 +
1− x6 dx 1− x6 1 − x6
dy d 1 d 2x 1 d
e. Given y = sinh −1 e 2 x then = sinh −1 e 2 x = ⋅ e = ⋅ e 2x ⋅ 2x
dx dx
(e )2x 2
+1
dx e 4x
+1 dx
1 2e 2 x
= ⋅ e 2x ⋅ 2 =
e 4x +1 e4x + 1
f. Given y = x 3 + coth −1 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 3 + coth −1 x ) =
d 3 d
dx
x +
dx
coth −1 x = 3x 2 +
1− x2
1
g. Given y = cosh −1 x + e 2 x then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cosh −1 x + e 2 x )= d
dx
cosh −1 x +
d 2x
dx
e =
1
2
+
d 2x
dx
e
x −1
1 d 2x 1 d 1 1
= + e = + e 2x ⋅ 2x = + e 2x ⋅ 2 = + 2e 2 x
x −12 dx x −1 2 dx x −12
x 2
−1
d sinh −1 x − sinh −1 x ⋅ d 3 x 3x ⋅ 1 − sinh −1 x ⋅ 3

sinh −1 x dy d  sinh −1 x  3 x ⋅ dx dx x 2 +1
h. Given y= then = = =
3x dx dx  3 x 
 9 x 2
9x 2
3x − 3 sinh −1 x
x 2 +1 3 x − 3 x 2 + 1 sinh −1 x x − x 2 + 1 sinh −1 x
= = =
9x 2 9x 2 x 2 +1 3x 2 x 2 + 1
dy d x1 1 1
i. Given y = sec h −1e x then = − e = − ⋅ ⋅ex = −
dx
e x 1− e x
2 dx
( )x
e 1− e 2 x
1 − e 2x
Example 3.5-2: Find the derivative of the following inverse hyperbolic functions:
a. y = sinh −1 x 2 + ln x 3 b. y = tanh −1 sin x c. y = coth −1 cos x
d. y = sec h −1 x ⋅ sec x e. y = sinh −1 3e x f. y = coth −1 ( 10 x + 3)
g. y = cosh −1 ln x h. y = tanh −1 2 x + ln e x i. y = tanh −1 x + x
j. y = e x sinh −1 x k. y = x cosh −1 x l. y = tanh −1 x 3 + 5 x

Solutions:
a.
dy
=
d
(
sinh −1 x 2 + ln x 3 )= d
sinh −1 x 2 +
d
ln x 3 =
1 d 2 1 d 3
x +⋅ ⋅
x 3 dx
x =
1
⋅ 2x
dx dx dx dx x 4 + 1 dx x 4 +1
1 2x 3 x 2/ 2x 3
+ ⋅3 x2 = + = +
x 3 4 x 3/ =1
x +1 4 x
x +1
dy d 1 d 1 cos x cos x 1
b. = tanh −1 sin x = sin x ⋅ = ⋅ cos x = = =
dx dx 1 − sin x dx2
1 − sin x 2
1 − sin x 2
cos x 2 cos x
dy d 1 d 1 − sin x sin x 1
c. = coth −1 cos x = cos x ⋅ = ⋅ − sin x = = − = −
dx dx 1 − cos x dx2
1 − cos x 2
1 − cos x 2 2
sin x sin x
dy d d d −1
d. = sec h −1 x ⋅ sec x = sec x ⋅ sec h −1 x + sec h −1 x ⋅ sec x = sec x ⋅ + sec h −1 x ⋅ sec x tan x
dx dx dx dx x 1− x 2
sec x − sec x + x 1 − x 2 sec x tan x sec h−1 x

= − + sec x tan x sec h −1 x =
x 1− x 2 x 1 − x2
dy d 1 d 1 d 1 3e x
e. = sinh −1 3e x = ⋅ 3e x = ⋅ 3e x ⋅ x = ⋅ 3e x ⋅1 =
dx dx
( 3e )
x 2
+1
dx 9e 2 x + 1 dx 9e 2 x + 1 9e 2 x + 1
dy d 1 d 1 1 1
f. = coth −1 ( x + 3) = ⋅ ( x + 3) = ⋅1 = = −
dx dx 1 − ( x + 3) 2 dx
(
1 − x 2 + 9 + 6x ) 2
− x − 6x − 8 2
x + 6x + 8
dy d 1 d 1 1 d 1 1 1
g. = cosh −1 ln x = ln x
⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ x = ⋅ ⋅1 =
dx dx ( ln x )2 − 1 dx ln 2 x − 1 x dx ln 2 x − 1 x x ln 2 x − 1
h.
dy
=
d
(
tanh −1 2 x + ln e x ) =
d
tanh −1 2 x +
d
ln e x =
1
⋅
d
2x +
1 d x
⋅ e =
1
⋅2+
1
⋅ex
dx dx dx dx 1 − (2 x ) 2 dx e x dx 1 − 4x 2
e x
2 ex 2 2 +1 − 4x 2 − 4x 2 + 3
= + = +1 = =
1 − 4x 2 ex 1 − 4x 2 1 − 2x 2 − 2x 2 + 1
i.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
tanh −1 x + x ) =
d
dx
tanh −1 x +
d
dx
x =
1
1− x 2
⋅
d
dx
x +1 =
1
1− x 2
⋅1 + 1 =
1− x2
1
+1

j.
dy
=
d
(
e x sinh −1 x ) = sinh −1 x ⋅
d x d
e + e x ⋅ sinh −1 x = sinh −1 x ⋅ e x ⋅
d
dx
x +ex ⋅
1
⋅
d
x
dx dx dx dx x 2 + 1 dx
1 ex  1
= sinh −1 x ⋅ e x ⋅1 + e x ⋅ ⋅1 = e x sinh −1 x + = e x  sinh −1 x + 

2
x 2 +1 x 2 +1  x +1 
k.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x cosh −1 x ) = cosh −1 x ⋅
d
dx
d
x + x ⋅ cosh −1 x
dx
= cosh −1 x ⋅1 + x ⋅
1
= cosh −1 x +
x
x 2 −1 x2 −1
l.
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
tanh −1 x 3 + 5 x ) =
d
dx
d
tanh −1 x 3 + 5 x
dx
=
1− x6
1
⋅
d 3
dx
x +5 =
1− x6
1
⋅ 3x 2 + 5 =
3x 2
1− x6
+5
dy
Example 3.5-3: In the following examples find :
dx
a. x = t + sinh −1 t and y = cos t b. x = cosh −1 t and y = t 3 + 3t 2 + t
c. x = sinh −1 t 2 and y = sin 2 t d. x = tanh −1 α and y = sin α
e. x = θ coth −1 θ and y = θ f. x = t 2 sinh −1 t and y = t e t
g. x = cosh −1 e t and y = e 2t h. x = t 3 + 3t and y = cosh −1 t

Solutions:
t 2 +1
a. Given x = t + sinh −1 t and y = cos t then
dx
dt
=
d
dt
(
t + sinh −1 t ) = 1+ 1
=
1+
and
t 2 +1 t 2 +1
sin t
dy d dy dt − sin t − 1 sin t ⋅ t 2 +1 sin t t2 +1
= cos t = − sin t So = = = − = −
dt dt dx dt 1+ t 2 +1 1+ t 2 +1 1 ⋅1 + t 2 +1 1+ t2 +1
t 2 +1 t 2 +1
b. Given x = cosh −1 t and y = t 3 + 3t 2 + t then

dx
dt
=
d
dt
cosh −1 t =
2
1
and
dy
dt
=
d 3
dt
(
t + 3t 2 + t )
t −1
2
= 3t + 6t + 1 So
dy dt
=
3t 2 + 6t + 1
=
3 t 2 + 6 t +1
1
=
(3t 2
+ 6 t +1 ⋅ ) t 2 −1
(
= 3t2 + 6t +1 ) t 2 −1
dx dt 1 1 1 ⋅1
t 2 −1 t 2 −1
dx d 1 dy d
c. Given x = sinh −1 t 2 and y = sin 2 t then = sinh −1 t 2 = and = sin 2 t
dt dt t +14 dt dt

2 sin t cos t
d d dy dt 2 sin t cos t
= (sin t )2 = 2 sin t ⋅ sin t = 2 sin t cos t Therefore = 1
= 1
1
dt dt dx dt
t 4 +1 t 4 +1
2 sin t cos t ⋅ t 4 +1 2 sin t cos t t 4 +1

= = = 2 t 4 + 1 sin t cos t
1 ⋅1 1
dx 1 dy d
d. Given x = tanh −1 α and y = sin α then = tanh −1 α = 2
and = sin α = cos α
dα 1−α dα dα
dy dα cos α
cos α
(
cos α ⋅ 1 − α 2 ) cos α 1 − α 2 ( ) ( )
Therefore = = 1
= = = 1 − α 2 cos α
dx dα 1 1 1 ⋅1 1
1−α 2 1−α 2
e. Given x = θ coth −1 θ and y = θ then

dx
dθ
=
d
dθ
(
θ coth −1 θ ) = coth −1 θ ⋅
d
dθ
θ +θ ⋅
d
dθ
coth −1 θ
−1 1 d −1 θ (1 − θ ) coth
2 −1
θ +θ dy d
= coth θ ⋅1 + θ ⋅ 2
⋅ θ = coth θ + 2
= 2
and = θ =1
1−θ dθ 1−θ 1−θ dθ dθ
Therefore
dy dθ
=
1
=
(
1⋅ 1 − θ 2 ) =
1 −θ 2
dx dθ
(1 − θ )coth
2 −1
θ +θ 1−θ 2 
(
 1−θ
2
) 
coth −1 θ + θ  ⋅1 (1 − θ ) coth
2 −1
θ +θ
 
f. Given x = t 2 sinh −1 t and y = t e t then

dx
dt
=
d 2
dt
(
t sinh −1 t ) = sinh −1 t ⋅
d 2 2 d
dt
t + t ⋅ sinh −1 t
dt
1 t2 2t t 2 + 1 sinh −1 t + t 2 dy d
= sinh −1 t ⋅ 2t + t 2 ⋅ = 2t sinh −1 t + = and = t et
2
t +1 t +12
t +12 dt dt
d d dy dt et ( 1 + t )
= et ⋅ t + t ⋅ et = e t ⋅1 + t ⋅ e t = e t ( 1 + t ) Therefore =
dt dt dx dt 2t t 2 + 1 sinh −1 t + t 2 t2 +1
et (1 + t) 1 et (1 + t) t 2 +1
= =
2t t 2 + 1 sinh −1 t + t 2 t 2 +1 2t t 2 + 1 sinh −1 t + t 2
dx d 1 d t 1
g. Given x = cosh −1 e t and y = e 2t then = cosh −1 e t = ⋅e = ⋅ et
dt dt e 2t
−1 dt e 2t
−1

et dy d 2t d dy dt 2e 2t
= and = e = e 2t ⋅ 2t = e 2t ⋅ 2 = 2e 2t Therefore =
e 2t − 1 dt dt dt dx dt et e 2t − 1
2e 2t e 2t − 1 2e 2 t ⋅ e − t e 2 t − 1
= = = 2e 2t − t e 2t − 1 = 2e t e 2t − 1
et 1
h. Given x = t 3 + 3t and y = cosh −1 t then

dx
dt
=
d 3
dt
(
t + 3t ) =
d 3 d
dt
t + 3t
dt
= 3t 2 + 3 and
dy
dt
d 1 d 1 1 1 dy dt 1 2 t t −1
= cosh −1 t = ⋅ t = ⋅ = Therefore =
dt t −1 dt t −1 2 t 2 t t −1 dx dt 3t 2 + 3
1 1
= =
( 3t 2
)
+ 3 ⋅ 2 t t −1 (
6 t +1 2
) t t −1
Section 3.5 Practice Problems – Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Find the derivative of the following inverse hyperbolic functions:

a. y = x sinh −1 3x b. y = cosh −1 ( x + 5) c. y = tanh −1 x
sinh −1 x sinh −1 x cosh −1 x
d. y = e. y = f. y =
x3 cosh 3 x x5
(
g. y = x 2 + 3 coth −1 x) h. y = e 3 x cosh −1 x i. y = x 3 + tanh −1 x 5
j. y = sinh −1 7 x + ln e x
2
k. y = tanh −1 e2 x ( ) l. y = coth −1(3x + 5)

Calculus I 3.6 Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms Using L’Hopital’s Rule
3.6 Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms Using L’Hopital’s Rule

In Chapter 1 the concept of limits and how they are used in finding a solution to an expression as
the limit of a variable, within the expression, approaches a constant or infinity was addressed. In
Chapter 2 and this Chapter finding the derivative of various class of functions was discussed. In
this section, we will use what we have learned in the previous chapters in order to solve
expressions of the form referred to as indeterminate forms.
We stated earlier that the derivative of a differentiable function f (x ) is defined as
f (x + ∆ x ) − f (x )
lim ∆ x →0 ( 1)
(x + ∆ x ) − x
As the limit ∆ x → 0 the above expression reduces to:
f (x + ∆ x ) − f (x ) f (x + 0) − f (x ) f (x ) − f (x ) 0
lim ∆ x →0 = = =
(x + ∆ x ) − x (x + 0) − x x−x 0
Since the limit on both the numerator and the denominator is zero, equation ( 1) is referred to as
0
indeterminate form of the type . Similarly, when both the numerator and the denominator are
0
∞
equal to ∞ , i.e., the resulting expression is also referred to as indeterminate form. Note that
∞
indeterminate forms of the type 0 ⋅ ∞ , ∞ − ∞ , 0 0 , ∞ 0 , and 1∞ need to be transformed to one of the
0 ∞
types or first. These types of indeterminate forms will be discussed later in this section.
0 ∞
0 ∞
To solve expressions that result in indeterminate forms of the type or we apply a rule that
0 ∞
is referred to as the L’Hopital’s rule.
L’Hopital’s Rule – Given that f (x ) and g (x ) are differentiable and g (x ) ≠ 0 and assuming that
lim x → a f (x ) = f (a ) = 0 and lim x → a g (x ) = g (a ) = 0 , then
f (x ) f ′ (x )
lim x → a = lim x → a
g (x ) g ′ (x )
is referred to as the L’Hopital’s rule provided that f ′ (a ) and g ′ (a ) exist and g ′ (a ) ≠ 0

Note that we proceed to differentiate f (x ) and g (x ) , i.e., continue to apply the L’Hopital’s rule,
0 ∞
as long as we still obtain the indeterminate forms of the type or as the limit x approaches
0 ∞
to a . We stop differentiation as soon as either the numerator or the denominator has a finite
nonzero limit. The following examples show application of the L’Hopital’s rule.
Example 3.6-1: Evaluate the limit of the following functions:
e x −1 ln x x 4 − x 3 + x 2 −1
a. lim x → 0 = b. lim x → ∞ c. lim x → 1
x3 x x 4 − 2x 2 + x
e x + e −x − 2 x 3 − x 2 − x − 15 x − sin x
d. lim x → 0 e. lim x → 3 f. lim x → 0
sin x 3 2
x − 2x − 9 x3

2x − π t 3 −1 sin 3 x
g. lim x → π h. lim t → 1 3
i. lim x → 0
2 cos x 4t − t − 3 x
Solutions:
e x −1 e 0 −1 1− 1 0
a. lim x → 0 3
= 3
= = which is an indeterminate function. Let’s apply the
x 0 0 0
L’Hopital’s rule lim x →0

e x −1
= lim x →0
d
dx
( e − 1)
x
= lim x →0
d
dx
e x − dx
d 1
= lim x →0
e x ⋅ dx
d x−0
x3 d
dx
x3 3x 2 3x 2
e x ⋅1 ex e0 1
= lim x →0 2
= lim x→0 2
= 2
= = ∞
3x 3x 3⋅ 0 0
ln x ln ∞ ∞
b. lim x → ∞ = = which is an indeterminate function. Let’s apply the L’Hopital’s
x ∞ ∞
rule
d ln x 1⋅ d x 1 ⋅1 1
ln x dx x dx x x 1 1
lim x → ∞ = lim x →∞ d x
= lim x →∞ = lim x →∞ = lim x →∞ = lim x →∞ = = 0
x 1 1 1 x ∞
dx
x 4 − x 3 + x 2 −1 14 − 13 + 12 − 1 1−1+1−1 2−2 0
c. lim x →1 4 2
= 4 2
= = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule
x − 2x + x 1 − 2 ⋅1 + 1 1− 2 +1 2−2 0
x 4 − x 3 + x 2 −1
d
dx
( x − x + x − 1)
4 3 2 d
dx
x 4 − dx
d x3 + d x2 − d 1
dx dx
lim x →1 = lim x →1 = lim x →1
x 4 − 2x 2 + x d
dx
( x − 2x + x)
4 2 d
dx
x 4 − 2 dx
d x2 + d x
dx
4 x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 x − 0 4 ⋅13 − 3 ⋅12 + 2 ⋅1 4−3+ 2 6−3 3

= lim x →1 3
= 3
= = = = 3
4x − 4x +1 4 ⋅1 − 4 ⋅1 + 1 4 − 4 +1 1 1
e x + 1x − 2 e 0 + 10 − 2 1 + 11 − 2
e x + e −x − 2 e e 1+1− 2 2−2 0
d. lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = = = = Apply
sin x sin x sin 0 0 0 0 0
the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0

e x + e −x − 2
= lim x → 0
d
dx
(e x
+ e −x − 2 ) = lim x → 0
d
dx
e x + dx
d e −x − d 2
dx
sin x d sin x d sin x
dx dx
d (− x ) − 0
e x + e − x ⋅ dx ex − 1
e x + e − x ⋅ −1 e x − e−x ex
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
cos x cos x cos x cos x

e0 − 1
1 − 11
e0 1− 1 0
= = = = = 0
cos 0 1 1 1
x 3 − x 2 − x − 15 3 3 − 3 2 − 3 − 15 27 − 9 − 3 − 15 27 − 27 0
e. lim x → 3 3 2
= 3 2
= = = Apply the L’Hopital’s
x − 2x − 9 3 − 2⋅3 − 9 27 − 18 − 9 27 − 27 0
x 3 − x 2 − x − 15
d
dx
( x − x − x − 15)
3 2 d
dx
x 3 − dx
d x 2 − d x − d 15
dx dx
rule lim x → 3 = lim x → 3 = lim x → 3
x 3 − 2x 2 − 9 d
dx
( x − 2 x − 9)
3 2 d
dx
x 3 − 2 dx
d x2 − d 9
dx
3x 2 − 2 x − 1 − 0 3x 2 − 2 x − 1 3 ⋅ 32 − 2 ⋅ 3 −1 27 − 6 − 1 27 − 7 20 4
= lim x → 3 = lim x → 3 = = = = =
2
3x − 4 x − 0 2
3x − 4 x 2
3⋅3 − 4 ⋅3 27 − 12 15 15 3
x − sin x 0 − sin 0 0−0 0 x − sin x

f. lim x → 0 3
= 3
= = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
x 0 0 0 x3
d
dx
(x − sin x ) d
dx
d sin x
x − dx 1 − cos x 1 − cos 0 1−1 0
= lim x → 0 3
= lim x → 0 3
= lim x → 0 2
= 2
= =
d x d x 3x 3⋅ 0 0 0
dx dx
1 − cos x
d
dx
( 1 − cos x ) d 1 − d cos
dx dx
x
Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
3x 2 d
dx
3x 2 d 3x 2
dx
0 + sin x sin x sin 0 0 sin x

= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again lim x → 0
6x 6x 6⋅0 0 6x
d sin x
dx cos x cos 0 1
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = =
d 6x 6 6 6
dx
2x − π 2 ⋅ π2 − π π −π 0 2x − π dx
(
d 2x − π )
g. lim x → π = = = Apply the rule lim x → π = lim x → π
2 cos x cos π 2
0 0 2 cos x 2
d cos x
dx
d d π
2 x − dx
dx 2−0 2 2
= lim x → π = lim x → π = = = −2
2
d
dx
cos x 2 − sin x − sin π 2
−1
t 3 −1 13 − 1 1−1 1 −1 0
h. lim t →1 3
= 3
4t − t − 3 4 ⋅1 − 1 − 3 4 −1− 3 4−4 0

t 3 −1
d
dt
(t 3
−1 ) d t3 − d 1
dt dt 3t 2 − 0
lim t →1 = lim t →1 = lim t →1 = lim t →1
4t 3 − t − 3 d
dt
( 4t 3
−t −3 ) d 4t 3 − d t − d
dt dt dt
3 12t 2 − 1 − 0
3t 2 3 ⋅ 12 3 3
= lim t →1 = = =
12t − 1 2
12 ⋅1 − 1 2 12 − 1 11
d sin 3 x
sin 3 x sin 0 0 sin 3 x dx
i. lim x → 0 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
d
x 0 0 x x
dx
d 3x
cos 3 x ⋅ dx cos 3 x ⋅ 3
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 3 cos 3x = 3 lim x → 0 cos 3x = 3 cos (3 ⋅ 0)
1 1
= 3 cos 0 = 3 ⋅ 1 = 3

sin θ x t −5
a. limθ → π b. lim x → 0 c. lim t → 5
2 π −θ x+ x t2 −5
x e 2x −1
d. lim x → 0 e. lim x → 0 (csc x − cot x ) f. lim x → 0
e x −1 tan 3 x
tan 5 x sin x 2 x(cos x − 1)

g. lim x → 0 h. lim x → 0 i. lim x → 0
tan 7 x x sin x − x
Solutions:
sin θ sin π2 1 2
a. limθ → π = = π =
2 π −θ π−2 π π
2
d x
x 0 0 x dx
b. lim x → 0 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
x+ x 0+ 0 0 x+ x d
dx
(x+ x)
d x
dx 1 1 1 1 1 1
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 1
= 1
= 1
= 1
= = = 0
d x+ d x 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ ∞ ∞
dx dx 2 x 2⋅ 0 0 0
t −5 5−5 0 0
c. lim t → 5 2
= 2
= = = 0
t −5 5 −5 25 − 5 20
d x
x 0 0 0 x dx
d. lim x → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
e x −1 e0 −1 1−1 0 e x −1 d
dx
( e −1)
x

d x
dx 1 1 1 1
= lim x → 0 x
= lim x → 0 x
= lim x → 0 x
= 0
= = 1
d e − d 1 e −0 e e 1
dx dx
 1 cos x  1 − cos x 1− cos 0 1−1 0

e. lim x → 0 (csc x − cot x ) = lim x → 0  −  = lim x → 0 = = = Apply
 sin x sin x  sin x sin 0 0 0
1 − cos x
d
dx
( 1 − cos x ) d 1 − d cos
dx dx
x
the L’Hopital’s rule to the expression lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 d
= lim x → 0
d sin x
sin x sin x
dx dx
0 + sin x sin x
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 tan x = tan 0 = 0
cos x cos x
e 2x −1 e 2⋅0 − 1 e0 −1 1− 1 0 e 2x −1
f. lim x → 0 = = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
tan 3 x tan 3 ⋅ 0 tan 0 0 0 tan 3 x
= lim x → 0
d
dx
(e 2x
−1 ) = lim x → 0
d
dx
e 2 x − dx
d 1
= lim x → 0
2e 2 x − 0
= lim x → 0
2e 2 x
d
dx
tan 3 x d
dx
tan 3 x sec 2 3 x ⋅ dx
d 3x sec 2 3 x ⋅ 3
2e 2 x 2e 2 x 2e 2 x cos 2 3 x 2e 2⋅0 ⋅ cos 2 3 ⋅ 0 2e 0 ⋅ cos 2 0 2

= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = =
3 ⋅ 12 3 3 3 3 3
cos 3 x cos 2 3 x
tan 5 x tan 5 ⋅ 0 tan 0 0 tan 5 x

g. lim x → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
tan 7 x tan 7 ⋅ 0 tan 0 0 tan 7 x
5
d tan 5 x sec 2 5 x ⋅ dx
d 5x
sec 2 5 x ⋅ 5 5 sec 2 5 x cos 2 5 x
= lim x → 0 dx = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
7
d
dx
tan 7 x sec 2 7 x ⋅ dx
d 7x sec 2 7 x ⋅ 7 7 sec 2 7 x
cos 2 7 x
5 ⋅ cos 2 7 x 5 ⋅ cos 2 7 ⋅ 0 5 ⋅ cos 2 0 5 ⋅ (cos 0 )2 5 ⋅ 12 5 ⋅1 5

= lim x → 0 = = = = = =
7 ⋅ cos 5 x 2 2
7 ⋅ cos 5 ⋅ 0 7 ⋅ cos 02
7 ⋅ (cos 0 ) 2
7 ⋅1 2 7 ⋅1 7
sin x 2 sin 0 2 sin 0 0 sin x 2

d
dx
sin x 2
h. lim x → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
d
x 0 0 0 x x
dx
cos x 2 ⋅ dx
d x2
cos x 2 ⋅ 2 x cos 0 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 0 1⋅ 2 ⋅ 0 0
= lim x → 0 d
= lim x → 0 = = = = 0
x 1 1 1 1
dx
x(cos x − 1) x cos x − x 0 ⋅ cos 0 − 0 0 ⋅1 − 0 0−0 0

i. lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s
sin x − x sin x − x sin 0 − 0 0−0 0−0 0

d
dx
( x cos x − x ) ( cos x ⋅ dxd x + x ⋅ dxd cos x )− dxd x ( cos x ⋅1 + x ⋅ − sin x ) − 1
rule lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
d
dx
( sin x − x ) d
dx
sin x − d
dx
x cos x − 1
( cos x − x sin x ) − 1 ( cos 0 − 0 ⋅ sin 0) − 1 ( 1 − 0 ⋅ 0) − 1 1−1 0

= lim x → 0 = = = = Apply the
cos x − 1 cos 0 − 1 1−1 1−1 0
( cos x − x sin x ) − 1 d
dx
[( cos x − x sin x ) − 1]
L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 d (cos x − 1)
cos x − 1
dx
d d x sin x − d 1
cos x − dx d d x sin x − 0
cos x − dx d d x sin x
cos x − dx
dx dx dx dx
= lim x → 0 d d 1
= lim x → 0 d
= lim x → 0 d
dx
cos x − dx dx
cos x − 0 dx
cos x
( d x + x ⋅ d sin x
− sin x − sin x ⋅ dx dx
) − sin x − ( sin x + x cos x ) −2 sin x − x cos x
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
− sin x − sin x − sin x
2 sin x + x cos x 2 ⋅ 0 + 0 ⋅1 0
= lim x → 0 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression
sin x 0 0
2 sin x + x cos x
d
dx
(2 sin x + x cos x ) d x + x ⋅ d cos x
2 cos x + cos x ⋅ dx dx
lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 d
= lim x → 0
sin x sin x cos x
dx
2 cos x + cos x ⋅1 − x ⋅ sin x 2 cos x + cos x − x sin x 3 cos x − x sin x

= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
cos x cos x cos x
3 cos 0 − 0 ⋅ sin 0 3 ⋅1 − 0 ⋅ 0 3−0 3

= = = = 3
cos 0 1 1 1

e x − e −x − 4x sin x e x −1
a. lim x → 0 b. lim x → 0 c. lim x → 0
sin 2 x − 3 x x x3
x + sin 3 x x 3 − 2 x 2 + 3x − 2 ln x
d. lim x → 0 e. lim x → 1 3
f. lim x → +∞
x − sin 3 x x − 2x +1 2x
3 ln x 2 xe x 5+ x2
g. lim x → +∞ h. lim x → 0 i. lim x → ∞
2 x 1− e x x2

Solutions:
ex − 1 − 4x e0 − 1 − 4⋅0 1 − 11 − 0
e x − e −x − 4x ex e0 1− 1 0
a. lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = = = Apply the
sin 2 x − 3 x sin 2 x − 3 x sin 2 ⋅ 0 − 3 ⋅ 0 0−0 0 0
L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0

e x − e −x − 4x
= lim x → 0
d
dx
(e x
− e −x − 4x ) = lim x → 0
d
dx
e x − dx
d e −x − d 4x
dx
sin 2 x − 3 x d
dx
( sin 2 x − 3x ) d
dx
d 3x
sin 2 x − dx
= lim x → 0
d (− x ) − 4
e x − e − x ⋅ dx
= lim x → 0
(
e x − e − x ⋅ −1 − 4 ) = lim x → 0
ex + 1
ex
−4
=
e0 + 1
e0
−4
d 2x − 3
cos 2 x ⋅ dx cos 2 x ⋅ 2 − 3 2 cos 2 x − 3 2 cos (2 ⋅ 0 ) − 3
1+1− 4 1+1− 4 −2
= = = = 2
2 cos 0 − 3 (2 ⋅1) − 3 −1
d sin x
sin x sin 0 0 sin x dx
b. lim x → 0 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
x 0 0 x d x
dx
cos x
cos x cos x ⋅ 2 x 2 x cos x
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 1 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 2 x cos x
1 1 1 ⋅1 1
2 x 2 x
= 2 ⋅ 0 ⋅ cos 0 = 0 ⋅ cos 0 = 0 ⋅1 = 0
c. lim x → 0
e x −1
=
e 0 −1
=
1− 1
=
0
Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
e x −1
= lim x → 0
d
dx
( e − 1)
x
x3 03 0 0 x3 d
dx
x3
d
dx
e x − dx
d 1
ex −0 e0 1
= lim x → 0
2
= lim x → 0 2
= 2
= = ∞
3x 3x 3⋅ 0 0
x + sin 3 x 0 + sin (3 ⋅ 0 ) 0+0 0 x + sin 3 x

d. lim x → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
x − sin 3 x 0 − sin (3 ⋅ 0 ) 0−0 0 x − sin 3 x
d
dx
(x + sin 3x ) d
dx
d sin 3 x
x + dx d 3x
1 + cos 3 x ⋅ dx 1 + cos 3 x ⋅ 3
d
dx
(x − sin 3x ) d
dx
x− d
dx
sin 3 x d
1 − cos 3 x ⋅ dx 3x 1 − cos 3 x ⋅ 3
1 + 3 cos 3 x 1 + 3 cos ( 3 ⋅ 0) 1 + 3 cos 0 1 + ( 3 ⋅1) 1+ 3 4

= lim x → 0 = = = = = = −2
1 − 3 cos 3 x 1 − 3 cos ( 3 ⋅ 0) 1 − 3 cos 0 1 − ( 3 ⋅1) 1− 3 −2

x 3 − 2 x 2 + 3x − 2 13 − 2 ⋅12 + 3 ⋅1 − 2 1− 2 + 3 − 2 4−4 0
e. lim x → 1 3
= 3
x − 2x +1 1 − 2 ⋅1 + 1 1− 2 +1 2−2 0
lim x → 1
x 3 − 2 x 2 + 3x − 2
= lim x → 1
d
dx
(x 3
− 2 x 2 + 3x − 2 ) = lim x → 1
d
dx
x 3 − 2 dx
d x2 + 3 d x − d 2
dx dx
x 3 − 2x +1 d
dx
(x 3
− 2x +1 ) d
dx
x 3 − 2 dx
d x+ d 1
dx
3 x 2 − 2 ⋅ 2 x + 3 ⋅1 − 0 3x 2 − 4 x + 3 3 ⋅ 12 − 4 ⋅ 1 + 3 3− 4+3 2
= lim x → 1 2
= lim x → 1 2
= 2
= = = 2
3 x − 2 ⋅1 + 0 3x − 2 3 ⋅1 − 2 3− 2 1
d ln x
ln x ln ∞ ∞ ln x dx
f. lim x → + ∞ = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → + ∞ = lim x → + ∞
d 2x
2x 2⋅∞ ∞ 2x
dx
1
x 1 1 1
= lim x → +∞ = lim x → +∞ = = = 0
2 2x 2⋅∞ ∞
d 3 ln x
3 ln x 3 ln ∞ ∞ 3 ln x dx
g. lim x → + ∞ = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → + ∞ = lim x → + ∞ d 2 x
2 x 2⋅ ∞ ∞ 2 x dx
3 ⋅ 1x 3
x 3 x 3⋅ ∞ ∞
= lim x → + ∞ 1
= lim x → + ∞ 1
= lim x → + ∞ = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule
2⋅ x ∞ ∞
2 x x
d 3
3 x dx
3 x 2 x 3 3 3
again lim x → + ∞ = lim x → + ∞ d
= lim x → + ∞ = lim x → + ∞ = = = 0
x x 1 2 x 2⋅ ∞ ∞
dx
2 xe x 2 ⋅ 0 ⋅ e0 2 ⋅ 0 ⋅1 0 2 xe x
h. lim x → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
1− e x 1− e0 1−1 0 1− e x
d
dx
2 xe x (
2 e x ⋅ dx
d x + x⋅ d ex
dx
) (
2 e x ⋅1 + x ⋅ e x )
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
d
dx
(1 − e ) x d 1− d
dx dx
ex 0−ex
(
2 ex + x ex ) (
2 e0 + 0 ⋅ e0 ) 2 ( 1 + 0) 2
lim x → 0
x
= 0
= = = − 2
−e −e −1 −1
5+ x2 5 5 5
i. lim x → ∞ 2
= lim x → ∞ 2
+1 = 2
+1 = +1 = 0 +1 = 1 = 1
x x ∞ ∞


e x − e10 x 3 − 25 x ln x
a. lim x → 10 b. lim x → 5 3
c. lim x → ∞
x − 10 x − 125 x
x4 + x3 + 5 3x 2 − 1 2x 2
d. lim x → ∞ e. lim x → ∞ f. lim x → ∞
e x +1 e 2x 5e x + 2 x
ex 7 x + 5 ln x 2 x 2 − ln x
g. lim x → ∞ h. lim x → +∞ i. lim x →+ ∞
3e x + 5 x x + 2 ln x 3 x 2 + 3 ln x
e 5 x − e −5 x e x − e −x cos x − 1
j. lim x → 0 k. lim x → 0 l. lim x → 0
5 sin x x sin x
Solutions:
e x − e10 e10 − e10 0 e x − e10
a. lim x →10 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x →10
x − 10 10 − 10 0 x − 10
= lim x →10
d
dx
(e x
− e10 ) = lim x →10
d ex −
dx
d e10
dx
= lim x →10
ex −0
= lim x →10 e x = e 10
d
dx
( x − 10) d x−
dx
d 10
dx
1− 0
x 3 − 25 x 5 3 − 25 ⋅ 5 125 − 125 0 x 3 − 25 x
b. lim x → 5 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 5
x 3 − 125 5 3 − 125 125 − 125 0 x 3 − 125
= lim x → 5
d
dx
(x 3
)
− 25 x
= lim x → 5
d
dx
x 3 − dx
d 25 x
= lim x → 5
3 x 2 − 25
=
3 ⋅ 5 2 − 25
=
75 − 25
=
50
=
2
d
dx
(x 3
− 125)
d
dx
3
x − d 125
dx
2
3x − 0 3⋅5 2 75 75 3
d ln x
ln x ln ∞ ∞ ln x dx
c. lim x → ∞ = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ d
x ∞ ∞ x x
dx
1
x 2 x 2 2 2
= lim x → ∞ 1
= lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = = = 0
x x ∞ ∞
2 x
x4 + x3 + 5 ∞4 + ∞3 + 5 ∞ x4 + x3 + 5
d. lim x → ∞ = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → ∞
e x +1 e∞ +1 ∞ e x +1
d
dx
(x 4
+ x3 + 5 ) d
dx
x 4 + dx
d x3 + d 5
dx 4 x 3 + 3x 2 + 0 4 x 3 + 3x 2
= lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞
d
dx
( e + 1)
x d
dx
e x + dx
d 1 ex +0 ex

4 ⋅ ∞3 + 3⋅ ∞ 2 ∞ 4 x 3 + 3x 2
= = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression lim x → ∞
e∞ ∞ ex
= lim x → ∞
d
dx
( 4x 3
+ 3x 2 ) = lim x → ∞
d
dx
4 x 3 + dx
d 3x 2
= lim x → ∞
12 x 2 + 6 x
=
12 ⋅ ∞ 2 + 6 ⋅ ∞
=
∞
d x d x x ∞ ∞
dx
e dx
e e e
Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression lim x → ∞

12 x 2 + 6 x
= lim x → ∞
d
dx
(12 x 2
+ 6x )
ex d
dx
ex
d 12 x 2 + d 6x
dx dx 24 x + 6 24 ⋅ ∞ + 6 ∞
= lim x → ∞ d ex
= lim x → ∞ x
= ∞
= Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again
e e ∞
dx
24 x + 6
d
dx
(24 x + 6) d
dx
d 6
24 x + dx 24 + 0
to the expression lim x → ∞
x
= lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞
e d
dx
e x d
dx
e x
ex
24 24 24
= lim x → ∞ x
= ∞
= = 0
e e ∞
e. lim x → ∞
3x 2 − 1
=
3⋅ ∞ 2 −1
=
∞
Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → ∞
3x 2 − 1
= lim x → ∞
d
dx
(3x − 1)
2
e 2x e 2⋅∞ ∞ e 2x d
dx
e 2x
d
dx
3 x 2 − dx
d 1
6x − 0 6x 6⋅∞ ∞
= lim x → ∞ 2x
= lim x → ∞ 2x
= lim x → ∞ 2x
= 2⋅∞
= Apply the L’Hopital’s
d e 2e 2e 2⋅e ∞
dx
d 6x
6x dx 6 6 6
rule again to the expression lim x → ∞ 2x
= lim x → ∞ d 2e 2 x
= lim x → ∞ 2x
= 2⋅∞
= = 0
2e 4e 4⋅e ∞
dx
2x 2 2⋅∞2 ∞ 2x 2
f. lim x → ∞ = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → ∞
5e x + 2 x 5⋅ e∞ + 2 ⋅ ∞ ∞ 5e x + 2 x
d
dx
2x 2 d 2x 2
dx 4x 4⋅∞ ∞
= lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = = Apply the
d
dx
( 5e x
+ 2x ) d 5e x + d
dx dx
2x x
5e + 2 5⋅e + 2 ∞ ∞
d 4x d 4x
4x dx dx
L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞
5e x + 2 d
dx
( 5e x
+2 ) d 5e x + d
dx dx
2

4 4 4 4
= lim x → ∞ x
= lim x → ∞ x
= ∞
= = 0
5e + 0 5e 5⋅e ∞
ex e∞ ∞ ex
g. lim x → ∞ = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → ∞
3e x + 5 x 3⋅ e∞ + 5⋅ ∞ ∞ 3e x + 5 x
d
dx
ex d
dx
ex ex e∞ ∞
= lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = = Apply the
d
dx
( 3e x
+ 5x ) d
dx
x d 5x
3e + dx 3e + 5 x
3⋅ e ∞
+5 ∞
ex
d
dx
ex d ex
dx
L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞
3e x + 5 d
dx
( 3e x
+5 ) d 3e x + d
dx dx
5
ex ex 1 1
= lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ =
x
3e + 0 3e x 3 3
7 x + 5 ln x 7 ⋅ ∞ + 5 ⋅ ln ∞ ∞ 7 x + 5 ln x
h. lim x → +∞ = lim x → +∞ = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → +∞
x + 2 ln x ∞ + 2 ⋅ ln ∞ ∞ x + 2 ln x
d
dx
(7 x + 5 ln x ) d 7 x + d 5 ln x
dx dx
7 + 5x 7 + ∞5 7+0 7
= lim x → +∞ = lim x → + ∞ = lim x → +∞ = = = = 7
d
dx
(x + 2 ln x ) d x + d 2 ln x
dx dx
1+ 2
x
1+ 2
∞
1+ 0 1
2 x 2 − ln x 2 ⋅ ∞ 2 − ln ∞ ∞ 2 x 2 − ln x
i. lim x → + ∞ = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → + ∞
3 x 2 + 3 ln x 3 ⋅ ∞ 2 + 3 ln ∞ ∞ 3 x 2 + 3 ln x
d
dx
( 2 x − ln x)
2 d 2 x 2 − d ln x
dx dx
4 x − 1x 4 ⋅ ∞ − ∞1 ∞−0
= lim x → + ∞ = lim x → + ∞ = lim x → + ∞ = =
d
dx
( 3x + 3 ln x)
2 d 3 x 2 + d 3 ln x
dx dx
6x + 3
x
6⋅∞ + 3
∞
∞+0
∞ 4 x − 1x ( 4 x − 1x )
d
dx
= Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression lim x → + ∞ = lim x → + ∞
∞ 6 x + 3x d ( 6x + 3 )
dx x
d d 1 4+ 1 4+ 1
4 x − dx x2 ∞2 4+0 4 2
= lim x → + ∞ dx x
= lim x → + ∞ = = = =
d 6x + d 3 6− 3 6− 3 6−0 6 3
dx dx x x2 ∞2
e 5 x − 51x e 5⋅0 − 51⋅0 e0 − 1

1 − 11
e 5 x − e −5 x e e e0 1− 1 0
j. lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = = = = Apply the
5 sin x 5 sin x 5 ⋅ sin 0 5⋅0 0 0 0
L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0

e 5 x − e −5 x
= lim x → 0
d
dx
(e 5x
− e −5 x ) = lim x → 0
d e 5x − d
dx dx
e −5 x
5 sin x d 5 sin x d 5 sin x
dx dx

5e 5 x + 5 5 ⋅ e 5⋅0 + 5 5⋅ e0 + 5
5 ⋅1 + 15
5e 5 x + 5e −5 x e5 x e5⋅0 e0 5+5 10
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = = = = = 2
5 cos x 5 cos x 5 ⋅ cos 0 5 ⋅1 5 5 5
ex − 1 e0 − 1
1 − 11
e x − e −x ex e0 1− 1 0
k. lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule
x x 0 0 0 0
lim x → 0
e x − e −x
= lim x → 0
d
dx
(e x
− e −x ) = lim x → 0
d
dx
e x − dx
d e −x
= lim x → 0
e x + e −x
x d x d x 1
dx dx
ex + 1
ex  1  1 1
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0  e x +  = e0 + 0
= 1+ = 1+ 1 = 2
1  ex  e 1
cos x − 1 cos 0 − 1 1−1 0 cos x − 1

l. lim x → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
sin x sin 0 0 0 sin x
d
dx
(cos x − 1) d
dx
d 1
cos x − dx − sin x − 0 − sin 0 0
= lim x → 0 d
= lim x → 0 d
= lim x → 0 = = = 0
sin x sin x cos x cos 0 1
dx dx

x 3 − 27 x 4 − 16 6x 2 − 5x
a. lim x → 3 b. lim x → 2 c. lim x → ∞
x2 −9 2x − 4 7x 2 +1
sin t 2 sin 10u t − sin t

d. lim t → 0 e. lim u → 0 f. lim t → 0
t u t2
t − sin t 1+ x −1 sin x
g. lim t → 0 3
h. lim x → +∞ 2
i. lim x →0
t x x3
3 − 3 cos x 2 + x2 cos x − 1
j. lim x → 0 2
k. lim x → ∞ 3
l. lim x → 0
x+x x cos 3 x − 1
Solutions:
x 3 − 27 3 3 − 27 27 − 27 0 x 3 − 27
a. lim x → 3 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 3
x2 −9 32 − 9 9−9 0 x2 −9
d x 3 − 27
dx
( ) d x 3 − d 27
dx dx 3x 2 − 0 3x 2 3 ⋅ 32 27 9
= lim = lim x → 3 = lim x → 3 = lim x → 3 = = =
( )
x →3
d x2 −9 d x2 − d 9 2x − 0 2x 2⋅3 6 2
dx dx dx
x 4 − 16 2 4 − 16 16 − 16 0 x 4 − 16
b. lim x → 2 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 2
2x − 4 2⋅2 − 4 4−4 0 2x − 4

= lim x → 2
d
dx
(x 4
− 16 ) = lim x → 2
d x 4 − d 16
dx dx
= lim x → 2
4x 3 − 0
= lim x → 2
4x 3
=
4 ⋅ 23
=
32
= 16
d
dx
( 2 x − 4) d 2x − d 4
dx dx
2−0 2 2 2
6 x 2 − 5x 6⋅∞2 − 5⋅∞ 6⋅∞2 − 5⋅∞ ∞ 6 x 2 − 5x

c. lim x → ∞ = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → ∞
7x 2 +1 7 ⋅ ∞ 2 +1 7 ⋅ ∞ 2 +1 ∞ 7x 2 +1
d 6 x 2 − 5x
dx
( ) d 6 x 2 − d 5x
dx dx 12 x − 5 12 x − 5 12 ⋅ ∞ − 5
= lim = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ =
( )
x→∞ d 7x 2 + d 1
d 7x 2 +1 14 x + 0 14 x 14 ⋅ ∞
dx dx dx
∞ 12 x − 5
d
dx
( 12 x − 5)
= Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ d 14 x
∞ 14 x
dx
d 12 x − d 5
dx dx 12 − 0 12 6
= lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = =
d 14 x 14 14 7
dx
sin t 2 sin 0 2 0 sin t 2

d
dt
sin t 2
d. lim t → 0 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim t → 0 = lim t → 0 d
t 0 0 t t
dt
cos t 2 ⋅ dt
d t2
= lim t → 0 = lim t → 0 cos t 2 ⋅ 2t = lim t → 0 2t cos t 2 = 2 ⋅ 0 ⋅ cos 0 2 = 2 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 1 = 0
1
sin 10u sin 10 ⋅ 0 sin 0 0 sin 10u

e. lim u → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim u → 0
u 0 0 0 u
d sin 10u d 10u

cos 10u ⋅ du
du cos 10u ⋅10
= lim u → 0 d
= lim u → 0 = lim u → 0 = lim u → 0 10 cos 10u = 10 cos 10 ⋅ 0
u 1 1
du
= 10 cos 0 = 10 ⋅1 = 10
t − sin t 0 − sin 0 0 t − sin t

d
dt
( t − sin t )
f. lim t → 0 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim t → 0 = lim t → 0
t2 02 0 t2 d t2
dt
1 − cos t 1 − cos 0 1− 1 0
= lim t → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression
2t 2⋅0 0 0
1 − cos t
d
dt
( 1 − cos t ) d 1 − d cos t
dt dt 0 + sin t sin 0 0
lim t → 0 = lim t → 0
d
= lim t → 0
d 2t
= lim t → 0 = = = 0
2t 2t 2 2 2
dt dt

t − sin t 0 − sin 0 0−0 0 t − sin t

g. lim t → 0 3
= 3
= = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim t → 0
t 0 0 0 t3
d
dt
( t − sin t ) d
dt
d sin t
t − dt 1 − cos t 1 − cos 0 1− 1 0
= lim t → 0
d t3
= lim t → 0 2
= lim t → 0 2
= 2
= = Apply the
3t 3t 3⋅ 0 0 0
dt
1 − cos t
d
dt
( 1 − cos t ) d 1 − d cos t
dt dt
rule again to the expression lim t → 0 = lim t → 0 = lim t → 0
3t 2 d
dt
3t 2 d 3t 2
dt
0 + sin t sin t sin 0 0

= lim t → 0 = lim t → 0 = = Apply the rule again to the expression
6t 6t 6⋅0 0
d sin t
sin t dt cos t cos 0 1
lim t → 0 = lim t → 0 = lim t → 0 = =
6t d 6t 6 6 6
dt
1+ x −1 1+ 0 −1 1 −1 1− 1 0 1+ x −1
h. lim x → 0 = = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
x2 02 0 0 0 x2
d
dx
( 1+ x −1 ) 1
2 1+ x
−0 1
2 1+ x
1
2 1+ 0
1
2
1
2 1 ⋅1 1
= lim x → 0 2
= = lim x → 0 = = = 0
= = = ∞
d x 2x 2x 2⋅0 0 2⋅0 0
dx 1
d sin x
sin x sin 0 0 sin x dx
i. lim x → 0 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
x3 03 0 x3 d x3
dx
cos x cos 0 1
= lim x → 0 2
= 2
= = ∞
3x 3⋅ 0 0
3 − 3 cos x 3 − 3 cos 0 3 − 3 ⋅1 3−3 0 3 − 3 cos x

j. lim x → 0 2
= 2
= = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
x+x 0+0 0 0 0 x + x2
d
dx
( 3 − 3 cos x ) d
dx
d 3 cos x
3 − dx 0 + 3 sin x 3 sin 0 3⋅ 0 0
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = = = 0
d
dx
(x+ x ) 2 d
dx
x+ d
dx
x 2 1 + 2x 1+ 2 ⋅ 0 1 1
k. lim x → ∞
2 + x2
=
2 + ∞2
=
∞
Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → ∞
2 + x2
= lim x → ∞
d
dx
(2 + x ) 2
x3 ∞3 ∞ x3 d
dx
x3

d d x2
2 + dx
dx 0 + 2x 2x 2 2 2
= lim x → ∞ 3
= lim x → ∞ 2
= lim x → ∞ 2
= lim x → ∞ = = = 0
d x 3x 3x 3x 3⋅ ∞ ∞
dx
Note: Think of the division of 2 by ∞ as the division of 2 by a very large number. In that
case, the result would then be very close to zero.
cos x − 1 cos 0 − 1 cos 0 − 1 1−1 0 cos x − 1

l. lim x → 0 = = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
cos 3 x − 1 cos ( 3 ⋅ 0 ) − 1 cos 0 − 1 1−1 0 cos 3 x − 1
d
dx
( cos x − 1) d cos x − d 1
dx dx − sin x − 0 sin x
d
dx
( cos 3x − 1) d cos 3 x − d 1
dx dx
− 3 sin 3 x − 0 3 sin 3 x
sin 0 sin 0 0 0
= = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression
3 sin (3 ⋅ 0 ) 3 sin 0 3⋅ 0 0
d sin x
sin x dx cos x cos 0 cos 0 1 1
lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = = =
3 sin 3 x d 3 sin 3x 9 cos 3 x 9 cos (3 ⋅ 0 ) 9 cos 0 9 ⋅1 9
dx
Solving indeterminate types of the form 0 ⋅ ∞ and ∞ − ∞ :

Indeterminate forms of the type 0 ⋅ ∞ and ∞ − ∞ can sometimes be transformed to the indeterminate
0 ∞
forms of the type or by changing the given expression algebraically. For example, the
0 ∞
expression lim x → ∞ x 2 e −2 x result in the indeterminate form of the type ∞ ⋅ 0 as the limit x
1 1
approaches infinity , i.e., lim x → ∞ x 2 e −2 x = ∞ 2 ⋅ e −2⋅∞ = ∞ 2 ⋅ 2⋅∞
= ∞⋅ = ∞ ⋅ 0 . However, by
e ∞
x2
rewriting the given expression in the form of lim x → ∞ result in the indeterminate form of the
e 2x
∞
type as the limit x approaches infinity. Thus, the L’Hopital’s rule can be applied, i.e.,
∞
d x2
x2 dx 2x 2x x ∞ ∞
lim x → ∞
2x
= lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ 2x
= lim x → ∞ 2x
= 2⋅∞
= .
e d e 2x e 2x d
⋅ dx 2x e ⋅2 e e ∞
dx
x x
Applying the L’Hopital’s rule again to the expression lim x → ∞ 2x
we obtain: lim x → ∞ 2x
e e
d x
1 1 1 1 1 1
= lim x → ∞ dx = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = = = = 0
d e 2x 2x d 2x 2x 2x 2⋅∞ 2⋅∞ ∞
dx
e ⋅ dx e ⋅2 2e 2e
The following are additional examples of expressions that result in the indeterminate forms of
the
0 ∞
type 0 ⋅ ∞ and ∞ − ∞ and can be changed to the indeterminate forms of the type or :
0 ∞

 4 1 
Example 3.6-6: Evaluate the limit of the algebraic expression lim x → 2  − .
 x −4 2 x − 2 
Solution:
 4 1  4 1 4 1 4 1
lim x → 2 
2
−  = 2
− = − = − = ∞ − ∞ Since the limit leads to
 x −4 x−2 2 −4 2−2 4−4 2−2 0 0
the indeterminate form of the type ∞ − ∞ we need to see if the given expression can be
rewritten in a different algebraic form. Let’s change the algebraic expression to the form that
0
leads to the indeterminate form of the type by taking the common denominator of the
0
algebraic expression and simplifying the numerator and the denominator.
 4
lim x → 2  −
1 
 = lim x → 2
(
4 (x − 2 ) − x 2 − 4 ) = lim x → 2
4x − 8 − x 2 + 4
= lim x → 2
− x 2 + 4x − 4
2
 x −4 x − 2 
(x 2
)
− 4 (x − 2 ) x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x + 8 x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x + 8
− 22 + 4⋅ 2 − 4 −4 + 8 − 4 0 − x 2 + 4x − 4
= = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule to lim x → 2
23 − 2 ⋅ 2 2 − 4 ⋅ 2 + 8 8−8−8+8 0 x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x + 8
= lim x → 2
d
dx
(− x 2
+ 4x − 4 ) = lim x → 2
−2 x + 4
=
−2 ⋅ 2 + 4
=
−4 + 4
=
0
Apply the
d
dx
(x 3
− 2x 2 − 4x + 8 ) 2
3x − 4 x − 4 2
3⋅ 2 − 4 ⋅ 2 − 4 12 − 8 − 4 0
−2 x + 4
d
dx
(− 2 x + 4) −2 −2
L’Hopital’s rule again to lim x → 2 = lim x → 2 = lim x → 2 =
2
3x − 4 x − 4 d
dx
( 3x 2
− 4x − 4 ) 6x − 4 6⋅2 − 4
−2 −2 1
= = = −
12 − 4 8 4
1
Example 3.6-7: Evaluate the limit of the algebraic expression lim x → ∞ x sin .
x
Solution:
1 1
lim x → ∞ x sin = ∞ ⋅ sin = ∞ ⋅ sin 0 = ∞ ⋅ 0 Since the limit leads to the indeterminate form of
x ∞
the type ∞ ⋅ 0 we need to see if the given expression can be rewritten in a different algebraic
form. Let’s change the algebraic expression to the form that leads to the indeterminate form
0 1
of the type by letting x = and by allowing t → 0 .
0 t
1 1 1 1 sin t sin 0 0
lim x → ∞ x sin = lim t → 0 sin 1
= lim t → 0 sin t = lim t → 0 = = Apply the
x t t t 0 0
t

d sin t
sin t dt cos t
L’Hopital’s rule to lim t → 0 = lim t → 0 d
= lim t → 0 = lim t → 0 cos t = cos 0 = 1
t t 1
dt
Solving indeterminate types of the form 1∞ , ∞ 0 , and 0 0 :

Similarly, indeterminate forms of the type 1∞ , ∞ 0 , and 0 0 may first be transformed to the
0 ∞
indeterminate forms of the type or by multiplying both sides of the function
0 ∞
1
lim x →a y = lim x →a f ( x ) by logarithm ( ln ) . For example, lim x→0 (cos x ) x result in the indeterminate
1 1
form of the type 1∞ as the limit x approaches zero, i.e., lim x→0 (cos x ) x = cos 0 0
1 1
= cos 0 0 = 1∞ . However, if we let y = (cos x ) x and take the logarithm of both sides of the
0 1
equation the solution has an indeterminate limit of the type , i.e., given y = (cos x ) x , then
0
1 1 1 ln (cos x ) ln (cos 0 )
ln y = ln (cos x ) x and ln y = lim x→0 ln (cos x ) x = lim x→0 ln (cos x ) ; lim x→0 =
x x 0
ln 1 0 0
= = . Since the limit result in an indeterminate form of the type the L’Hopital’s rule
0 0 0
1 ⋅ d
ln (cos x )
d
dx
ln (cos x ) cos x dx
cos x
can be applied to the expression lim x →0 = lim x→0 d
= lim x→0
x x 1
dx
1 sin x
= lim x→0 ⋅ − sin x = lim x→0 − = lim x→0 − tan x = − tan 0 = 0 . Thus, ln y = 0 . To solve
cos x cos x
for y we raise both sides of the equation by e and solve for y , i.e., e ln y = e 0 ; y = e 0 ; y = 1 .
Therefore, indeterminate forms of the type 1∞ , ∞ 0 , and 0 0 may first be transformed to the
0 ∞
indeterminate forms of the type or by rewriting the function lim x→a y = lim x→a f (x ) in a
0 ∞
different form and solving the algebraic expression. The following are additional examples of
expressions that result in the indeterminate forms of the type 1∞ , ∞ 0 , and 0 0 which may be rewritten
in a different form and solved:
Example 3.6-8: Evaluate the limit of the algebraic expression lim x → 0 x sin x .
Solution:
lim x → 0 x sin x = 0 sin 0 = 0 0 Since the limit leads to the indeterminate form of the type 0 0 let
y = x sin x then by taking the logarithm of both sides of the equation we obtain lim x→0 ln y
ln x ln 0 ∞
= lim x → 0 ln x sin x = lim x → 0 sin x ln x = lim x → 0 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule to
csc x csc 0 ∞

d ln x 1 1 1
ln x dx x x x
lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 d csc x
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 cos x
= lim x → 0 cos x
csc x − csc x cot x − sin1 x ⋅ sin x −
dx
sin 2 x
1 ⋅ sin 2 x sin 2 x sin 2 0 sin 0 0

= lim x → 0 − = lim x → 0 − = − = − = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule
x ⋅ cos x x cos x 0 ⋅ cos 0 0 ⋅1 0
d sin 2 x d sin x
2 sin x ⋅ dx
sin 2 x dx
again to the expression lim x → 0 − = lim x → 0 −
d x cos x
= lim x → 0 −
d x + x ⋅ d cos x
x cos x cos x ⋅ dx
dx dx
2 sin x ⋅ cos x 2 ⋅ sin 0 ⋅ cos 0 2 ⋅ 0 ⋅1 0 0

= lim x → 0 − = − = − = − = − = 0
cos x ⋅1 + x ⋅ − sin x cos 0 − 0 ⋅ sin 0 1− 0 ⋅ 0 1− 0 1
Thus, ln y = 0 ; e ln y = e 0 ; y = e 0 ; y = 1
x
1
Example 3.6-9: Evaluate the limit of the algebraic expression lim x → ∞  cos  .
 x
Solution:
x ∞
 1  1
lim x → ∞  cos  =  cos  = (cos 0)∞ = 1∞ Since the limit leads to the indeterminate form
 x  ∞ 
of
x
1
the type 1∞ let y =  cos  then by taking the logarithm of both sides of the equation we
 x
 1  1
x ln  cos  ln  cos 
 1  1  x  ∞
obtain lim x→∞ ln y = lim x → ∞ ln  cos  = lim x → ∞ x ln  cos  = lim x → ∞ 1
= 1
 x  x x ∞
 1 d ln  cos 1 
ln  cos   
ln (cos 0 ) ln 1 0  x dx  x
= 0
= 0
= Apply the L’Hopital’s rule to lim x → ∞ 1
= lim x → ∞ d 1
0 x dx x
1 1 1 1 d 1 1 1 1
⋅ d cos ⋅ − sin ⋅ ⋅ − sin ⋅−
cos (1 x )
dx x cos (1 x ) x dx x cos (1 x ) x x2
= lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞
− 1 − 1 − 1
x2 x2 x2
1 1
cos (1 x )
⋅ − sin 1 sin ( 1 x ) sin ( 1 ∞ ) sin 0
= lim x → ∞ x
= lim x → ∞ 1 ⋅ − sin = lim x→∞ − = − = −
1 cos (1 x ) x cos ( 1 x ) cos ( 1 ∞ ) cos 0
0
= − = 0 Thus, ln y = 0 ; e ln y = e 0 ; y = e 0 ; y = 1
1

Example 3.6-10: Evaluate the limit of the algebraic expression lim x → π ( tan x )cos x .
2
Solution:
cos π
 sin π  2 0
= ( tan 2 )
π
π cos 2  2   1
lim x → π ( tan x )cos x = =   = ∞ 0 Since the limit leads to the
2
 cos π   0
 2 
indeterminate form of the type ∞ 0 let y = ( tan x )cos x then by taking the logarithm of both sides
of the equation we obtain lim x→ π ln y = lim x→ π ln ( tan x )cos x = lim x→ π cos x ln ( tan x )
2 2 2
ln ( tan x )
(
ln tan π2 ) ln ∞ ∞ ln ( tan x )
= lim x → π = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule to lim x→ π
2 sec x sec π 2
∞ ∞ 2 sec x
d ln ( tan x )
1 ⋅ d
tan x dx
tan x 1
tan x
⋅ sec 2 x sec 2 x
dx
= lim x→ π = lim x→ π = lim x→ π = lim x→ π
2
d
dx
sec x 2 sec x tan x 2 sec x tan x 2 sec x tan 2 x
1
sec x cos x cos 2 x cos x cos π2 0
= lim x→ π 2
= lim x→ π = lim x→ π 2
= lim x→ π = = = 0
2
sin 2 π2
2 1
2 tan x 2 sin x 2 cos x sin x 2 sin x
cos 2 x
Thus, ln y = 0 ; e ln y = e 0 ; y = e 0 ; y = 1
Section 3.6 Practice Problems - Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms Using L’Hopital’s Rule
Evaluate the limit for the following functions by applying the L’Hopital’s rule, if needed:
ln x sin x 1 − cos x
a. lim x → ∞ 2
= b. lim x → 0 = c. lim x → 0 =
x x
e −1 x3
t−2 cos x t cos t
d. lim t → 2 2
= e. lim x → π π
= f. lim t → 0 =
t + 2t − 1 2 x− 2 sin t
2
x −8 sin x sin 8 x
g. lim x → 8 2
= h. lim x →π = i. lim x → 0 =
x − 64 π −x 3x
8t + 3 cos x − 1 1 − sin x
j. limt → ∞ = k. lim x → 0 2
= l. lim π =
4t − 2 x x→ 1 + cos 2 x
2

Chapter 4
Integration (Part I)
4.1 Integration Using the Basic Integration Formulas ................................................. 213
∫(x ) ∫ (3 x + )
 1 1 
∫  x 5 + x 2 + 6  dx
6
+ x 2 + 3 dx =; =; x + 5 x dx =
4.2 Integration Using the Substitution Method ............................................................. 222

x 4x 3 + 6x 2x −1
∫ 3 x 2 −1 dx =; ∫ x 4 + 3x 2 + 5
dx = ; ∫ 4 x 2 − x − 3 dx =
4.3 Integration of Trigonometric Functions .................................................................. 232

cos 2 x + sin 2 x
∫ ∫e ∫e
sin 5 x tan 5 x
dx =; cos 5 x dx = ; sec 2 5 x dx =
sin 2 x
4.4 Integration of Expressions Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions ......... 259

dx x2 dx
∫ 16 − 9 x 2
=; ∫ 9+ x 6
dx =; ∫ 2
9 x + 25
=
4.5 Integration of Expressions Resulting in Exponential or Logarithmic Functions 273
∫ (e ) x+6 1
∫ x + 5 dx ∫ x 2 + 10 x + 24 dx
x 2
+3 e x dx =; =; =

Calculus I 4.1 Integration Using the Basic Integration Formulas
Chapter 4 – Integration (Part I)

integration of various classes of functions. Integration using the basic integration formulas is
addressed in Section 4.1. Integration of functions using the Substitution method is discussed in
Section 4.2. How to find the integral of trigonometric functions is addressed in Section 4.3.
Integration of expressions resulting in inverse trigonometric functions is addressed in Section
4.4. Finally, the steps in integrating expressions that result in exponential or logarithmic
functions is discussed in Section 4.5. Each section is concluded by solving examples with
practice problems to further enhance the student’s ability.
4.1 Integration Using the Basic Integration Formulas
dy
A function F (x ) is called a solution of the differential equation = f (x ) over a defined interval
dx
d
I if the function F (x ) is differentiable at every point on that interval and if F (x ) = f (x ) at
dx
every point on that interval as well. Note that the function F (x ) is referred to as the
antiderivative of f (x ) . The set of all antiderivatives of a function f (x ) is called the indefinite
integral of f with respect to x . The indefinite integral is shown by the notation ∫ f (x ) dx . The
solution to the indefinite integral is given by F (x ) + c and is shown as ∫ f (x ) dx = F (x ) + c . The
symbol ∫ is referred to as the integral sign. The function f (x ) is called the integrand of the
integral. The dx indicates that the variable of integration is x and c is the constant of
integration. In the following examples we will solve problems using the following basic
indefinite integration formulas:
∫ a dx = ax + c a ≠ 0
∫ a f (x ) dx = a ∫ f (x ) dx a≠0
∫ [ f (x ) + g (x ) ] dx = ∫ f (x ) dx + ∫ g (x ) dx
x n +1
∫ x n dx =
n +1
+c n ≠ −1
Let’s integrate some integrals using the above basic integration formulas.
Example 4.1-1: Evaluate the following integrals.

a. ∫ dx = b. ∫ a dx = c. ∫ 5 dx =
∫ 10a dx = ∫ 3x dx = f.. ∫ x 3 dx =
2
d. e.
∫ (a + b ) x dx ∫ ( x + x ) dx = i. ∫ ( x 6 + x 2 + 3) dx =
5 3
g. = h.
Solutions:
1 0+1
∫ dx ∫x
0
a. = dx = x +c = x+c
0 +1

Check: Let y = x + c , then y ′ = x1−1 + 0 = x 0 = 1
a 0+1
b. ∫ a dx = a ∫ dx = a ∫ x 0 dx =
0 +1
x +c = ax + c
Check: Let y = ax + c , then y ′ = ax1−1 + 0 = ax 0 = a ⋅1 = a
5 0+1
c. ∫ 5 dx = 5∫ dx = 5∫ x 0 dx =
0 +1
x +c = 5x + c
Check: Let y = 5 x + c , then y ′ = 5 x1−1 + 0 = 5x 0 = 5⋅1 = 5
10a 2 0+1
d. ∫ ∫
10a 2 dx = 10a 2 dx = 10a 2 x 0 dx = ∫ x +c = 10a 2 x + c
0 +1
Check: Let y = 10a 2 x + c , then y ′ = 10a 2 x1−1 + 0 = 10a 2 x 0 = 10a 2 ⋅1 = 10a 2
3 1+1 3 2
e. ∫ 3x dx = 3∫ x dx = 3∫ x1dx =
1+1
x +c =
2
x +c
3 3
Check: Let y = x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 0 = 3x
2 2
1 3+1 1 4
∫ x dx
3
f. = x +c = x +c
3 +1 4
1 1
Check: Let y = x 4 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 x 4−1 + 0 = x3
4 4
a + b 5+1 a+b 6
∫ (a + b ) x = (a + b ) ∫ x 5 dx =
5
g. dx x +c = x +c
5 +1 6
or we can find the solution to the above integral in the following way – which is rather long:
∫ ( ax )  1 5+1 
∫ (a + b ) x ∫ ax ∫ ∫ ∫
5 5
dx = + bx 5 dx = 5
dx + bx 5 dx = a x 5 dx + b x 5 dx = a  x + c1 
 5 +1 
 1 5+1  a 6 b a b a+b 6
+b x + c2  = x + a c1 + x 6 + b c 2 =  +  x 6 + (a c1 + b c 2 ) = x +c
 5 +1  6 6 6 6 6
a+b 6 a+b
Check: Let y = x +c , then y ′ = ⋅ 6 x 6−1 + 0 = (a + b ) x 5
6 6
∫(x ) 1 3+1 1 1+1 1 4 1 2

∫x ∫
3 3
h. + x dx = dx + x dx = x + x +c = x + x +c
3 +1 1+1 4 2
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x 4 + x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 x 4−1 + ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 0 = x3 + x
4 2 4 2
∫(x ) 1 6+1 1 2+1 3 0+1 1 7 1 3

∫x ∫ ∫
6
i. + x 2 + 3 dx = 6
dx + x 2 dx + 3dx = x + x + x +c = x + x + 3x + c
6 +1 2 +1 0 +1 7 3

1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x 7 + x 3 + 3x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 7 x 7 −1 + ⋅ 3 x 3−1 + 3 x1−1 + 0 = x6 + x2 + 3
7 3 7 3

dx  1 1 
a. ∫ x3 = b. ∫  x 5 + x 2 + 6  dx = c. ∫ x 5 dx =
∫ (3 x + ) ∫ (5 x + x )
3
∫
3
d. x 2 dx = e. x + 5 x dx = f. + 10 dx =
1 1  1 
 + z 2  dz
g. ∫ t
dt = h. ∫ 5 x2 dx = i. ∫ 3 2 
=
 z 
Solutions:
dx 1 1 1
∫ x3 ∫x
−3
a. = dx = x −3+1 + c = − x −2 + c = − +c
− 3 +1 2 2x 2
1 1 1
Check: Let y = − x −2 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ −2 x −2−1 + 0 = x −3 = 3
2 2 x
 1 1  1 1 1 1
∫  x 5 + x 2 + 6  dx = ∫ x 5 dx + ∫ x 2 dx + ∫ 6 d x ∫x ∫ ∫
−5
b. = dx + x −2 dx + 6 x 0 dx = x −5+1 + x − 2+1
− 5 +1 − 2 +1
6 0+1 1 1 1
+ x +c = − x −4 − x −1 + 6 x + c = − 4
− + 6x + c
1+ 0 4 4x x
1 1
Check: Let y = − x −4 − x −1 + 6 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ −4 x − 4−1 + x −1−1 + 6 x1−1 + 0 = x −5 + x −2 + 6x 0
4 4
1 1
x −5 + x −2 + 6 = + +6
5
x x2
1
Exception: Note that we can not apply the same integration technique  ∫ x n dx = 
x n +1 + c 
 n +1 
1
in order to find the integral of ∫ x dx . This is because division by zero is undefined, i.e.,
1 1 1 0 1
∫ x dx = ∫ x ∫ x dx = ln
−1
dx = x −1+1 + c = x +c. As we will see in Section 4.5, x +c.
−1+1 0
1
1 1 +1
1 1+ 5
1 6
5 65
c. ∫ x 5 dx = ∫ x 5 dx =
1 + 15
x5 +c = 5+1
x 5 +c =
6
x5 +c =
6
x +c
5 5
6
5 5 6 65 −1 6−5 1
Check: Let y = x 5 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x +0 = x 5 = x5 = x5
6 6 5
3
2
1 2 +1
1 2+3
1 5
3 53
d. ∫ x 2 dx = ∫ x 3 dx =
1 + 23
x3 +c = 3+ 2
x 3 +c =
5
x3 +c =
5
x +c
3 3
5
3 3 5 53 −1 5−3 2
3
Check: Let y = x 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x + 0 = x 3 = x 3 = x2
5 5 3

∫ (3 x + )  1 1  1 dx 1 1 +1 1 +1
1 1
e. x + 5 x dx = ∫  x 3 + x 2 + 5 x  dx




= ∫ x3 ∫
+ x 2 dx + 5 x dx ∫ =
1 + 13
x3 +
1 + 12
x2
5 1+1 1 1+ 3
1 1+ 2
5 2 1 43 1 32 5 2 3 43 2 32 5 2
+ x +c = x 3 + x 2 + x +c = x + x + x +c = x + x + x +c
1+1 3+1 2 +1 2 4 3 2 4 3 2
3 2 3 2
4 3 4 −3
3 2 5 3 4 43 −1 2 3 32 −1 5 3− 2
Check: Let y = x 3 + x 2 + x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x + ⋅ x + ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 0 = x 3 +x 2 + 5x
4 3 2 4 3 3 2 2
1 1
= x 3 + x 2 + 5x = 3
x + x + 5x
∫( )  15  1 dx
1 1 +1
1 3+1
f. 5
x + x 3 + 10 dx = ∫  x + x 3 + 10  dx




= ∫ x5 ∫
+ x 3 dx + 10 dx ∫ =
1+ 1
x5 +
1+ 3
x + 10 x + c
5
1 1+ 5
1 4 5 6 1
x 5 + x + 10 x + c = x 5 + x 4 + 10 x + c
5+1 4 6 4
5
6
5 1 5 6 56 −1 1 6 −5
Check: Let y = x 5 + x 4 + 10 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x + ⋅ 4 x 4−1 + 10 x1−1 + 0 = x 5 + x 3 + 10 x 0
6 4 6 5 4
1
= x 5 + x 3 + 10 = 5
x + x 3 + 10
1 1 −1 1 1− 1 1 2 −1 1
g. ∫ t
dt = ∫ 1
dt = ∫ t 2 dt =
1 − 12
t 2 +c = 2 −1
t 2 +c = 2t 2 + c = 2 t + c
t2 2
1 1 −1 1− 2 −1
1 1 1
Check: Let y = 2t 2 + c , then y ′ = 2 ⋅ t 2 + 0 = t 2 =t 2 = 1
=
2 t
t 2
5− 2
1 1 −2 1 1− 2 1 5 53 55 3
h. ∫ 5 x2 dx = ∫ 2
dx = ∫ x 5 dx =
1 − 52
x 5 +c = 5− 2
x 5 +c =
3
x +c =
3
x +c
x5 5
3
5 5 3 53 −1 3−5 −2 1 1
Check: Let y = x 5 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x +0 = x 5 = x 5 = 2 =
3 3 5 5
x2
x5
 1     −2  −2 1− 2
  1 2 1 1 2+1
i. ∫ + z 2  dz = ∫  2 + z  dz = ∫  z 3 + z 2  dz
  = ∫ z 3 dz
∫
+ z 2 dz = z 3 + z +c
3 2  1− 2 2 +1
 z  z 3    3
3− 2 1
1 1 3 1 1
= z 3 + z + c = 3z 3 + z 3 + c = 3 3 z + z 3 + c
3− 2 3 3 3
3
1 1 −1 1−3 −2
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = 3z 3 + z 3 + c , then y ′ = 3 ⋅ z 3 + ⋅ 3 z 3−1 + 0 = z 3 + z2 = z 3 + z2 = + z2
3 3 3 3
z 2

∫ (1 + x ) ∫(x )
+ 1 ( x − 1) dx = ∫ ( 5x − 3) dx =
2 2 2
a. x dx = b. c.
∫ x ( 2 x + 1 ) dx ∫ ( a + b ) dx = ∫ ( a + x ) dx
2 3 3
d. = e. f. =
y4 + 4y3 − 6y2 y 3 + 3y 2 + 5
∫ ( a − x ) dx = ∫ ∫
3
g. h. dy = i. dy =
y2 y2
Solutions:
∫ (1 + x ) ∫( )
1 1 1 2+ 1
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
2
a. x dx = x + x 2 x dx = x dx + x 2 x dx = x 2 dx + x 2 x 2 dx = x 2 dx + x 2 dx
5 5 +1 5+ 2
1
1 1 +1
1 1 1+ 2
1 2 32 2 72
= ∫x 2
∫
dx + x 2 dx =
1 + 12
x2 +
1 + 32
x2 +c = 2 +1
x 2 +
2+5
x 2 +c =
3
x + x +c
7
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 x x 2 x3 x
= x3 + x7 + c = x2 ⋅ x + x2 ⋅ x2 ⋅ x2 ⋅ x + c = x x + x3 x + c = + +c
3 7 3 7 3 7 3 7
3 7
2 2 2 3 23 −1 2 7 72 −1 3− 2 7−2 1 5
Check: Let y = x 2 + x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x + ⋅ x +0 = x 2 + x 2 = x2 + x2
3 7 3 2 7 2
∫(x )
+ 1 (x − 1) dx ∫ (x ) ∫x ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫x ∫ ∫ ∫
3
b. 2
= 3
− x 2 + x − 1 dx = dx − x 2 dx + x dx − dx = 3
dx − x 2 dx + x dx − x 0 dx
1 3+1 1 2+1 1 1+1 1 0+1 1 4 1 3 1 2

= x − x + x − x +c = x − x + x − x+c
1+ 3 1+ 2 1+1 1+ 0 4 3 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x 4 − x 3 + x 2 − x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 x 4−1 − ⋅ 3 x 3−1 + ⋅ 2 x 2−1 − 1 + 0 = x 3 − x 2 + x −1
4 3 2 4 3 2
∫ ( 5x − 3) dx = ∫ ( 25x − 30 x + 9) dx
25 2+1 30 1+1 9 0+1
∫ 25x ∫ ∫
2 2 2
c. = dx − 30 x dx + 9 dx = x − x + x +c
2 +1 1+1 0 +1
25 3 30 2 25 3
x − x + 9x + c = x − 15 x 2 + 9 x + c
3 2 3
25 3 25
Check: Let y = x − 15 x 2 + 9 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3 x 3−1 − 15 ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 9 + 0 = 25 x 2 − 30 x + 9
3 3
∫ x ( 2 x + 1 ) dx ∫ x ( 4x ) ∫ ( 4x ) ∫ 4x ∫ ∫
2 3
d. = 2
+ 4 x + 1 dx = 3
+ 4 x 2 + x dx = dx + 4 x 2 dx + x dx
4 3+1 4 2+1 1 1+1 4 4 4 3 1 2 4 1

= x + x + x +c = x + x + x +c = x4 + x3 + x2 + c
3 +1 2 +1 1+1 4 3 2 3 2

4 1 4 1
Check: Let y = x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + c , then y ′ = 4 x 4−1 + ⋅ 3x 3−1 + ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 0 = 4 x 3 + 4 x 2 + x
3 2 3 2
1 0+1
e. ∫ ( a + b ) dx = ( a + b ) ∫ dx
3 3
= ( a + b )3 ∫ x 0 dx = ( a + b )3 ⋅ x +c = ( a + b )3 x + c
0 +1
Check: Let y = ( a + b ) 3 x + c , then y ′ = ( a + b )3 x1−1 + 0 = ( a + b )3 x 0 = ( a + b )3
∫ ( a + x ) dx ∫ (a ) ∫(x ) ∫x ∫ ∫
3 3
f. = 3
+ x 3 + 3a 2 x + 3ax 2 dx = 3
+ 3ax 2 + 3a 2 x + a 3 dx = dx + 3ax 2 dx + 3a 2 x dx
1 3+1 3a 2+1 3a 2 1+1 a 3 0+1 1 4 3a 2 2

x + ax 3 + x + a3x + c
∫
+ a 3 dx =
3 +1
x +
2 +1
x +
1+1
x +
0 +1
x +c =
4 2
1 3a 2 2 1 3a 2
Check: Let y = x 4 + ax 3 + x + a 3 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 x 4−1 + a ⋅ 3 x 3−1 + ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + a 3 x1−1 + 0
4 2 4 2
= x 3 + 3a x 2 + 3a 2 x + a 3 x 0 = x 3 + 3a x 2 + 3a 2 x + a 3 = a 3 + x 3 + 3a 2 x + 3ax 2 = (a + x )3
∫ ( a − x ) dx = ∫ ( a − x + 3a x − 3ax )dx ∫ (− x ) ∫ ∫ ∫
3 3 3 2 2 3
g. = − 3ax 2 + 3a 2 x + a 3 dx = − x 3 dx − 3ax 2 dx + 3a 2 x dx
1 3+1 3a 2+1 3a 2 1+1 a 3 0+1 1 3a 2 2

∫
+ a 3 dx = − x − x + x + x +c = − x 4 − ax 3 + x + a3x + c
3 +1 2 +1 1+1 0 +1 4 2
1 3a 2 2 1 3a 2
Check: Let y = − x 4 − ax 3 + x + a3x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 4 x 4−1 − a ⋅ 3x 3−1 + ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + a 3 x1−1 + 0
4 2 4 2
= − x 3 − 3a x 2 + 3a 2 x + a 3 x 0 = − x 3 − 3a x 2 + 3a 2 x + a 3 = a 3 − x 3 + 3a 2 x − 3ax 2 = (a − x )3
∫(y )
y4 + 4y3 − 6y2  y4 4y3 6 y 2 
∫ ∫ ∫y ∫ ∫
 2 2
h. dy =

+ − dy = + 4 y − 6 dy = dy + 4 y dy − 6 dy
y2  y2 y2 y 2 
1 4 1+1 6 1 3 4 2 6 1 3
= y 2+1 + y − y 0+1 + c = y + y − y+c = y + 2y2 − 6y + c
2 +1 1+1 0 +1 3 2 1 3
1 1
Check: Let w = y 3 + 2 y 2 − 6 y + c , then w′ = ⋅ 3 y 3−1 + 2 ⋅ 2 y 2−1 − 6 y 1−1 + 0 = y2 + 4y − 6
3 3
∫ ( y + 3 + 5 y ) dy
y 3 + 3y 2 + 5  y3 3y 2 5 
∫ ∫ ∫ y dy + ∫ 3 dy + ∫ 5 y
 −2 −2
i. dy =

+ + dy = = dy
y 2
 y 2
y 2
y 2 
1 1+1 3 5 1 2 1 2 5
= y + y 0+1 + y − 2+1 + c = y + 3 y − 5 y −1 + c = y + 3y − + c
1+1 0 +1 − 2 +1 2 2 y
1 2 1
Check: Let w = y + 3 y − 5 y −1 + c , then w′ = ⋅ 2 y 2−1 + 3 y 1−1 − 5 ⋅ − y −1−1 + 0 = y + 3 + 5 y −2
2 2

∫(x ) ∫ ∫ 30
3
a. − 6 x dx = b. x − 1 dx = c. x + 5 dx =
∫(x ) 2
∫5 ∫
2
d. − 5 x dx = e. x + 1 dx = f. 3 x + 2 dx =
∫ ( 2 x − 1) ∫ ( 2 x + 1) ∫ 6 x ( x + 1) dx =
3 2 2 3
g. dx = h. dx = i.
Solutions:
∫(x )
1 1 +1
 3 1  1 3+1 6 1 4 6 1+22
∫ ∫ ∫
3
a. − 6 x dx =  x − 6x 2

 dx
 = x 3 dx − 6 x 2 dx = x − x2 +c = x − x +c
3 +1 1 +1 4 1+ 2
  2 2
1 4 12 32 1 3
1 1 4
= x − x + c = x 4 − 4x 2 + c = x 4 − 4 x 3 + c = x − 4 x x + c
4 3 4 4 4
3
1 1 3 3 −1 1
Check: Let y = x 4 − 4 x 2 + c then y ′ = ⋅ 4 x 4−1 − 4 ⋅ x 2 + 0 = x 3 − 6x 2 = x 3 − 6 x
4 4 2
1 1 1 2 3 2 2 ( x − 1)
b. ∫ x − 1 dx = ∫ (x − 1) 2 dx = (x − 1) 2 +1 + c = (x − 1) 2 + c = (x − 1)3 + c = x −1 + c
1 +1 3 3 3
2
2 3 2 3 3 3− 2 1
Check: Let y = (x − 1) 2 + c then y ′ = ⋅ ( x − 1) 2 −1 + 0 = ( x − 1) 2 = ( x − 1) 2 = x −1
3 3 2
1 30 1 30 1+ 2 60 3
c. ∫ 30 x + 5 dx = ∫ 30 ( x + 5) 2 dx = 1
( x + 5) 2 +1 + c = 1+ 2
( x + 5) 2 +c = ( x + 5) 2 + c
+1 3
2 2
= 20 ( x + 5 ) 3 + c = 20( x + 5) x + 5 + c
60 3 60 3 3 3− 2 1
Check: Let y = ( x + 5) 2 + c then y ′ = ⋅ ( x + 5) 2 −1 + 0 = 30 ( x + 5) 2 = 30 ( x + 5) 2 = 30 x + 5
3 3 2
∫(x )
1
1 2+1 5 1 +1
1 3 5 1+22 1 3 10 32
∫ ∫
2
d. − 5 x dx = x 2 dx − 5 x 2 dx = x − x 2 +c = x − x +c = x − x +c
2 +1 1 +1 3 1+ 2 3 3
2 2
=
1 3 10
3
x −
3
x3 +c =
1 3 10
3
x − x x +c
3
=
1
3
(
x x 2 − 10 x + c )
1 10 32 1 10 3 3 −1 3 30 3−2 2 1
Check: Let y = x 3 − x + c then y ′ = ⋅ 3 x 3−1 − ⋅ x 2 + 0 = x 2 − x = x2 −5 x 2
3 3 3 3 2 3 6
= x2 −5 x
2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1+ 2 2 2 3
e. ∫5 x + 1 dx = ∫ ( x + 1) 2 dx = ⋅ ( x + 1) 2 +1 + c = ⋅ ( x + 1) 2 + c = ⋅ ( x + 1) 2 + c
5 5 1 +1 5 1+ 2 5 3
2 2

4 3 4 4
= ( x + 1) 2 + c = ( x + 1) 3 + c = ( x + 1) x + 1 + c
15 15 15
4 3 4 3 3 12 3− 2 2 1 2
Check: Let y = ( x + 1) 2 + c then y ′ = ⋅ ( x + 1) 2 −1 + 0 = ( x + 1) 2 = ( x + 1) 2 = x +1
15 15 2 30 5 5
1 1 1 1 1+ 2 2 3
f. ∫ 3 x + 2 dx = ∫ ( 3x + 2) 2 dx = 1
( 3x + 2) 2 +1 + c = 1+ 2
( 3x + 2) 2 +c = ( 3x + 2) 2 + c
+1 3
2 2
2 2
= ( 3x + 2 ) 3 + c = ( 3 x + 2) 3x + 2 + c
3 3
2 3 2 3 3 6 3− 2 1
Check: Let y = ( 3x + 2) 2 + c then y ′ = ⋅ ( 3 x + 2 ) 2 −1 + 0 = ( 3x + 2) 2 = ( 3x + 2) 2 = 3x + 2
3 3 2 6
∫ ( 2 x − 1) ∫ [ (2 x ) − 13 + 3 ⋅ (2 x )2 ⋅1 − 3 ⋅ 2 x ⋅12 dx ] ∫ ( 8x ) = 8∫ x 3 dx + 12∫ x 2 dx
3 3 3
g. dx = = − 1 + 12 x 2 − 6 x dx
8 3+1 12 2+1 6 1+1 1 0+1

∫
− 6 x dx − dx = ∫ x + x − x − x +c = 2 x4 + 4 x3 − 3 x2 − x + c
3 +1 2 +1 1+1 0 +1
Check: Let y = 2 x 4 + 4 x 3 − 3x 2 − x + c , then y ′ = 2 ⋅ 4 x 4−1 + 4 ⋅ 3x 3−1 − 3 ⋅ 2 x 2−1 − x1−1 + 0
= 8 x 3 + 12 x 2 − 6 x − 1 = (2 x − 1)3
∫ ( 4x ) 4 2+1 4 1+1 1 0+1

∫ ( 2 x + 1) ∫ ∫ ∫
2 2
h. dx = + 4 x + 1 dx = 4 x 2 dx + 4 x dx + dx = x + x + x +c
2 +1 1+1 0 +1
4 3 4 2 4 3
= x + x + x+c = x + 2x 2 + x + c
3 2 3
4 4
Check: Let y = x 3 + 2 x 2 + x + c then y ′ = ⋅ 3 x 3−1 + 2 ⋅ 2 x 2−1 + 1 + 0 = 4 x 2 + 4 x + 1 = (2 x + 1)2
3 3
∫ 6 x ( x + 1) dx ∫ ( 6x ) 6 5+1 6 2+1 6 6 6 3
i. 2 3
= 5
+ 6 x 2 dx = 6∫ x 5 dx + 6∫ x 2 dx = x + x +c = x + x +c
5 +1 2 +1 6 3
2
= x6 + x3 + c = x 6 + 2x 3 + c
1
Check: Let y = x 6 + 2 x 3 + c , then y ′ = 6 x 6−1 + 2 ⋅ 3x 3−1 + 0 = 6 x 5 + 6 x 2
In the next section we will discuss a more systematic method of integration, referred to as the
substitution method, in evaluating more difficult integrals.

Section 4.1 Practice Problems – Integration Using the Basic Integration Formulas
1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals:

2
a. ∫ − 3 dx = b. ∫ 5k dx = c. ∫ 3 x dx =
∫ x dx = ∫ ax dx = ∫(x )
5 7 4
d. e. f. + x3 dx =
dx  1 1  3
g. ∫ x4 = h. ∫  x4 − x2  dx = i. ∫ x 6 dx =

 3 x 2 + x  dx 1 1
a. ∫  

= b. ∫− 2 t
dt = c. ∫ 7 x2 dx =
∫ (1 + x ) ∫ (2x )
+ 1 (x − 1) dx ∫ x ( 3x − 1 )
2 2
d. x dx = e. = f. dx =
y5 + 4 y 2
∫ ( 2 + x ) dx = ∫ ( 2 − x ) dx = ∫
3 3
g. h. i. dy =
y2

Calculus I 4.2 Integration Using the Substitution Method
4.2 Integration Using the Substitution Method

A method of solving integrals in which a change in variable can often change a difficult integral
into a simpler form is referred to as the Substitution method. In this section we will learn how to
use this method.
Given the integral ∫ f [ g (x ) ]⋅ g ′(x ) dx , where f (x ) and g ′(x ) are continuous functions, use the
following steps in order to solve the integral by the Substitution method:
du du
First - Let u = g (x ) , then = g ′(x ) which implies du = g ′(x ) ⋅ dx and dx = .
dx g ′(x )
du
Second - Replace g (x ) with u and dx with to obtain
g ′(x )
du
∫ f [ g (x ) ]⋅ g ′(x ) dx = ∫ f [ u ]⋅ g ′(x )⋅ g ′(x ) = ∫ f [ u ]⋅ du
Third - Solve the integral by integrating the function f (u ) with respect to u using integration
formulas.
Fourth - Change the solution back to its original form by replacing u with g (x ) .
Fifth - Check the answer by taking the derivative of the solution.
In the following examples we will solve integrals using the above substitution method.
Example 4.2-1: Evaluate the following indefinite integrals:
∫ 5x (x − 3) dx = ∫ x (x + 1) dx ∫ 4 x ( x − 1) dx =
4 5 2 2 3 2 3 4 3
a. b. = c.
d. ∫ 2x 1 − x 2 dx = e. ∫x x 2 + 3 dx = f. ∫ 10 x + 1 dx =
5 1
g. ∫ 3 5x − 1 dx = h. ∫ 6x 3 x 2 + 2 dx = i. ∫ x+6
dx =
Solutions:
( )
a. Given ∫ 5 x 4 x 5 − 3 2 dx let u = x 5 − 3 , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
(
x5 − 3 ) = 5x 4
which implies that du = 5 x 4 dx
du
and dx = 4
. Substituting the equivalent values of x 5 − 3 and dx back into the integral we obtain
5x
∫ 5x (x − 3) dx
4 5 2
= ∫ 5x
4
⋅u 2 ⋅
du
4
= ∫u
2
du =
1 2+1
2 +1
u +c =
1 3
3
u +c =
1 5
3
(
x −3 ) 3
+c
5x
Check: Let y =
1 5
3
( 3
x −3 +c , ) then y ′ =
1
3
( )
⋅ 3 x 5 − 3 3−1⋅ 5 x 4 + 0 (
= 5x 4 x 5 − 3 ) 2
∫ x ( x + 1) dx let u = x + 1 , then ( ) = 3x
2 3 2 3 du d 2
b. Given = x3 +1 which implies that du = 3x 2 dx
dx dx
du
and dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of x 3 + 1 and dx back into the integral we obtain
3x 2

∫ x ( x + 1) dx = ∫ x ⋅ u ⋅ 3x 2
2 3 2 2 2 du
=
1
3 ∫
u 2 du =
1 1 2+1
3 2 +1
u +c =
1 3
9
u +c =
1 3
9
3
(
x +1 + c )
Check: Let y =
1 3
9
( 3
x +1 + c , ) then y ′ =
1
9
( )
⋅ 3 x 3 + 1 3−1⋅ 3 x 2 + 0 =
3
(
1 3
x + 1 2 ⋅ 3x 2 ) = x2 x3 + 1 ( ) 2
( )
c. Given ∫ 4 x 3 x 4 − 1 3 dx let u = x 4 − 1 , then
du
dx
=
d 4
dx
x −1 ( ) = 4x 3
du
and dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of x 4 − 1 and dx back into the integral we obtain
4x 3
∫ ( 4 x 3 x 4 − 1 dx) 3
= ∫ 4x 3 ⋅ u 3 ⋅
du
= ∫ u 3 du =
1 3+1
u +c =
1 4
u +c =
1 4
4
x −1 ( ) 4
+c
4x 3 3 +1 4
Check: Let y =
1 4
4
(
x −1 ) 4
+c , then y ′ =
1
4
(
⋅ 4 x 4 −1 ) 4 −1
⋅ 4x 3 + 0 = 4x 3 x 4 −1 ( ) 3
d. Given ∫ 2 x 1 − x 2 dx let u = 1 − x 2 , then

du
dx
=
d
dx
(
1− x 2 ) = −2 x which implies that du = −2 x dx
du
and dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of 1 − x 2 and dx back into the integral we obtain
− 2x
( )
1 1 +1 3 3
du 1 2 2
= − ∫ u 2 du = − 1− x2
∫ 2x 1 − x 2 dx = ∫ 2x ⋅ u ⋅
− 2x 1 +1
u2 +c = − u2 +c = −
3 3
2 +c
2
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 −1 1
2 2 3
Check: Let y = − 1− x 2 2 +c, then y ′ = − ⋅ 1− x 2 2 ⋅ −2 x + 0 = 2x 1 − x 2 2 = 2x 1 − x 2
3 3 2
e. Given ∫x x 2 + 3 dx let u = x 2 + 3 , then

du
dx
=
dx
(
d 2
x +3 ) = 2x which implies that du = 2x dx
du
and dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of x 2 + 3 and dx back into the integral we obtain
2x
( )
3
du 1 1
1 1 1 +1
1 2 32 1 3 1 2
∫ x x 2 + 3 dx = ∫ x⋅ u ⋅
2x
=
2 ∫
u 2 du = ⋅
2 1 +1
u2 +c = ⋅ u +c = u2 +c =
2 3 3 3
x +3 2 +c
2
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 −1 1
1 2 1 3 2
Check: Let y = x +3 2 +c , then y ′ = ⋅ x +3 2 ⋅ 2x + 0 = x x2 + 3 2 = x x2 + 3
3 3 2
du d
f. Given ∫ 10 x + 1 dx let u = 10 x + 1 , then = (10 x + 1) = 10 which implies that du = 10 dx and
dx dx
du
dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of 10 x + 1 and dx back into the integral we obtain
10
1
du u2 1 1 1 +1
1 2 23 1 32 1 3
∫ 10 x + 1 dx = ∫ u⋅ = ∫ du = ⋅ u2 +c = ⋅ u +c = u +c = ( 10 x + 1) 2 + c
10 10 10 1 + 1 10 3 15 15
2

1 3 1 3 3 1
Check: Let y = (10 x + 1) 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ (10 x + 1) 2 −1 ⋅10 + 0 = (10 x + 1) 2 = 10 x + 1
15 15 2
du d
g. Given ∫ 3 5x − 1 dx let u = 5 x − 1 , then = (5 x − 1) = 5 which implies that du = 5 dx and
dx dx
du
dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of 5 x − 1 and dx back into the integral we obtain
5
1 1 +1
du 1 1 1 1 3 34 3 43 3 4
∫ 3
5 x − 1 dx = ∫ 3
u⋅ = u 3 du∫ = ⋅ u3 +c = ⋅ u +c = u +c = ( 5 x − 1) 3 + c
5 5 5 1 +1 5 4 20 20
3
3 4 3 4 4 1
Check: Let y = ( 5 x − 1) 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ( 5 x − 1) 3 −1 ⋅ 5 + 0 = ( 5 x − 1) 3 = 3 5 x − 1
20 20 3
h. Given ∫ 6 x 5 3x 2 + 2 dx let u = 3x 2 + 2 then

du
dx
=
d
dx
(
3x 2 + 2 ) = 6 x which implies that du = 6 x dx
du
and dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of 3x 2 + 2 and dx back into the integral we
6x
obtain
( )
6
5 du 1
1 1 +1
5 65 5
= ∫ u 5 du = 3x 2 + 2
∫ 6 x 3 x 2 + 2 dx = ∫ 6x ⋅ 5 u ⋅
6x 1 +1
u5 +c =
6
u +c =
6
5 +c
5
( ) ( ) ( )
6 6 −1 1
5 5 6
Check: Let y = 3x 2 + 2 5 +c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3x 2 + 2 5 ⋅ 6x + 0 = 6 x 3x 2 + 2 5 = 6 x 5 3x 2 + 2
6 6 5
1 du d
i. Given ∫ dx let u = x + 6 , then = ( x + 6) = 1 which implies that du = dx . Substituting
x+6 dx dx
the equivalent values of x + 6 and dx back into the integral we obtain
1 1 −1 1 1− 1 1 2 −1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ du = ∫ u 2 du = u 2 +c = u 2 +c = 2u 2 + c = 2 ( x + 6) 2 + c
x+6 u 1 − 12 2 −1
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = 2 ( x + 6) 2 + c , then y ′ = 2 ⋅ ( x + 6) 2 −1 ⋅1 + 0 = ( x + 6)− 2 = =
2 ( x + 6)
1
2 x+6
10 x x
a. ∫ x−5
dx = b. ∫ x2 −3
dx = c. ∫ 3 x 2 − 1 dx =
x2 5x 4 5x 4
d. ∫ x3 +1
dx = e. ∫ x5 + 3
dx = f. ∫ 5 x 5 + 3 dx =
4x 3 + 6x 3x 2 + 4 x 2x −1
g. ∫ x 4 + 3x 2 + 5
dx = h. ∫ 3 x 3 + 2 x 2 − 1 dx = i. ∫ 4 x 2 − x − 3 dx =

Solutions:
10 du d
a. Given ∫ dx let u = x − 5 , then = ( x − 5) = 1 which implies that du = dx . Substituting
x−5 dx dx
the equivalent values of x − 5 and dx back into the integral we obtain
10 10 −1 10 1− 1 10 2 −1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ du = 10∫ u 2 du = 1
u 2 +c = 2 −1
u 2 +c = 20u 2 + c = 20( x − 5) 2 + c
x−5 u 1− 2 2
1 1 1 1 10 10
Check: Let y = 20( x − 5) 2 + c , then y ′ = 20 ⋅ ( x − 5) 2 −1 + 0 = 10( x − 5) − 2 = =
2 ( x − 5)
1
2 x−5
b. Given ∫
x
2
dx let u = x 2 − 3 , then
du
dx
=
d 2
dx
x −3 ( ) = 2 x which implies that du = 2 x dx and
x −3
du
dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of x 2 − 3 and dx back into the integral we obtain
2x
( )
1
x x du 1 −1 1 1 1− 12 1 1 22−1 1
∫ dx = ∫ ⋅ = ∫
u 2 du = ⋅ u +c = ⋅ u +c = u 2 +c = x2 − 3 2 +c
x2 −3 u 2x 2 2 1− 1 2 2−1
2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 −1
1 2 1 2 x x
Check: Let y = x 2 − 3 2 +c , then y ′ = x −3 2 +0 = x − 3 2 ⋅ 2x = =
2 2
(x )
1 2
2
−3 2 x −3
c. Given
x
∫ 3 x 2 − 1 dx let u = x
2
−1 , then
du
dx
=
d 2
dx
x −1( ) = 2 x which implies that du = 2 x dx and
du
2x
( )
2
x x du 1 −1 1 1 1− 13 1 1 33−1 3 2 3 2
∫ 3 x 2 −1 dx = ∫ 3
u 2x
⋅ =
2 ∫
u 3 du = ⋅
2 1− 1
u +c =
2
⋅
3−1
u +c = u3 +c =
4 4
x −1 3 +c
3 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 −1 2 −3 −1
3 2 3 2 2 1 2
Check: Let y = x −1 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x −1 3 ⋅ 2x + 0 = x −1 3 ⋅ 2x = x x 2 −1 3
4 4 3 2
x x
= =
(x − 1)
1 3
2 3 x 2 −1
d. Given ∫
x2
3
dx let u = x 3 + 1 , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
(
x3 +1 ) = 3x 2
which implies that du = 3x 2 dx
x +1
du
and dx = 2
. Substituting the equivalent values of x 3 + 1 and dx back into the integral we obtain
3x
x2 x2
( )
1
du 1 −1 1 1 1− 12 1 1 22−1 2 12 2 3
∫ x3 +1
dx = ∫ u 3x 2
⋅ =
3 ∫
u 2 du = ⋅
3 1− 1
u +c = ⋅
3 2−1
u +c =
3
u +c =
3
x +1 2 +c
2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 1− 2 −1
2 3 2 1 1 3
Check: Let y = x +1 2 +c, then y ′ = ⋅ x 3 + 1 2 ⋅ 3x 2 + 0 = x +1 2 ⋅ 3x 2 = x 2 x3 +1 2
3 3 2 3

x2 x2
= =
(x + 1)
1
3 2 x3 +1
e. Given ∫
5x 4
du
dx
=
d
dx
(
x5 + 3 ) = 5x 4
x5 + 3
du
and dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of x 5 + 3 and dx back into the integral we
5x 4
obtain
5x 4 5x 4
( )
1
du −1 1 1− 1 1 2 −1 1
∫ dx = ∫ ⋅ = ∫ u 2 du = u 2 +c = u 2 +c = 2u 2 + c = 2 x 5 + 3 2 +c
5
x +3 u 5x 4 1 − 12 2 −1
2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 1− 2 −1
1 5
Check: Let y = 2 x 5 + 3 2 +c , then y ′ = 2 ⋅ x + 3 2 ⋅ 5x 4 + 0 = x 5 + 3 2 ⋅ 5x 4 = 5x 4 x 5 + 3 2
2
5x 4 5x 4
= =
( x + 3)
1
5 2 x5 + 3
f. Given
5x 4
∫ 5 x 5 + 3 dx let u = x
5
+3, then
du
dx
=
d
dx
(
x5 + 3 ) = 5x 4
du
and dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of x 5 + 3 and dx back into the integral we
5x 4
obtain
5x 4 5x 4
( )
5 −1 4
du −1 1 1− 1 1 5 54 5 5
∫ 5 x5 + 3 dx = ∫ 5u ⋅
5x 4
= ∫ u 5 du =
1 − 15
u 5 +c = 5−1
u 5 +c =
4
u +c =
4
x +3 5 +c
5
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 4 −1 4 −5 −1
5 5 5 4 5
Check: Let y = x +3 5 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x +3 5 ⋅ 5x 4 + 0 = x5 + 3 5 ⋅ 5x 4 = 5x 4 x 5 + 3 5
4 4 5
5x 4 5x 4
= =
(x + 3)
1 5
5 5 x5 + 3
g. Given ∫
4x 3 + 6x
4 2
dx let u = x 4 + 3 x 2 + 5 , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 4 + 3x 2 + 5 ) = 4x 3
+ 6x which implies
x + 3x + 5
(
that du = 4 x 3 + 6 x dx and dx = ) 3
du
4x + 6x
. Substituting the equivalent values of x 4 + 3x 2 + 5 and dx
4x 3 + 6x 4x 3 + 6x du du −1
back into the integral we obtain ∫ 4
x + 3x + 5 2
dx = ∫ u
⋅
4x 3 + 6x
= ∫ u
= ∫ u 2 du
( )
1
1 1− 1 1 2 −1 1
= 1
u 2 +c = 2 −1
u 2 +c = 2u 2 + c = 2 x 4 + 3x 2 + 5 2 +c = 2 x 4 + 3x 2 + 5 + c
1− 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 1− 2
1 4
Check: Let y = 2 x 4 + 3x 2 + 5 2 +c , then y ′ = 2 ⋅ x + 3x 2 + 5 2 4 x 3 + 6 x + 0 = x 4 + 3x 2 + 5 2
2

(
× 4x 3 + 6x ) = (x 4
+ 3x 2 + 5 ) ( 4x
−1
2 3
+ 6x )= 4x 3 + 6x
=
4x 3 + 6x
(x )
1
4
+ 3x 2 + 5 2 x 4 + 3x 2 + 5
h. Given
3x 2 + 4 x
∫ 3 x 3 + 2 x 2 − 1 dx let u = x 3 + 2 x 2 − 1 , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 3 + 2x 2 −1 ) = 3x 2
+ 4x which implies
(
that du = 3x 2 + 4 x dx and dx = ) du
2
3x + 4 x
. Substituting the equivalent values of x 3 + 2 x 2 − 1 and dx
3x 2 + 4 x 3x 2 + 4 x du du −1
back into the integral we obtain ∫ 3 x 3 + 2x 2 −1 dx = ∫ 3
u
⋅
3x 2 + 4 x
= ∫3u ∫ = u 3 du
=
1
1 − 13
u
1− 1
3 +c = 3−1
1
u
3−1
3 +c =
3 23
2
u +c =
3 3
2
(
x + 2x 2 −1 )
2
3 +c =
33
2
( 2
x 3 + 2x 2 − 1 + c )
3
( ) ( ) (3x ) ( )
2 2 −1 2 −3
3 3 3 2 3
Check: Let y = x + 2x 2 −1 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x + 2x 2 −1 3 2
+ 4x + 0 = x 3 + 2x 2 −1 3
2 2 3
(
× 3x 2 + 4 x ) = (x 3
+ 2x 2 −1 ) ( 3x
−1
3 2
+ 4x )= 3x 2 + 4 x
=
3x 2 + 4 x
(x )
1 3
3
+ 2x 2 −1 3 x 3 + 2x 2 −1
i. Given
2x −1
∫ 4 x 2 − x − 3 dx let u = x 2 − x − 3 , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
(
x2 − x −3 ) = 2 x − 1 which implies that
du
du = (2 x − 1) dx and dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of x 2 − x − 3 and dx back into
2x −1
2x −1 2x −1 du du −1 1 1− 1
the integral we obtain ∫ 4 x 2 − x − 3 dx = ∫ 4
u
⋅
2x −1
= ∫ 4 u = ∫u 4 du =
1 − 14
u 4 +c
( ) ( )
3
1 4 −1
4 34 4 2 44 3
= u 4 +c = u +c = x − x −3 4 +c = x2 − x − 3 +c
4 −1 3 3 3
4
( ) ( ) (x )
3 3 −1 3− 4
4 2 4 3
Check: Let y = x − x−3 4 +c , then y ′ = ⋅ x 2 − x − 3 4 (2 x − 1) + 0 = 2
− x−3 4 (2 x − 1)
3 3 4
(
= x2 − x −3 ) −1
4 ( 2 x − 1) = 2x −1
=
2x −1
(x )
1 4
2
− x−3 4 x2 − x −3


x2 + 2 5x 4 − 4 x 3 + 1 x4 − 2
a. ∫ 5 x 3 + 6x + 3 dx = b. ∫ 5
x −x +x 4
dx = c. ∫ 5
x − 10 x
dx =
z x3 dx
d. ∫ 2z 2 −1
dz = e. ∫ x 4 −1
dx = f. ∫ (1 + x ) 2 x
=
∫ x ( x − 1)
1
x 8x
∫ (4 − x 2 ) 2 ∫
2 3
g. dx = h. 5 dx = i. dx =
x2 −3
Solutions:
a. Given
x2 + 2
∫ 5 x 3 + 6 x + 3 dx let u = x
3
+ 6x + 3 , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
(
x 3 + 6x + 3 ) = 3x 2
+6 which implies that
(
du = 3 x 2 + 6 dx ) and dx =
du
2
3x + 6
. Substituting the equivalent values of x 3 + 6 x + 3 and dx back
x2 + 2 x2 + 2 du 1 du 1 −1
into the integral we obtain ∫ 5 x 3 + 6x + 3 dx = ∫ 5
u
⋅
(
3 x2 + 2 )
=
3 ∫5u =
3∫u 5 du
=
1 1 1− 15
⋅
3 1− 1
u +c =
1 1 55−1
⋅
3 5−1
u +c =
5 54
12
u +c =
5 3
12
x + 6x + 3 ( )
4
5 +c =
5 5
12
( 4
x 3 + 6x + 3 + c )
5 5
( ) ( ) ⋅ (3x ) ( )
4 4 −1 4 −5
5 3 5 4 3 2 1 3
Check: Let y = x + 6x + 3 5 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x + 6x + 3 5 +6 +0 = x + 6x + 3 5
12 12 5 3
(
× 3x 2 + 6 ) = 13 (x 3
+ 6x + 3 ) −1
5 (
⋅3 x2 + 2 )= x2 + 2
=
x2 + 2
(x )
1 5
3
+ 6x + 3 5 x 3 + 6x + 3
b. Given ∫
5x 4 − 4 x 3 + 1
5 4
dx let u = x 5 − x 4 + x , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
(
x5 − x4 + x ) = 5x 4
− 4x 3 + 1 which implies
x −x +x
(
that du = 5 x 4 − 4 x 3 + 1 dx and dx = ) du
5x − 4 x 3 + 1
4
. Substituting the equivalent values of x 5 − x 4 + x
5x 4 − 4 x 3 + 1 5x 4 − 4 x 3 + 1 du du
and dx back into the integral we obtain ∫ 5
x −x +x 4
dx = ∫ u
⋅
4
5x − 4 x + 1 3
= ∫ u
( )
1
−1 1 1− 1 1 2 −1 1
∫ u 2 du = u 2 +c = u 2 +c = 2u 2 + c = 2 x 5 − x 4 + x 2 +c = 2 x5 − x4 + x + c
1 − 12 2 −1
2
( ) ( ) ( 5x ) ( )
1 1 −1 −1
1
Check: Let y = 2 x 5 − x 4 + x 2 +c, then y ′ = 2 ⋅ x 5 − x 4 + x 2 4
− 4x 3 + 1 + 0 = x5 − x4 + x 2
2

(
× 5x 4 − 4 x 3 + 1 )= 5x 4 − 4 x 3 + 1
=
5x 4 − 4 x 3 + 1
(x )
1
5
− x4 + x 2 x5 − x4 + x
c. Given ∫
x4 − 2
dx let u = x 5 − 10 x , then
du
dx
=
d 5
dx
(
x − 10 x ) = 5x 4
− 10 which implies that
x 5 − 10 x
(
du = 5 x 4 − 10 dx ) and dx =
du
. Substituting the equivalent values of x 5 − 10 x and dx back
(
5 x −2 4
)
x4 − 2 x4 − 2 du 1 du 1 −1
into the integral we obtain ∫ x 5 − 10 x
dx = ∫ u
⋅
(
5 x4 − 2 )
=
5 ∫ u
=
5 ∫
u 2 du
( )
1
1 1 1− 12 1 1 22−1 2 12 2 5 2
= ⋅ u +c = ⋅ u +c = u +c = x − 10 x 2 +c = x 5 − 10 x + c
5 1− 1 5 2−1 5 5 5
2 2
( ) ( ) ( 5x ) ( ) (5x )
1 1 −1 −1
2 5 2 1 5 4 1 5 4
Check: Let y = x − 10 x 2 +c, then y ′ = ⋅ x − 10 x 2 − 10 + 0 = x − 10 x 2 − 10
5 5 2 5
=
1 5
(
x − 10 x ) −1
2 (
⋅5 x4 − 2 )= x4 − 2
=
x4 − 2
(x )
5 1
5
− 10 x 2 x 5 − 10 x
d. Given ∫
z
2
dz let u = 2 z 2 − 1 , then
du
dz
=
d
dz
(
2z 2 −1 ) = 4 z which implies that du = 4z dz
2z −1
du
and dz = . Substituting the equivalent values of 2 z 2 − 1 and dx back into the integral we obtain
4z
−1
( )
1
z z du u 2 1 1 1− 12 1 1 22−1 1 1 1
2z 2 − 1
∫ 2z 2 −1
dz = ∫ ⋅
u 4z
= ∫ 4
du = ⋅
4 1− 1
u +c = ⋅
4 2 −1
u +c = u2 +c =
2 2
2 +c
2 2
( ) ( ) ( 2 z − 1)
1 1 −1 −1
1 1 1 z
Check: Let y = 2z 2 −1 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 2z 2 −1 2 ⋅ 4z + 0 = 2 2 ⋅z =
2 2 2 2z 2 −1
e. Given ∫
x3
4
du
dx
=
d
dx
x 4 −1 ( ) = 4x 3
which implies that du = 4 x 3 dx and
x −1
du
dx =
3
4x
−1
x3 x3
( )
1
du u 2 1 1 1− 12 1 1 22−1 1 1 1 4
∫ x 4 −1
dx = ∫ u 4x 3
⋅ = ∫ 4
du = ⋅
4 1− 1
u +c = ⋅
4 2 −1
u +c = u2 +c =
2 2
x −1 2 +c
2 2
( ) ( ) (x − 1) x3
1 1 −1 −1
1 4 1 1 4
Check: Let y = x −1 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x −1 2 ⋅ 4x 3 + 0 = 4 2 ⋅ x3 =
2 2 2 x 4 −1

f. Given ∫ (1 + x ) 2
dx
let u = 1 + x , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
1+ x ( )= 2 x
1
which implies that du =
dx
2 x
x
and dx = 2 x du . Substituting the equivalent values of 1 + x and dx back into the integral we
obtain
dx 2 x du 2 du 2 1−2 2 2
∫ (1 + x ) 2 x
= ∫ u 2
x
= ∫ u 2 ∫
= 2 u −2 du =
1− 2
u + c = − 2u −1 + c = − + c = −
u 1+ x
+c
0− 1 ⋅2 1
2 2 x x 1
Check: Let y = − +c, then y ′ = − +0 = =
1+ x (1 + x ) 2 (1 + x ) 2 (
x 1+ x )2
g. Given
x
∫ (4 − x2 ) 2 dx let u = 4 − x 2 , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
4 − x2 ( ) = −2x which implies that du = −2 xdx
du
and dx = . Substituting the equivalent values of 4 − x 2 and dx back into the integral we
− 2x
obtain
x x du 1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ ( 4 − x 2 )2 dx = ∫ u 2 ⋅ − 2 x = −
2 ∫
u − 2 du = − ⋅
2 − 2 +1
u − 2+1 + c = u −1 + c =
2 2u
+c =
2 4− x2 ( )
+c
1 0 + 4x 4x x
Check: Let y = +c, then y ′ = +0 = =
(
2 4 − x2 ) (
4 4 − x2 ) 2
(
4 4 − x2 ) 2
(4 − x ) 2 2
∫ x ( x − 1) ( ) = 3x
1
2 3 du d
h. Given 5 dx let u = x 3 − 1 , then = x 3 −1 2
which implies that du = 3x 2 dx
dx dx
du
and dx = 2
3x
1
∫ ( x − 1) ( )
6
1 1
du u5 1 1 1+ 15 1 1 55+1 5 65 5
x3 −1
∫ ∫
2 3
x 5 dx = x 2u 5 ⋅ = du = ⋅ u +c = ⋅ u +c = u +c = 5 +c
3x 2 3 3 1+ 1 3 5+1 18 18
5 5
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
6 6 −1 6 −5 1
5 3 5 6 3 1 3
Check: Let y = x −1 5 +c, then y ′ = ⋅ x −1 5 ⋅ 3x 2 + 0 = x −1 5 ⋅ 3x 2 = x 2 x 3 −1 5
18 18 5 3
i. Given ∫
8x
2
du
dx
=
d
dx
x2 −3( ) = 2 x which implies that du = 2 xdx and
x −3
du
2x
( )
1
8x 8 x du −1 1 1− 1 1 2 −1 1
∫ dx = ∫ ⋅ = 4∫ u 2 du = 4⋅ u 2 +c = 4 ⋅ 2−1 u 2 +c = 8u 2 + c = 8 x 2 − 3 2 +c
x −32 u 2x 1 − 12 2
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 −1
1 2 8x
Check: Let y = 8 x 2 − 3 2 +c , then y ′ = 8 ⋅ x −3 2 ⋅ 2x + 0 = 4 x2 −3 2 ⋅ 2x =
2 x2 −3
Section 4.2 Practice Problems – Integration Using the Substitution Method
∫ t (1 + t ) dt
5
∫18x ∫
2 3 2
a. = b. 6 x3 − 5 dx = c. dx =
x+5
∫ ( )
1
3x t
d. x x2 − 2 5 dx = e. ∫ 2
dx = f. ∫2 1 − t 2 dt =
x +3
∫ x (1 − x ) dx = ∫ x (2x )
3 2 x3 2
∫
2 8 9
g. h. dx = i. + 1 dx =
4
x +3
∫ 6 x (2 x − 1)dx = ∫x ∫
2 3
a. b. 1 + x 2 dx = c. 5
7 x + 1 dx =
∫ x (1 − x ) dx
3 x 2 2
d. ∫x 3 x 2 − 1 dx = e. ∫ 2
dx = f. =
x +1
x5 3x 5x4 + 6 x
g. ∫ 6
dx = h. ∫ 2
dx = i. ∫ 5 2
dx =
x +3 x −1 x + 3x + 1

Calculus I 4.3 Integration of Trigonometric Functions
4.3 Integration of Trigonometric Functions

In the following examples we will solve problems using the formulas below:
Table 4.3-1: Integration Formulas for Trigonometric Functions

1. ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c 2. ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c 3. ∫ tan x dx = ln sec x + c
4. ∫ cot x dx = ln sin x + c 5. ∫ sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + c 6. ∫ csc x dx = ln csc x − cot x + c
x sin 2 x
7. ∫ tan x sec x dx = sec x + c 8. ∫ cot x csc x dx = − csc x + c 9. ∫ sin
2
x dx =
2
−
4
+c
x sin 2 x
∫ tan ∫ cot
2 2
11. x dx = tan x − x + c 12. x dx = − cot x − x + c
∫ cos
2
10. x dx = + +c
2 4
∫ sec ∫ csc
2 2
13. x dx = tan x + c 14. x dx = − cot x + c
Additionally, the following formulas (identities) hold for the trigonometric functions:
1. Unit Circle Formulas
sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 sec 2 x − tan 2 x = 1 csc 2 x − cot 2 x = 1
2. Addition Formulas
sin (x + y ) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y (1 ) sin (x − y ) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y (2)
cos (x + y ) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y (3 ) cos (x − y ) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y (4)
tan x + tan y tan x − tan y
tan (x + y ) = tan (x − y ) =
1 − tan x tan y 1 + tan x tan y
Note that from the identities ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) above we can obtain the formulas
1 1
sin x cos y = [ sin (x − y ) + sin (x + y ) ] cos x sin y = [ sin (x + y ) − cos (x − y ) ]
2 2
and from the identities ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) above we can obtain the formulas
1 1
sin x sin y = [ cos (x − y ) − cos (x + y ) ] cos x cos y = [ cos (x − y ) + cos (x + y ) ]
2 2
3. Half Angle Formulas
1 1 1 1
sin 2 x = ( 1 − cos x ) or 1 − cos x = 2 sin 2 x therefore sin 2 x = ( 1 − cos 2 x )
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
cos 2 x = ( 1 + cos x ) or 1 + cos x = 2 cos 2 x therefore cos 2 x = ( 1 + cos 2 x )
2 2 2 2
4. Double Angle Formulas
1
sin 2 x = 2 sin x cos x or sin x cos x = sin 2 x cos 2 x = cos 2 x − sin 2 x and
2

( 1
4
) 1
sin 2 x cos 2 x = 12 sin 2 x 2 = sin 2 2 x = ( 1 − cos 4 x )
8
Also, the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions are defined by
sin x 1 cos x 1 1
tan x = cot x = = sec x = csc x =
cos x tan x sin x cos x sin x
We should also note that sine, tangent, cotangent, and cosecant are odd functions. This implies that
sin (− x ) = − sin x tan (− x ) = − tan x cot (− x ) = − cot x csc (− x ) = − csc x
on the other hand, cosine and secant are even functions. This implies that
cos (− x ) = cos x sec (− x ) = sec x
Finally, we need to know how to differentiate the trigonometric functions (addressed in Chapter
3, Section 3.1) in order to check the answer to the given integrals below. The derivatives of
trigonometric functions are repeated here and are as follows:
Table 4.3-2: Differentiation Formulas for Trigonometric Functions

d du d du
sin u = cos u ⋅ cot u = − csc 2 u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
cos u = − sin u ⋅ sec u = sec u tan u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
tan u = sec 2 u ⋅ csc u = − csc u cot u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
Let’s integrate some trigonometric functions using the above integration formulas.

1
a. ∫ sin 3x dx = b. ∫ sin 8 x dx = c. ∫ cos 5x dx =
1
d. ∫ cos 4 x dx = e. ∫ (sin 4 x + cos 2 x ) dx = f. ∫ csc 5x dx =
1
∫ csc ∫ csc ∫x
2 2 2
g. 5 x dx = h. x dx = i. sec 2 x 3 dx =
2
∫ x sec ( x + 1) dx = ∫ x csc ∫ (2 x + 1) csc (x + x ) dx =

2 2 2
j. k. x 2 dx = l. 2 2
Solutions:
du d du
a. Given ∫ sin 3x dx let u = 3x , then = 3x = 3 which implies dx = . Therefore,
dx dx 3
du 1 1 1
∫ sin 3x dx = ∫ sin u ⋅ 3 =
3∫sin u du = − cos u + c = − cos 3 x + c
3 3

1 1 d d 1 d 1
Check: Let y = − cos 3x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ cos 3 x + c = − ⋅ − sin 3x ⋅ 3x + 0 = − ⋅ − sin 3x ⋅ 3
3 3 dx dx 3 dx 3
3
= ⋅ sin 3 x = sin 3 x
3
x x du d x 1
b. Given ∫ sin dx let u = , then
8 8
=
dx dx 8
=
8
which implies dx = 8 du . Therefore,
x x
∫ sin 8 dx = ∫ sin u ⋅ 8 du = 8∫ sin u du = −8 cos u + c = − 8 cos
8
+c
x d x d x d x x 1
Check: Let y = −8 cos + c , then y ′ = − 8 ⋅ cos + c = − 8 ⋅ − sin ⋅ +0 = − 8 ⋅ − sin ⋅
8 dx 8 dx 8 dx 8 8 8
8 x x
= ⋅ sin = sin
8 8 8
du d du
c. Given ∫ cos 5 x dx let u = 5 x , then = 5x = 5 which implies dx = . Therefore,
dx dx 5
du 1 1 1
∫ cos 5x dx = ∫ cos u ⋅ 5 =
5 ∫
cos u du =
5
sin u + c =
5
sin 5 x + c
1 1 d d 1 d 1
Check: Let y = sin 5 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ sin 5 x + c = ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5x + 0 = ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5
5 5 dx dx 5 dx 5
5
= ⋅ cos 5 x = cos 5 x
5
x x du d x 1
d. Given ∫ cos dx let u = , then
4 4
=
dx dx 4
=
4
x x
∫ cos 4 dx = ∫ cos u ⋅ 4 du = 4∫ cos u du = 4 sin u + c = 4 sin
4
+c
x d x d x d x x 1
Check: Let y = 4 sin + c , then y ′ = 4 ⋅ sin + c = 4 ⋅ cos ⋅ +0 = 4 ⋅ cos ⋅
4 dx 4 dx 4 dx 4 4 4
4 x x
= ⋅ cos = cos
4 4 4
e. Given ∫ (sin 4 x + cos 2 x ) dx = ∫ sin 4 x dx + ∫ cos 2 x dx let:
du d du du
a. u = 4 x , then = 4x ; = 4 ; du = 4dx ; dx = and
dx dx dx 4
dv d dv dv
b. v = 2 x , then = 2x ; = 2 ; dv = 2dx ; dx = .
dx dx dx 2
du dv 1 1 1
Therefore, ∫ sin 4 x dx + ∫ cos 2 x dx = ∫ sin u ⋅ 4 + ∫ cos v ⋅ 2 =
4 ∫
sin u du +
2 ∫
cos v dv = − cos u + c1
4
1 1 1 1 1
+ sin v + c 2 = − cos 4 x + sin 2 x + c1 + c 2 = − cos 4 x + sin 2 x + c
2 4 2 4 2

1 1 1 d 1 d d 1 d
Check: Let y = − cos 4 x + sin 2 x + c then y ′ = − ⋅ cos 4 x + ⋅ sin 2 x + c = ⋅ sin 4 x ⋅ 4x
4 2 4 dx 2 dx dx 4 dx
1 d 4 2
+ ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ 2 x + 0 = ⋅ sin 4 x + ⋅ cos 2 x = sin 4 x + cos 2 x
2 dx 4 2
du d du
f. Given ∫ csc 5 x dx let u = 5 x , then =
dx dx
5 x = 5 which implies du = 5dx ; dx =
5
. Therefore,
du 1 1 1
∫ csc 5x dx = ∫ csc u ⋅ 5 =
5 ∫
csc u du =
5
ln csc u − cot u + c =
5
ln csc 5 x − cot 5 x + c
1 1 d d 1 1
Check: Let y = ln csc 5 x − cot 5 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ln csc 5 x − cot 5 x + c = ⋅
5 5 dx dx 5 csc 5 x − cot 5 x
×
d
dx
(csc 5 x − cot 5 x ) + d c
dx
=
1
⋅
1
5 csc 5 x − cot 5 x
(
⋅ − csc 5 x ⋅ cot 5 x ⋅ 5 + csc 2 5 x ⋅ 5 + 0)
1 5 csc 5 x ( csc 5 x − cot 5 x ) 5 csc 5 x
= ⋅ = = csc 5 x
5 csc 5 x − cot 5 x 5
du d du du
g. Given ∫ csc 2 5 x dx let u = 5 x , then = 5x ; = 5 ; du = 5dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 5
du 1 1 1
∫ csc ∫ csc ∫
2 2
5 x dx = u⋅ = csc 2 u du = − cot u + c = − cot 5 x + c
5 5 5 5
1 1 d d 1 d 1
Check: Let y = − cot 5 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ cot 5 x + c = − ⋅ − csc 2 5 x ⋅ 5x + 0 = ⋅ csc 2 5 x ⋅ 5
5 5 dx dx 5 dx 5
5
= ⋅ csc 2 5 x = csc 2 5 x
5
1 1 du d x du 1
h. Given ∫ csc 2 x dx let u = x ,
2 2
then = ; =
dx dx 2 dx 2
; 2du = dx ; dx = 2du . Therefore,
1 1
∫ csc ∫ csc = 2∫ csc 2 u du = − 2 cot u + c = − 2 cot
2 2
x dx = u ⋅ 2du x+c
2 2
x d x d x d x x 1
Check: Let y = −2 cot + c , then y ′ = − 2 ⋅ cot + c = − 2 ⋅ − csc 2 ⋅ +0 = 2 csc 2 ⋅
2 dx 2 dx 2 dx 2 2 2
2 x x 1
= csc 2 = csc 2 = csc 2 x
2 2 2 2
du d 3 du du
∫x
2
i. Given sec 2 x 3 dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
du 1 1 1
tan x 3 + c
∫x ∫x ∫
2
sec 2 x 3 dx = 2
sec 2 u ⋅ = sec 2 u du = tan u + c =
3x 2/ 3 3 3
1 1 d d 1 d 3 1
Check: Let y = tan x 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ tan x 3 + c = ⋅ sec 2 x 3 ⋅ x +0 = ⋅ sec 2 x 3 ⋅ 3 x 2
3 3 dx dx 3 dx 3
3x 2
= ⋅ sec 2 x 3 = x 2 sec 2 x 3
3

∫ x sec (x + 1) dx ( ); dudx = 2 x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = du2 x . Therefore,

2 2 du d 2
j. Given let u = x 2 + 1 , then = x +1
dx dx
∫ x sec (x + 1) dx
2 2
= ∫ x sec
2
u⋅
du
2x
=
1
2 ∫
sec 2 u du =
1
2
tan u + c =
1
2
(
tan x 2 + 1 + c )
1
Check: Let y = tan x 2 + 1 + c , then y ′ =
2
( ) 1 d
⋅ tan x 2 + 1 +
2 dx
d
(
dx
c ) =
1
2
(
⋅ sec 2 x 2 + 1 ⋅
d
dx
) (
x 2 +1 + 0 )
=
1
2
(
⋅ sec 2 x 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 x ) 2x
=
2
( )
⋅ sec 2 x 2 + 1 = x sec 2 x 2 + 1 ( )
du d 2 du du
∫ x csc
2
k. Given x 2 dx let u = x 2 , then = x ; = 2 x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2x
du 1 1 1
∫ x csc
2
x 2 dx = ∫ x csc
2
u⋅ = ∫csc 2 u du = − cot u + c = − cot x 2 + c
2x 2 2 2
1 1 d d 1 d 2 1
Check: Let y = − cot x 2 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ cot x 2 + c = − ⋅ − csc 2 x 2 ⋅ x +0 = ⋅ csc 2 x 2 ⋅ 2 x
2 2 dx dx 2 dx 2
2x
= ⋅ csc 2 x 2 = x csc 2 x 2
2
(
l. Given ∫ (2 x + 1) csc 2 x 2 + x dx let u = x 2 + x , then ) du d
=
dx dx
x2 + x ( ); dudx = 2 x + 1 ; du = (2 x + 1) dx ;
∫ (2 x + 1) csc ( x + x ) dx
du du
∫ (2 x + 1) csc ∫ csc
2 2 2 2
dx = . Therefore, = u⋅ = u du
2x +1 (2 x + 1)
= − cot u + c = − cot x 2 + x + c ( )
Check: Let y = − cot x 2 + x + c , then y ′ = −( ) d
dx
(
cot x 2 + x +
d
dx
c ) (
= csc 2 x 2 + x ⋅ ) dxd ( x 2
)
+ x +0
( )
= csc 2 x 2 + x ⋅ (2 x + 1) = (2 x + 1) csc 2 ( x + x)
2
∫ sec ∫ sec 3x dx ∫ x csc x

2 2
a. 3 x dx = b. = c. dx =
d. ∫ sin
5
(x + 1) cos (x + 1) dx = e. ∫ cos
5
x sin x dx = f. ∫ cos
5
3 x sin 3 x dx =
x x
∫ cos ∫x ∫e
2
g. 4
sin dx = h. cos x 3 dx = i. x
sec e x dx =
3 3
Solutions:
du d du du
a. Given ∫ sec 2 3x dx let u = 3x , then = 3x ; = 3 ; du = 3 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3
du 1 1 1
∫ sec ∫ sec ∫
2 2
3 x dx = u⋅ = sec 2 u du = tan u + c = tan 3 x + c
3 3 3 3

1 d d 1 3
Check: Let y = tan 3x + c , then y ′ = tan 3 x + c = sec 2 3 x ⋅ 3 + 0 = sec 2 3 x = sec 2 3x
3 dx dx 3 3
du d du du
b. Given ∫ sec 3x dx let u = 3x , then = 3x ; = 3 ; du = 3 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3
du 1 1 1
∫ sec 3x dx = ∫ sec u ⋅ 3 =
3 ∫
sec u du =
3
ln sec u + tan u + c =
3
ln sec 3 x + tan 3 x + c
1 1 1
Check: Let y = ln sec 3x + tan 3x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ 3 sec 3 x tan 3 x + 3 sec 2 3 x + 0
3 3 sec 3 x + tan 3 x
1 3 sec 3 x (sec 3 x + tan 3 x ) 3

= ⋅ = sec 3 x = sec 3x
3 sec 3 x + tan 3 x 3
du d 2 du du
∫ x csc x
2
c. Given dx let u = x 2 , then = x ; = 2 x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2x
du 1 1 1
ln csc x 2 − cot x 2 + c
∫ x csc x ∫ x csc u ⋅ 2 x ∫ csc u du
2
dx = = = ln csc u − cot u + c =
2 2 2
1 1 1
Check: Let y = ln csc x 2 − cot x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ −2 x csc x 2 cot x 2 + 2 x csc 2 x 2 + 0
2 2 csc x − cot x 2
2
= ⋅
(
1 2 x csc x 2 csc x 2 − cot x 2 ) = 2 x csc x 2
= x csc x 2
2 csc x 2 − cot x 2 2
du d du
d. Given ∫ sin 5 (x + 1) cos (x + 1) dx let u = sin (x + 1) , then = sin ( x + 1) ; = cos ( x + 1) ;
dx dx dx
du
du = cos ( x + 1) ⋅ dx ; dx = . Therefore,
cos ( x + 1)
du 1 6 1
(x + 1) cos (x + 1) dx = cos ( x + 1) ⋅ sin 6 ( x + 1) + c
∫ sin ∫u ∫u
5 5 5
= du = u +c =
cos ( x + 1) 6 6
1 1
Check: Let y = sin 6 (x + 1) + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 6 sin 5 (x + 1) ⋅ cos (x + 1) + 0 = sin 5 (x + 1) cos (x + 1)
6 6
du d du du
e. Given ∫ cos 5 x sin x dx let u = cos x , then = cos x ; = − sin x ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx − sin x
du 1 1
∫ cos
5
x sin x dx = ∫u
5
sin x ⋅ = − ∫ u 5 du = − u 6 + c = − cos 6 x + c
− sin x 6 6
1 1 6
Check: Let y = − cos 6 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 6 cos 5 x ⋅ − sin x + 0 = cos 5 x sin x = cos 5 x sin x
6 6 6
du d du du
f. Given ∫ cos 5 3x sin 3x dx let u = cos 3x , then = cos 3 x ; = −3 sin 3 x ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx − 3 sin 3 x

du 1 1 1 1
cos 6 3 x + c
∫ cos ∫u ∫
5 5
3 x sin 3 x dx = sin 3 x ⋅ = − u 5 du = − ⋅ u6 + c = −
− 3 sin 3 x 3 3 6 18
1 1 18
Check: Let y = − cos 6 3 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 6 cos 5 3 x ⋅ −3 sin 3 x + 0 = cos 5 3 x sin 3 x = cos 5 3 x sin 3 x
18 18 18
x x x du d x du 1 x 3du
g. Given ∫ cos 4 sin dx let u = cos , then = cos ; = − sin ; dx = − x
. Therefore,
3 3 3 dx dx 3 dx 3 3 sin 3
x x x 3 du 3 3 x
∫ cos
4
sin dx = ∫u
4
sin ⋅− = − 3∫ u 4 du = − u 5 + c = − cos 5 +c
3 3 3 sin x 5 5 3
3
3 x 3 x x 1 15 x x x x
Check: Let y = − cos 5 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 5 cos 4 ⋅ − sin ⋅ + 0 = cos 4 sin = cos 4 sin
5 3 5 3 3 3 15 3 3 3 3
du d 3 du du
∫x
2
h. Given cos x 3 dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3 x 2 ⋅ dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
du 1 1 1
sin x 3 + c
∫x ∫x ∫
2
cos x 3 dx = 2
cos u ⋅ = cos u du = ⋅ sin u + c =
3x 2 3 3 3
1 1 3 2
Check: Let y = sin x 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ cos x 3 ⋅ 3 x 2 + c = x cos x 3 + 0 = x 2 cos x 3
3 3 3
du d x du du
i. Given ∫ e x sec e x dx let u = e x , then = e ; = e x ; du = e x ⋅ dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx ex
du
∫e ∫e ∫ sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c = ln sec e x + tan e x + c
x
sec e x dx = x
sec u ⋅ =
ex
1
Check: Let y = ln sec e x + tan e x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ e x sec e x tan e x + e x sec 2 e x + 0
sec e + tan e x
x
=
(
e x sec e x sec e x + tan e x )=e x
sec e x
x x
sec e + tan e

a. ∫ tan
7
x sec 2 x dx = b. ∫ tan
4
(x − 1) sec 2 (x − 1) dx = c. ∫ cot
3
x csc 2 x dx =
x
∫ cot ∫ tan 8x dx = ∫ tan 4 dx =
5
d. 2 x csc 2 2 x dx = e. f.
x x
g. ∫ sec 9 x tan 9 x dx = h. ∫ sec 2 tan 2 dx = i. ∫ 5 sec 3x tan 3x dx =
dx
∫x ∫ x cot 3x ∫ sec
2
j. cot x 3 dx = k. 2
dx = l. x =
x

Solutions:
du d du du
∫ tan
7
a. x sec 2 x dx let u = tan x , then = tan x ; = sec 2 x ; du = sec 2 x dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx sec 2 x
du 1 7 +1 1 8 1
tan 8 x + c
∫ tan ∫u ∫u
7
x sec 2 x dx = 7
⋅ sec 2 x ⋅ = 7
du = u +c = u +c =
sec x2 7 +1 8 8
1 1
Check: Let y = tan 8 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 8 (tan x )8−1 ⋅ sec 2 x + 0 = (tan x )7 sec 2 x = tan 7 x sec 2 x
8 8
du d du
b. ∫ tan
4
(x − 1) sec 2 (x − 1) dx let u = tan (x − 1) , then = tan (x − 1) ; = sec 2 (x − 1) c ; du = sec 2 (x − 1) dx
dx dx dx
du du
; dx = . Therefore, ∫ tan
4
(x − 1) sec 2 (x − 1) dx = ∫u
4
⋅ sec 2 (x − 1) ⋅ = ∫u
4
du
sec 2
(x − 1) sec (x − 1)
2
1 4+1 1 5 1
= u +c = u +c = tan 5 ( x − 1) + c
4 +1 5 5
1 1
Check: Let y = tan 5 (x − 1) + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 5 [ tan (x − 1) ]5−1 ⋅ sec 2 (x − 1) + 0 = tan 4 (x − 1) sec 2 (x − 1)
5 5
du d du
c. Given ∫ cot 3 x csc 2 x dx let u = cot x , then = cot x ; = − csc 2 x c ; du = − csc 2 x dx
dx dx dx
du −du −1 3+1
∫ cot ∫u = − ∫ u 3 du =
3
; dx = − . Therefore, x csc 2 x dx = 3
⋅ csc 2 x ⋅ u +c
2 2 3 +1
csc x csc x
1 1
= − u 4 + c = − cot 4 x + c
4 4
1 1
Check: Let y = − cot 4 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 4(cot x )4−1 ⋅ − csc 2 x + 0 = cot 3 x csc 2 x
4 4
du d du
d. Given ∫ cot 5 2 x csc 2 2 x dx let u = cot 2 x , then = cot 2 x ; = −2 csc 2 2 x ; du = −2 csc 2 2 x dx
dx dx dx
du −du 1
∫ cot ∫u ∫
5
; dx = − . Therefore, 2 x csc 2 2 x dx = 5
⋅ csc 2 2 x ⋅ = − u 5 du
2 2 2
2 csc 2 x 2 csc 2 x
1 1 5+1 1 6 1
= − ⋅ u +c = − u +c = − cot 6 2 x + c
2 5 +1 12 12
1 1
Check: Let y = − cot 6 2 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 6(cot 2 x )6−1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ − csc 2 2 x + 0 = cot 5 2 x csc 2 2 x
12 12
du d du du
e. Given ∫ tan 8x dx let u = 8x , then =
dx dx
8x ;
dx
=8 ; du = 8 dx ; dx =
8
. Therefore,

du 1 1 1
∫ tan 8x dx = ∫ tan u ⋅ 8 =
8∫tan u du =
8
ln sec u + c =
8
ln sec 8 x + c
1 1 1 8
Check: Let y = ln sec 8 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ sec 8 x tan 8 x ⋅ 8 + 0 = tan 8 x = tan 8 x
8 8 sec 8 x 8
x x du d x du 1
f. Given ∫ tan 4 dx let u = 4 , then =
dx dx 4
; =
dx 4
x x
∫ tan 4 dx = ∫ tan u ⋅ 4du = 4∫ tan u du = 4 ln sec u + c = 4 ln sec
4
+c
x 1 x x 1 4 x x
Check: Let y = 4 ln sec +c, then y ′ = 4 ⋅ x
⋅ sec tan ⋅ + 0 = tan = tan
4 sec 4 4 4 4 4 4
4
du d du du
g. Given ∫ sec 9 x tan 9 x dx let u = 9 x , then = 9x ; =9 ; du = 9dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 9
du 1 1 1
∫ sec 9 x tan 9 x dx = ∫ sec u ⋅ tan u ⋅ 9 =
9 ∫
sec u tan u du =
9
sec u + c =
9
sec 9 x + c
1 1 9
Check: Let y = sec 9 x + c then y ′ = ⋅ sec 9 x tan 9 x ⋅ 9 + 0 = ⋅ sec 9 x tan 9 x = sec 9 x tan 9 x
9 9 9
x x x du d x du 1
h. Given ∫ sec tan dx let u = , then = ; = ; 2du = dx ; dx = 2du . Therefore,
2 2 2 dx dx 2 dx 2
x x x
∫ sec 2 tan 2 dx = ∫ sec u ⋅ tan u ⋅ 2du = 2∫ sec u tan u du = 2 sec u + c = 2 sec
2
+c
x x x 1 2 x x x x
Check: Let y = 2 sec + c , then y ′ = 2 ⋅ sec tan ⋅ + 0 = ⋅ sec tan = sec tan
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
du d du du
i. Given ∫ 5 sec 3x tan 3x dx let u = 3x , then = 3x ; =3 ; du = 3dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3
du 5 5 5
∫ 5 sec 3x tan 3x dx = 5∫ sec u ⋅ tan u ⋅
3
=
3 ∫
sec u tan u du =
3
sec u + c =
3
sec 3 x + c
5 5 15
Check: Let y = sec 3x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ sec 3 x tan 3 x ⋅ 3 + 0 = ⋅ sec 3 x tan 3 x = 5 sec 3x tan 3x
3 3 3
du d 3 du du
∫x
2
j. Given cot x 3 dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
du 1 1 1
∫x ∫x ∫ ln sin x 3 + c
2 2
cot x 3 dx = ⋅ cot u ⋅ = cot u ⋅ du = ln sin u + c =
3x 2 3 3 3
1 1 1 3 x 2 cos x3
Check: Let y = ln sin x 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ cos x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 + 0 = ⋅ = x 2 cot x 3
3 3 sin x3 3 sin x3

du d du du
∫ x cot 3x
2
k. Given dx let u = 3x 2 , then = 3x 2 ; = 6x ; du = 6 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 6x
du 1 1 1
ln sin 3 x 2 + c
∫ x cot 3x ∫ x ⋅ cot u ⋅ 6 x ∫
2
dx = = cot u ⋅ du = ln sin u + c =
6 6 6
1 1 1 6 x cos 3 x 2
Check: Let y = ln sin 3x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ cos 3 x 2 ⋅ 6 x + 0 = ⋅ = x cot 3x 2
6 6 sin 3 x 2 6 sin 3 x 2
1
dx du d 12 du 1 − 12 1
l. Given ∫ sec x let u = x 2 , then = x ; = x = ; dx = 2 x du . Therefore,
x dx dx dx 2 2 x
dx 2 x du
∫ sec x
x
= ∫ sec u ⋅ x
= 2∫ sec u ⋅ du = 2 ln sec u + tan u + c = 2 ln sec x + tan x + c
1 sec x tan x + sec2 x

Check: Let y = 2 ln sec x + tan x + c , then y ′ = 2 ⋅ ⋅ +0
sec x + tan x 2 x
= 2⋅
1
⋅
sec x tan ( x + sec x )= 2 sec x
=
sec x
sec x + tan x 2 x 2 x x

3 dx 5 dx
∫ sec x2 ∫ csc x3 ∫ 5x
2
a. 3
= b. = c. csc x 3 dx =
x 5
x 2
1 cos 2 x + sin 2 x  1 + cos x 

d. ∫ cos 3x dx = e. ∫ sin 2 x
dx = f. ∫  sin x 
 dx =
∫ 5(sin 3x csc 3x ) dx ∫ a ( cos 2t sec 2t + t ) dt ∫e

2 sin 5 x
g. = h. = i. cos 5 x dx =
3 cos 1 x 1 1 cot 3 x
j. ∫ e 2 sin
2
x dx = k. ∫ e tan 5 x sec 2 5 x dx = l. ∫ e2 csc 2 3 x dx =
Solutions:
2
dx du d 23 du 2 − 13 2 3
a. Given ∫ sec 3 x 2 3
let u = x 3 , then = x ; = x =
3
; dx = 3 x du . Therefore,
x dx dx dx 3 3 x 2
3 dx 3 3 x du 3 3 3 3 3
ln sec x 2 + tan x 2 + c
∫ sec x 2
3
x
= ∫ sec u ⋅ ⋅
2 3x
=
2∫sec u ⋅ du =
2
2
3 3 3
3 3 1 2 sec x 2 tan x 2 + 2 sec 2 x2
Check: Let y = ln sec 3 x 2 + tan 3 x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅
2 2 sec 3 x 2 + tan 3 x 2 33 x
sec x 2  sec x 2 + tan x 2 

3 3 3
3 3
3 1 2   6 sec x 2 sec x 2
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
3
= ⋅
3
= 3
2 sec 3 x 2 + tan 3 x 2 3 x 6 x x

3
dx du d 53 du 3 − 52 3 5
b. Given ∫ csc 5 x 3 let u = x 5 , then = x ; = x = ; dx = 5 x 2 du . Thus,
5
x2 dx dx dx 5 5
5 x2 3
5
5 dx 5 x 2 du 5 5 5 5 3 5 3
∫ csc x 3
5
x2
= ∫ csc u ⋅ ⋅
3 5 x2
=
3 3 ∫
csc u ⋅ du = ln csc u − cot u + c = ln csc x − cot x + c
3
5 5 5
5 5 1 − 3 csc x 3 cot x 3 + 3 csc 2 x3
Check: Let y = ln csc 5 x 3 − cot 5 x 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅
3 3 csc 5 x 3 − cot 5 x 3 5
5 x2
csc x 3  csc x 3 − cot x 3 

5 5 5
5 5
5 1 3   15 csc x 3 csc x 3
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ =
3 csc 5 x 3 − cot 5 x 3 5 5
x2 15 5 x 2 5 2
x
du d 3 du du
c. Given ∫ 5 x 2 csc x 3 dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
du 5 5 5
ln csc x 3 − cot x 3 + c
∫ 5x ∫ ∫
2
csc x 3 dx = 5 x 2 ⋅ csc u ⋅ = csc u ⋅ du = ln csc u − cot u + c =
3x 2 3 3 3
5 5 − csc x3 cot x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 + csc2 x3 ⋅ 3 x 2

Check: Let y = ln csc x 3 − cot x 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ +0
3 3 csc x3 − cot x3
= ⋅
(
5 3 x 2 csc x3 csc x3 − cot x3 ) = 15x 2
⋅ csc x 3 = 5 x 2 csc x 3
3 csc x3 − cot x3 3
1 du d du du
d. Given ∫ cos 3x dx = ∫ sec 3x dx let u = 3x , then =
dx dx
3x ;
dx
=3 ; du = 3dx ; dx =
3
. Thus,
1 du 1 1 1
∫ cos 3x dx = ∫ sec 3x dx = ∫ sec u ⋅ 3 =
3 ∫
sec u du =
3
3
ln sec 3 x + tan 3 x + c
1 1 − sec 3 x tan 3 x ⋅ 3 + sec2 3 x ⋅ 3

Check: Let y = ln sec 3x + tan 3x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ +0
3 3 sec 3 x + tan 3 x
1 3 sec 3 x ( sec 3 x + tan 3 x ) 3 1
= ⋅ = ⋅ sec 3 x = sec 3x =
3 sec 3 x + tan 3 x 3 cos 3 x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x  cos 2 x 

e. Given ∫ dx = ∫  + 1 dx = ∫ (cot 2 x + 1) dx = ∫ cot 2 x dx + ∫ dx let u = 2 x , then
sin 2 x  sin 2 x 
du d du du
= 2x ; =2 ; du = 2dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2
cos 2 x + sin 2 x 1 1 1
∫ sin 2 x
dx = ∫ cot 2 x dx + ∫ dx =
2 ∫
cot u du + x =
2
ln sin u + x + c =
2
ln sin 2 x + x + c

1 1 cos 2 x ⋅ 2 2 cos 2 x
Check: Let y = ln sin 2 x + x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ +1+ 0 = ⋅ +1 = cot 2 x + 1
2 2 sin 2 x 2 sin 2 x
 1 + cos x   1 cos x 
f. ∫  sin x 
 dx = ∫  sin x + sin x  dx = ∫ csc x dx + ∫ cot x dx = ln csc x − cot x + ln sin x + c
− csc x cot x + csc 2 x cos x

Check: Let y = ln csc x − cot x + ln sin x + c , then y ′ = + +0
csc x − cot x sin x
csc x ( csc x − cot x ) cos x cos x 1 cos x 1+ cos x
= + = csc x + = + =
csc x − cot x sin x sin x sin x sin x sin x
1 sin 3 x
g. ∫ 5 (sin 3x csc 3x ) dx = 5∫ sin 3x ⋅ sin 3x dx = 5∫
sin 3 x
dx = 5∫ dx = 5 x + c
Check: Let y = 5 x + c , then y ′ = 5 ⋅ x1−1 + 0 = 5 ⋅ x 0 = 5
∫ a ( cos 2t sec 2t + t ) dt
1 a
h. 2
= a ∫ cos 2t ⋅ ∫
dt + a t 2 dt = a ∫ dt + a ∫ t 2 dt = at + t 3 + c
cos 2t 3
a a
Check: Let y = at + t 3 + c , then y ′ = a t 1−1 + ⋅ 3t 2 + 0 = a + at 2
3 3
du d du du
i. Given ∫ e sin 5 x cos 5 x dx let u = sin 5 x , then = sin 5 x ; = 5 cos 5 x ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx 5 cos 5 x
du eu 1 u 1 u 1 sin 5 x
∫ e sin 5 x cos 5 x dx = ∫ e u cos 5 x ⋅
5 cos 5 x
= ∫ 5
du =
5 ∫
e du =
5
e +c =
5
e +c
1 1 sin 5 x 5 sin 5 x
Check: Let y = e sin 5 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅e ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5 + 0 = ⋅e cos 5 x = e sin 5 x cos 5 x
5 5 5
3 cos 1 x 1 1 du d 1 du 3 1 3 1
j. Given ∫ e 2 sin x dx let u = 3 cos x , then = 3 cos x ; = − sin x ; du = − sin x dx
2 2 dx dx 2 dx 2 2 2 2
2du
; dx = − 1
. Therefore,
3 sin 2
x
3 cos 1 x 1 1 −2du 2 u 2 2 3 cos 12 x

∫ e 2 sin
2
x dx = ∫ e u sin x⋅
2 3 sin 1 x
= −
3 ∫
e du = − eu + c = − e
3 3
+c
2
2 3 cos 12 x 2 3 cos 12 x 1 1 3 cos 1 x 1

Check: Let y = − e + c , then y ′ = − e ⋅ −3 sin x ⋅ + 0 = e 2 sin x
3 3 2 2 2
du d du
k. Given ∫ e tan 5 x sec 2 5 x dx let u = tan 5 x , then = tan 5 x ; = 5 sec 2 5 x ; du = 5 sec 2 5 x dx
dx dx dx
du
; dx = . Therefore,
5 sec 2 5 x

du 1 u 1 u 1 tan 5 x
∫e ∫e ∫
tan 5 x
sec 2 5 x dx = u
sec 2 5 x ⋅ = e du = e +c = e +c
5 sec 2 5 x 5 5 5
1 1 tan 5 x
Check: Let y = e tan 5 x + c , then y ′ = e ⋅ sec 2 5 x ⋅ 5 + 0 = e tan 5 x sec 2 5 x
5 5
1 du d 1 du 3 3
l. Given ∫ e cot x csc 2 x dx let u = cot 3x , then = cot 3 x ; = − csc 2 3 x ; du = − csc 2 3x dx
2 dx dx 2 dx 2 2
2du
; dx = − . Therefore,
3 csc 2 3 x
1 cot 3 x 1 cot 3 x
−2du 2 u 2 2
∫ e2 csc 2 3 x dx = ∫ e u csc 2 3 x ⋅
3 csc 2 3 x
= −
3∫e du = − eu + c = − e 2
3 3
+c
1 cot 3 x
2 2 12 cot 3 x 1 1 cot 3 x
Check: Let y = − e 2 + c , then y ′ = − e ⋅ − csc 2 3 x ⋅ 3 + 0 = e 2 csc 2 3 x
3 3 2
• To integrate even powers of sin x and cos x use the following identities:
1 1
sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 sin 2 x = ( 1 − cos 2 x ) cos 2 x = ( 1 + cos 2 x )
2 2
To integrate odd powers of sin x and cos x use the following equalities:
∫ ( sin x ) sin x dx = ∫ (1 − cos x ) sin x dx

n n
∫ sin ∫ sin
2 n +1 2n 2 2
x dx = x sin x dx = ( let u = cos x )
∫ ( cos x ) ∫ (1 − sin x )
n n
∫ cos 2n +1 x dx = ∫ cos 2n x cos x dx = 2 2
cos x dx = cos x dx ( let u = sin x )
• To integrate products of sin mx , sin nx , cos mx , and cos nx (where m and n are integers) use
the trigonometric identities below:
1
∫ sin mx sin nx dx = ∫ 2 [ cos (m − n)x − cos (m + n)x ] dx
1
∫ cos mx cos nx dx = ∫ 2 [ cos (m − n)x + cos (m + n)x ] dx
1
∫ sin mx cos nx dx = ∫ 2 [ sin (m − n)x + sin (m + n)x ] dx
• To integrate tan n x , set
tan n x ( )
= tan n −2 x tan 2 x = tan n −2 x sec 2 x − 1 = tan n −2 x sec 2 x − tan n − 2 x
• To integrate cot n x , set

cot n x ( )
= cot n −2 x cot 2 x = cot n −2 x csc 2 x − 1 = cot n −2 x csc 2 x − cot n −2 x
• To integrate sec n x
( )
n−2
For even powers, set sec n x = sec n −2 x sec 2 x = tan 2 x + 1 2 sec 2 x
For odd powers change the integrand to a product of even and odd functions, i.e., write

∫ sec ∫ sec
3 2
x dx as x sec x dx (see Example 4.3-6, problem letter h).
• To integrate csc n x
( )
n−2
For even powers, set csc n x = csc n −2 x csc 2 x = cot 2 x + 1 2 csc 2 x
∫ csc ∫ csc
3 2
x dx as x csc x dx (see Example 4.3-6, problem letter i).
In the following examples we use the above general rules in order to solve integral of products
and powers of trigonometric functions:
a. ∫ sin 5x cos 7 x dx = b. ∫ sin x cos x dx = c. ∫ cos 3x cos 2 x dx =
∫ sin 3x sin 5x dx = ∫ cos 3x cos 5x dx = ∫ sin x dx =

5
d. e. f.
∫ sin ∫ cos ∫ tan

3 5 4
g. x dx = h. x dx = i. x dx =
∫ sin ∫ sec ∫ cos

7 4 3
j. x dx = k. x dx = l. x dx =
Solutions:
1 1 1
a. ∫ sin 5x cos 7 x dx = ∫ 2 [ sin (5 − 7)x + sin (5 + 7)x ] dx = ∫ 2 [ sin (− 2 x ) + sin (12 x ) ] dx =
2 ∫ (sin 12 x − sin 2 x ) dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=
2 ∫
sin 12 x dx −
2 ∫
sin 2 x dx = ⋅ − cos 12 x − ⋅ − cos 2 x + c
2 12 2 2
= −
24
cos 12 x + cos 2 x + c
4
1 1 1 1 12 2
Check: Let y = − cos 12 x + cos 2 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ −12 sin 12 x + ⋅ −2 sin 2 x + 0 = sin 12 x − sin 2 x
24 4 24 4 24 4
1 1 1 1 1 1
= sin 12 x − sin 2 x = sin 12 x + sin (− 2 x ) = sin (5 + 7 )x + sin (5 − 7 )x = sin 5 x cos 7 x
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
b. ∫ sin x cos x dx = ∫ 2 [ sin (1 − 1)x + sin (1 + 1)x ] dx = ∫ 2 [ sin (0 x ) + sin (2 x ) ] dx =
2 ∫ (0 + sin 2 x ) dx
1 1 1 1
=
2 ∫
sin 2 x dx = ⋅ − cos 2 x + c
2 2
= − cos 2 x + c
4
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = − cos 2 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ −2 sin 2 x + 0 = sin 2 x = ⋅ 2 sin x cos x = sin x cos x
4 4 2 2
1 1 1 1
c. ∫ cos 3x cos 2 x dx = ∫ 2 [ cos (3 − 2)x + cos (3 + 2)x ] dx = ∫ 2 (cos x + cos 5x ) dx =
2 ∫
cos x dx +
2
cos 5 x dx ∫
1 1 1 1 1
= ⋅ sin x + ⋅ sin 5 x + c = sin x + sin 5 x + c
2 2 5 2 10

1 1 1 1 1 5
Check: Let y = sin x + sin 5 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ cos x + ⋅ 5 cos 5 x + 0 = cos x + cos 5 x
2 10 2 10 2 10
1 1 1 1
= cos x + cos 5 x = cos (3 − 2 )x + cos (3 + 2 )x = cos 3x cos 2 x
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
d. ∫ sin 3x sin 5x dx = ∫ 2 [ cos (3 − 5)x − cos (3 + 5)x ] dx = ∫ 2 [ cos (− 2 x ) − cos (8x ) ] dx =
2 ∫ (cos 2 x − cos 8x ) dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=
2 ∫
cos 2 x dx −
2
cos 8 x dx ∫ = ⋅ sin 2 x − ⋅ sin 8 x + c
2 2 2 8
=
4
sin 2 x − sin 8 x + c
16
1 1 1 1 2 8
Check: Let y = sin 2 x − sin 8 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ 2 − ⋅ cos 8 x ⋅ 8 + 0 = cos 2 x − cos 8 x
4 16 4 16 4 16
1 1 1 1
= cos 2 x − cos 8 x = [ cos (− 2 x ) − cos (8 x ) ] = [ cos (3 − 5)x − cos (3 + 5)x ] = sin 3x sin 5 x
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
e. ∫ cos 3x cos 5x dx = ∫ 2 [ cos (3 − 5)x + cos (3 + 5)x ] dx = ∫ 2 [ cos (− 2 x ) + cos (8x ) ] dx = ∫ 2 (cos 2 x + cos 8x ) dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=
2 ∫
cos 2 x dx +
2
cos 8 x dx ∫ = ⋅ sin 2 x + ⋅ sin 8 x + c
2 2 2 8
=
4
sin 2 x + sin 8 x + c
16
1 1 1 1 2 8
Check: Let y = sin 2 x + sin 8 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ 2 + ⋅ cos 8 x ⋅ 8 + 0 = cos 2 x + cos 8 x
4 16 4 16 4 16
1 1 1 1
= cos 2 x + cos 8 x = [ cos (− 2 x ) + cos (8 x ) ] = [ cos (3 − 5)x + cos (3 + 5)x ] = cos 3x cos 5 x
2 2 2 2
∫ ( sin x ) sin x dx = ∫ (1 − cos x ) sin x dx .

2 2
∫ sin ∫ sin
5 4 2 2
f. x dx = x sin x dx = Let u = cos x , then
du d du du
= cos x ; = − sin x ; du = − sin x dx ; dx = − . Therefore,
dx dx dx sin x
∫ (1 − cos x ) sin x dx = ∫ (1 − u ) sin x dx = ∫ ( u − 2u + 1)sin x ⋅ − sin x

2 2 2 du
∫ sin
5 2 4 2
x dx =
( ) 1 2
= − ∫ u 4 − 2u 2 + 1 du = − ∫ u 4 du + 2∫ u 2 du − ∫ du = − u 5 + u 3 − u + c = − cos 5 x + cos 3 x − cos x + c
5 3
1
5
2
3
1 2 1 2
Check: Let y = − cos 5 x + cos 3 x − cos x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 5 cos 4 x ⋅ − sin x + ⋅ 3 cos 2 x ⋅ − sin x + sin x + 0
5 3 5 3
(
= sin x cos 4 x − 2 sin x cos 2 x + sin x = sin x cos 4 x − 2 cos 2 x + 1 = sin x 1 − cos 2 x ) ( ) 2
(
= sin x sin 2 x ) 2
= sin x sin 4 x = sin 5 x
∫ (1 − cos x ) sin x dx .
du d du
∫ sin ∫ sin
3 2 2
g. x dx = x sin x dx = Let u = cos x , then = cos x ; = − sin x
dx dx dx

du
; du = − sin x dx ; dx = − . Therefore,
sin x
∫ (1 − cos x ) sin x dx ∫ (1 − u ) sin x ⋅ − sin x ( )

du
∫ sin = − ∫ 1 − u 2 du = ∫u ∫
3 2 2 2
x dx = = du − du
1 3 1
= u −u +c = cos 3 x − cos x + c
3 3
1 1
Check: Let y = cos 3 x − cos x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3 cos 2 x ⋅ − sin x + sin x + 0 = − sin x cos 2 x + sin x
3 3
( )
= sin x 1 − cos 2 x = sin x sin 2 x = sin 3 x
∫ ( cos x ) cos x dx = ∫ (1 − sin x ) cos x dx .

2 2
∫ cos ∫ cos
5 4 2 2
h. x dx = x cos x dx = Let u = sin x , then
du d du du
= sin x ; = cos x ; du = cos x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx cos x
∫ (1 − sin x ) cos x dx = ∫ (1 − u ) cos x ⋅ cos x ∫ (1 − u ) du ∫ (u )

2 2 2 du 2 2
∫ cos
5 4
x dx = 2
= = − 2u 2 + 1 du
1 5 2 3 1 2
sin 5 x − sin 3 x + sin x + c
∫u ∫ ∫
4
= du − 2 u 2 du + du = u − u +u +c =
5 3 5 3
1 2 1 2
Check: Let y = sin 5 x − sin 3 x + sin x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 5 sin 4 x ⋅ cos x − ⋅ 3 sin 2 x ⋅ cos x + cos x + 0
5 3 5 3
(
= cos x sin 4 x − 2 cos x sin 2 x + cos x = cos x sin 4 x − 2 sin 2 x + 1 = cos x 1 − sin 2 x ) ( ) 2
(
= cos x cos 2 x ) 2
= cos x cos 4 x = cos 5 x
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ tan x ( sec x − 1) dx = ∫ tan x sec x dx − ∫ tan x dx

4 2
i. x dx = x tan 2 x dx = 2 2 2 2 2
∫ tan ∫ ( sec ) ∫ tan ∫ ∫

2
= x sec 2 x dx − 2
x − 1 dx = 2
x sec 2 x dx − sec 2 x dx + dx . To solve the first
du d du du
integral let u = tan x , then = tan x ; = sec 2 x ; du = sec 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx sec 2 x
du 1 3 1
∫ tan ∫u = ∫ u 2 du =
2
x sec 2 x dx = 2
sec 2 x ⋅ u = tan 3 x . Grouping the terms we find
2 3 3
sec x
1 1
tan 3 x − tan x + x + c
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
4 2
x dx = x sec 2 x dx − sec 2 x dx + dx = tan 3 x − sec 2 x dx + dx =
3 3
1 3
Check: Let y = tan 3 x − tan x + x + c , then y ′ = tan 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x − sec 2 x + 1 + 0 = tan 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x − sec 2 x + 1
3 3
( ) ( )( )
= sec 2 x tan 2 x − 1 + 1 = tan 2 x + 1 tan 2 x − 1 + 1 = tan 4 x − tan 2 x + tan 2 x − 1 + 1 = tan 4 x

∫ ( sin x ) sin x dx = ∫ (1 − cos x ) sin x dx .

3 3
∫ sin ∫ sin
7 6 2 2
j. x dx = x sin x dx = Let u = cos x , then
du d du du
= cos x ; = − sin x ; du = − sin x dx ; dx = − . Therefore,
dx dx dx sin x
∫ (1 − cos x ) sin x dx ∫ (1 − u ) sin x dx ∫ (1 − 3u )

3 2 3 du
∫ sin
7 2
x dx = 2
= = + 3u 4 − u 6 sin x ⋅
− sin x
(
= − ∫ 1 − 3u 2 + 3u 4 − u 6 du = ) ∫u
6
∫ ∫
du − 3 u 4 du + 3 u 2 du − du = ∫
1 7
7
1 1
u − 3⋅ u 5 + 3⋅ u 3 − u + c
5 3
1 3
= cos 7 x − cos 5 x + cos 3 x − cos x + c
7 5
1 3 1 3
Check: Let y = cos 7 x − cos 5 x + cos 3 x − cos x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 7 cos 6 x ⋅ − sin x − ⋅ 5 cos 4 x ⋅ − sin x
7 5 7 5
+ 3 cos 2 x ⋅ − sin x + sin x + 0 = − sin x cos 6 x + 3 sin x cos 4 x − 3 sin x cos 2 x + sin x
(
= sin x − cos 6 x + 3 cos 4 x − 3 cos 2 x + 1 = sin x 1 − cos 2 x) ( ) 3
(
= sin x sin 2 x ) 3
= sin x sin 6 x = sin 7 x
k. ∫ sec
4
x dx ( )
= ∫ sec 2 x sec 2 x dx = ∫ sec 2 x 1 + tan 2 x dx = ∫ sec 2 x dx + ∫ tan 2 x sec 2 x dx
∫ (1 + tan x ) dx + ∫ tan x sec x dx = ∫ dx + ∫ tan x dx + ∫ tan x sec x dx .

2 2 2 2 2 2
= To solve the third integral
du d du du
let u = tan x , then = tan x ; = sec 2 x ; du = sec 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx sec 2 x
du 1 3 1
∫ tan ∫u = ∫ u 2 du =
2
x sec 2 x dx = 2
sec 2 x ⋅ u = tan 3 x . Grouping the terms we find
2 3 3
sec x
1 1
∫ sec ∫ dx + ∫ tan ∫ ∫ dx + ∫ tan
4 2
x dx = x dx + tan 2 x sec 2 x dx = 2
x dx + tan 3 x = x + tan x − x + tan 3 x + c
3 3
1 1
tan 3 x + tan x + (x − x ) + c = tan 3 x + tan x + c
3 3
1 3
Check: Let y = tan 3 x + tan x + c , then y ′ = tan 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x + sec 2 x + 0 = tan 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x + sec 2 x
3 3
( )
= sec 2 x tan 2 x + 1 = sec 2 x sec 2 x = sec 4 x
∫ ( cos x ) cos x dx = ∫ (1 − sin x ) cos x dx .

du d du
∫ cos
3 2 2
l. x dx = Let u = sin x , then = sin x ; = cos x
dx dx dx
du
; du = cos x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
cos x
∫ (1 − sin x ) cos x dx ∫ (1 − u )cos x ⋅ cos x ∫ (1 − u ) du

du
∫ cos = − ∫ u 2 du + ∫ du
3 2 2 2
x dx = = =

1 1
= − u 3 + u + c = − sin 3 x + sin x + c
3 3
1 1
Check: Let y = − sin 3 x + sin x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 3 sin 2 x ⋅ cos x + cos x + 0 = − cos x sin 2 x + cos x
3 3
( 2
)
= cos x 1 − sin x = cos x cos x = cos x ( 2
) 3
∫ cos x dx = ∫ cos 5x dx = ∫ sin x dx =

4 2 4
a. b. c.
∫ tan x dx = ∫ cot x dx = ∫ tan x dx =

3 4 6
d. e. f.
∫ cot ∫ sec ∫ csc

3 3 3
∫ tan ∫ cot ∫ cot

5 5 6
Solutions:
2
∫ ( cos x ) ∫ ( 1 + cos 2 x ) dx = 4 ∫ (1 + cos )

2 1  1 1
∫ ∫  2 ( 1 + cos 2 x ) dx
2
a. cos 4 x dx = 2
dx = = 2
2 x + 2 cos 2 x dx
  4
1 1 2 x 1 1 1 1 x 1 1
=
4 ∫
dx +
4 ∫
cos 2 2 x dx +
4
cos 2 x dx ∫ = +
4 4 ∫ 2 ( 1 + cos 4 x ) dx + 2 ⋅ 2 sin 2 x = + ⋅
4 4 2
dx ∫
1 1 x x 1 1 1 3 1 1
+
8∫cos 4 x dx + sin 2 x
4
= + + ⋅ sin 4 x + sin 2 x + c
4 8 8 4 4
=
8
x+
32
sin 4 x + sin 2 x + c
4
3x 1 1 3 4 cos 4 x 2 cos 2 x 3 1 2
Check: Let y = + sin 4 x + sin 2 x + c , then y ′ = + + +0 = + cos 4 x + cos 2 x
8 32 4 8 32 4 8 8 4
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
=  +  + cos 4 x + cos 2 x = + ( 1 + cos 4 x ) + cos 2 x = + ⋅ ( 1 + cos 4 x ) + cos 2 x
4 8 8 4 4 8 4 4 4 2 4
2
=
1 1 2
+ ⋅ cos 2 2 x + cos 2 x
4 4 4
=
1
4
(
1 + cos 2 2 x + 2 cos 2 x ) = 14 ( 1 + cos 2 x) 2 1
=  ( 1 + cos 2 x )
2 
(
= cos 2 x) = cos x 2 4
5 x dx = ∫ (1 − sin 5 x )dx = ∫ dx − ∫ sin

1 1 1
∫ cos ∫ dx −∫ 2 ( 1 − cos 10 x ) dx ∫ ∫
2 2 2
b. 5 x dx = = x− dx + cos 10 x dx
2 2
x 1 1  1 1 x sin 10 x
= x− + ⋅ sin 10 x + c = x1 −  + sin 10 x + c = + +c
2 2 10  2 20 2 20
x sin 10 x 1 1 1 10 1 1
Check: Let y = + + c , then y ′ = + ⋅ cos 10 x ⋅10 + 0 = + ⋅ cos 10 x = + cos 10 x
2 20 2 20 2 20 2 2

1 1 1 1 1
= 1 −  + cos 10 x = 1 −  − cos 10 x  = 1 − ( 1 − cos 10 x ) = 1 − sin 2 5 x = cos 2 5 x
 2 2 2 2  2
∫ ( sin x ) ∫ (1 + cos )
2 1  1 1
∫ ∫  2 ( 1 − cos 2 x ) dx ∫ ( 1 − cos 2 x ) dx
2
c. sin 4 x dx = 2
dx = = = 2
2 x − 2 cos 2 x dx
  4 4
1 1 2 x 1 1 1 1 x 1 1
=
4 ∫
dx +
4 ∫
cos 2 2 x dx −
4
cos 2 x dx ∫ = +
4 4 ∫ 2 ( 1 + cos 4 x ) dx − 2 ⋅ 2 sin 2 x = + ⋅
4 4 2
dx ∫
1 1 x x 1 1 1 3 1 1
+
8 ∫
cos 4 x dx − sin 2 x
4
= + + ⋅ sin 4 x − sin 2 x + c
4 8 8 4 4
=
8
x+
32
sin 4 x − sin 2 x + c
4
3x 1 1 3 4 cos 4 x 2 cos 2 x 3 1 2
Check: Let y = + sin 4 x − sin 2 x + c , then y ′ = + − +0 = + cos 4 x − cos 2 x
8 32 4 8 32 4 8 8 4
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
=  +  + cos 4 x − cos 2 x = + ( 1 + cos 4 x ) − cos 2 x = + ⋅ ( 1 + cos 4 x ) − cos 2 x
4 8 8 4 4 8 4 4 4 2 4
2
=
1 1 2
+ ⋅ cos 2 2 x − cos 2 x
4 4 4
=
1
4
(
1 + cos 2 2 x − 2 cos 2 x ) = 14 ( 1 − cos 2 x) 2 1
=  ( 1 − cos 2 x )
2 
(
= sin 2 x ) 2
= sin 4 x
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ ( sec ) = ∫ sec 2 x tan x dx − ∫ tan x dx . To solve the first

3 2 2
d. x dx = x tan x dx = x − 1 tan x dx
du d du du
integral let u = tan x , then = tan x ; = sec 2 x ; du = sec 2 dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx sec 2 x
du 1 2 1
∫ sec ∫ sec = ∫ u du =
2 2
x tan x dx = x ⋅u ⋅ u = tan 2 x . Combining the term
2 2 2
sec x
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ ( sec ) ∫ ( sec ) ∫ sec

3 2 2 2 2
x dx = x tan x dx = x − 1 tan x dx = x tan x − tan x dx = x tan x dx
1 1
tan 2 x − ln sec x + c
∫
− tan x dx =
2
tan 2 x − tan x dx ∫ =
2
1 1 1
Check: Let y = tan 2 x − ln sec x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 2 tan x ⋅ sec 2 x − ⋅ sec x tan x + 0
2 2 sec x
= tan x sec 2 x −
sec x tan x
sec x
(
= tan x sec 2 x − tan x = tan x sec 2 x − 1 = tan x tan 2 x = tan 3 x )
∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ cot x ( csc x − 1) dx = ∫ cot x csc x dx − ∫ cot x dx

4 2
e. x dx = x cot 2 x dx = 2 2 2 2 2
( )
= ∫ cot 2 x csc 2 x dx − ∫ csc 2 x − 1 dx = ∫ cot 2 x csc 2 x dx − ∫ csc 2 x dx + ∫ dx . To solve the first
du d du du
integral let u = cot x , then = cot x ; = − csc 2 x ; du = − csc 2 x dx ; dx = − . Therefore,
dx dx dx csc 2 x

du 1 1
∫ cot ∫u = − ∫ u 2 du = − u 3 = − cot 3 x . Grouping the terms we find
2
x csc 2 x dx = 2
csc 2 x ⋅ −
2 3 3
csc x
1 1
∫ cot
4
x dx = ∫ cot
2
x csc 2 x dx − csc 2 x dx + dx = − cot 3 x − csc 2 x dx + dx = − cot 3 x + cot x + x + c
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
3 3
1 3
Check: Let y = − cot 3 x + cot x + x + c , then y ′ = − cot 2 x ⋅ − csc 2 x − csc 2 x + 1 = cot 2 x csc 2 x − csc 2 x + 1
3 3
( ) ( )( )
= csc 2 x cot 2 x − 1 + 1 = cot 2 x + 1 cot 2 x − 1 + 1 = cot 4 x − cot 2 x + cot 2 x − 1 + 1 = cot 4 x
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ tan x ( sec x − 1) dx = ∫ ( tan x sec x − tan x ) dx = ∫ tan x sec x dx

6 4
f. x dx = x tan 2 x dx = 4 2 4 2 4 4 2
1
∫
− tan 4 x dx . In example 4.3-5, problem letter i, we found that ∫ tan
4
x dx = tan 3 x − tan x + x + c . Thus,
3
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ tan x ( sec x − 1) dx ∫ tan ∫

6 4
x dx = x tan 2 x dx = 4 2
= 4
x sec 2 x dx − tan 4 x dx
1  1 1
tan5 x − tan 3 x + tan x − x + c
∫ tan
4
= x sec 2 x dx −  tan 3 x − tan x + x + c  =
3  5 3
1 1 1 3
Check: Let y = tan 5 x − tan 3 x + tan x − x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 5 tan 4 x ⋅ sec 2 x − tan 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x + sec 2 x − 1 + 0
5 3 5 3
= tan 4 x ⋅ sec 2 x − tan 2 x ⋅ sec 2 x + sec 2 x − 1 = sec 2 x tan 4 x − tan 2 x + 1 − 1 ( )

( )( )
= 1 + tan 2 x tan 4 x − tan 2 x + 1 − 1 = tan 4 x − tan 2 x + 1 + tan 6 x − tan 4 x + tan 2 x − 1 = tan 6 x
∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ ( csc ) ∫ csc ∫

3 2 2 2
g. x dx = x cot x dx = x − 1 cot x dx = x cot x dx − cot x dx . To solve the first
du d du du
integral let u = cot x , then = cot x ; = − csc 2 x ; du = − csc 2 dx ; dx = − . Thus,
dx dx dx csc 2 x
du 1 1
∫ csc ∫ csc = − ∫ u du = − u 2 = − cot 2 x . Combining the term
2 2
x cot x dx = x ⋅u ⋅ −
2 2 2
csc x
∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ ( csc ) ∫ ( csc ) ∫ csc

3 2 2 2 2
x dx = x cot x dx = x − 1 cot x dx = x ⋅ cot x − cot x dx = x cot x dx
1 1
∫
− cot x dx = − cot 2 x − cot x dx∫ = − cot 2 x − ln sin x + c
2 2
1 1 1
Check: Let y = − cot 2 x − ln sin x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 2 cot x ⋅ − csc 2 x − ⋅ cos x + 0
2 2 sin x
= cot x csc 2 x −
cos x
sin x
(
= cot x csc 2 x − cot x = cot x csc 2 x − 1 = cot x cot 2 x = cot 3 x )

∫ sec ∫ sec ∫ ( tan ) ∫ tan ∫ ∫ tan x ⋅ tan x sec x dx

3 2 2 2
h. x dx = x sec x dx = x + 1 sec x dx = x sec x dx + sec x dx =
∫
+ sec x dx . To solve the first integral let u = tan x and dv = tan x sec x dx , then du = sec 2 x dx and
∫ dv = ∫ tan x sec x dx which implies v = sec x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du
∫ tan ∫ tan x ⋅ tan x sec x dx = tan x ⋅ sec x − ∫ sec x ⋅ sec ∫

2 2
we obtain x sec x dx = x dx = tan x sec x − sec 3 x dx
Combining the terms we have ∫ sec 3 x dx = ∫ tan x ⋅ tan x sec x dx + ∫ sec x dx = tan x sec x − ∫ sec
3
x dx .
∫ ∫ sec
3
+ sec x dx . Moving the x dx term from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand
side we obtain ∫ sec 3 x dx + ∫ sec 3 x dx = 2∫ sec 3 x dx = tan x sec x + ∫ sec x dx . Therefore,
∫ sec
3
x dx =
1
2
( ∫
tan x sec x + sec x dx )= 1
2
1
tan x sec x + ln sec x + tan x + c
2
1 1 sec 2 x ⋅ sec x + sec x tan x ⋅ tan x

Check: Let y = tan x sec x + ln sec x + tan x + c , then y ′ =
2 2 2
sec x tan x + sec 2 x sec 3 x + sec x tan 2 x sec x ( sec x + tan x ) sec 3 x + sec x tan 2 x sec x
+ +0 = + = +
2(sec x + tan x ) 2 2(sec x + tan x ) 2 2
=
sec 3 x + sec x tan 2 x + sec x
=
(
sec 3 x + sec x tan 2 x + 1 ) = sec 3
x + sec x sec 2 x
=
sec 3 x + sec 3 x
2 2 2 2
2 sec 3 x
= = sec 3 x
2
∫ csc ∫ csc ∫ (1 + cot x ) csc x dx = ∫ cot x csc x dx + ∫ csc x dx = ∫ cot x ⋅ cot x csc x dx
3 2 2 2
i. x dx = x csc x dx =
∫
+ csc x dx . To solve the first integral let u = cot x and dv = cot x csc x dx , then du = − csc 2 x dx and
∫ dv = ∫ cot x csc x dx which implies v = − csc x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du
we obtain ∫ cot 2 x csc x dx = ∫ cot x ⋅ cot x csc x dx = cot x ⋅ − csc x − ∫ csc x ⋅ csc 2 x dx = − cot x csc x − ∫ csc 3 x dx
Combining the terms we have ∫ csc 3 x dx = ∫ cot x ⋅ cot x csc x dx + ∫ csc x dx = − cot x csc x − ∫ csc 3 x dx .
∫ ∫ csc
3
+ csc x dx . Moving the x dx term from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand
side we obtain ∫ csc 3 x dx + ∫ csc 3 x dx = 2∫ csc 3 x dx = − cot x csc x + ∫ csc x dx . Therefore,
∫ csc
3
x dx =
1
2
(
− cot x csc x + csc x dx ∫ ) 1 1
= − cot x csc x + ln csc x − cot x + c
2 2

1 1
Check: Let y = − cot x csc x + ln csc x − cot x + c , then y ′ =
(
− − csc 2 x ⋅ csc x − csc x cot x ⋅ cot x )
2 2 2
− csc x cot x + csc 2 x csc 3 x + csc x cot 2 x csc x ( csc x − cot x ) csc 3 x + csc x cot 2 x csc x
+ +0 = + = +
2(csc x − cot x ) 2 2(csc x − cot x ) 2 2
=
csc 3 x + csc x cot 2 x + csc x
=
(
csc 3 x + csc x cot 2 x + 1 ) = csc 3
x + csc x csc 2 x
=
sec 3 x + sec 3 x
2 2 2 2
2 csc 3 x
= = csc 3 x
2
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ tan x ( sec x − 1) dx = ∫ tan x sec x dx − ∫ tan x dx .

5 3
j. x dx = x tan 2 x dx = 3 2 3 2 3
To solve the
du d du du
first integral let u = tan x , then = tan x ; = sec 2 x ; du = sec 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx sec 2 x
du 1 4 1
∫ tan = ∫ u 3 sec 2 x ⋅ = ∫ u 3 du =
3
x sec 2 x dx u +c = tan 4 x + c . Also, in Example 4.3-6,
2 4 4
sec x
1
∫ tan
3
problem letter d, we found that x dx = tan 2 x − ln sec x + c . Grouping the terms together
2
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ tan x ( sec x − 1) dx = ∫ tan x sec x dx − ∫ tan x dx

5 3
x dx = x tan 2 x dx = 3 2 3 2 3
1 1 1  1 1
tan 4 x − tan 2 x + ln sec x + c
=
4 ∫
tan 4 x − tan 3 x dx =
4
tan 4 x −  tan 2 x − ln sec x + c 
2 
=
4 2
1 1 1 2 sec x tan x
Check: Let y = tan 4 x − tan 2 x + ln sec x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 tan 3 x ⋅ sec 2 x − tan x ⋅ sec 2 x + +0
4 2 4 2 sec x
( ) (
= tan 3 x sec 2 x − tan x sec 2 x + tan x = sec 2 x tan 3 x − tan x + tan x = 1 + tan 2 x tan 3 x − tan x + tan x )( )
= tan 3 x − tan x + tan 5 x − tan 3 + tan x = tan 5 x
∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ cot x ( csc x − 1) dx = ∫ cot x csc x dx − ∫ cot x dx .

5 3
k. x dx = x cot 2 x dx = 3 2 3 2 3
To solve the
du d du du
first integral let u = cot x , then = cot x ; = − csc 2 x ; du = − csc 2 x dx ; dx = − . Thus,
dx dx dx csc 2 x
du 1 1
∫ cot ∫u = − ∫ u 3 du = − u 4 + c = − cot 4 x + c . Also, in example 4.3-6,
3
x csc 2 x dx = 3
csc 2 x ⋅ −
2 4 4
csc x
1
problem letter g, we found that ∫ cot 3 x dx = − cot 2 x − ln sin x + c . Grouping the terms together
2
∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ cot x ( csc x − 1) dx = ∫ cot x csc x dx − ∫ cot x dx

5 3
x dx = x cot 2 x dx = 3 2 3 2 3
1 1  1  1 1
= − cot 4 x − ∫ cot 3 x dx = − cot 4 x −  − cot 2 x − ln sin x + c  = − cot 4 x + cot 2 x + ln sin x + c
4 4  2  4 2

1 1 − 4 ⋅ cot 3 x ⋅ − csc 2 x 2 ⋅ cot x ⋅ − csc 2 x cos x

Check: Let y = − cot 4 x + cot 2 x + ln sin x + c , then y ′ = + + +0
4 2 4 2 sin x
( )
= cot 3 x csc 2 x − cot x csc 2 x + cot x = csc 2 x cot 3 x − cot x + cot x = 1 + cot 2 x cot 3 x − cot x + cot x ( )( )
= cot 3 x − cot x + cot 5 x − cot 3 + cot x = cot 5 x
l. ∫ cot
6
x dx = ∫ cot 4 x cot 2 x dx = ∫ cot 4 x csc 2 x − 1 dx = ( ) ∫ ( cot
4
x csc 2 x − cot 4 x dx ) = ∫ cot 4 x csc 2 x dx
1
∫
− cot 4 x dx . In example 4.3-6, problem letter e, we found that ∫ cot
4
x dx = − cot 3 x + cot x + x + c .
3
∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ cot x ( csc x − 1) dx ∫ cot ∫

6 4
Thus, x dx = x cot 2 x dx = 4 2
= 4
x csc 2 x dx − cot 4 x dx
 1  1 1
= ∫ cot
4
x csc 2 x dx −  − cot 3 x + cot x + x + c  = − cot 5 x + cot 3 x − cot x − x + c
 3  5 3
1 1 5 ⋅ cot 4 x ⋅ − csc 2 x 3 ⋅ cot 2 x ⋅ − csc 2 x

Check: Let y = − cot 5 x + cot 3 x − cot x − x + c , then y ′ = − + + csc 2 x − 1
5 3 5 3
(
= cot 4 x ⋅ csc 2 x − cot 2 x ⋅ csc 2 x + csc 2 x − 1 = csc 2 x cot 4 x − cot 2 x + 1 − 1 )
( )( )
= 1 + cot 2 x cot 4 x − cot 2 x + 1 − 1 = cot 4 x − cot 2 x + 1 + cot 6 x − cot 4 x + cot 2 x − 1 = cot 6 x
∫ sin x cos x dx = ∫ sin x cos x dx = ∫ sin x cos x dx =

2 2 2 5 4 2
a. b. c.
∫ sin x cos x dx = ∫ tan x sec x dx = ∫ tan x sec x dx =

3 2 2 5 3
d. e. f.
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ tan

5
g. x sec 4 x dx = h. 3
x sec 4 x dx = i. 3
x sec 3 x dx =
∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ cot

2
j. x csc 2 x dx = k. 3
x csc 3 x dx = l. 3
x csc 4 x dx =
Solutions:
1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ sin ∫ ∫ 2 ( 1 − cos 4 x ) dx ∫ ( 1 − cos 4 x ) dx ∫ ∫
2
a. x cos 2 x dx = sin 2 2 x dx = = = dx − cos 4 x dx
4 4 8 8 8
x 1 1 1 1
= − ⋅ sin 4 x + c = x− sin 4 x + c
8 8 4 8 32
1 1 1 4 cos 4 x 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x − sin 4 x + c , then y ′ = − +0 = − cos 4 x = ( 1 − cos 4 x )
8 32 8 32 8 8 8
1 1 1
= ⋅ ( 1 − cos 4 x ) = ⋅ sin 2 2 x = sin 2 x cos 2 x
4 2 4
∫ sin x (cos x ) cos x dx = ∫ sin x (1 − sin x ) cos x dx

2 2 2
∫ sin ∫ sin
2
b. x cos 5 x dx = 2
x cos 4 x cos x dx = 2 2 2

∫ sin x (1 + sin x − 2 sin x ) cos x dx ∫ ( sin )

2 4 2 2
= = x cos x + sin 6 x cos x − 2 sin 4 x cos x dx
1 1 2
sin 3 x + sin 7 x − sin 5 x + c
∫ sin ∫ ∫
2
= x cos x dx + sin 6 x cos x dx − 2 sin 4 x cos x dx =
3 7 5
1 1 2 3 sin 2 x cos x 7 sin 6 x cos x 10 sin 4 x cos x

Check: Let y = sin 3 x + sin 7 x − sin 5 x + c , then y ′ = + − +0
3 7 5 3 7 5
= sin 2 x cos x + sin 6 x cos x − 2 sin 4 x cos x = sin 2 x cos x 1 + sin 4 x − 2 sin 2 x ( )
(
= sin 2 x cos x 1 + sin 2 x )
2
= sin 2 x cos x cos 2 x ( )2
= sin 2 x cos x cos 4 x = sin 2 x cos 5 x
∫ ( 12 sin 2 x )
2 1 1
∫ sin ∫ ( sin x cos x ) ( 1 − cos 2 x ) dx ∫
4 2
c. x cos 2 x dx = sin 2 x dx = ⋅ = sin 2 2 x dx
2 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∫
sin 2 2 x cos 2 x dx ∫ 2 ( 1 − cos 4 x ) dx − 8 ∫ sin ∫ ∫
2
− = 2 x cos 2 x dx = dx − cos 4 x dx − ⋅ sin 3 2 x
8 8 16 16 8 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
x − ⋅ sin 4 x − sin 3 2 x + c = x− sin 4 x − sin 3 2 x + c
16 16 4 48 16 64 48
1 1 1 1 4 cos 4 x 6 sin 2 2 x cos 2 x

Check: Let y = x − sin 4 x − sin 3 2 x + c , then y ′ = − − +0
16 64 48 16 64 48
1
= (1 − cos 4 x ) − 1 sin 2 2 x cos 2 x =
1 1 1
⋅ (1 − cos 4 x ) − sin 2 2 x cos 2 x =
1 1
⋅ sin 2 2 x − sin 2 2 x cos 2 x
16 8 8 2 8 8 8
2
1 1
=  sin 2 x  ⋅ ( 1 − cos 2 x ) = ( sin x cos x )2 sin 2 x = sin 2 x cos 2 x ⋅ sin 2 x = sin 4 x cos 2 x
2  2
∫ sin ∫ sin x (1 − sin x )dx = ∫ ( sin x − sin x ) dx = ∫ sin x dx − ∫ sin x dx .

3
d. x cos 2 x dx = 3 2 3 5 3 5
In Example,
1 2
4.3-5, problem letters f and g, we found that ∫ sin 5 x dx = − cos 5 x + cos 3 x − cos x + c
5 3
1
and ∫ sin 3 x dx = cos 3 x − cos x + c . Therefore,
3
1  1 2 
∫ sin ∫ sin ∫
3
x cos 2 x dx = 3
x dx − sin 5 x dx = cos 3 x − cos x + c −  − cos 5 x + cos 3 x − cos x + c 
3  5 3 
1 1 2 1 1
= cos 5 x + cos 3 x − cos 3 x − cos x + cos x + c = cos 5 x − cos 3 x + c
5 3 3 5 3
1 1 1 3
Check: Let y = cos 5 x − cos 3 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 5 cos 4 x ⋅ − sin x − ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ − sin x + 0
5 3 5 3
( )
= − sin x cos 4 x + sin x cos 2 x = sin x cos 2 x 1 − cos 2 x = sin x cos 2 x sin 2 x = sin 3 x cos 2 x

∫ tan ∫ ( sec ) ∫ sec ∫

2 2 3
e. x sec x dx = x − 1 sec x dx = x dx − sec x dx . In Example 4.3-6, problem letter
1 1
h, we found that ∫ sec 3 x dx = tan x sec x + ln sec x + tan x + c . Therefore,
2 2
1 1
∫ tan ∫ sec ∫
2 3
x sec x dx = x dx − sec x dx = tan x sec x + ln sec x + tan x − ln sec x + tan x + c
2 2
1 1
tan x sec x − ln sec x + tan x + c
2 2
1 1
Check: Let y = tan x sec x − ln sec x + tan x + c , then y ′ =
2 2
1
2
(
sec 3 x + sec x tan 2 x − )
sec x tan x + sec 2 x
2 (sec x + tan x )
sec x ( sec x + tan x )
=
1
2
(
sec 3 x + sec x tan 2 x −
2 (sec x + tan x )
) =
1
2
1
sec 3 x + sec x tan 2 x −
2
sec x
2
=
1
2
(
sec x sec 2 x + tan 2 x − 1 ) = 12 sec x ( tan 2
x + tan 2 x ) = 12 sec x ⋅ 2 tan 2
x = tan 2 x sec x
∫ ( sec ) 2
∫ tan ∫ tan
5
f. x sec 3 x dx = 4
x sec 2 x sec x tan x dx = 2
x −1 sec 2 x sec x tan x dx
∫ ( sec ) ∫ ( sec )
4
= x + 1 − 2 sec 2 x sec 2 x sec x tan x dx = 6
x + sec 2 x − 2 sec 4 x sec x tan x dx
1 1 2 1 2 1
= sec 7 x + sec 3 x − sec 5 x + c = sec 7 x − sec 5 x + sec 3 x + c
7 3 5 7 5 3
1 2 1 7 10
Check: Let y = sec 7 x − sec 5 x + sec 3 x + c , then y ′ = sec 6 x ⋅ sec x tan x − sec 4 x ⋅ sec x tan x
7 5 3 7 5
3
+ sec 2 x ⋅ sec x tan x + 0 = sec 6 x ⋅ sec x tan x − 2 sec 4 x ⋅ sec x tan x + sec 2 x ⋅ sec x tan x
3
( ) (
= sec 6 x + sec 2 x − 2 sec 4 x sec x tan x = sec 4 x + 1 − 2 sec 2 x sec 2 x sec x tan x )
= ( sec )
2 2
x −1 sec 2 x sec x tan x = tan 4 x sec 2 x sec x tan x = tan 5 x sec 3 x
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ tan x ( tan x + 1) sec x dx ∫ tan

5
g. x sec 4 x dx = 5
x sec 2 x sec 2 x dx = 5 2 2
= 7
x sec 2 x dx
1 1
tan 8 x + tan 6 x + c
∫
+ tan 5 x sec 2 x dx =
8 6
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = tan 8 x + tan 6 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 8 tan 7 x ⋅ sec 2 x + ⋅ 6 tan 5 x ⋅ sec 2 x + 0
8 6 8 6
(
= tan 7 x sec 2 x + tan 5 x sec 2 x = tan 5 x sec 2 x tan 2 x + 1 = tan 5 x sec 2 x sec 2 x = tan 5 x sec 4 x )
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ tan x ( tan x + 1) sec x dx ∫ tan
3
h. x sec 4 x dx = 3
x sec 2 x sec 2 x dx = 3 2 2
= 5
x sec 2 x dx

1 1
tan 6 x + tan 4 x + c
∫
+ tan 3 x sec 2 x dx =
6 4
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = tan 6 x + tan 4 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 6 tan 5 x ⋅ sec 2 x + ⋅ 4 tan 3 x ⋅ sec 2 x + 0
6 4 6 4
5 2 3 2 3 2
(
= tan x sec x + tan x sec x = tan x sec x tan x + 1 = tan 3 x sec 2 x sec 2 x = tan 3 x sec 4 x 2
)
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ ( sec ) ∫ sec
3
i. x sec 3 x dx = 2
x sec 2 x ⋅ tan x sec x dx = 2
x − 1 sec 2 x ⋅ tan x sec x dx = 4
x ⋅ tan x sec x dx
du d
∫ sec
2
x ⋅ tan x sec x dx . To solve the first and the second integral let u = sec x , then = sec x
dx dx
du du
; = sec x tan x ; du = sec x tan x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx sec x tan x
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ sec ∫

3
x sec 3 x dx = 2
x sec 2 x ⋅ tan x sec x dx = 4
x ⋅ tan x sec x dx − sec 2 x ⋅ tan x sec x dx
du du 1 5 1 3
∫u ∫ ∫u ∫
4
= ⋅ tan x sec x ⋅ − u 2 ⋅ tan x sec x ⋅ = 4
du − u 2 du = u − u +c
tan x sec x tan x sec x 5 3
1 1
= sec 5 x − sec 3 x + c
5 3
1 1 5 3
Check: Let y = sec 5 x − sec 3 x + c , then y ′ = sec 4 x ⋅ sec x tan x − sec 2 x ⋅ sec x tan x + 0
5 3 5 3
(
= sec 4 x ⋅ sec x tan x − sec 2 x ⋅ sec x tan x = sec 4 x − sec 2 x sec x tan x = sec 2 x − 1 sec 2 x sec x tan x ) ( )
= tan 2 x sec 2 x sec x tan x = tan 3 x sec 3 x
du d du −du
j. Given ∫ cot 2 x csc 2 x dx let u = cot x , then = cot x ; = − csc 2 x ; du = − csc 2 x dx ; dx = .
dx dx dx csc 2 x
du 1 1
Therefore, ∫ cot
2
x csc 2 x dx = ∫u
2
csc 2 x ⋅ = − ∫ u 2 du = − u 3 + c = − cot 3 x + c
− csc 2 x 3 3
1 1 3
Check: Let y = − cot 3 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 3 cot 2 x ⋅ − csc 2 x + 0 = ⋅ cot 2 x csc 2 x = cot 2 x csc 2 x
3 3 3
∫ cot ∫ cot x cot ∫ cot x ( csc ) ∫ csc

3
k. x csc 3 x dx = 2
x csc 3 x dx = 2
x − 1 csc 2 x dx = 4
x cot x dx
1 1
∫
− csc 2 x cot x dx = − csc 5 x + csc 3 x + c
5 3
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = − csc 5 x + csc 3 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 5 csc 4 x ⋅ − csc x cot x + ⋅ 3 csc 2 x ⋅ − csc x cot x + 0
5 3 5 3
( )
= csc 5 x ⋅ cot x − csc 3 x ⋅ cot x = csc 3 x cot x csc 2 x − 1 = csc 3 x cot x cot 2 x = cot 3 x csc 3 x

∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ cot x ( cot x + 1) csc x dx ∫ cot

3
l. x csc 4 x dx = 3
x csc 2 x csc 2 x dx = 3 2 2
= 5
x csc 2 x dx
1 1
cot 6 x − cot 4 x + c
∫
+ cot 3 x csc 2 x dx = −
6 4
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = − cot 6 x − cot 4 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 6 cot 5 x ⋅ − csc 2 x − ⋅ 4 cot 3 x ⋅ − csc 2 x + 0
6 4 6 4
( )
= cot 5 x csc 2 x + cot 3 x csc 2 x = cot 3 x csc 2 x cot 2 x + 1 = cot 3 x csc 2 x csc 2 x = cot 3 x csc 4 x
Section 4.3 Practice Problems – Integration of Trigonometric Functions
1. Evaluate the following integrals:

3x
a. ∫ sin 5
dx = b. ∫ 3cos 2 x dx = c. ∫ (sin 5x − cos 7 x ) dx =
∫ 2 csc ∫ x sec ∫ 8sec 5x dx =

2 2 2
d. 3 x dx = e. x dx = f.
x
∫ sin ∫ cos ∫ 2 cos x dx
3 3 2
g. x cos x dx = h. x sin x dx = i. =
∫e ∫ tan ∫ cot
3x
a. sec e3 x dx = b. 9
x sec2 x dx = c. 5
x csc2 x dx =
1 2
∫ sec 2 x tan 2 x dx = ∫ x cot x dx ∫3x
2
d. e. = f. csc x3dx =
∫ (sin 5x csc 5x ) dx = ∫ (cos 5t sec 5t + 3t ) ∫e

2 cot x
g. h. + t dt = i. csc 2 x dx =
∫ sin 3x cos 5x dx = ∫ cos 6 x cos 4 x dx = ∫ sin

5
a. b. c. 3 x dx =
∫ tan 2 x dx = ∫ cos ax dx = ∫ tan 5x dx =

4 2 3
d. e. f.
∫ cot 3x dx = ∫ cot 2 x dx = ∫ cot 3x dx =

4 3 6
g. h. i.

Calculus I 4.4 Integration of Expressions Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions
4.4 Integration of Expressions Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In the following examples we will solve problems using the following formulas:
1 1 x 1 x
∫ 2
a −x 2
dx =
a
arc sin + c
a
=
a
sin −1 + c
a
1 1 x 1 x
∫ a 2 + x 2 dx = a
arc tan + c
a
=
a
tan −1 + c
a
1 1 x 1 x
∫x 2
x −a 2
dx =
a
arc sec + c
a
=
a
sec −1 + c
a
Let’s integrate some algebraic expressions using the above integration formulas.

dx dx x 3 dx
a. ∫ 16 − 9 x 2
= b. ∫ 36 − x 2
= c. ∫ 1− x8
=
x 2 dx x2 x
d. ∫ 16 − x 6
= e. ∫ 9+ x 6
dx = f. ∫ 4
x +5
dx =
dx x 3 dx x 2 dx
g. ∫ 9 x 2 + 25
= h. ∫ 49 + 4 x 8
= i. ∫ 5 + 9x 6
=
Solutions:
dx x dx
a. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a2 − x2
= arc sin
a
+c, i.e., ∫ 16 − 9 x 2
dx
= ∫ 4 − (3 x ) 2
2
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = 3x , then = 3 x = 3 x which implies
dx dx
du dx 1 du 1 du 1 u
du = 3 x dx ; dx =
3
. Therefore, ∫ 4 2 − (3 x ) 2
= ∫ ⋅
42 − u 2 3
=
3 ∫
42 − u 2
= arc sin
3 4
1 u 1 3x
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x . arc sin + c = arc sin +c
3 4 3 4
1 3x
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc sin + c then
3 4
1 1 d 3x 1 1 3 3 1 1 4 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
3
1− ( )
3x 2
4
dx 4 3
1 − 916
x 2 4 12 16 −9 x 2
16
4 16 − 9 x 2 16 − 9 x 2
dx x dx
b. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a2 − x2
= arc sin
a
+c, i.e., ∫ 36 − x 2
dx
= ∫ 62 − x2

du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x , then = x =1 which implies du = dx .
dx dx
dx du u
Therefore, ∫ 36 − x 2
= ∫ 62 − u 2
= arc sin + c
6
u x
6 6
x
6
1 d x 1 1 1 1 1 6 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
1− (6x )2 dx 6
1− x2
36
6 6 36 − x 2
36
6 36 − x 2 36 − x 2
dx x x 3 dx
c. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a2 − x2
= arc sin
a
+c, i.e., ∫ 1− x8
x 3 dx
= ∫
12 − x 4 ( ) 2
du d 4
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x 4 , then = x = 4x 3 which implies
dx dx
du x 3 dx x3 du 1 du 1 u
du = 4 x 3 dx ; dx = . Therefore, ∫ = ∫ ⋅ = ∫ = arc sin + c
( )
3 3 4 4 1
4x 2
12 − u 2 4 x 12 − u 2
12 − x 4
1 u 1
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x . arc sin + c = arc sin x 4 + c
4 1 4
1
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc sin x 4 + c then
4
1 1 d 4 1 1 4 x3 x3
y′ = ⋅ x +0 = ⋅ 4x 3 = =
4
1− x 4 ( ) 2 dx 4 1− x8 4 1− x8 1− x8
dx x x 2 dx
d. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a2 − x2
= arc sin
a
+c, i.e., ∫ 16 − x 6
x 2 dx
= ∫
42 − x3 ( ) 2
du d 3
dx dx
du x 2 dx x2 du 1 du 1 u
du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore, ∫ = ∫ ⋅ = ∫ = arc sin + c
3x 2
42 − x3 ( ) 2 4 2 − u 2 3x
2 3 42 − u 2 3 4
1 u 1 x3
3 4 3 4
1 x3
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc sin +c then
3 4
1 1 d x3 1 1 3x 2 1 x2 1 4x 2 x2
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
3 3 2 dx 4 3 x 6 4 4 16 − x 6 4 16 − x 6 16 − x 6
1 −  x4  1 − 16 16
 

dx 1 x x2
e. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x 2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 9 + x6
dx
dx
= ∫ 3 2 + (x 3 ) 2
du d 3
dx dx
du dx 1 du 1 du 1 u
du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx =
3x 2
. Therefore, ∫ 3 2 + (x 3 ) 2 = ∫ 2 2
⋅
3 + u 3x 2
=
3 ∫
2
3 +u 2
= arc tan + c
9 3
1 u 1 x3
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x . arc tan + c = arc tan +c
9 3 9 3
1 x3
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc tan +c then
9 3
1 1 d x3 1 1 3x 2 1 x2 1 9x 2 x2
y′ = ⋅+0 = ⋅ = = =
9  x 3  2 dx 3 9 1 + x6 3 9 9+ x 6 9 9 + x6 9 + x6
1+  3  9 9
 
dx 1 x x
f. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x 2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ x +54
dx
x x dx
= ∫ 5+ x 4
dx = ∫ ( 5 ) 2 + (x 2 ) 2
du d 2
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x 2 , then = x = 2 x which implies du = 2 x dx
dx dx
du x dx x du 1 du 1 u
; dx =
2x
. Therefore, ∫ ( 5 ) 2 + (x 2 ) 2 = ∫( ) 5 2
+u
⋅
2 2x
=
2 5 2
+u 2 ∫( )
=
2 5
arc tan
5
+c
1 u 1 x2
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x . arc tan +c = arc tan +c
2 5 5 2 5 5
1 x2
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc tan + c then
2 5 5
1 d x2 1 1 1 2x 1 2x 1 5x x
y′ = +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = = =
4
2
5+ x4
dx 5 4 10 5+ x 4 5 5+ x
2 5 2 2 5 1+ x 5
1 +  x  5 5
 5
dx 1 x dx
g. First - Write the given integral in its standard form 2
a +x 2
= arc tan + c ,
a a ∫ i.e., ∫ 2
9 x + 25
dx dx 1 dx 1 dx
= ∫ 25 + 9 x 2
= ∫ 9 (25 + x 2 ) =
9 ∫ 25 +x 2
=
9 ∫ ( 5) 2 + x2
9 9 3
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x , then = x = 1 which implies du = dx .
dx dx
1 dx 1 1 u 1 3 3u 1 3u
Therefore,
9 ∫ ( 5) 2 +u2 = ⋅ arc tan + c
9 5 5
= ⋅ arc tan
9 5 5
+c =
15
arc tan
5
+c
3 3 3
1 3u 1 3x
15 5 15 5

1 3x
15 5
1 1 d 3x 1 1 3 3 1 3 25 1 75 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = = =
15 1 + 3 x 2
(5 )
dx 5 2
15 1 + 9 x 5
25
75 25+9 x
25
2 75 25 + 9 x 2 75 25 + 9 x 2
25 + 9 x 2
Note that another way of solving this class of problems is by rewriting the integral in the
following way:
dx dx dx du d
∫ 2
9 x + 25
= ∫ 25 + 9 x 2
= ∫ 5 + (3 x )
2 2
. Now, let u = 3x , then =
dx dx
3x = 3 which implies
du dx 1 du 1 du 1 1 u
du = 3dx ; dx =
3
. Therefore, ∫ 5 + (3 x )
2 2
= ∫ 5 +u2 2
⋅
3
=
3 ∫ 2
5 +u 2
= ⋅ arc tan + c
3 5 5
1 u 1 3x
= arc tan + c = arc tan +c
15 5 15 5
dx 1 x x 3 dx
h. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a2 + x2 =
a
arc tan + c ,
a
i.e., ∫ 49 + 4 x 8
x 3 dx 1 x 3 dx 1 x 3 dx
= ∫ 4 (49 + x 8 ) =
4 ∫ 49 + x8
=
4 ∫ (7 )2 + (x 4 )2
4 4 2
du d 4
dx dx
du 1 x 3 dx 1 x3 du 1 du
du = 4 x 3 dx ; dx =
4x 3
. Therefore,
4 ∫ (7 )2 + (x 4 )2 =
4 ∫ (7 )2 + u 2 ⋅ 4 x 3 =
16 ∫ (7 )2 + u 2
2 2 2
1 1 u 1 2 2u 1 2u
= ⋅ arc tan + c
7 7
= ⋅ arc tan +c = arc tan +c
16 16 7 7 56 7
2 2
1 2u 1 2 x4
56 7 56 7
1 2x 4
56 7
1 1 d 2x 4 1 1 8x 3 1 x3 1 49 x 3 x3
y′ = ⋅+0 = ⋅ = = =
56  4  2 dx 7 56 1 + 4 x8 7 49 49+ 4 x8 49 49 + 4 x 8 49 + 4 x 8
2 x
1+  7  49 49
 
or, the alternative approach would be to rearrange the integral in the following way:
x 3 dx x 3 dx du d
∫ 49 + 4 x 8
= ∫ 2
7 + 2x ( ) 4 2
. Now, let u = 2x 4 , then =
dx dx
2 x 4 = 8x 3 which implies du = 8 x 3 dx
du x 3 dx x3 du 1 du 1 1 u
; dx =
8x 3
. Therefore, ∫ 7 2 + 2x ( ) 4 2
= ∫ 2
7 +u 2
⋅
8x 3
=
8 ∫ 2
7 +u 2
= ⋅ arc tan + c
8 7 7
1 u 1 2 x4
56 7 56 7
dx 1 x x 2 dx
i. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a2 + x2 =
a
arc tan + c ,
a
i.e., ∫ 5 + 9x 6

x 2 dx 1 x 2 dx 1 x 2 dx
= ∫ 9 (5 + x 6 ) = 9 ∫ = ∫
( )
2
5 + x6 9  5 3 2
9 9  3  + x
 
du d 3
dx dx
du 1 x 2 dx 1 x2 du 1 du
du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore, ∫ = ∫ ⋅ = ∫ =
( )
2 9 2 9 2 2 27 2
3x  5  + x3 2  5  + u 2 3x  5  +u2
 3   3   3 
     
1 1 u 1 3 3u 1 3u
⋅ arc tan +c = ⋅ arc tan +c = arc tan +c
27 5 5 27 5 5 9 5 5
3 3
1 3u 1 3 x3
Third - Write the answer in terms of the x variable, i.e., arc tan +c = arc tan +c
9 5 5 9 5 5
1 3x 3
9 5 5
1 1 d 3x 3 1 1 9x 2 1 x2 1 5x 2 x2
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
9 5 3 2 dx 5 9 5 1 + 9 x6 5 5 5+ 9 x 6 5 5 + 9x 6 5 + 9x 6
1 +  3 x  5 5
 5 
x 2 dx x 2 dx du d
∫ 5 + 9x 6
= ∫ ( 5 )2 + (3x 3 )2 . Now, let u = 3x 3 , then =
dx dx
3x 3 = 9 x 2 which implies du = 9 x 2 dx
du x 2 dx x2 du 1 du 1 1 u
; dx =
9x 2
. Therefore, ∫ ( 5 )2 + (3x 3 )2 = ∫ ( 5 )2 + u 2 ⋅ 9 x 2 =
9 ∫ ( 5 )2 + u 2 = ⋅
9 5
arc tan
5
+c
1 u 1 3 x3
= arc tan +c = arc tan +c
9 5 5 9 5 5

dx dx dx
a. ∫ x x −4 4
= b. ∫ x 25 x − 9 2
= c. ∫ x x 2 − 25
=
dx dx ex
d. ∫ x 6x 2 − 9
= e. ∫ x 16 x 4 − 25
= f. ∫ e 2x + 4
dx =
ex dx dx
g. ∫ 9e 2x
+16
dx = h. ∫ 25 − (x + 4 )2
= i. ∫ 3 − ( x − 2 )2
=
Solutions:
dx 1 x
a. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫x 2
x −a 2
=
a
arc sec + c ,
a
i.e.,
dx dx
∫ = ∫
x x4 − 4 x (x )2 2
− 22

du d 2
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x 2 , then = x = 2 x which implies
dx dx
du dx 1 du 1 du
du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore, ∫ = ∫ ⋅ = ∫
2x
x (x )2 2
−2 2 x u 2 − 2 2 2x 2 x2 u 2 − 22
1 du 1 1 u 1 u
=
2 ∫ u u −22 2
= ⋅ arc sec + c
2 2 2
=
4
arc sec + c
2
1 u 1 x2
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x .
arc sec + c = arc sec +c
4 2 4 2
1 x2
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc sec + c then
4 2
1 1 d x2 1 1 2x 1 x 1 4x 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
4 2 2 dx 2 4 x2 x4 2 4 x 2 x 4 −4 4 x2 x4 − 4 x x4 − 4
x  x 2  −1 −1
2   2 4 2 4
 2 
dx 1 x
b. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫x x2 − a2
=
a
arc sec + c ,
a
i.e.,
dx dx dx 1 dx
∫ = ∫ = ∫ = ∫
x 25 x 2 − 9 25 x x 2 − 25
9 5 x x 2 − 25
9 5
x x2 − (53 )2
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x , then = x = 1 which implies du = dx .
dx dx
1 dx 1 du 1 1 u 1 5u
Therefore, ∫ = ∫ = ⋅ arc sec + c = arc sec +c
() () 5 3
5 5 3 3 3
x x − 2 3 2 u u − 2 3 2 5 5
5 5
1 5u 1 5x
arc sec + c = arc sec +c
3 3 3 3
1 5x
3 3
1 1 d 5x 1 1 5 5 1 5 9 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
3 5x 5x 2
3
−1 (3 )
dx 3 3 5 x 25 x 2
3 9
−1
3 9 5 x 25 x 2 −9
3 9
9 5 x 25 x 2 − 9 x 25 x 2 − 9
dx dx du d
∫ x 25 x 2 − 9
= ∫ x (5x )2 − 3 2
. Now, let u = 5 x , then =
dx dx
5x = 5 which implies du = 5dx
du dx 1 du 1 5 du du
; dx =
5
. Therefore, ∫ x (5x )2 − 3 2
= ∫ u u 2 − 32 5
⋅ =
5 ∫ u u 2 − 32
= ∫ u u 2 − 32
5
1 u 1 5x
= arc sec + c = arc sec +c
3 3 3 3
dx 1 x
c. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫x x2 − a2
=
a
arc sec + c ,
a
i.e.,
dx dx
∫ x x 2 − 25
= ∫ x x 2 − 52

du d
dx dx
dx du 1 u
Therefore, ∫ x x 2 − 52
= ∫ u u 2 − 52
=
5
arc sec + c
5
1 u 1 x
arc sec + c = arc sec + c
5 5 5 5
1 x
5 5
1 1 d x 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
5 x x 2
−1
5
dx 5
(5 ) 5 x x2
5 25
−1
5 5 2
x x 25− 25 5 2
x x − 25 x x 2 − 25
dx 1 x
d. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫x 2
x −a 2
=
a
arc sec + c ,
a
i.e.,
dx dx dx 1 dx
∫ x 6x 2 − 9
= ∫ 6 x x 2 − 96
= ∫ 2
=
6∫ 2
6 x x 2 −  3 
 x x 2 −  3 

 6   6 
du d
dx dx
1 dx 1 du 1 1 u 1 6u
6∫ 6∫
Therefore, = = ⋅
3
arc sec
3
+c = arc sec +c
2 2 6 3 3
x x 2 −  3 
 u u 2 −  3 
 6 6
 6   6 
1 6u 1 6x
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x . arc sec + c = arc sec +c
3 3 3 3
1 6x
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc sec +c then y ′
3 3
1 1 d 6x 1 1 6 6 1 6 9 1
= ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
3 2 dx 3 3 6x 6x 2 3 9 6x 2
6 x −9 9 6 x 6x 2 − 9 x 6x 2 − 9
6x  6x 
−1 −1
3  3  3 9 3 9

dx dx du d
∫ = ∫ . Now, let u = 6 x , then = 6x = 6 which implies du = 6 dx
x 6x 2 − 9 x ( 6x)2 − 3 2 dx dx
du dx 1 du 1 6 du du
; dx = . Therefore, ∫ = ∫ ⋅ =
6∫
= ∫
6
x ( 6x) 2
− 32
u
6
u −32 2 6 u u −3 2 2
u u 2 − 32
1 u 1 6x
3 3 3 3
dx 1 x
e. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫x x2 − a2
=
a
arc sec + c ,
a
i.e.,
dx dx dx 1 dx
∫ = ∫ = ∫ = ∫
x 16 x − 25 4
16 x x 4 25
− 16 4x (x ) − ( )
2 2 5 2
4
4
x (x ) − ( )
2 2 5 2
4

du d 2
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x 2 , then = x = 2 x which implies
dx dx
du 1 dx 1 1 du 1 du
du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Thus, ∫ = ∫ ⋅ = ∫
2x 4
x (x ) − ( )
2 2 5 2
4
4
x u 2 − 54
2 2x
() 8
x 2 u 2 − 54
2
()
1 du 1 1 u 1 4u
= ∫ = ⋅ arc sec + c = arc sec +c
(54 )2
8 8 5 5 10 5
u u2 − 4 4
1 4u 1 4x 2
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x . arc sec +c = arc sec +c
10 5 10 5
1 4x 2
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc sec +c then
10 5
1 1 d 4x 2 1 1 8x 8 x 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = =
10 2 dx 5 10 4 x2 16 x 4 5 50 4 x2 16 x 4 − 25 x 16 x 4 − 25
4 x2  4 x 2  −1 −1
5  5  5 25 5 25
 
dx dx du d
∫ = ∫ . Now, let u = 4x 2 , then = 4 x 2 = 8x which implies
x 16 x 4 − 25 x (4x )
2 2
−5 2 dx dx
du dx 1 du 1 du
du = 8 x dx ; dx = . Therefore, ∫ = ∫ ⋅ = ∫
8x
x (4x ) 2 2
− 52 x u −5 2 2 8x 8 x 2
u 2 − 52
1 du 1 4du 1 du 1 1 u 1 4x 2
=
8 ∫ u u 2 − 52
=
8 ∫ u u 2 − 52
=
2 ∫ u u 2 − 52
= ⋅ arc sec + c
2 5 5
=
10
arc sec
5
+c
4
dx 1 x ex
f. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x 2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ e 2x + 4
dx
ex ex
= ∫ 4 + e 2x
dx = ∫ 2
2 + e ( ) x 2
dx
du d x
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = e x , then = e = ex which implies du = e x dx
dx dx
du ex ex du du 1 u
; dx =
e x
. Therefore, ∫ 22 + e ( ) x 2
dx = ∫ 2
2 +u 2
⋅
e x
= ∫ 2
2 +u 2
=
2
arc tan + c
2
1 u 1 ex
Third - Write the answer in terms of the x variable, i.e., arc tan + c =
arc tan +c
2 2 2 2
1 ex
2 2
1 1 d ex 1 1 ex 1 ex 1 4e x ex ex
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = = = 2x
2 2 dx 2 2 1 + e2 x 2 4 4+ e 2 x 4 4 + e 2x 4 + e 2x e +4
1 +  e2 
x
4 4
 
dx 1 x ex
g. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a2 + x2 =
a
arc tan + c ,
a
i.e., ∫ 9 e 2 x +16
dx

ex e x dx 1 e x dx 1 e x dx
= ∫ 16 + 9 e 2 x dx = ∫ 9 ( 16 + e 2 x ) =
9 ∫ 16 + e 2x
=
9 ∫ ( 4 )2 + ( e x )2
9 9 3
du d x
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = e x , then = e = ex which implies du = e x dx
dx dx
du 1 e x dx 1 ex du 1 du
; dx =
e x
. Therefore,
9 ∫ ( 4 )2 + ( e x )2 =
9 ∫ ( 4 )2 + u 2 ⋅ e x =
9 ∫ ( 4 )2 + u 2
3 3 3
1 1 u 1 3 3u 1 3u
= ⋅ arc tan + c = ⋅ arc tan +c = arc tan +c
9 4 4 9 4 4 12 4
3 3
1 3u 1 3e x
12 4 12 4
1 3e x
12 4
1 1 d 3e x 1 1 3e x 1 ex 1 16e x ex ex
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = = =
12 2 dx 4 12 1 + 9e 2 x 4 16 16 +9e 2 x 16 16 + 9e 2 x 16 + 9e 2 x 9e 2 x + 16
1 +  3e4 
x
16 16
 
ex e x dx du d
∫ 16 + 9 e 2 x dx = ∫ 2
4 + 3e ( ) x 2
. Now, let u = 3e x , then =
dx dx
3e x = 3e x which implies du = 3e x dx
du e x dx ex du 1 du 1 1 u
; dx =
3e x
. Therefore, ∫ 4 2 + 3e ( ) x 2
= ∫ 2
4 +u 2
⋅
3e x
=
3 ∫ 4 +u2 2
= ⋅ arc tan + c
3 4 4
1 u 1 3e x
12 4 12 4
dx dx x
h. Write the given integral ∫ 25 − (x + 4 ) 2
in its standard form ∫ a −x2 2
= arc sin
a
+c by letting
dx dx dx u x+4
u = x+4. Therefore, ∫ 25 − (x + 4 )2
= ∫ 25 − u 2
= ∫ 52 − u 2
= arc sin + c = arc sin
5 5
+c
x+4 1 d x+4 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = arc sin +c then y ′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ =
5
1− (x+5 4 )2 dx 5
1−
( x + 4 )2
25
5 5 25−( x + 4 )2
25
1 5 1
= =
5 25 − (x + 4 )2 25 − (x + 4 )2
dx dx x
i. Write the given integral ∫ 3 − ( x − 2 )2
in its standard form ∫ a2 − x2
= arc sin
a
+c by letting
dx dx u x−2
u = x−2. Therefore, ∫ = ∫ = arc sin +c = arc sin +c
3 − ( x − 2 )2 ( 3 )2 − u 2 3 3
x−2 1 d x−2 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = arc sin +c then y ′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ =
3 2 dx 3 (x−2) 2 3 3 3−( x − 2 )2
1 −  x − 2  1− 3 3
 3 

1 3 1
= =
3 3 − ( x − 2 )2 3 − ( x − 2 )2

dx x dx ( x − 2 )2
a. ∫ 9 + (x + 3)2
= b. ∫ 49 + x 2 + 9 ( ) 2
= c. ∫ 9 + ( x − 2 )6
dx =
(x + 1)3 dx dx
d. ∫ 4 + (x + 1)8
dx = e. ∫ x x 2 − 36
= f. ∫ (x − 3) (x − 3)2 − 49
=
dx dy dt
g. ∫ 2
x − 8 x + 17
= h. ∫ 2
y + 20 y + 120
= i. ∫ 2
t + 6t + 13
=
Solutions:
dx 1 x dx
a. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x 2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 9 + (x + 3)2
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x + 3 , then = ( x + 3) = 1 which implies
dx dx
dx du 1 u
du = dx . Therefore, ∫ 9 + ( x + 3) 2
= ∫ 3 +u2 2
=
3
arc tan + c
3
1 u 1 x+3
Third - Write the answer in terms of the x variable, i.e., arc tan + c = arc tan +c
3 3 3 3
1 x+3
3 3
1 1 d  x+3 1 1 1 1 9 1
y′ = ⋅  +0 = ⋅ = =
3 1 + x +3(3) 2 dx  3  3
1+
( x +3) 2 3
9
9 9 + (x + 3)2 9 + ( x + 3) 2
dx 1 x x dx
b. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x 2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ (
49 + x 2 + 9 )2
x dx
= ∫ (
72 + x2 + 9 )
2
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x 2 + 9 , then

du d 2
=
dx dx
(
x + 9 = 2 x which implies)
du x dx x du 1 du 1 1 u
du = 2 x dx ; dx =
2x
. Therefore, ∫ 2
7 + x +9 ( 2
) 2
= ∫ 2
7 +u 2
⋅
2x
= ∫
2 72 + u2
= ⋅ arc tan + c
2 7 7
1 u 1 x2 + 9
14 7 14 7
1 x2 + 9
14 7

1 1 d  x 2 + 9  1 1 2x 1 49 x x
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = =
14 2
1 +  x 7+9 
2 dx 
 7 
 14 x 2 +9
1 + 49
( ) 2 7 49
(
49 + x 2 + 9 ) 2
(
49 + x 2 + 9 )
2
 
dx 1 x ( x − 2 )2
c. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x 2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 9 + ( x − 2 )6
dx
(x − 2 ) 2 ( x − 2 )2
= ∫ 9 + [ (x − 2 )3 ] 2
dx = ∫ 3 2 + [ (x − 2 )3 ]
2
dx
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = (x − 2)3 , then = (x − 2)3 = 3 (x − 2)2 which
dx dx
implies du = 3 (x − 2)2 dx ; dx =
du ( x − 2 )2 ( x − 2 )2 ⋅ du
3 (x − 2 ) 2
. Thus, ∫ 3 2 + [ (x − 2 )3 ]
2
dx = ∫ 3 +u 2 2
3(x − 2 )2
1 du 1 1 u 1 u
=
3 ∫ 3 +u2 2
= ⋅ arc tan + c
3 3 3
=
9
arc tan + c
3
Third - Write the answer in terms of the x variable, i.e.,

1 u
arc tan + c =
1
arc tan
( x − 2) 3 + c
9 3 9 3
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc tan
1 (x − 2)3 + c then
9 3
1 1 d  (x − 2 )3 
+0 1 1 3(x − 2 )2 1 27 (x − 2)
2
( x − 2 )2
y′ = ⋅ = ⋅ = =
9  ( x − 2 )3 
2 dx  3 
 9 ( x − 2 )6 3 27 9 + (x − 2)6 9 + ( x − 2 )6
1+  3  1+ 9
 
dx 1 x (x + 1)3
d. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x 2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 4 + (x + 1)8
dx
(x + 1)3 (x + 1)3
= ∫ 4 + [(x + 1 )4 ]
2
dx = ∫ 2 2 + [(x + 1)4 ]
2
dx
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = (x + 1)4 , then = (x + 1)4 = 4 (x + 1)3 which
dx dx
implies du = 4 (x + 1)3 dx ; dx =
du (x + 1)3 (x + 1)3 du
4 (x + 1) 3
. Thus, ∫ 2 2 + [(x + 1)4 ]
2
dx = ∫ 2
2 +u 2
⋅
4(x + 1)3
1 du 1 1 u 1 u
=
4 ∫ 2 +u 2 2
= ⋅ arc tan + c
4 2 2
=
8
arc tan + c
2
Third - Write the answer in terms of the x variable, i.e.,

1 u
arc tan + c =
1
arc tan
( x + 1) 4 + c
8 2 8 2
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc tan
1 (x + 1)4 +c then
8 2
1 1 d  (x + 1)4 
+0 1 1 4(x + 1)3 1 16 (x + 1)
3
(x + 1)3
y′ = ⋅ = ⋅ = =
8  ( x +1)4 
2 dx  2 
 8 ( x +1) 8 2 16 4 + (x + 1)8 4 + (x + 1)8
1+  2  1+ 4
 

1 1 x dx
e. First - Write the integral in its standard form ∫x x2 − a2
dx =
a
arc sec + c ,
a
i.e., ∫ x x 2 − 36
dx
= ∫ x x2 − 62
du d
dx dx
dx du 1 u
Therefore, ∫ x x2 − 62
= ∫ u u 2 − 62
=
6
arc sec + c
6
1 u 1 x
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x . arc sec + c = arc sec + c
6 6 6 6
1 x
6 6
1 1 d x 1 1 1 1 6 1 36 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
6 x
6
( 6x ) 2 − 1 dx 6 6 x
6
x
36
2
−1
6 36
x
2
x −36
36
36 x 2
x − 36 x x 2 − 36
1 1 x
f. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫x 2
x −a 2
dx =
a
arc sec + c ,
a
i.e.,
dx dx
∫ (x − 3) (x − 3)2 − 49
= ∫ (x − 3) (x − 3)2 − 7 2
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x − 3 , then = x −3 =1 which implies du = dx .
dx dx
dx du 1 u
Therefore, ∫ (x − 3) (x − 3) 2
− 72
= ∫ u u −7 2 2
=
7
arc sec + c
7
1 u 1 x−3
7 7 7 7
1 x−3
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc sec +c then y ′
7 7
1 1 d x−3 1 1 1 1 7 1 49
= ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = =
7 x −3
7
( )
x −3 2
7
−1
dx 7 7 x −3
7
( x −3 ) − 1
49
2 7 49
x−3
( x −3 )
49
2
− 49 49 x − 3 (x − 3)2 − 49
1
=
x−3 (x − 3)2 − 49
dx 1 x dx
g. First - Write the integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x 2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 2
x − 8 x + 17
dx dx dx
= ∫ (x 2 − 8x + 16)+ 1 = ∫ ( x − 4 )2 + 1
= ∫ 1 + ( x − 4 )2
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x − 4 , then = (x − 4 ) = 1 which implies
dx dx
dx du
du = dx . Therefore, ∫ 1 + ( x − 4 )2 = ∫ 1+ u 2 = arc tan u + c

Third - Write the answer in terms of the x variable, i.e., arc tan u + c = arc tan ( x − 4) + c
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc tan (x − 4) + c then
1 d 1 1
y′ = ⋅ (x − 4 ) + 0 = ⋅1 =
1 + (x − 4 ) 2 dx 1 + (x − 4 ) 2
1 + ( x − 4 )2
dx 1 x dy
h. First - Write the integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x 2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 2
y + 20 y + 120
dy dy dy dy
= ∫ ( y 2 + 20 y + 100)+ 20 = ∫ ( y + 10) 2
+ 20
= ∫ 20 + ( y + 10 ) 2
= ∫ ( 20 )2 + ( y + 10)2
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = y + 10 , then = ( y + 10) = 1 which implies
dy dy
dy du 1 u
du = dy . Therefore, ∫ ( 20 )2 + ( y + 10)2 = ∫ ( 20 )2 + u 2 =
20
arc tan
20
+c
1 u 1 y + 10
Third - Write the answer in terms y , i.e., arc tan +c = arc tan +c
20 20 20 20
1 y + 10
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let w = arc tan +c then
20 20
1 1 d  y + 10  1 1 1 1 20 1
w′ = ⋅  +0 = ⋅ = =
20 2 dy  20  20 1 + ( y +10 ) 2
20 20 20 + ( y + 10 )2 20 + ( y + 10 )2
1 + 
y +10 
 20
 20 
dx 1 x dt
i. First - Write the integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x 2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 2
t + 6t + 13
dt dt dt dt
= ∫ ( t 2 + 6t + 9)+ 4 = ∫ ( t + 3) 2
+4
= ∫ 4 + ( t + 3) 2
= ∫ 2 + ( t + 3)2
2
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = t + 3 , then = ( t + 3) = 1 which implies
dt dt
dt du 1 u
du = dt . Therefore, ∫ 2 + ( t + 3)
2 2
= ∫ 2 +u2 2
=
2
arc tan + c
2
1 u 1 t+3
Third - Write the answer in terms of the variable t , i.e., arc tan + c = arc tan +c
2 2 2 2
1 t +3
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let w = arc tan +c then
2 2
1 1 d t +3 1 1 1 1 4 1
w′ = ⋅  +0 = ⋅ = =
(2 )
2 1 + t +3 2 dy  2  2
1+
( t +3)
4
2 2 4 4 + ( t + 3) 2
4 + ( t + 3)2

Section 4.4 Practice Problems – Integration of Expressions Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

dx dx x 2 dx
a. ∫ 25 − 9 x 2
= b. ∫ 4 − x2
= c. ∫ 25 − x 6
=
dx x 2 dx dx
d. ∫ 9 x 2 +16 = e. ∫ 7 + 9x 6 = f. ∫x x 4 − 25
=

dx dx ex
a. ∫x x 2 −16
= b. ∫x 7x 2 − 4
= c. ∫ 4 e 2 x + 9 dx =
dx dx dx
d. ∫ 25 − (x − 3)2
e. ∫ 25 + (x + 4)2 = f. ∫ x 2 − 10 x + 26 =

Calculus I 4.5 Integration of Expressions Resulting in Exponential or Logarithmic Functions
4.5 Integration of Expressions Resulting in Exponential or Logarithmic Functions

In the following examples we will solve problems using the following formulas:
1
∫ x dx = ln x +c
∫ ln xdx = x ln x − x + c
ax
∫a
x
dx = +c a 0 and a ≠ 1
ln a
∫e
x
dx = e x + c
Let’s integrate some exponential and algebraic expressions using the above integration formulas.

dx dx x
a. ∫ x+5 = b. ∫ 5x +1 = c. ∫ x 2 − 3 dx =
x2 4x 3  5 2 
d. ∫ 2x 3 + 1 dx = e. ∫ x 4 − 3 dx = f. ∫  x + 1 + x − 1  dx =
 2x  x2 2 x3
∫  x ∫ xe ∫ 2x
3
g. −  dx = h. dx = i. e dx =
x 2 +1
Solutions:
dx du d du
a. Given ∫ x+5 let u = x + 5 , then = ( x + 5) ; =1 ; dx = du . Therefore,
dx dx dx
dx 1
∫ x+5 = ∫ u ⋅ du = ln u + c = ln x + 5 + c
1 1
Check: Let y = ln x + 5 + c , then y ′ = +0 =
x+5 x+5
dx du d du du
b. Given ∫ 5x +1 let u = 5x + 1 , then = (5 x + 1) ; =5 ; du = 5 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 5
dx 1 du 1 1 1 1
∫ 5x +1 = ∫ u ⋅ 5 =
5 ∫ u du =
5
ln u + c =
5
ln 5 x + 1 + c
1 1 1 5 1 1
Check: Let y = ln 5 x + 1 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅5 + 0 = ⋅ =
5 5 5x + 1 5 5x + 1 5x + 1
c. Given
x
∫ x 2 − 3 dx let u = x
2
−3, then
du d
=
dx dx
x2 −3 ( ) ; dudx = 2x ; du = 2x dx ; dx = du2 x . Thus,
x x du 1 1 1 1
ln x 2 − 3 + c
∫ x 2 − 3 dx = ∫ u ⋅ 2x =
2 ∫ u du =
2
ln u + c =
2

1 1 1 2 x x
Check: Let y = ln x 2 − 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅
2
⋅ 2x + 0 = ⋅
2
= 2
2 2 x −3 2 x −3 x −3
d. Given
x2
∫ 2 x 3 + 1 dx let u = 2 x
3
+1 , then
du d
=
dx dx
2x 3 + 1 ( ) ; dudx = 6x 2
; du = 6 x 2 dx ; dx =
du
6x 2
. Thus,
x2 x 2 du 1 1 1 1
ln 2 x 3 + 1 + c
∫ 2x 3 + 1 dx = ∫ ⋅
u 6x 2
=
6 ∫ u du =
6
ln u + c =
6
1 1 1 6 x2 x2
Check: Let y = ln 2 x 3 + 1 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ 6x 2 + 0 = ⋅ =
6 6 2x 3 +1 6 2x 3 +1 2x 3 + 1
e. Given
4x 3
∫ x 4 − 3 dx let u = x
4
−3, then
du d
=
dx dx
x4 −3 ( ) ; dudx = x 4
−3 ; du = 4 x 3 dx ; dx =
du
4x 3
. Thus,
4x 3 4 x 3 du 1
∫ x4 −3 dx = ∫ ⋅ = ∫ u du = ln u + c = ln x 4 − 3 + c
u 4x 3
1 4x 3
Check: Let y = ln x 4 − 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4x 3 + 0 =
x4 −3 x4 −3
5 2  5 2
f. Given ∫  +  dx = ∫ x + 1 dx + ∫ x − 1 dx let u1 = x + 1 and u 2 = x − 1 respectively. Therefore,
 x + 1 x −1 
5 2 1 1
∫ x + 1 dx + ∫ x − 1 dx = 5∫ u1 du1 + 2∫ u 2 du 2 = 5 ln u1 + 2 ln u 2 + c = 5 ln x + 1 + 2 ln x − 1 + c
5 2 5 2
Check: Let y = 5 ln x + 1 + 2 ln x − 1 + c , then y ′ = + +0 = +
x +1 x −1 x +1 x −1
 2x  2x du du
g. Given ∫  x 3 − ∫x ∫ x 2 + 1 dx let u = x
3 2
 dx
2
= dx − +1, then = 2x ; dx = . Therefore,
 x +1 dx 2x
2x 1 4 2 x du 1 4 1 1 4 1 4
x − ln x 2 + 1 + c
∫x ∫ x 2 + 1 dx ∫ ∫
3
dx − = x − ⋅ = x − du = x − ln u + c =
4 u 2x 4 u 4 4
1 4 1 1 2x
Check: Let y = x − ln x 2 + 1 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 x 3 − ⋅ 2x + 0 = x 3 −
4 4 2 2
x +1 x +1
x2 du d 2 du du
h. Given ∫ xe dx let u = x 2 , then =
dx dx
x ;
dx
= 2x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx =
2x
. Therefore,
2 du 1 u 1 u 1 x2
∫ xe x dx = ∫ xe u ⋅
2x
=
2 ∫
e du =
2
e +c =
2
e +c
1 2 1 x2 2 2 2
Check: Let y = e x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ e ⋅ 2x + 0 = ⋅ x e x = xex
2 2 2

3 du d 3 du du
i. Given ∫ 2 x 2 e x dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
2 x3 du 2 u 2 u 2 x3
∫ 2x ∫ 2x ∫
2 u
e dx = e ⋅ = e du = e +c = e +c
3x 2 3 3 3
2 3 2 x3 6 3 3
Check: Let y = e x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ e ⋅ 3x 2 + 0 = ⋅ x 2 e x = 2x 2 e x
3 3 3

ex 2e 3 x
a. ∫ e y 5 + 3e y dy = b. ∫ 1− e x dx = c. ∫ 1 + e 3x dx =
e −5 x + 2
d. ∫ e − x dx = e. ∫ e −3 x dx = f. ∫ 2
dx =
1 1
∫(x ) ex e x2
∫ 1 + x 2 dx = ∫
2
g. + e x − e −3 x dx = h. i. dx =
x3
Solutions:
a. Given ∫ e y 5 + 3e y dy let u = 5 + 3e y , then

du d
= 5 + 3e y ( ) ; dudy = 3e y
; dy =
du
. Therefore,
dy dy 3e y
( )
3
du 1 1
1 1 1+ 12 1 2 32 2 32 2
∫ e y 5 + 3e y dy = ∫ ey ⋅ u ⋅
3e y
=
3∫u 2 du = ⋅
3 1+ 1
u = ⋅ u
3 3
=
9
u =
9
5 + 3e y 2
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 −1 1
2 2 3 3 y
Check: Let y = 5 + 3e y 2 , then y ′ = ⋅ 5 + 3e y 2 ⋅ 3e y = e 5 + 3e y 2 = e y 5 + 3e y
9 9 2 3
b. Given
ex
∫ 1 − e x dx let u = 1 − e
x
, then
du d
=
dx dx
1− e x ( ) ; dudx = −e x
; du = −e x dx ; dx = −
du
ex
. Thus,
ex ex du 1
∫ 1− e x dx = ∫ 1− e x ⋅ − e x = − ∫ du = − ln u + c = − ln 1 − e x + c
u
1 ex
Check: Let y = − ln 1 − e x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ −e x + 0 =
1− e x 1− e x
c. Given
2e 3 x
∫ 1 + e 3x dx let u = 1+ e 3 x , then
du d
=
dx dx
1+ e 3 x ( ) ; dudx = 3e 3x
; du = 3e 3 x dx ; dx =
du
3e 3 x
. Thus,
2e 3 x 2e 3 x du 2 1 2 2
ln 1 + e 3 x + c
∫ 1 + e 3x dx = ∫ ⋅
u 3e 3 x
=
3 ∫ u du =
3
ln u + c =
3
2 2 1 6 e 3x 2e 3 x
Check: Let y = ln 1 + e 3 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3e 3 x + 0 = ⋅ =
3 3 1 + e 3x 3 1 + e 3x 1 + e 3x

du d du
d. Given ∫ e − x dx let u = − x , then = (− x ) ; = −1 ; du = −dx ; dx = −du . Therefore,
dx dx dx
∫e ∫e ∫ = − e−x + c
−x u
dx = ⋅ −du = − e u du = − e u + c
Check: Let y = −e − x + c , then y ′ = − e −x ⋅ −1+ 0 = e − x
du d du du
e. Given ∫ e −3 x dx let u = −3x , then = (− 3x ) ; = −3 ; du = −3dx ; dx = − . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3
du 1 u 1 1
∫e ∫e ∫ = − e u + c = − e −3 x + c
−3 x u
dx = ⋅− = − e du
3 3 3 3
1 1 3 −3 x
Check: Let y = − e −3 x + c , then y ′ = − e −3 x ⋅ −3 + 0 = e = e −3 x
3 3 3
e −5 x + 2 du d
f. Given ∫ dx let u = −5 x + 2 , then = (− 5 x + 2) ; du = −5 ; du = −5dx ; dx = − du . Thus,
2 dx dx dx 5
e −5 x + 2 eu du 1 1 u 1 − 5 x+2
∫ 2
dx = ∫ 2
⋅−
5
= −
10 ∫
e u du = −
10
e +c = −
10
e +c
1 −5 x + 2 1 5 −5 x + 2 1
Check: Let y = − e + c , then y ′ = − e −5 x + 2 ⋅ −5 + 0 = e = e −5 x + 2
10 10 10 2
∫(x ) 1 3 1
∫x ∫ ∫ x + e x + e −3 x + c
2
g. + e x − e −3 x dx = 2
dx + e x dx − e −3 x dx =
3 3
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x 3 + e x + e −3 x + c then y ′ = ⋅ 3 x 2 + e x + ⋅ e −3 x ⋅ −3 + 0 = x 2 + e x − e −3 x
3 3 3 3
1 1
ex ex 1 du d 1 du 1
h. ∫ 1 + x 2 dx = ∫ dx + ∫ x 2 dx let u = x , then =
dx dx x
;
dx
=−
x2
; x 2 du = −dx ; dx = − x 2 du . Thus,
1
ex eu 1
∫ 1+
x2
dx = x + ∫ x2 ⋅ − x 2 du = x − ∫ e u du = x − e u + c = x − e x + c
1
1 1
1 ex
Check: Let y = x−e x + c , then y ′ = 1− e x ⋅− + 0 = 1+
x2 x2
1
e x2 1 du d 1 du 2 x3
i. ∫ x3
dx let u =
x2
, then =
dx dx x 2
;
dx
=−
x3
; x 3 du = −2dx ; dx = −
2
du . Therefore,
1
2 1
ex eu x3 1 u 1 1 2
∫ x3
dx = ∫ x3
⋅−
2
du = −
2 ∫
e du = − eu + c
2
= − ex +c
2
1
1 1 1
1 1 2 2 1 e x2
Check: Let y = − e x2 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ e x2 ⋅− +0 = ⋅e x2 ⋅ =
2 2 x 3 2 x 3
x3


2
2 +5 − 1
x3 x2
e ex e
a. ∫ 3x 4 dx = b. ∫ x2
dx = c. ∫ x3
dx =
∫ (e ) ∫ (e )
+ 3 2 e x dx = ∫ (e )
− 1 3 e − x dx =
x
d. − 1 e x dx = e. x
f. −x
x3 x2 10 x 4
g. ∫ 1 + 4x 4 dx = h. ∫ 1− x3 dx = i. ∫ 1 − 3x 5 dx =
Solutions:
2
3
ex 2 du d 2 du 6 x4
a. Given ∫ 3x 4 dx let u =
x3
, then =
dx dx x 3
;
dx
=−
x4
; x 4 du = −6dx ; dx = −
6
du . Therefore,
2
x3 2
e eu x4 1 1 1 x3
∫ 3x 4 dx = ∫ 3x 4
⋅−
6
du = −
18 ∫
e u du = − eu + c
18
= −
18
e +c
2
2 2 2 3
1 3 1 3 6 6 x3 1 ex
Check: Let y = − e x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ e x ⋅ − +0 = ⋅e ⋅ =
18 18 x 4 18 x4 3x 4
2 +5
ex 2 du d  2  du 2 x2
b. Given ∫ x2
dx let u =
x
+5, then =  + 5
dx dx  x 
;
dx
=−
x2
; x 2 du = −2dx ; dx = −
2
du . Thus,
2 +5
ex eu x2 1 u 1 1 2 +5
∫ x2
dx = ∫ x2 ⋅−
2
du = −
2∫e du = − eu + c = − e x
2 2
+c
2 +5
1 2 +5 1 2 +5 2 2 2 +5 1 ex
Check: Let y = − e x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ e x ⋅ − 2 + 0 = ⋅ e x ⋅ 2 =
2 2 x 2 x x2
− 1
e x2 1 du d −2 du x3
c. Given ∫ x3
dx let u = −
x2
, then
dx
=−
dx
x ;
dx
= 2x − 3 ; du = 2 x − 3 dx ; dx =
2
du . Thus,
− 1 1
e x2 eu x3 1 u 1 u 1 − x2
∫ x3
dx = ∫ ⋅
x3 2
du =
2 ∫
e du =
2
e +c =
2
e +c
1 1 1 − 1
1 − 2 1 − 2 2 − 2 1 e x2
Check: Let y = e x + c , then y ′ = e x ⋅ 2 x −3 + 0 = ⋅ e x ⋅ =
2 2 2 x3 x3
∫ (e ) ( ) ; dudx = e
x du d du
d. Given − 1 e x dx let u = e x − 1 , then = e x −1 x
; du = e x dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx ex
∫ (e
x
)
− 1 e x dx = ∫ u ⋅e
x
⋅
du
x
= ∫ u du =
1 2
2
u +c =
1 x
2
(
e −1 ) 2
+c
e

Check: Let y =
1 x
2
( ) 1
e − 1 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 2 e x − 1 ⋅ e x + 0 =
2
2 x
2
e −1 e x ( ) ( ) (
= e x −1 e x )
∫ (e ) ( ) ; dudx = e
du d du
e. Given x
+ 3 2 e x dx let u = e x + 3 , then = ex +3 x
; du = e x dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx ex
∫ (e
x
)
2
+ 3 e x dx = ∫u
2
⋅ex ⋅
du
x
= ∫u
2
du =
1 3
3
u +c =
1 x
3
( 3
e +3 +c )
e
Check: Let y =
1 x
3
( ) 1
e + 3 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3 e x + 3 2 ⋅ e x + 0 =
3
3 x
3
2
e +3 ex ( ) ( ) (
= e x + 3 2e x )
∫ (e ) ( )
du d du du
f. Given −x
− 1 3 e − x dx let u = e −x − 1 , then = e −x − 1 ; = −e − x ; dx = − . Therefore,
dx dx dx e −x
∫ (e
−x
) 3
− 1 e − x dx = ∫u
3
⋅ e −x ⋅ −
du
−x
1
= − ∫ u 3 du = − u 4 + c = −
4
1 −x
4
(
e −1 ) 4
+c
e
Check: Let y = −
1 −x
4
(
e −1 ) 4 1
4
3
+ c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 4 e − x − 1 ⋅ −e − x + 0 =
4
(
4 −x 3
e −1 e −x ) ( ) (
= e −x −1 e −x) 3
g. Given
x3
∫ 1 + 4 x 4 dx let u = 1 + 4 x
4
, then
du d
=
dx dx
1 + 4x 4 ( ) ; dudx = 16x 3
; dx =
du
16x 3
. Therefore,
x3 x 3 du 1 1 1 1
ln 1 + 4 x 4 + c
∫ 1 + 4x 4 dx = ∫ ⋅
u 16x 3
=
16 ∫ u du =
16
ln u + c =
16
1 1 1 16 x3 x3
Check: Let y = ln 1 + 4 x 4 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅16 x 3 + 0 = ⋅ =
16 16 1 + 4 x 4 16 1 + 4 x 4 1 + 4x 4
h. Given
x2
∫ 1 − x 3 dx let u = 1 − x
3
, then
du d
=
dx dx
1− x3 ( ) ; dudx = −3x 2
; dx = −
du
3x 2
. Therefore,
x2 x2 du 1 1 1 1
∫ 1− x3 dx = ∫ ⋅− = − ∫ u du = − ln u + c = − ln 1 − x 3 + c
u 3x 2 3 3 3
1 1 1 3 x2 x2
Check: Let y = − ln 1 − x 3 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ ⋅ 3x 2 + 0 = ⋅ =
3 3 1− x3 3 1− x3 1− x3
i. Given
10 x 4
∫ 1 − 3x 5 dx let u = 1 − 3x 5 , then
du d
=
dx dx
1 − 3x 5 ( ) ; dudx = −15x 4
; dx = −
du
15x 4
. Therefore,
10 x 4 10 x 4 du 10 1 2 2
∫ 1 − 3x 5 dx = ∫ ⋅− = − ∫ u du = − ln u + c = − ln 1 − 3 x 5 + c
u 15 x 4 15 3 3
2 2 1 30 x4 10 x 4
Check: Let y = − ln 1 − 3x 5 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ ⋅ −15 x 4 + 0 = ⋅ =
3 3 1 − 3x 5 3 1 − 3x 5 1 − 3x 5


x+3 x+6 x+8
a. ∫ x + 1 dx = b. ∫ x + 5 dx = c. ∫ x + 4 dx =
x2 x 2 +5
∫a ∫a ∫a
3x
d. dx = e. x dx = f. x dx =
4
3 a x x 3 dx 3
∫ a x x 2 dx ∫ ∫
+1 2
g. = h. = i. 3a x x dx =
2
Solutions:
x+3 (x + 1) + 2 dx x +1 2 2
a. ∫ x + 1 dx = ∫ x +1
= ∫ x + 1 dx + ∫ x + 1 dx = ∫ dx + ∫ x + 1 dx = x + 2 ln x + 1 + c
2 x +1+ 2 x+3
Check: Let y = x + 2 ln x + 1 + c , then y ′ = 1 + ⋅1 + 0 = =
x +1 x +1 x +1
x+6 (x + 5) + 1 dx x+5 1 1
b. ∫ x + 5 dx = ∫ x+5
= ∫ x + 5 dx + ∫ x + 5 dx = ∫ dx + ∫ x + 5 dx = x + ln x + 5 + c
1 x + 5 +1 x+6
Check: Let y = x + ln x + 5 + c , then y ′ = 1 + ⋅1 + 0 = =
x+5 x+5 x+5
x+8 (x + 4) + 4 dx x+4 4 4
c. ∫ x + 4 dx = ∫ x+4
4 x+4+4 x+8
Check: Let y = x + 4 ln x + 4 + c , then y ′ = 1 + ⋅1 + 0 = =
x+4 x+4 x+4
du d du du
d. Given ∫ a 3 x dx let u = 3x , then = 3x ; =3 ; du = 3dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3
du 1 1 au 1 a 3x
∫ a 3 x dx = ∫ au ⋅
3
=
3∫a u du =
3 ln a
+c =
3 ln a
+c
1 a 3x 1 3 ln a 3 x
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a 3 x ln a ⋅ 3 + 0 = ⋅a = a 3x
3 ln a 3 ln a 3 ln a
Reminder: In Section 3.3 “Differentiation of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions” we

learned that the derivative of a u = e u ln a is equal to the following:
d u d u ln a d u du du d u du
a = e = e u ln a ⋅ u ln a = e ln a ⋅ ln a ⋅ = a u ln a . Therefore, a = a u ln a
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
2 du d 2 du du
e. Given ∫ a x x dx let u = x 2 , then = x ; = 2x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2x
2
2 du 1 1 au 1 ax
∫ a x x dx = ∫ au ⋅ x ⋅
2x
=
2 ∫
a u du =
2 ln a
+c =
2 ln a
+c

2
1 ax 1 2 2 ln a x 2 2
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a x ln a ⋅ 2 x + 0 = ⋅a ⋅ x = ax x
f. Given ∫ a x
2
+5
x dx let u = x 2 + 5 , then
du d 2
=
dx dx
x +5 ( ) ; dudx = 2x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = du2 x . Therefore,
2
x 2 +5 du 1 1 au 1 a x +5
∫a ∫ ∫
a u du
u
x dx = a ⋅x⋅ = = +c = +c
2x 2 2 ln a 2 ln a
2
1 a x +5 1 2 2 ln a x 2 +5 2
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a x +5 ln a ⋅ 2 x + 0 = ⋅a ⋅ x = a x +5 x
3 du d 3 du du
g. Given ∫ a x x 2 dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
3
x3 2 du 1 1 au 1 ax
∫a ∫a ∫
u 2
x dx = ⋅x ⋅ = a u du = +c = +c
3x 2 3 3 ln a 3 ln a
3
1 ax 1 3 3 ln a x3 2 3
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a x ln a ⋅ 3 x 2 + 0 = ⋅a ⋅ x = a x x2
4
a x x 3 dx du d 4 du du
h. Given ∫ 2
let u = x 4 , then =
dx dx
x ;
dx
= 4x 3 ; du = 4 x 3 dx ; dx =
4x 3
. Therefore,
4 4
a x x 3 dx du 1 1 au 1 ax
∫ 2
= ∫ au ⋅ x3 ⋅
8x 3
=
8 ∫
a u du =
8 ln a
+c =
8 ln a
+c
4
1 ax 1 4 4 ln a x 4 3 1 4
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a x ln a ⋅ 4 x 3 + 0 = ⋅ a ⋅ x = a x x3
8 ln a 8 ln a 8 ln a 2
i. Given ∫ 3a x
3
+1 2
x dx let u = x 3 + 1 , then
du d
=
dx dx
x3 +1 ( ) ; dudx = 3x 2
; du = 3x 2 dx ; dx =
du
3x 2
. Thus,
3
x 3 +1 2 du 3 au a x +1
∫ 3a x dx = 3∫ a ⋅ x ⋅ u 2
= ∫a u du = +c = +c
3x 2 3 ln a ln a
3
a x +1 1 3 ln a x3 +1 3
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a x +1 ln a ⋅ 3 x 2 + 0 = ⋅a ⋅ 3 x 2 = 3a x +1 x 2
ln a ln a ln a
∫ (a ) ∫ (a )
x2
∫a
x +1
a. 2 x dx = b. + e x +1 dx = c. 2 x +3
+ 3 dx =
∫ (e ) 5 x+2
∫ 5a ∫ x + 1 dx =
5 x +3 x
d. dx = e. + 1 e x dx = f.

Solutions:
2 du d 2 du du
a. Given ∫ a x 2 x dx let u = x 2 , then = x ; = 2x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx 2x
2
x2 du au ax
∫a ∫ ∫a
u u
2 x dx = a ⋅ 2x ⋅ = du = +c = +c
2x ln a ln a
2
ax 1 2 ln a x 2 2
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a x ln a ⋅ 2 x + 0 = ⋅ a ⋅ 2x = a x 2x
ln a ln a ln a
∫ (a ) du d du
b. Given x +1
+ e x +1 dx = ∫a
x +1
∫
dx + e x +1 dx let u = x + 1 , then = (x + 1) ; =1 ; dx = du . Thus,
dx dx dx
au a x +1
+ e x +1 + c
∫ ∫
a x +1 dx + e x +1 dx = ∫ ∫
a u du + e u du =
ln a
+ eu + c =
ln a
a x +1 1 ln a x +1
Check: Let y = + e x +1 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a x +1 ln a ⋅1 + e x +1 ⋅1 + 0 = ⋅a + e x +1 = a x +1 + e x +1
ln a ln a ln a
∫ (a ) du d du du
c. Given 2 x +3
+ 3 dx = ∫a
2 x +3
∫
dx + 3 dx let u = 2 x + 3 , then = (2 x + 3) ; =2 ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx 2
du 1 1 au a 2 x+3
∫ a 2 x +3 dx + 3 dx = ∫ ∫ au ⋅
2
+ 3x =
2 ∫
a u du + 3 x =
2 ln a
+ 3x + c =
2 ln a
+ 3x + c
a 2 x +3 1 2 ln a 2 x +3
Check: Let y = + 3 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a 2 x + 3 ln a ⋅ 2 + 3 + 0 = ⋅a +3 = a 2 x +3 + 3
du d du du
d. Given ∫ 5a 5 x +3 dx let u = 5 x + 3 , then = (5 x + 3) ; =5 ; du = 5 dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx 5
du 5 au a 5 x+3
∫ 5a 5 x +3 dx = 5 a u ⋅ ∫ 5
+ 3x =
5 ∫
a u du = ∫ a u du =
ln a
+c =
ln a
+c
a 5 x +3 1 5 ln a 5 x +3
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a 5 x +3 ln a ⋅ 5 + 0 = ⋅a = 5a 5 x + 3
ln a ln a ln a
∫ (e ) ( ) ; dudx = e
x 5 du d du
e. Given + 1 e x dx let u = e x + 1 , then = e x +1 x
; du = e x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx ex
∫ (e
x
) 5
+ 1 e x dx = ∫u
5
⋅ex ⋅
du
x
= ∫u
5
du =
1 6
6
u +c =
1 x
6
(
6
e +1 + c )
e

Check: Let y =
1 x
6
( 6
) 1 5
e + 1 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 6 e x + 1 ⋅ e x + 0 =
6
6 x
6
5
(
e +1 e x ) ( ) (
= e x +1 e x ) 5
x+2 (x + 1) + 1 dx x +1 1 1
f. ∫ x + 1 dx = ∫ x +1
1 x +1+1 x+2
Check: Let y = x + ln x + 1 + c , then y ′ = 1 + ⋅1 + 0 = =
x +1 x +1 x +1
In the following examples we will solve problems using the following two formulas:
1 1 x−a
∫ x 2 − a 2 dx = 2a
ln
x+a
+c
1 1 a+x
∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = 2a
ln
a−x
+c

1 1 1
a. ∫ x 2 − 4 dx = b. ∫ 36 x 2 − 25 dx = c. ∫ (x − 1) 2 − 16 dx =
1 1 1
d. ∫ x 2 + 10 x + 24 dx = e. ∫ x 2 − 4 x + 3 dx = f. ∫ x 2 − 4 x + 1 dx =
1 1 1
g. ∫ x 2 + 18x + 75 dx = h. ∫ 16 − 9 x 2 dx = i. ∫ 4 − (x − 1) 2 dx =
1 2x + 3 1 dx 3 dx
j. ∫ 16 − ( t + 3) 2 dt = k. ∫ x 2 + 3x dx + ∫ 36 − x 2 dx = l. ∫ x2 −5 + ∫ 4 − x2 =
Solutions:
1 1 1 x−2 1 x−2
a. ∫ x 2 − 4 dx = ∫ x 2 − 2 2 dx =
2⋅2
ln
x+2
+c =
4
ln
x+2
+c
1 x−2 1 1 1 ⋅ (x + 2 ) − 1 ⋅ (x − 2 ) 1 x+2 x+2− x+2

Check: Let y = ln +c then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅
4 x+2 4 x−2
x+2 ( x + 2 )2 4 x−2 (x + 2)2
1 1 4 1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ = = =
4 x−2 x+2 (x − 2)(x + 2) 2
x + 2x − 2x − 4 x −42
1 1 1 1 1 1 x − 56 1 6x − 5
b. ∫ 36 x 2 − 25 dx = ∫ 36 (x 2 − 25 ) dx =
36 ∫ x 2 − ( 5 )2 dx =
36 2 ⋅ 5
ln
x + 5
+c =
60
ln
6x + 5
+c
36 6 6 6
1 6x − 5 1 1 6 ⋅ (6 x + 5) − 6 ⋅ (6 x − 5) 1 6x + 5
Check: Let y = ln +c then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ +0 = ⋅
60 6x + 5 60 6 x −5 (6 x + 5) 2
6 x +5
60 6 x − 5

36 x + 30 − 36 x + 30 1 1 60 1 1 1
× = ⋅ ⋅ = = =
(6 x + 5) 2 60 6 x − 5 6 x + 5 (6 x − 5)(6 x + 5) 2
36 x + 30 x − 30 x − 25 2
36 x − 25
1 1 1 (x − 1) − 4 1 x−5
c. ∫ (x − 1)2 − 16 dx = ∫ (x − 1)2 − 4 2 dx =
2⋅4
ln
(x − 1) + 4
+c =
8
ln
x+3
+c
1 x−5 1 1 1 ⋅ (x + 3) − 1 ⋅ (x − 5) 1 x +3 x +3− x +5
Check: Let y = ln +c then y ′ = ⋅ x −5 ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅
8 x+3 8 2
x +3 (x + 3) 2 8 x −5 (x + 3)
1 1 8 1 1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ = = = =
8 x−5 x+3 (x − 5)(x + 3) 2
x + 3 x − 5 x − 15 2
x − 2 x − 15 (x − 1)2 − 16
1 1 1 1 ( x + 5) − 1 1 x+4
d. ∫ x 2 + 10 x + 24 dx = ∫ (x 2 + 10 x + 25)− 1 dx = ∫ (x + 5)2 − 1 dx =
2 ⋅1
ln
( x + 5) + 1
+c =
2
ln
x+6
+c
1 x+4 1 1 1 ⋅ (x + 6 ) − 1 ⋅ (x + 4 ) 1 x+6 x+6− x−4

Check: Let y = ln +c then y ′ = ⋅ x + 4 ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅
2 x+6 2
x+6
2
(x + 6 ) 2 2 x+4 (x + 6 )
1 1 2 1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ = = =
2 x+4 x+6 (x + 4)(x + 6) 2
x + 6 x + 4 x + 24 2
x + 10 x + 24
1 1 1 1 (x − 2) − 1 1 x−3
e. ∫ x 2 − 4 x + 3 dx = ∫ (x 2 − 4 x + 4)− 1 dx = ∫ (x − 2)2 − 1 dx =
2 ⋅1
ln
(x − 2) + 1
+c =
2
ln
x −1
+c
1 x−3 1 1 1 ⋅ (x − 1) − 1 ⋅ (x − 3) 1 x −1 x −1− x + 3
2 x −1 2 x −3 (x − 1)2 2 x − 3 (x − 1)2
x −1
1 1 2 1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ = = =
2 x − 3 x −1 (x − 3)(x − 1) 2
x − x − 3x + 3 2
x − 4x + 3
1 1 1 1 ( x − 2) − 3
f. ∫ x 2 − 4 x + 1 dx = ∫ (x 2 − 4 x + 4)− 3 dx = ∫ (x − 2)2 − ( 3 )2 dx =
2 3
ln
( x − 2) + 3
+c
1 x−2− 3 1 1 1 ⋅ (x − 0.27 ) − 1 ⋅ (x − 3.73) 1

Check: Let y = ln +c then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ +0 =
2 3 x−2+ 3 3.46 x −3.73
x −0.27 (x − 0.27 ) 2 3.46
x − 0.27 x − 0.27 − x + 3.73 1 1 3.46 3.46

× ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ =
x − 3.73 (x − 0.27 )2 3.46 x − 3.73 x − 0.27 3.46(x − 3.73)(x − 0.27 )
1 1
= 2
= 2
x − 0.27 x − 3.73 x + 1 x − 4x + 1
1 1 1 1 (x + 9 ) − 6
g. ∫ x 2 + 18x + 75 dx = ∫ (x 2 + 18x + 81)− 6 dx = ∫ (x + 9)2 − ( 6 )2 dx =
2⋅ 6
ln
(x + 9 ) + 6
+c
1 (x + 9) − 2.45 1 x + 6.55
= ln +c = ln +c
2 ⋅ 2.45 (x + 9) + 2.45 4.9 x + 11.45

1 x + 6.55 1 1 1 ⋅ (x + 11.45) − 1 ⋅ (x + 6.55) 1 x + 11.45

Check: Let y = ln + c then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ +0 = ⋅
4.9 x + 11.45 4.9 x + 6 .55
(x + 11.45) 2
x +11.45
4.9 x + 6.55
x + 11.45 − x − 6.55 1 1 4.9 1 1

× = ⋅ ⋅ = =
(x + 11.45) 2 4.9 x + 6.55 x + 11.45 (x + 6.55)(x + 11.45) x 2 + 18 x + 75
4 +x
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ 16 − 9 x 2 ∫ 9 (16 − x 2 ) ∫ 16 − x 2 ∫ ( 4 ) 2− x2
3
h. dx = dx = dx = dx = ⋅ ln +c
9 9 9 2⋅ 4 4 −x
9 9 3 3 3
4+3 x
1 3 3 3 3(4 + 3 x ) 1 4 + 3x
= ⋅ ln +c = ln +c = ln +c
9 8 4 −3 x 72 3(4 − 3 x ) 24 4 − 3x
3
1 4 + 3x 1 1 3 ⋅ (4 − 3 x ) + 3 ⋅ (4 + 3 x ) 1 4 − 3x
Check: Let y = ln +c then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ +0 = ⋅
24 4 − 3x 24 4+3 x
4 −3 x (4 − 3x )2 24 4 + 3 x
12 − 9 x + 12 + 9 x 1 1 24 1 1 1
× = ⋅ ⋅ = = =
(4 − 3x ) 2 24 4 + 3 x 4 − 3 x (4 + 3x )(4 − 3x ) 16 − 12 x + 12 x − 9 x 2
16 − 9 x 2
1 1 1 2 + (x − 1) 1 2 + x −1 1 1+ x
i. ∫ 4 − (x − 1)2 dx = ∫ 2 2 − (x − 1)2 dx =
2⋅2
ln
2 − (x − 1)
+c =
4
ln
2 − x +1
+c =
4
ln
3− x
+c
1 1+ x 1 1 1 ⋅ (3 − x ) + 1 ⋅ (1 + x ) 1 3 − x 3 − x +1+ x
4 3− x 4 1+ x (3 − x )2 4 1 + x (3 − x )2
3− x
1 1 4 1 1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ = = = =
4 1+ x 3 − x (1 + x )(3 − x ) 3 − x + 3x − x 2
3 + 2x − x 2
4 − (x − 1)2
1 1 1 4 + ( t + 3) 1 4+t +3 1 7+t
j. ∫ 16 − ( t + 3)2 dt = ∫ 4 2 − ( t + 3)2 dx =
2⋅4
ln
4 − ( t + 3)
+c =
8
ln
4−t −3
+c =
8
ln
1− t
+c
1 7+t 1 1 1 ⋅ ( 1 − t ) + 1 ⋅ (7 + t ) 1 1− t 1− t + 7 + t
8 1− t 8 7 +t ( 1 − t )2 8 7 + t ( 1 − t )2
1−t
1 1 8 1 1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ = = = =
8 7 + t 1− t (7 + t )( 1 − t ) 7 − 7t + t − t 2
7 − 6t − t 2
16 − ( t + 3)2
2x + 3 1 2 x + 3 du dx du dx du 1 6+ x
k. ∫ x 2 + 3x dx + ∫ 36 − x 2 dx = ∫ u 2x + 3
+
6 − x2
2 ∫ = ∫ u + ∫ 62 − x2 = ∫u +
2⋅6
ln
6− x
1 6+ x 1 6+ x
= ln u + ln +c = ln x 2 + 3 x + ln +c
12 6− x 12 6− x
2x + 3 2x + 3 1 6+ x
Check: Let y1 = ln x 2 + 3x + c then y1' = 2
+0 = 2
. Let y 2 = ln +c
x + 3x x + 3x 12 6− x

1 1 1 ⋅ (6 + x ) + 1 ⋅ (6 − x ) 1 6− x 6+ x+6− x 1 1 12
then y 2' = ⋅ ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅
12 6+ x (6 − x )2 12 6 + x (6 − x )2 12 6 + x 6 − x
6− x
1 1 1
= = =
(6 + x )(6 − x ) 36 − 6 x + 6 x − x 2
36 − x 2
dx 3 dx dx 3 dx 1 x− 5 3 2+ x
l. ∫ x2 −5 + ∫ 4 − x2 = ∫ x 2 − ( 5 )2 + ∫ 2 2 − x 2 =
2 5
ln
x+ 5
+
4
ln
2− x
+c
Check: Let y1 =
1
ln
x− 5
+ c then y1' =
1
⋅
1
⋅
( ) (
1⋅ x + 5 − 1⋅ x − 5 )+ 0 = 1
⋅
x+ 5
2⋅ 5 x+ 5 2 5 x− 5
x+ 5
(x + 5 )2 2 5 x− 5
x+ 5 −x+ 5 1 1 2 5 1 1 1
× = ⋅ ⋅ = = = .
(x + 5 ) 2 2 5 x− 5 x+ 5 (x − 5 )(x + 5 ) 2
x + 5x − 5x − 5 x −52
3 2+ x 3 1 1 ⋅ (2 + x ) + 1 ⋅ (2 − x ) 3 2− x 2+ x+2− x
Let y 2 = ln +c then y 2' = ⋅ ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅
4 2− x 4 2+ x
2− x (2 − x )2 4 2+ x (2 − x )2
3 1 4 3 3 3
= ⋅ ⋅ = = =
4 2+ x 2− x (2 + x )(2 − x ) 4 − 2x + 2x − x 2
4 − x2
Section 4.5 Practice Problems – Integration of Expressions Resulting in Exponential or Logarithmic Functions
1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.

dx x x3
a. ∫ 2x +1
= b. ∫ x2 − a dx = c. ∫ x4 − 1 dx =
 1 3  2 e5 x
d. ∫ 
 x + 3
+
x
 dx
−5
= e. ∫ xe3 x dx = f. ∫ 1 − e5x dx =
1
∫(x )
3
ex
∫ 3e ∫ 5x 4 dx =
3
g. − ax
dx = h. + e2 x − e−5 x dx = i.
∫ (3e ) ∫ ( e − 1) e dx =
5 x x2
∫ 1 + x3 dx =
5x
a. + 5 e5 x dx = b. x
c.
x4 x+7 x+9
d. ∫ 1 + x5 dx = e. ∫ x + 6 dx = f. ∫ x + 5 dx =
∫ (e )
x2 +k 2 x3 +5 2 3
∫a ∫3a
2x
g. x dx = h. x dx = i. + 3 e 2 x dx =
1 1 1
j. ∫ (x + 1) 2− 25 dx = k. ∫ x2 + 6 x + 8 dx = l. ∫ 9 − (x − 1) 2 dx =

Chapter 5
Integration (Part II)
5.1 Integration by Parts ................................................................................................... 287
∫e ∫e ∫ x cos 3x dx
2x x
cos 2 x dx =; sin x dx =; =
5.2 Integration Using Trigonometric Substitution ........................................................ 308

x 2 dx dx dx
∫ 36 − x 2
=; ∫ ( 9 + x 2 )2 =; ∫ x4 x 2 −1
=
5.3 Integration by Partial Fractions ............................................................................... 320

Case I - The Denominator Has Distinct Linear Factors 320
x +1 1 x 2 +1
∫ x (x − 2 )(x + 3)
dx =; ∫ (x + 1)(x + 2) dx =; ∫ x(x − 1)(x + 1)
dx =
Case II - The Denominator Has Repeated Linear Factors 327

x+3 1 5
∫ x (x − 1)2 dx = ; ∫ x 2 (x − 1) dx =; ∫ x (x − 1)2 dx =
Case III - The Denominator Has Distinct Quadratic Factors 334
x2 − x + 3 1 1
∫ x (x 2 + 1) dx =; ∫ x (x 2 + 25) dx = ; ∫ x 2 (x 2 + 16) dx =
Case IV - The Denominator Has Repeated Quadratic Factors 344

x2 x 2 +1 x3
∫ (x 2 + 1)2 dx =; ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx =; ∫ (x 2 + 2)2 dx =
5.4 Integration of Hyperbolic Functions ........................................................................ 350

1
∫ cosh 5 x dx ∫ (sinh 4 x + cosh 2 x ) dx ∫x
2
=; =; csc h 2 x 3 dx =

Calculus I 5.1 Integration by Parts
Chapter 5 – Integration (Part II)

The objective of this chapter is to improve the student’s ability to solve additional problems
involving integration. A method used to integrate functions, known as Integration by Parts, is
addressed in Section 5.1. Integration of functions using the Trigonometric Substitution method
is discussed in Section 5.2. Integration of functions using the Partial Fractions technique is
addressed in Section 5.3. Four different cases, depending on the denominator having distinct
linear factors, repeated linear factors, distinct quadratic factors, or repeated quadratic factors, are
addressed in this section. Finally, integration of hyperbolic functions is discussed in Section 5.4.
Each section is concluded by solving examples with practice problems to further enhance the
student’s ability.
5.1 Integration by Parts
Integration by parts is a technique for replacing hard to integrate integrals by ones that are easier
to integrate. This technique applies mainly to integrals that are in the form of ∫ f (x ) g (x ) dx where
in most cases f (x ) can be differentiated several times to become zero and g (x ) can be integrated
several times without difficulty. For example, given the integral ∫x e dx the function f (x ) = x 2
2 3x
can be differentiated three times to become zero and the function g (x ) = e 3 x can be integrated
∫e ∫e
2x −3 x
several times easily. On the other hand, integrals such as cos 2 x dx and sin 3 x dx do not
fall under the category described above. In this section we will learn how to apply Integration by
Parts method in solving various integrals. The formula for integration by parts comes from the
product rule, i.e.,
d
( uv ) = u dv + v du
dx dx dx
where u and v are differentiable functions of x , multiplying both sides of the equation by dx we
obtain
d ( uv ) = u dv + v du
rearranging the terms we then have
u dv = d ( uv ) − v du
integrating both sides of the equation we obtain
∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du
The above formula is referred to as the Integration by Parts Formula. Note that in using the
above equality we must first select dv such that it is easily integrable and second ensure that
∫ u dv is easier to evaluate than ∫ u dv . In the following examples we will solve problems using
the Integration by Parts method.
∫xe ∫x ∫xe
x 2 3x −2 x
a. dx = b. e dx = c. dx =
∫ ln x dx ∫ x ln x dx = ∫x
3
d. = e. f. ln x dx =

∫e ∫e ∫ x cos 3x dx =
2x x
g. cos 2 x dx = h. sin x dx = i.
Solutions:
∫ xe ∫ dv = ∫ e
x x
a. Given dx let u = x and dv = e x dx then du = dx and dx which implies v = e x .
Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫ xe
x
∫
dx = xe x − e x dx = xe x − e x + c = e x ( x − 1) + c
Check: Let y = e x (x − 1) + c , then y ′ = e x ⋅ (x − 1) + 1 ⋅ e x + 0 = xe x − e x + e x = xe x − e x + e x = xe x
1
∫x let u = x 2 and dv = e 3 x dx then du = 2 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e 3 x dx which implies v = e 3 x .
2 3x
b. Given e dx
3
1 1 3x x 2 e 3x 2
∫ x 2 e 3 x dx = x 2 ⋅ e 3 x − e ⋅ 2 x dx = ∫ − ∫xe
3x
dx (1 )
3 3 3 3
∫xe let u = x and dv = e 3 x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e 3 x dx which implies

3x
To integrate dx
1 3x 1 1 3x xe 3 x e 3 x
v= e . Therefore, ∫ x e 3 x dx = x ⋅ e 3 x − ∫
e dx = − +c (2)
3 3 3 3 9
Combining equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) together we obtain:
x 2 e 3x 2 x 2 e 3 x 2  xe 3 x e 3 x  1 2 3x 2 3x 2 3x
∫ x 2 e 3 x dx =
3
−
3 ∫ x e 3 x dx =
3
−

3 3
−
9
+ c =

 3
x e − xe +
9 27
e +c
1
Check: Let y = x 2 e 3 x − xe 3 x +
3
2
9
2 3x
27
e + c , then y ′ =
1
3
( 2
) (
2 x ⋅ e 3 x + 3e 3 x ⋅ x 2 − 1 ⋅ e 3 x + 3e 3 x ⋅ x
9
)
2 2 3x 2 2 2
+ ⋅ 3e 3 x + 0 = xe + x 2 e 3 x − e 3 x − xe 3 x + e 3 x = x 2 e 3 x
27 3 9 3 9
∫xe ∫ dv = ∫ e
−2 x
c. Given −2 x
dx let u = x and dv = e −2 x dx then du = dx and dx which implies
1 −2 x
v=− e . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
∫xe
−2 x
dx = x ⋅ − e −2 x + ∫
e − 2 x dx = − x e −2 x + ∫
e − 2 x dx = − x e−2 x − e−2 x + c
2 2 2 2 2 4
1
Check: Let y = − x e −2 x − e −2 x + c , then y ′ = −
2
1
4
1
2
( 1
)
1 ⋅ e − 2 x − 2e − 2 x ⋅ x − ⋅ −2e − 2 x + 0
4
1
= − e −2 x
2
1 −2 x
xe − 2 x + e = xe −2 x
2

1
d. Given ∫ ln x dx let u = ln x and dv = dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies v = x .
x
1
∫ ln x dx = ln x ⋅ x − ∫ x ⋅ dx = x ln x − ∫ dx = x ln x − x + c
x
1
Check: Let y = x ln x − x + c , then y ′ =  1 ⋅ ln x + ⋅ x  − 1 + 0 = ln x + 1 − 1 = ln x
 x 
1 1
∫ x ln x dx let u = ln x and dv = x dx then du = x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ x dx which implies v = 2 x
2
e. Given .
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
x ln x − x 2 + c
∫ x ln x dx = ln x ⋅ 2 x − ∫ 2 x ⋅ dx
x
=
2
x ln x −
2 ∫ x dx =
2 4
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x 2 ln x − x 2 + c , then y ′ =  2 x ⋅ ln x + ⋅ x  − ⋅ 2 x + 0 = x ln x + x − x = x ln x
2 4 2 x  4 2 2
1 1
∫x and ∫ dv = ∫ x 3 dx which implies v = x 4 .
3
f. Given ln x dx let u = ln x and dv = x 3 dx then du = dx
x 4
1 4 1 4 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 4
∫ x ln x dx = ln x ⋅ 4 x − ∫ 4 x ∫x
3
⋅ dx = x ln x − dx = x ln x − x +c
x 4 4 4 16
1 1 4 1 3 1 4 1 1
Check: Let y = x 4 ln x − x +c, then y ′ = 3
 4 x ⋅ ln x + ⋅ x  − ⋅ 4 x + 0 = x 3 ln x + x 3
4 16 4 x  16 4
1 3
− x = x 3 ln x
4
g. Given ∫ e 2 x cos 2 x dx let u = e 2 x and dv = cos 2 x dx then du = 2e 2 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos 2 x dx which
1
implies v = sin 2 x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we
2
1 1 e 2 x sin 2 x
obtain ∫ e 2 x cos 2 x dx = e 2 x ⋅ sin 2 x − ∫
sin 2 x ⋅ 2e 2 x dx = ∫
− e 2 x sin 2 x dx (1 )
2 2 2
To integrate ∫ e 2 x sin 2 x dx let u = e 2 x and dv = sin 2 x dx then du = 2e 2 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin 2 x dx which
1 1 1 e 2 x cos 2 x
implies v = − cos 2 x . Thus, ∫ e 2 x sin 2 x dx = e 2 x ⋅ − cos 2 x + ∫
cos 2 x ⋅ 2e 2 x dx = −
2 2 2 2
∫
+ e 2 x cos 2 x dx ( 2 ) . Combining equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) together we obtain:

e 2 x sin 2 x e 2 x sin 2 x  e 2 x cos 2 x  e 2 x sin 2 x

∫ e 2 x cos 2 x dx =
2 ∫
− e 2 x sin 2 x dx =
2
− −

 2 ∫
+ e 2 x cos 2 x dx 


=
2
e 2 x cos 2 x
+
2 ∫
− e 2 x cos 2 x dx . Taking the ∫ e 2 x cos 2 x dx from the right hand side of the equation
e 2 x sin 2 x e 2 x cos 2 x
to the left hand side we obtain ∫ e 2 x cos 2 x dx + ∫ e 2 x cos 2 x dx = + which implies
2 2
∫
2 e 2 x cos 2 x dx =
e 2 x sin 2 x e 2 x cos 2 x
2
+
2
and ∫e
2x
cos 2 x dx =
1 2x
4
(
e sin 2 x + e 2 x cos 2 x + c )
Check: Let y =
4
(
1 2x
e sin 2 x + e 2 x cos 2 x + c ,) then y ′ =
2 2x
4
2 2
e ⋅ sin 2 x + cos 2 x ⋅ e 2 x + e 2 x ⋅ cos 2 x
4 4
2 2 2x 4 2 4 2x
− sin 2 x ⋅ e 2 x + 0 = e sin 2 x + e 2 x cos 2 x − e 2 x sin 2 x = e cos 2 x = e 2 x cos 2 x
4 4 4 4 4
h. Given ∫ e x sin x dx let u = e x and dv = sin x dx then du = e x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx which implies
v = − cos x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫e
x
∫
sin x dx = e x ⋅ − cos x − − cos x ⋅ e x dx = − e x cos x + e x cos x dx ∫ (1 )
To integrate ∫ e x cos x dx let u = e x and dv = cos x dx then du = e x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos x dx which
implies v = sin x . Thus, ∫ e x cos x dx = e x ⋅ sin x − ∫ sin x ⋅ e x dx = e x sin x − ∫ e x sin x dx (2)

∫e ∫ ∫
x
sin x dx = − e x cos x + e x cos x dx = − e x cos x + e x sin x − e x sin x dx
Taking the ∫ e x sin x dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand side we obtain
∫e ∫ ∫
x
sin x dx + e x sin x dx = − e x cos x + e x sin x which implies 2 e x sin x dx = − e x cos x + e x sin x
1 x 1
∫e e cos x + e x sin x + c
x
and sin x dx = −
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = − e x cos x + e x sin x + c , then y ′ = − e x ⋅ cos x + sin x ⋅ e x + e x ⋅ sin x + cos x ⋅ e x
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 x 1
= − e x cos x + e x sin x + e x sin x + e x cos x = e sin x + e x sin x = e x sin x
2 2 2 2 2 2
i. Given ∫ x cos 3x dx let u = x and dv = cos 3x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos 3x dx which implies

1
v= sin 3 x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
3
1 1 1 1
∫ x cos 3x dx = x ⋅ sin 3x −
3 3 ∫
sin 3 x dx =
3
x sin 3 x + cos 3 x + c
9
1 1 1
Check: Let y = x sin 3x + cos 3x + c , then y ′ = ( 1⋅ sin 3x + cos 3x ⋅ 3 ⋅ x ) − 1 ⋅ sin 3x ⋅ 3 + 0 =
1
sin 3 x
3 9 3 9 3
3 1
+ x cos 3 x − sin 3 x = x cos 3x
3 3

x
a. ∫ x sec
2
5 x dx = b. ∫ x sec
2
(x +1) dx = c. ∫ 3 sin 2 x dx =
1
d. ∫ arc sin 6 x dx = e. ∫ 5 arc sin y dy = f. ∫ arc cos x dx =
x x ex
g. ∫ arc cos
2
dx = h. ∫ arc tan 10 x dx = i. ∫ (1 + x )2 dx =
Solutions:
∫ x sec ∫ dv = ∫ sec
2 2
a. Given 5 x dx let u = x and dv = sec 2 5 x dx then du = dx and 5 x dx which implies
1
v= tan 5 x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
5
1 1 1 1
∫ x sec ∫
2
5 x dx = x ⋅ tan 5 x − tan 5 x dx = x tan 5 x − ln sec 5 x + c
5 5 5 25
Check: Let y = x tan 5 x −

1
5
1
25
ln sec 5 x + c , then y ′ =
1
5
( )
1 ⋅ tan 5 x + sec 2 5 x ⋅ 5 ⋅ x −
sec 5 x tan 5 x
25 sec 5 x
⋅5 + 0
tan 5 x 5 x sec 2 5 x 5 sec 5 x tan 5 x tan 5 x tan 5 x

= + − = + x sec 2 5 x − = x sec 2 5 x
5 5 25 sec 5 x 5 5
b. Given ∫ x sec
2
(x +1) dx let u=x and dv = sec 2 (x + 1) dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sec 2 (x + 1) dx
which implies v = tan (x + 1) . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫ x sec
2
(x +1) dx = x ⋅ tan (x + 1) − tan (x + 1) dx = x tan ( x + 1) − ln sec ( x + 1) + c
∫
sec (x + 1) tan (x + 1)
Check: Let y = x tan (x + 1) − ln sec (x + 1) + c , then y ′ = 1 ⋅ tan (x + 1) + sec 2 (x + 1) ⋅ x − +0
sec (x + 1)
= tan (x + 1) + x sec 2 (x + 1) − tan (x + 1) = x sec 2 (x + 1)
x x dx
c. Given ∫ 3 sin 2 x dx let u = 3 and dv = sin 2 x dx then du = and ∫ dv = ∫ sin 2 x dx which implies
3

1
v=− cos 2 x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
2
x x 1 1 dx 1 1
∫ 3 sin 2 x dx = ⋅ − cos 2 x +
3 2 2
cos 2 x
3 ∫ = − x cos 2 x +
6 12
sin 2 x + c
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = − x cos 2 x + sin 2 x + c , then y ′ = − ( 1 ⋅ cos 2 x − sin 2 x ⋅ 2 ⋅ x ) + cos 2 x ⋅ 2 + 0
6 12 6 12
1 1 1 x
= − cos 2 x + x sin 2 x + cos 2 x = sin 2 x
6 3 6 3
6 dx
d. Given ∫ arc sin 6 x dx let u = arc sin 6 x and dv = dx then du = and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which
1 − (6 x )2
implies v = x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
6 dx x dx
∫ arc sin 6 x dx = arc sin 6 x ⋅ x − ∫ x ⋅ = x arc sin 6 x − 6∫ (1 )
1 − 36 x 2 1 − 36 x 2
x dx dw
To integrate ∫ 1 − 36 x 2
use the substitution method by letting w = 1 − 36 x 2 then
dx
= −72 x and
dw x dx x dw 1 dw 1 −1 1 1 1− 1
dx = −
72 x
Therefore, ∫ 1 − 36 x 2
= ∫ w 72 x
−
= −
72 ∫ w
= −
72
w 2 dw ∫ = − ⋅
72 1 − 1
w 2
2
( )
2 −1 1
1 1 1 2 12 1 12 1
= − ⋅
2 −1
w 2 = − ⋅ w = − w = − 1 − 36 x 2 2 (2)
72 72 1 36 36
2
Combining equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) together we obtain
( ) ( )
1 1
x dx 6 1
1 − 36 x 2
∫ arc sin 6 x dx = x arc sin 6 x − 6 ∫ 1 − 36 x 2
= x arc sin 6 x +
36
1 − 36 x 2 2 + c = x arc sin 6 x +
6
2 +c
( )
1
1 6x 1 72 x
Check: Let y = x arc sin 6 x + 1 − 36 x 2 2 +c , then y ′ = arc sin 6 x + − +0
6 1 − 36 x 2 12 1 − 36 x 2
6x 6x
= arc sin 6 x + − = arc sin 6 x
1 − 36 x 2 1 − 36 x 2
1 dy
e. Given ∫ 5 arc sin y dy let u = arc sin y and dv = dy then du = and ∫ dv = ∫ dy which implies
1− y 2
v= y. Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
1 1 1 dy 1 1 y dy
∫ 5 arc sin y dy = arc sin y ⋅ y − ∫ y⋅ = y arc sin y − ∫ (1 )
5 5 1− y 2 5 5 1− y 2

y dy dw
To integrate ∫ 1− y 2
use the substitution method by letting w = 1 − y 2 then
dy
= −2 y and
dw y dy y dw 1 dw 1 −1 1 1 1− 1
dy = −
2y
Therefore, ∫ 1− y 2
= ∫ w 2y
−
= −
2 ∫ w
= −
2∫w 2 dw = − ⋅
2 1− 1
w 2
2
( )
2 −1 1 1 1
1 1 1 2
= − ⋅ 2−1 w 2 = − ⋅ w 2 = − w 2 = − 1− y 2 2 (2)
2 2 1
2
( )
1
1 1 1 y dy 1 1
y arc sin y + 1 − y 2
∫ 5
arc sin y dy =
5
y arc sin y −
5 ∫ 1− y 2
=
5 5
2 +c
( )
1
1 1 1 1 y 1 1 2y
Check: Let w = y arc sin y + 1− y 2 2 +c , then w′ = arc sin y + − ⋅ ⋅ +0
5 5 5 5 1 − y2 5 2 1 − y2
1 1 y 1 y 1
= arc sin y + − = arc sin y
5 5 1− y 2 5 1− y 2 5
− dx
f. Given ∫ arc cos x dx let u = arc cos x and dv = dx then du = and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies
1− x 2
v=x. Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
−dx x dx
∫ arc cos x dx = arc cos x ⋅ x − ∫ x ⋅ = x arc cos x + ∫ (1 )
2 2
1− x 1− x
x dx dw
To integrate ∫ 1− x 2
use the substitution method by letting w = 1 − x 2 then
dx
= −2 x and
dw x dx x dw 1 dw 1 −1 1 1 1− 1
dx = −
2x
Therefore, ∫ 1− x 2
= ∫ w − 2x
= −
2 ∫ w
= −
2∫w 2 dw = − ⋅
2 1− 1
w 2
2
( )
2 −1 1 1 1
1 1 1 2
= − ⋅ 2−1 w 2 = − ⋅ w 2 = − w 2 = − 1− x 2 2 (2)
2 2 1
2
( )
1
x dx
∫ arc cos x dx = x arc cos x + ∫ = x arc cos x − 1 − x 2 2 +c
1− x 2
( )
1
x 1 −2 x
Check: Let y = x arc cos x − 1 − x 2 2 +c, then y ′ = arc cos x − − + 0 = arc cos x
1− x 2 2 1− x 2
x x
− + = arc cos x
1− x 2 1− x 2

x x − dx
g. Given ∫ arc cos dx let u = arc cos and dv = dx then du = and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which
2 1 − (2x )
2 2 2
x x −dx x 1 x dx
∫ arc cos 2 dx = arc cos 2 ⋅ x − ∫ x ⋅ = x arc cos + ∫ (1 )
2 1− () x 2
2
2 2
1− () x 2
2
use the substitution method by letting w = 1 − (2x ) then

x dx 2 dw 2x 1 x
To integrate ∫ =− ⋅ =−
1− (2x )2 dx 2 2 2
2 x dx x −2dw dw −1 1 1− 1
and dx = − dw Therefore, ∫ = ∫ = − 2∫ = − 2∫ w 2 dw = − 2 ⋅ w 2
x
1− ()
x 2
2
w x w 1 − 12
= − 2 ⋅ w 2 = − 4w 2 = − 41 − (2x ) 
2 −1
1 2 1 1 2 2
= − 2 ⋅ 2−1 w 2 (2)
1  
2

1 1
∫ arc cos
x x 1
dx = x arc cos + ∫
x dx
= x arc cos − 1 −
x 4
(2x )2  2
+ c = x arc cos
x 
− 2 1 − ( 2x ) 2  2
+c
2 2 2
1− ()
x 2
2
2 2 2 
Check: Let
x
y = x arc cos − 2 1 − ()
x 22
2 
+c, then y ′ = arc cos −
x x
−
x
⋅−
1
+0
2  2
2 1− (2x )2 1− (2x )2 2
x x x x
= arc cos − + = arc cos
2
2 1− (2x )2 2 1− (2x )2 2
10 dx
h. Given ∫ arc tan 10 x dx let u = arc tan 10 x and dv = dx then du = and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which
1 + (10 x )2
10 dx x dx
∫ arc tan 10 x dx = arc tan 10 x ⋅ x − ∫ x ⋅ = x arc tan 10 x − 10∫ (1 )
1 + (10 x ) 2
1 + (10 x )2
x dx dw
To integrate ∫ 1 + (10 x )2 use the substitution method by letting w = 1 + (10 x )2 then = 200 x
dx
dw x dx x dw 1 dw 1 1
And dx = Thus, ∫ 1 + (10 x )2 = ∫ w 200 x = ∫ = ln w = ln 1 + (10 x )2 (2)
200 x 200 w 200 200

x dx 1
ln 1 + (10 x ) 2 + c
∫ arc tan 10 x dx = x arc tan 10 x − 10∫
1 + (10 x )2
= x arc tan 10 x −
20
1 x 1 20 x
Check: Let y = x arc tan 10 x − ln 1 + (10 x )2 + c , then y ′ = arc tan 10 x + − +0
20 1 + ( 10 x ) 2 20 1 + ( 10 x )2
x x
arc tan 10 x + − = arc tan 10 x
1 + ( 10 x ) 2
1 + ( 10 x )2
x ex
i. Given ∫ (1 + x )2 dx let u = xe
x
and dv = ( 1 + x )−2 dx then du = e x ( 1 + x ) dx and ∫ dv = ∫ ( 1 + x )−2 dx
1
which implies v = − . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
1+ x
x ex −1 −1 − xe x − xe x − xe x + e x ( 1 + x )
∫ (1 + x )2 dx = xe x ⋅ − ∫ ⋅ e x ( 1 + x ) dx = ∫
+ e x dx = +ex +c = +c
1+ x ( 1 + x) 1+ x 1+ x 1+ x
− xe x + e x + xe x ex
= +c = +c
1+ x 1+ x
ex e x ( 1 + x) − e x e x + xe x − e x xe x
Check: Let y = +c , then y ′ = +0 = =
1+ x ( 1 + x )2 ( 1 + x )2 ( 1 + x )2
∫ sin ∫ sin ∫ arctan x dx =

3 2
a. x dx = b. x dx = c.
∫ sin ( ln x ) dx = ∫x ∫x
2 3
d. e. e x dx = f. sin x dx =
∫x ∫e ∫e
2 −x −3 x
g. cos 3 x dx = h. cos x dx = i. sin 3 x dx =
Solutions:
a. Given ∫ sin 3 x dx = ∫ sin 2 x ⋅ sin x dx let u = sin 2 x and dv = sin x dx then du = 2 sin x cos x dx and
∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx which implies v = − cos x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du
we obtain ∫ sin 3 x dx = sin 2 x ⋅ − cos x + ∫ cos x ⋅ 2 sin x cos x dx = − sin 2 x cos x + 2∫ cos 2 x sin x dx (1 )
To integrate ∫ cos 2 x sin x dx use the integration by parts method again, i.e., let u = cos 2 x and
dv = sin x dx then du = −2 sin x cos x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx which implies v = − cos x . Therefore,
∫ cos ∫ ∫
2
x sin x dx = cos 2 x ⋅ − cos x − cos x ⋅ 2 sin x cos x dx = − cos 3 x − 2 cos 2 x sin x dx . Taking the
integral − 2∫ cos 2 x sin x dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left side we obtain

1
∫ cos
2
∫
x sin x dx + 2 cos 2 x sin x dx = − cos 3 x . Therefore, ∫ cos 2 x sin x dx = − cos 3 x (2)
3
Combining equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) together we have

1 2
∫ sin ∫
3
x dx = − sin 2 x cos x + 2 cos 2 x sin x dx = − sin 2 x cos x + 2 ⋅ − cos 3 x + c = − sin 2 x cos x − cos 3 x + c
3 3
(
− 1 − cos 2 x cos x − ) 2
3
 2  1
cos 3 x + c = − cos x +  cos 3 x − cos 3 x  + c = cos 3 x − cos x + c
 3  3
Note that another method of solving the above problem (as was shown in Section 4.3) is in the
following way:
∫ (1 − cos x )⋅ sin x dx
du du
∫ sin ∫ sin
3 2 2
x dx = x ⋅ sin x dx = let u = cos x , then = − sin x and dx = − .
dx sin x
∫ (1 − cos x )⋅ sin x dx ∫ (1 − u )⋅ sin x ⋅ − sin x

du
∫ sin ∫ sin
3 2 2 2
Therefore, x dx = x ⋅ sin x dx = =
(
= − ∫ 1 − u 2 du = ) ∫u
2
−1 du =
1 3
3
u −u +c =
1
3
cos 3 x − cos x + c
1 1
Check: Let y = cos 3 x − cos x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3 cos 2 x ⋅ − sin x + sin x + 0 = − cos 2 x sin x + sin x
3 3
( 2
)
= sin x 1 − cos x = sin x sin x = sin x 2 3
b. Given ∫ sin 2 x dx = ∫ sin x ⋅ sin x dx let u = sin x and dv = sin x dx then du = cos x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx
which implies v = − cos x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫ sin ∫ ∫ ∫ (1 − sin x ) dx
2
x dx = sin x ⋅ − cos x + cos x ⋅ cos x dx = − sin x cos x + cos 2 x dx = − sin x cos x + 2
= − sin x cos x + x − ∫ sin 2 x dx . Taking the integral ∫ sin 2 x dx from the right hand side of the
equation to the left side we have ∫ sin 2 x dx + ∫ sin 2 x dx = − sin x cos x + x . Therefore,
1 x 1 x
∫
2 sin 2 x dx ∫ sin
2
= − sin x cos x + x and x dx = − sin x cos x + + c = − sin 2 x + + c
2 2 4 2
or, we can solve the given integral in the following way:

1 1 1 x 1 sin 2 x 1 x
∫ sin ∫ 2 ( 1 − cos 2 x ) dx ∫ ∫
2
x dx = = dx − cos 2 x dx = − ⋅ +c = − sin 2 x + + c
2 2 2 2 2 4 2
1 x 1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = − sin 2 x + + c , then y ′ = − cos 2 x ⋅ 2 + + 0 = − cos 2 x + = ( 1 − cos 2 x ) = sin 2 x or,
4 2 4 2 2 2 2

1 x 1 1 1 1 1 1
Let y = − sin x cos x + + c , then y ′ = − cos x cos x + sin x sin x + + 0 = − cos 2 x + sin 2 x +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= −
1
2
( 1
2
) 1
2
1 1
2 2
1
1 − sin 2 x + sin 2 x + = − + sin 2 x + sin 2 x +
2
1
2
=
1
2
1
sin 2 x + sin 2 x
2
= sin 2 x
dx
c. Given ∫ arctan x dx let u = arc tan x and dv = dx then du = and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies
1+ x 2
v=x. Substituting the integral with its equivalent value ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
dx x dx
∫ x arctan x dx = arc tan x ⋅ x − ∫ x ⋅ 2
= x arc tan x − ∫ (1 )
1+ x 1+ x 2
x dx dw dw
To integrate ∫ 1+ x 2 use the substitution method by letting w = 1 + x 2 then
dx
= 2x and dx =
2x
x dx x dw 1 dw 1 1
Therefore, ∫ 1+ x 2 = ∫ w 2x = ∫ = ln w = ln 1 + x 2 (2)
2 w 2 2

x dx 1
∫ x arctan x dx = x arc tan x − ∫ 1+ x 2 = x arc tan x − ln 1 + x 2 + c
2
1 x 1 2x
Check: Let y = x arc tan x − ln 1 + x 2 + c , then y ′ = arc tan x + 2
− +0 = arc tan x
2 1+ x 2 1+ x 2
x x
+
2
− = arc tan x
1+ x 1+ x 2
cos ( ln x )
d. Given ∫ sin ( ln x ) dx let u = sin ( ln x ) and dv = dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which
x
cos ( ln x )
∫ sin ( ln x ) dx = sin ( ln x )⋅ x − ∫ x ⋅ x
dx = x sin ( ln x ) − ∫ cos ( ln x ) dx (1 )
To integrate ∫ cos ( ln x ) dx use the integration by parts formula again, i.e., let u = cos ( ln x ) and
− sin ( ln x )
dv = dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies v = x . Therefore, ∫ cos ( ln x ) dx
x
sin ( ln x )
= cos ( ln x ) ⋅ x + ∫ x ⋅ dx = x cos ( ln x ) + ∫ sin ( ln x ) dx (2)
x
∫ sin ( ln x ) dx = x sin ( ln x ) − ∫ cos ( ln x ) dx = x sin ( ln x ) − x cos ( ln x ) − ∫ sin ( ln x ) dx
Taking the integral − ∫ sin ( ln x ) dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand side

we obtain ∫ sin ( ln x ) dx + ∫ sin ( ln x ) dx = x sin ( ln x ) − x cos ( ln x ) + c Therefore,
x x
2 sin ( ln x ) dx = x sin ( ln x ) − x cos ( ln x ) + c sin ( ln x ) − cos ( ln x ) + c
∫ and thus ∫ sin ( ln x ) dx =
2 2
x x sin ( ln x ) x cos ( ln x ) cos ( ln x ) x sin ( ln x )

Check: Let y = sin ( ln x ) − cos ( ln x ) + c , then y ′ = + − + +0
2 2 2 2x 2 2x
sin ( ln x ) cos ( ln x ) cos ( ln x ) sin ( ln x ) sin ( ln x ) sin ( ln x )
= + − + = + = sin ( ln x )
2 2 2 2 2 2
∫x ∫ dv = ∫ e
2
e. Given e x dx let u = x 2 and dv = e x dx then du = 2 x dx and x
dx which implies v = e x .
∫x
2
∫
e x dx = x 2 ⋅ e x − e x ⋅ 2 x dx = x 2 e x − 2 x e x dx ∫ (1 )
∫ xe
x
To integrate dx use the integration by parts formula again, i.e., let u = x and dv = e x dx
Then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies v = e x . Therefore,
∫ xe
x
∫ ∫
dx = x ⋅ e x − e x ⋅ dx = xe x − e x dx = xe x − e x (2)
∫x
2
∫ (
e x dx = x 2 e x − 2 x e x dx = x 2 e x − 2 xe x − e x + c ) = x 2 e x − 2 xe x + 2e x + c
Check: Let y = x 2 e x − 2 xe x + 2e x + c , then y ′ = 2 xe x + x 2 e x − 2e x − 2 xe x + 2e x + 0 = x 2 e x
∫x ∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx which implies

3
f. Given sin x dx let u = x 3 and dv = sin x dx then du = 3 x 2 dx and
v = − cos x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫x
3
sin x dx = x 3 ⋅ − cos x + ∫ cos x ⋅ 3x 2 dx = − x 3 cos x + 3∫ x 2 cos x dx (1 )
∫x
2
To integrate cos x dx use the integration by parts formula again, i.e., let u = x 2 and dv = cos x dx
then du = 2 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos x dx which implies v = sin x . Using the integration by parts
formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫x
2
∫
cos x dx = x 2 ⋅ sin x − sin x ⋅ 2 x dx = x 2 sin x − 2 x sin x dx ∫ (2)
To integrate ∫ x sin x dx use the integration by parts formula again, i.e., let u = x and dv = sin x dx

then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx which implies v = − cos x . Using the integration by parts
∫ x sin x dx = x ⋅ − cos x + ∫ cos x ⋅ dx = − x cos x + sin x (3 )

Combining equations ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) together we have
∫x
3
sin x dx = − x 3 cos x + 3∫ x 2 cos x dx = − x 3 cos x + 3x 2 sin x − 6∫ x sin x dx = − x 3 cos x + 3 x 2 sin x
+ 6 x cos x − 6 sin x + c
(
Check: Let y = − x 3 cos x + 3x 2 sin x + 6 x cos x − 6 sin x + c , then y ′ = − 3x 2 cos x + x 3 sin x )
( )
+ 6 x sin x + 3 x 2 cos x + (6 cos x − 6 x sin x ) − 6 cos x + 0 = x 3 sin x
∫x ∫ dv = ∫ cos 3x dx which
2
g. Given cos 3 x dx let u = x 2 and dv = cos 3 x dx then du = 2 x dx and
sin 3 x
implies v = . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
3
sin 3 x sin 3 x 1 2 2
∫x
2
cos 3 x dx = x2 ⋅ − ∫ ⋅ 2 x dx = x sin 3 x − ∫ x sin 3x dx (1 )
3 3 3 3
To integrate ∫ x sin 3x dx use the integration by parts formula again, i.e., let u = x and dv = sin 3x dx
− cos 3 x
then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin 3x dx which implies v = . Using the integration by parts
3
− cos 3 x cos 3 x 1 1
∫ x sin 3x dx = x ⋅ + ∫ ⋅ dx = − x cos 3x + ∫
cos 3 x dx (2)
3 3 3 3

1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
∫x ∫ x sin 3x dx ∫
2
cos 3 x dx = x sin 3 x − = x sin 3 x − ⋅ − x cos 3 x − ⋅ cos 3 x dx
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 2 2 2
= x sin 3 x + x cos 3 x − sin 3 x + c
3 9 27
1
Check: Let y = x 2 sin 3x + x cos 3x −
3
2
9
2
27
sin 3 x + c , then y ′ =
1
3
(
2 x sin 3 x + 3 x 2 cos 3 x )
2 6 2 3 2 2 2
+ ( cos 3 x − 3 x sin 3 x ) − cos 3 x + c = x sin 3 x + x 2 cos 3 x + cos 3 x − x sin 3 x − cos 3 x
9 27 3 3 9 3 9
3 2
= x cos 3 x = x 2 cos 3x
3

h. Given ∫ e − x cos x dx let u = cos x and dv = e − x dx then du = − sin x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e − x dx which
implies v = −e − x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫e
−x
cos x dx = cos x ⋅ −e − x − ∫ e − x ⋅ sin x dx = − e − x cos x − ∫ e − x sin x dx (1 )
To integrate ∫ e − x sin x dx use the integration by parts formula again, i.e., let u = sin x and
dv = e − x dx then du = cos x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e − x dx which implies v = −e − x . Therefore,
∫e
−x
∫ ∫
sin x dx = sin x ⋅ −e − x + e − x ⋅ cos x dx = − e − x sin x + e − x cos x dx (2)
∫e ∫ ∫
−x
cos x dx = − e − x cos x − e − x sin x dx = − e − x cos x + e − x sin x − e − x cos x dx
∫e
−x
Taking the integral cos x dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand side
we obtain ∫ e − x cos x dx + ∫ e − x cos x dx = − e − x cos x + e − x sin x therefore
1 −x 1
∫
2 e − x cos x dx = − e − x cos x + sin x e − x and thus ∫e e cos x + e − x sin x + c
−x
cos x dx = −
2 2
Check: Let y =
− e− x cos x e− x sin x
2
+
2
1
( 1
) (
+ c , then y ′ = − − e − x cos x − e − x sin x + − e − x sin x + e − x cos x + 0
2 2
)
1 −x 1 −x 1 −x 1 −x 1 −x 1 −x
= e cos x + e sin x − e sin x + e cos x = e cos x + e cos x = e − x cos x
2 2 2 2 2 2
i. Given ∫ e −3 x sin 3x dx let u = sin 3x and dv = e −3 x dx then du = 3 cos 3x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e −3 x dx which
1
implies v = − e −3 x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
3
1 1 −3 x 1
∫e
−3 x
sin 3 x dx = sin 3x ⋅ − e −3 x + e ∫ ⋅ 3 cos 3 x dx = − e −3 x sin 3x + ∫ e −3 x cos 3x dx (1 )
3 3 3
∫e
−3 x
To integrate cos 3 x dx use the integration by parts formula again, i.e., let u = cos 3 x and
1
dv = e −3 x dx then du = − 3 sin 3x and ∫ dv = ∫ e −3 x dx which implies v = − e −3 x . Therefore,
3
1 1 −3 x 1
∫e
−3 x
cos 3 x dx = cos 3 x ⋅ − e −3 x − e ∫ ∫
⋅ 3 sin 3 x dx = − e −3 x cos 3 x − e −3 x sin 3 x dx (2)
3 3 3

1 1 1
∫e ∫ ∫
−3 x
sin 3 x dx = − e −3 x sin 3 x + e −3 x cos 3 x dx = − e −3 x sin 3 x − e −3 x cos 3 x − e −3 x sin 3 x dx
3 3 3
∫e
−3 x
Taking the integral sin 3 x dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand side

1 1
we obtain ∫ e −3 x sin 3x dx + ∫ e −3 x sin 3x dx = − e −3 x sin 3x − e −3 x cos 3x therefore
3 3
1 1 1 −3 x 1
sin 3 x − e − 3 x cos 3 x
∫
2 e −3 x sin 3 x dx = − e −3 x sin 3 x − e −3 x cos 3 x and thus ∫e
−3 x
sin 3 x dx = − e
3 3 6 6
1 1
Check: Let y = − e − 3 x sin 3x − e − 3 x cos 3x , then y ′ = −
6 6
1
6
(
− 3e −3 x sin 3 x + 3e −3 x cos 3 x )
−
1
6
(
− 3e −3 x cos 3 x − 3e −3 x sin 3 x + 0 = ) 1 −3 x
2
e
1
2
1
2
1
sin 3 x − e −3 x cos 3 x + e −3 x cos 3 x + e −3 x sin 3 x
2
1 −3 x 1
= e sin 3 x + e −3 x sin 3 x = e −3 x sin 3 x
2 2
x
∫ 3 (x + 1) ∫ (x − 3)(3x − 1) ∫ (x + 1) csc
4 3 2
a. dx = b. dx = c. x dx =
∫ x sec ∫x ∫ ln (x )
2 2
d. x dx = e. x − 5 dx = f. +1 dx =
1 x
∫5e ∫ cos ∫ tan
−1 −1
g. sin 3 x dx = h. 3 x dx = i. 5 x dx =
Solutions:
x 1
a. Given ∫ 3 (x + 1)
4
dx = ∫x (x + 1)4 dx let u = x and dv = (x + 1)4 dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ (x + 1)4 dx
3
1
which implies v = (x + 1)5 . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
5
1 x (x + 1)5 1 x (x + 1)5 1 1 x ( x + 1) 5 1
x (x + 1)4 dx
∫ = ⋅ − ∫ ( x + 1)5
⋅ dx = − ⋅ (x + 1)5+1 + c = − ( x + 1) 6 + c
3 3 5 3⋅5 15 15 6 15 90
x (x + 1)5 1
[
(x + 1)5 + 5 x(x + 1)4 − 6 (x + 1)5 + 0 = (x + 1) ]
5
1
Check: Let y = − (x + 1)6 + c , then y ′ =
15 90 15 90 15
(x + 1)4 − (x + 1) = 5 x (x + 1)4 = x (x + 1)4

5
5x
+
15 15 15 3
b. Given ∫ (x − 3)(3x − 1)3 dx let u = x − 3 and dv = (3x − 1)3 dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ (3x − 1)3 dx
1
which implies v = (3x − 1)4 . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
12
(3x − 1) 4
1 (x − 3) (3x − 1)4 1 1
∫ (x − 3)(3x − 1) dx = (x − 3)⋅ ∫ ( ) ⋅ (3 x − 1)4+1 + c
3 4
− 3 x − 1 dx = −
12 12 12 12 15
( x − 3)(3 x − 1) 4 1
(3 x − 1) 5 + c
= −
12 180

Check: Let y =
(x − 3)(3x − 1)4
12
−
1
180 12
[ 180
]
(3x − 1)5 + c , then y ′ = 1 (3x − 1)4 + 12(x − 3)(x + 1)3 − 15 (3x − 1)4 + 0
(3x − 1)4 + 12(x − 3)(x + 1) − 1 (3x − 1)4 = (x − 3)(x + 1)3

3
1
=
12 12 12
c. Given ∫ (x + 1) csc 2 x dx let u = x + 1 and dv = csc 2 x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ csc 2 x dx which
implies v = − cot x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫ (x + 1) csc
2
x dx = (x + 1) ⋅ − cot x + cot x dx = − ( x + 1) cot x + ln sin x + c
∫
[
Check: Let y = −(x + 1) cot x + ln sin x + c , then y ′ = − cot x − (x + 1) csc 2 x + ] cos x
sin x
+ 0 = − cot x
+ (x + 1) csc 2 x + cot x = (x + 1) csc 2 x
∫ x sec let u = x and dv = sec 2 x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sec 2 x dx which implies

2
d. Given x dx
v = tan x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫ x sec ∫
2
x dx = x ⋅ tan x − tan x dx = x tan x − ln sec x + c
sec x tan x
Check: Let y = x tan x − ln sec x + c , then y ′ = tan x + x sec 2 x − + 0 = tan x + x sec 2 x − tan x
sec x
= x sec 2 x
e. Given ∫x x − 5 dx let u = x and dv = x − 5 dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ x − 5 dx which implies
2 3
v= ( x − 5) 2 . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
3
2 2 2 1
(x − 5) 2 − 2 (x − 5) 2 dx 2
3 3 3 3 3
∫x x − 5 dx = x ⋅ ∫ = x ( x − 5) 2 − ⋅ (x − 5) 2 +1 + c = x ( x − 5) 2
3 3 3 3 1+ 3 3
2
2 2 5 2 3 4 5
− ⋅ ( x − 5) 2 + c = x ( x − 5) 2 − ( x − 5) 2 + c
3 5 3 15
2 3 4 5 2 3 2 3 1 4 5 3
Check: Let y = x (x − 5) 2 − (x − 5) 2 + c , then y ′ = (x − 5) 2 + ⋅ x(x − 5) 2 − ⋅ (x − 5) 2 + 0
3 15 3 3 2 15 2
2 3 1 2 3 1
= ( x − 5) 2 + x ( x − 5) 2 − ( x − 5) 2 = x ( x − 5) 2 = x x − 5
3 3
( ) (
f. Given ∫ ln x 2 +1 dx let u = ln x 2 + 1 and dv = dx then du = ) 2
2x
x +1
dx and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies
v=x. Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain

∫ ( ) ( ) ∫ ( ) ( )
2x x2  1
ln x 2 +1 dx = ln x 2 + 1 ⋅ x − x ⋅
2
dx = x ln x 2 + 1 − 2∫ 2
dx = x ln x 2 + 1 − 2∫ 1 − 2
 dx
x +1 x +1  x +1
( )
= x ln x 2 + 1 − 2∫ dx + 2∫ 2
1
dx ( )
= x ln x 2 + 1 − 2 x + 2 tan −1 x + c
x +1
( )
Check: Let y = x ln x 2 + 1 − 2 x + 2 tan −1 x + c , then y ′ = 1 ⋅ ln x 2 + 1 + ( ) 2x
2
⋅x−2+
2
+0
x +1 1+ x 2
(
= ln x 2 + 1 + ) 2x 2
2
−2+
2
2
(
= ln x 2 + 1 + ) 2x 2 − 2x 2 − 2 + 2
2
(
= ln x 2 + 1 + ) 2
x +1
0
(
= ln x 2 + 1 )
x +1 x +1 x +1
1
g. Given ∫
e x sin 3 x dx let u = e x and dv = sin 3x dx then du = e x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin 3x dx which
5
1
implies v = − cos 3x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
3
1 1 x 1 1 1 x 1
∫
e x sin 3 x dx = e ⋅ − cos 3 x + cos 3 x ⋅ e x dx∫ = − e cos 3 x + e x cos 3 x dx ∫ (1 )
5 5 3 15 15 15
To integrate ∫ e x cos 3x dx use the integration by parts method again, i.e., let u = e x and
1
dv = cos 3 x dx then du = e x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos 3x dx which implies v = sin 3x . Therefore,
3
1 1 1 1
∫e
x
cos 3 x dx = e x ⋅ sin 3 x − ∫
sin 3 x ⋅ e x dx = e x sin 3 x − e x sin 3 x dx ∫ (2)
3 3 3 3

1 1 x 1 1 x 1 x 1
5 ∫
e x sin 3 x dx = −
15
e cos 3 x +
15 ∫
e x cos 3 x dx = −
15
e cos 3 x +
45
e sin 3 x −
45
e x sin 3 x dx ∫
1
Taking the integral −
45 ∫
e x sin 3 x dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left side we
1 1 1 x 1 x 2
obtain
5∫e x sin 3 x dx +
45
e x sin 3 x dx ∫ = −
15
e cos 3 x +
45
e sin 3 x + c . Therefore,
9 ∫
e x sin 3 x dx
1 x 1 x 3 x 1 x
∫e
x
= − e cos 3 x + e sin 3 x + c which implies sin 3 x dx = − e cos 3 x + e sin 3 x + c
15 45 10 10
3 x 1 3 3 1
Check: Let y = − e cos 3 x + e x sin 3 x + c , then y ′ = − e x ⋅ cos 3 x + sin 3 x ⋅ 3 ⋅ e x + e x ⋅ sin 3 x
10 10 10 10 10
1 3 9 1 3 9
+ cos 3 x ⋅ 3 ⋅ e x + 0 = − e x cos 3 x + e x sin 3 x + e x sin 3 x + e x cos 3 x = e x sin 3 x
10 10 10 10 10 10
1 9 +1 x 10 x
+ e x sin 3 x = e sin 3 x = e sin 3 x = e x sin 3 x
10 10 10
3
h. Given ∫ cos −1 3x dx let u = cos −1 3x and dv = dx then du = − dx and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which
1 − 9x 2


3 dx 3x
∫ cos ∫ = x cos −1 3x + ∫
−1
3 x dx = cos −1 3 x ⋅ x + x ⋅ dx
2
1 − 9x 1 − 9x 2
3x dw
To integrate ∫ 1 − 9x 2
dx use the substitution method by letting w = 1 − 9 x 2 then
dx
= −18 x which
dw 3x 3x dw 1 dw 1 1 1 −1
implies dx = −
18 x
. Thus, ∫ 1 − 9x 2
dx = ∫ w
⋅−
18 x
= −
6 ∫ w
= −
6 ∫ 1
dw = −
6∫w 2 dw
w2
1 1 1 − 9x 2 3x 1 − 9 x2
= − ⋅ 2w 2 = − and ∫ cos −1 3 x dx = x cos −1 3 x + ∫ dx = x cos−1 3 x − +c
6 3 3
1 − 9x 2
1 − 9x 2 3x 18 x
Check: Let y = x cos −1 3x − + c , then y ′ = cos −1 3 x − + + 0 = cos −1 3 x
3 1 − 9x 2
6 1 − 9x 2
5
∫ tan and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which
−1
i. Given 5 x dx let u = tan −1 5 x and dv = dx then du = dx
1 + 25 x 2
5 dx 5x
∫ tan ∫ = x tan −1 5 x − ∫
−1
5 x dx = tan −1 5 x ⋅ x − x ⋅ dx
2
1 + 25 x 1 + 25 x 2
5x dw
To integrate ∫ 1 + 25x 2 dx use the substitution method by letting w = 1 + 25 x 2 then
dx
= 50 x which
dw 5x 5 x dw 1 dw 1 1
implies dx =
50 x
. Thus, ∫ 1 + 25x 2 dx = ∫ w ⋅ 50 x =
10 ∫ w
=
10
ln w =
10
ln 1 + 25 x 2 and
5x 1
∫ tan
−1
5 x dx = x tan −1 5 x − ∫ dx = x tan−1 5 x − ln 1 + 25 x 2 + c
1 + 25 x 2 10
1 5x 1 50 x
Check: Let y = x tan −1 5 x − ln 1 + 25 x 2 + c , then y ′ = tan −1 5 x + − + 0 = tan −1 5 x
10 2 10 2
1 + 25 x 1 + 25 x
∫ sinh ∫ x tan ∫ sin x sin 7 x dx =

−1 −1
a. 5 x dx = b. x dx = c.
x −x
d. ∫ cos 5x cos 7 x dx = e. ∫5e dx = f. ∫ x sinh 3x dx =
Solutions:
5
a. Given ∫ sinh −1 5 x dx let u = sinh −1 5 x and dv = dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ x dx which
1 + 25 x 2

5 dx 5 x dx
∫ sinh
−1
5 x dx = sinh −1 5 x ⋅ x − x ⋅ ∫ = x sinh −1 5 x − ∫ (1 )
1 + 25 x 2 1 + 25 x 2
5 x dx
To get the integral of ∫ 1 + 25 x 2
use the substitution method by letting w = 1 + 25 x 2 then
dw 5 x dx 5x dw 5 1
dw = 50 x dx which implies dx =
50 x
. Therefore, ∫ 1 + 25 x 2
= ∫ w 50
⋅
x
=
50 ∫ w
dw
1 1 1 −1 1 1 1− 1 2 12 1 1 1
= ∫ 1
dw = ∫
w 2 dw = ⋅
1
w 2 = w = w2 = 1 + 25 x 2 (2)
10 10 10 1 − 10 5 5
w2 2
( )
1
5 x dx 1
∫ sinh −1 5 x dx = x sinh −1 5 x − ∫ = x sinh −1 5 x − 1 + 25 x 2 2 +c
5
1 + 25 x 2
( )
1
1 5x 50 x
Check: Let y = x sinh −1 5 x − 1 + 25 x 2 2 + c , then y ′ = sinh −1 5 x + − +0
5 1 + 25 x 2
10 1 + 25 x 2
5x 5x
sinh −1 5 x + − = sinh −1 5 x
2 2
1 + 25 x 1 + 25 x
1
∫ x tan and ∫ dv = ∫ x dx which
−1
b. Given x dx let u = tan −1 x and dv = x dx then du = dx
1+ x 2
1
implies v = x 2 . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
2
x2 1 dx 1 2 1 x2 1 2 1  1 
∫ x tan ∫x ∫ ∫ 1 − 1 + x 2 dx
−1
x dx = tan −1 x ⋅ − 2
⋅ = x tan −1 x − dx = x tan −1 x −
2 2 1+ x 2 2 2 1+ x 2 2 2
1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
x tan −1 x − x + tan −1 x + c
=
2
x tan −1 x −
2
dx + ∫
2 1+ x 2
dx ∫ =
2 2 2
1 2 1 1 1 1 x2 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x tan −1 x − x + tan −1 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 2 x ⋅ tan −1 x + − + ⋅ +0
2 2 2 2 2 1+ x 2 2 2 1+ x 2
1 x2 1 1 1 1 x 2 +1 1 1 1
x tan −1 x + ⋅ + ⋅ − = x tan −1 x + ⋅ − = x tan −1 x + − = x tan −1 x
2 1+ x 2 2 1+ x 2 2 2 1+ x 2 2 2 2
c. Given ∫ sin x sin 7 x dx let u = sin x and dv = sin 7 x dx then du = cos x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin 7 x dx which
1
implies v = − cos 7 x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
7
1 1 1 1
∫ sin x sin 7 x dx = sin x ⋅ − 7 cos 7 x + 7 ∫ cos 7 x ⋅ cos x dx = − 7 sin x cos 7 x + 7 ∫ cos x ⋅ cos 7 x dx (1 )
To integrate ∫ cos x ⋅ cos 7 x dx use the integration by parts method again, i.e., let u = cos x and

1
dv = cos 7 x dx then du = − sin x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos 7 x dx which implies v = sin 7 x . Therefore,
7
1 1 1 1
∫ cos x ⋅ cos 7 x dx = cos x ⋅ 7 sin 7 x + 7 ∫ sin 7 x ⋅ sin x dx = cos x sin 7 x + ∫
sin x sin 7 x dx (2)
7 7

1 1 1 1 1
∫ sin x sin 7 x dx = − 7 sin x cos 7 x + 7 ∫ cos x ⋅ cos 7 x dx = − 7 sin x cos 7 x + 49 cos x sin 7 x + 49 ∫ sin x sin 7 x dx
1
Taking the integral
49 ∫
sin x sin 7 x dx to the left hand side and simplifying we have
1 49 1 49 7 1
∫ sin x sin 7 x dx = − ⋅
7 48
sin x cos 7 x + ⋅ cos x sin 7 x + c
49 48
= −
48
sin x cos 7 x +
48
cos x sin 7 x + c
7 1 7 49
Check: Let y = − sin x cos 7 x + cos x sin 7 x + c , then y ′ = − cos x ⋅ cos 7 x + sin 7 x ⋅ sin x
48 48 48 48
1 7 49 1 49 − 1
− sin x ⋅ sin 7 x + cos 7 x ⋅ cos x + 0 = sin 7 x ⋅ sin x − sin x ⋅ sin 7 x = sin 7 x ⋅ sin x
48 48 48 48 48
48
= sin 7 x ⋅ sin x = sin 7 x sin x
48
d. Given ∫ cos 5 x cos 7 x dx let u = cos 5 x and dv = cos 7 x dx then du = −5 sin 5 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos 7 x dx
1
which implies v = sin 7 x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
7
1 5 1 5
∫ cos 5x cos 7 x dx = cos 5 x ⋅ sin 7 x + ∫
sin 7 x ⋅ sin 5 x dx = cos 5 x sin 7 x + ∫
sin 5 x ⋅ sin 7 x dx (1 )
7 7 7 7
To integrate ∫ sin 5 x ⋅ sin 7 x dx use the integration by parts method again, i.e., let u = sin 5 x and
1
dv = sin 7 x dx then du = 5 cos 5 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin 7 x dx which implies v = − cos 7 x . Therefore,
7
1 5 1 5
∫ sin 5x ⋅ sin 7 x dx = sin 5x ⋅ − 7 cos 7 x + 7 ∫ cos 7 x ⋅ cos 5x dx = − 7 sin 5x cos 7 x + 7 ∫ cos 5x cos 7 x dx (2)
1 5 1 5 25
∫ cos 5x cos 7 x dx = 7
cos 5 x sin 7 x +
7 ∫
sin 5 x ⋅ sin 7 x dx = cos 5 x sin 7 x −
7 49
sin 5 x cos 7 x +
49 ∫
cos 5 x cos 7 x dx
25
Taking the integral
49 ∫
cos 5 x cos 7 x dx to the left hand side and simplifying we have
1 49 5 49 7 5
∫ cos 5x cos 7 x dx = ⋅ cos 5 x sin 7 x − ⋅ sin 5 x cos 7 x + c
7 24 49 24
=
24
cos 5 x sin 7 x −
24
sin 5 x cos 7 x + c
7 5 35 49
Check: Let y = cos 5 x sin 7 x − sin 5 x cos 7 x + c , then y ′ = − sin 5 x ⋅ sin 7 x + cos 7 x ⋅ cos 5 x
24 24 24 24

25 35 49 25 49 − 25
− cos 5 x ⋅ cos 7 x + sin 5 x ⋅ sin 7 x + 0 = cos 5 x cos 7 x − cos 5 x cos 7 x = cos 5 x cos 7 x
24 24 24 24 24
24
= cos 5 x cos 7 x = cos 5 x cos 7 x
24
x −x x 1
e. Given ∫5e dx let u = and dv = e − x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e − x dx which implies
5 5
v = −e − x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
x −x x dx xe − x e − x e− x
∫ e dx = ∫
⋅ −e − x + e − x ⋅ = − − +c = − ( x + 1) + c
5 5 5 5 5 5
xe − x e − x e − x xe − x e − x xe − x
Check: Let y = − − + c , then y ′ = − + + +0 =
5 5 5 5 5 5
f. Given ∫ x sinh 3x dx let u = x and dv = sinh 3x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sinh 3x dx which

1
implies v = cosh 3x dx . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
3
1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ x sinh 3x dx = x ⋅ cosh 3x − ∫ cosh 3x ⋅ dx =
3 3 3
x cosh 3 x −
3 ∫
cosh 3 x ⋅ dx =
3
x cosh 3 x − sinh 3 x + c
9
1 1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x cosh 3x − sinh 3x + c , then y ′ = cosh 3 x + ⋅ 3 x sinh 3 x − ⋅ 3 cosh 3 x + 0 = cosh 3 x
3 9 3 3 9 3
1
+ x sinh 3 x − cosh 3 x = x sinh 3x
3
Section 5.1 Practice Problems – Integration by Parts
1. Evaluate the following integrals using the integration by parts method.

x
∫ xe dx = ∫ 2 cos x dx ∫ ( 5 − x ) e dx =
4x 5x
a. b. = c.
∫ x sin 5x dx = ∫x ∫ x e dx =
3 3x
d. e. 3 − x dx = f.
x
∫ cos ( ln x ) dx ∫ 3 tan ∫ ln x dx =
5
g. = h. −1
x dx = i.
∫xe ∫e ∫e
− ax x x
j. dx = k. sin 3 x dx = l. cos 5 x dx =
∫ x sec x dx = ∫ arc sin 3 y dy = ∫ arc tan x dx =

2
a. b. c.
∫ sin 5x dx = ∫ x cos x dx = ∫ e cos 3x dx =

3 2 −2 x
d. e. f.
2
∫ x ( 5x − 1) ∫ x csc ∫ 3 cos
3 2 −1
g. dx = h. x dx = i. 5 x dx =
x
∫ sinh ∫ x sec ∫ 5 sinh 7 x dx
−1 2
j. x dx = k. 10 x dx = l. =

Calculus I 5.2 Integration Using Trigonometric Substitution
5.2 Integration Using Trigonometric Substitution

Many integration problems involve radical expressions of the form
a2 − b2 x2 a2 + b2 x2 b2 x2 − a2
In such instances we can use a trigonometric substitution by letting

a a a
x= sin t x= tan t x= sec t respectively to obtain
b b b
a2 − b2 x2 = a2 − b2 ⋅
a2
sin 2 t = a 2 − a 2 sin 2 t = a (1− sin t ) 2
= a cos 2 t = a cos t
b2
a2 + b2 x2 = a2 + b2 ⋅
a2
2
tan 2 t = a 2 + a 2 tan 2 t = a (1+ tan t ) 2
= a sec 2 t = a sec t
b
b2 x2 − a2 = b2 ⋅
a2
sec 2 t − a 2 = a 2 sec 2 t − a 2 = a ( sec 2
t −1 ) = a tan 2 t = a tan t
b2
Notice that using trigonometric substitution result in elimination of the radical expression. This
in effect reduces the difficulty of solving integrals with radical expressions.
Reminder 1:
a bx π π
Given x = sin t , then t = sin −1 for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and − ≤t ≤
b a 2 2
a b x π π
Given x = tan t , then t = tan −1 for all x and − t
b a 2 2
a b x π 3π
Given x = sec t , then t = sec −1 for x ≥ 1 or x ≤ −1 and 0 ≤ t or π ≤ t
b a 2 2
Reminder 2:
In solving this class of integrals the integrand in the original variable may be obtained by the use of
a right triangle. For example, in a right triangle
opposite x
• sin t = = . Therefore, using the Pythagorean theorem, the adjacent side (w) is equal to
hypotenuse a
a = x 2 + w2 ; a 2 = x 2 + w2 ; w2 = a 2 − x 2 ; w = a 2 − x 2
adjacent x
• cos t = = . Therefore, the opposite side (w) is equal to
hypotenuse a
a = x 2 + w2 ; a 2 = x 2 + w2 ; w2 = a 2 − x 2 ; w = a 2 − x 2
opposite x
• tan t = = . Therefore, the hypotenuse (w) is equal to w = a 2 + x 2
adjacent a
adjacent x
• cot t = = . Therefore, the hypotenuse (w) is equal to w = a 2 + x 2
opposite a

hypotenuse x
• sec t = = . Therefore, the opposite side (w) is equal to
adjacent a
x = a 2 + w2 ; x 2 = a 2 + w2 ; w2 = x 2 − a 2 ; w = x 2 − a 2
hypotenuse x
• csc t = = . Therefore, the adjacent side (w) is equal to
opposite a
x = a 2 + w2 ; x 2 = a 2 + w2 ; w2 = x 2 − a 2 ; w = x 2 − a 2
Let’s integrate some integrals using the above trigonometric substitution method:
Example 5.2-1: Use trigonometric substitution to evaluate the following indefinite integrals:
dx x 2 dx 1+ x 2
a. ∫ x2 4 − x2
= b. ∫ 25 − x 2
= c. ∫ x2
dx =
dx x2 dx
d. ∫ ( 9 + x 2 )2 = e. ∫ 2
x −1
dx = f. ∫ x4 x −12
=
Solutions:
a. Given ∫ x2
dx
2
let x = 2 sin t , then dx = 2 cos t dt and 4 − x 2 = 4 − 4 sin 2 t = 4 1 − sin 2 t ( )
4− x
= 4 cos 2 t = 2 cos t . Substituting these values back into the original integral we obtain:
dx 2 cos t dt 2 cos t 1 1 1
∫ x2 4 − x2
= ∫ (2 sin t )2 ⋅ 2 cos t = ∫ 4 sin 2 t ⋅ 2 cos t dt = ∫ 4 sin 2 t dt =
4 ∫
csc 2 t dt = − cot t + c
4
4− x 2  
1 cos t 1 1  4 − x 2 ⋅ 2/  1 4− x2
= − +c = − 2
+c = −  + c = −  +
 c
4 sin t 4 x 4 2/ ⋅ x  4 x
2    
Check: To check the answer we start with the solution and find its derivative. The derivative
should match with the integrand, i.e., the algebraic expression inside the integral.
Note that not all the steps in finding the derivative is given. At this level, it is
expected that students are able to work through the details that are not shown (review
differentiation techniques described in Chapters 2 and 3).
−2 x 2 4− x 2
2
−2 x ⋅ x − 1⋅ 4 − x 2 − 1
1 4− x 1 2 4− x 2 1 2 4− x 2
Let y = − +c , then y ′ = − 2
+0 = −
4 x 4 x 4 x2
− x 2 − 4− x 2 ⋅ 4− x 2 (
− x 2 − 4− x 2 )
1 4− x 2 1 4− x 2 1 − x2 − 4 + x2 1 −4 1
= −
2
= −
2
= − = − =
4 x 4 x 4 x2 4 − x2 4 x2 4 − x2 x2 4 − x2

b. Given ∫
x 2 dx
2
let x = 5 sin t , then dx = 5 cos t dt and 25 − x 2 = 25 − 25 sin 2 t = 25 1 − sin 2 t ( )
25 − x
x 2 dx 25 sin 2 t ⋅ 5 cos t dt 25 sin 2 t 1 − cos 2t

∫ 25 − x 2
= ∫ 5 cos t
= ∫ 1 ∫
dt = 25 sin 2 t dt = 25
2
dt ∫
25 25  1  25 25 25  −1 x  25  x 25 − x 2 
+c
=
2 ∫ ( 1 − cos 2t ) dt =  t − sin 2t  + c
2  2 
=
2
t − sin t cos t + c
2
=
2 
 sin −
5  2  5
⋅
5 
 
25  −1 x  25  x  25  −1 x  x
=  sin −  25 − x 2 +c =  sin − 25 − x 2 + c
2  5  2  25  2  5 2
25 x x 25 1 1 1 − 2x x
Check: Let y = sin −1 − 25 − x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ − 25 − x 2 + ⋅ 
2 5 2 2 x2 5 2 
2 25 − x 2 2 
1− 
25
=
25 5 1  25 − x 2
⋅ −  −
x2 
 = 25
−  (
 2 25 − x 2 − 2 x 2 ) 
 =
25
2   
25 − x 2 5  2 2 25 − x 2  2 25 − x 2
 4 25 − x
2
 2 25 − x 2
 50 − 4 x 2  25 25 − 2 x 2 25 − 25 + 2 x 2 2x 2 x2
−  = − = = =
 
 4 25 − x
2
 2 25 − x 2 2 25 − x 2 2 25 − x 2 2 25 − x 2 25 − x 2
1+ x 2
c. Given ∫ x 2
dx let x = tan t , then dx = sec 2 t dt and 1 + x 2 = 1+ tan 2 t = sec 2 t = sec t
1+ x 2 sec t ⋅ sec 2 t dt
Substituting these values back into the original integral we obtain ∫ x2
dx = ∫ tan 2 t
(
sec t ⋅ 1 + tan 2 t dt ) sec t + sec t tan 2 t sec t tan 2 t sec t sec t
= ∫ tan t2
= ∫ 2
tan t
dt = ∫ tan t 2
dt + ∫ tan 2 t dt = ∫ sec t dt + ∫ tan 2 t dt
1
cos t cos 2 t cos t
= ln sec t + tan t + ∫ dt = ln sec t + tan t + ∫ dt = ln sec t + tan t + ∫ dt
2
sin 2 t
2
sin t cos t sin t
cos 2 t
1
= ln sec t + tan t + ∫ sin −2 t cos t dt = ln sec t + tan t + sin −1 t + c = ln sec t + tan t + +c
sin t
1 + x2
= ln sec t + tan t − csc t + c = ln 1 + x2 + x − +c
x

x2 ⋅ x − 1+ x 2
2  
1+ x 1 2x 2 1+ x 2
Check: Let y = ln 1+ x 2 + x − + c , then y ′ = ⋅ + 1 −
x   x2
1+ x 2 + x  2 1+ x 2 
2 x + 1 + x 2   2
=
1
⋅
 2x + 2 1 + x 2

  2
  x − 1+ x
−
  2
(
2
) = 1
⋅
   x −1− x
−
2 


1 + x + x  2 1 + x 2
2   x 1+ x 2
 

 1+ x 2 + x 2 1+ x 2  x 2 1+ x 2



=
1
+
1
=
x 2 1+ x 2 + 1+ x 2
=
1+ x 2 1+ x 2 ( )= 1 + x2
1+ x 2 x 2 1+ x 2 (
x 2 1+ x 2 ) (
x 2 1+ x 2 ) x2
dx
d. Given ∫ ( 9 + x 2 )2 let x = 3 tan t , then dx = 3 sec 2 t dt and 9 + x 2 = 9 + (3 tan t )2 = 9 + 9 tan 2 t
( )
= 9 1 + tan 2 t = 9 sec 2 t Substituting these values back into the original integral we obtain
dx 3 sec 2 t dt 3 sec 2 t dt 1 dt 1 1 1
∫ ( 9 + x 2 )2 = ∫ ( 9 sec 2 t )2 = ∫ 81sec 2 t sec 2 t =
27 ∫ sec 2 t =
27 ∫
cos 2 t dt = ⋅
27 2 ∫ (1 + cos 2t ) dt
 
=
1  1 
 t + sin 2t  + c =
1
(t + sin t cos t ) + c = 1  tan −1 x + x ⋅ 3  + c = 1  tan −1 x + 3 x 
 + c
54  2  54 54 3  54  3 9+ x2
 9 + x2 9 + x2  
Check: Let
1  −1 x
 tan +
3x 
 + c
1
then y ′ = ⋅
1
+ ⋅
(
1 3 9 + x 2 − 2 x ⋅ 3x 1
= ⋅
) 9
54  3 9 + x2  54
31 +

x
9
2 


54
9 + x2
2
( 54
)
3 9 + x2 ( )
1 27 + 3 x 2 − 6 x 2 1 3 1 27 − 3 x 2 1 9 − x2 9 + x2 + 9 − x2
+ ⋅ = ⋅ + ⋅ = + =
54
9 + x2 ( 2
) 54
(9 + x ) 2 54
(
9 + x2
2
) (
18 9 + x 2 ) (
18 9 + x 2 )
2
(
18 9 + x 2 )
2
18 1
= =
(
18 9 + x 2 2
) (9 + x ) 2 2
x2
e. Given ∫ x 2 −1
dx let x = sec t , then dx = sec t tan t and x 2 −1 = sec 2 t − 1 = tan 2 t = tan t
x2 sec 2 t
Substituting these values back into the original integral we obtain ∫ x 2 −1
dx = ∫ tan t
sec t tan t dt
= ∫ sec 3 t dt = ∫ sec 2 t sec t dt . Let u = sec t and dv = sec 2 t , then du = sec t tan t and v = tan t .
Using the substitution formula uv − ∫ v du the integral ∫ sec 2 t sec t dt can be rewritten as
∫ sec
3
∫ ∫
t dt = sec t tan t − sec t tan 2 t dt = sec t tan t − sec t sec 2 t − 1 dt = sec t tan t − ( ) ∫ ( sec
3
t − sec t dt)

= sec t tan t − ∫ sec 3 t dt + ∫ sec t dt
Note that ∫ sec 3 t dt = sec t tan t − ∫ sec 3 t dt + ∫ sec t dt therefore by moving − ∫ sec 3 t dt to the left
hand side of the equality we obtain
∫ sec ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ sec
3
t dt + sec 3 t dt = sec t tan t + sec t dt thus 2 sec 3 t dt = sec t tan t + sec t dt and 3
t dt
1
2
(
sec t tan t + sec t dt∫ ) = 12 ( sec t tan t + ln sec t + tan t )+ c =
1
 x
2

x 2 − 1 + ln x + x 2 − 1  + c

1  1  2 2 x 2  1 1
Check: Let y =  x x 2 − 1 + ln x + x 2 − 1  + c , then y ′ = x −1 + +
2 2  
  2 x 2 −1  2 x + x 2 −1
2 x + x 2 − 1 

× 1 +
2x 
 =
(
1 2 x 2 −1 + 2x 2 1
+
) 1  
=
1  4 x 2 − 2
+
1 

 2  2 2 2 2 2 2  2 x 2 −1 2 
 2 x −1  2 x −1 x + x −1 2 x −1  x −1 
1 4x 2 − 2 + 2 4x 2 x2
= = =
2 2 x 2 −1 4 x 2 −1 x 2 −1
dx
f. Given ∫ x4 x −12
let x = sec t , then dx = sec t tan t dt and x 2 −1 = sec 2 t − 1 = tan 2 t = tan t
Substituting these values back into the original integral we obtain
∫ (1 − sin t ) cos t dt
dx sec t tan t dt dt
∫ x4 ∫ sec 4 t tan t ∫ sec 3 t ∫ cos ∫ cos
3 2 2
= = = t dt = t cos t dt =
2
x −1
3
 
∫ (cos t − sin ) 1 x2 −1 1  x2 −1 
∫ cos t dt − ∫ sin
2 2
= t cos t dt = t cos t dt = sin t − sin 3 t + c = −   + c
3 x 3 x
 
3 2 x2 − x 2 −1 2 2 x2 − x 2 −1
x − 1 1  x 2 − 1 
2 2
2 x −1 3  x 2 − 1  2 x −12
Check: Let y = −  + c , then y ′ = −  ⋅
x 3 x  x 2 3 x  x2
   
x 2 − x 2 +1 x 2 − x 2 +1
x 2 −1  x 2 −1  x 2 −1 1  x 2 −1  1 1 x 2 −1
= −
 x2 
⋅ = − ⋅
 x2  2 2
= −
x2   x2 x2 2
x −1   x x −1 x 2 x 2 −1 x 4 x 2 −1
x 2 − x 2 +1 1
= =
x 4 x 2 −1 x4 x2 −1

Example 5.2-2: Use trigonometric substitution to evaluate the following indefinite integrals:
dx dx
∫ ∫x ∫
2
a. = b. 4 − x 2 dx = c. =
(1 − ) ( )
3 3
x2 2 4 + 9x 2 2
x2
d. ∫ 4+ x 2
dx = e. ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = f. ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
x2 1
g. ∫ 9− x 2
dx = h. ∫ 9 − x 2 dx = i. ∫ x2 4 + x2
dx =
Solutions:
dx
a. Given ∫ let x = sin t , then dx = cos t dt and 1 − x 2 = 1− sin 2 t = cos 2 t . Therefore,
( )
3
1− x 2 2
dx cos t dt cos t 1 sin t x
∫ ∫ ∫ cos 3 t dt ∫ cos 2 t dt = ∫ sec
2
= = = t dt = tan t + c = +c = +c
(1 − ) (cos t ) cos t
3 3
x2 2 2 2 1− x2
1⋅ 1 − x 2 − −2 x ⋅x 2− 2 x 2 + 2 x 2
2
x 2 1− x 2 1− x 2 2 1
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = = = =
( ) (1 − x )
2 2 3 3
1− x 2 1− x 1− x
2 1− x2 2 2 2
b. Given ∫x
2
4 − x 2 dx let x = 2 sin t , then dx = 2 cos t dt and 4 − x 2 = 4 − (2 sin t )2 = 4 − 4 sin 2 t
(
4 1 − sin 2 t ) = 4 cos 2 t = 2 cos t . Therefore,
1
∫x ∫ 4 sin ∫ ∫ 4 (1 − cos 2t ) (1 + cos 2t ) dt
2
2
4 − x 2 dx = t ⋅ 2 cos t ⋅2 cos t dt = 16 sin 2 t cos 2 t dt = 16
(
= 4∫ 1 − cos 2 2t dt = ) ∫ 4 dt − 4∫ cos
2
2t dt =
1
∫ 4 dt − 4∫ 2 ( 1 + cos 4t ) dt = ∫ 4 dt − ∫ 2 dt − 2∫ cos 4t dt
1
2
4
= 4t − 2t − sin 4t + c = 4t − 2t − sin 2t cos 2t + c = 2t − 2 (sin t cos t ) cos 2 t − sin 2 t + c
2
( )
x 4 − x2  2 2  2 x − x3 
x   4 − x − x  + c x
= 2 sin −1 − 2  ⋅   4 = 2 sin −1 − 4 − x 2 

+c

2 2 2 4  2  4 
 
Check: Let y = 2 sin −1

x
− 4 − x2
 2x − x 3


 + c , then y ′ = 2
−
(
− 2x 2x − x 3 ) + (2 − 3x )(4 − x )
2
1
2 2
2  4 
  x2
2 1− 4 8 4 − x2
=
2
−
(
− 2 x 2 + x 4 + 2 − 3x 2 4 − x 2 )( )= 2
−
− 2 x 2 + x 4 + 8 − 14 x 2 + 3 x 4
4 − x2 4 4 − x2 4 − x2 4 4 − x2

=
8 − 4 x 4 + 16 x 2 − 8
=
− 4 x 4 + 16 x 2
=
− 4 x 4 + 16 x 2 4 − x2
=
(
4 4 − x2 x2 4 − x2 ) = x2 4 − x2
4 (4 − x )
⋅
2 2 2 2 2
4 4− x 4 4− x 4 4− x 4− x
2
dx dx 2 2 2
c. Given ∫ = ∫ let x = tan t , then dx = sec 2 t dt and 4 + 9 x 2 = 4 + 9 ⋅  tan t 
( 4 + 9x ) ( ) 3
3 3 3 3
2 2  
4
9
+ x2 2
4
= 4 + 9 ⋅ tan 2 t = 4 + 4 tan 2 t = 4 1 + tan 2 t = 4 sec 2 t . Therefore,
9
( )
dx
2 sec 2 t 2 sec 2 t 2 sec 2 t 2 dt 2 dt
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ 2 4 3 sec 3 t dt ∫ 2 64 sec t ∫ 8 sec t
3 3 3
= dt = dt = = =
( ) ( )
3 3 3 2× 3 3 3
4 + 9x 2 2 4 sec 2 2 42 sec 2 t
1 dt 1 1 1 3x x
=
12 ∫ sec t =
12 ∫
cos t dt =
12
sin t + c =
12 4 + 9x 2
+c =
4 4 + 9x 2
+c
2 18 x
( )
4 4 +9 x 2 −36 x 2
1⋅ 4 4 + 9 x − 4 ⋅ ⋅x
x 2 4+9 x 2 4+9 x 2 1
Check: Let y = +c, then y ′ = = =
4 4 + 9x 2
(
16 4 + 9 x 2
) (
16 4 + 9 x 2
) ( 4 + 9x ) 2 2
3
x 2 dx
d. Given ∫ let x = 2 tan t , then dx = 2 sec 2 t dt and 4 + x 2 = 4 + (2 tan t )2 = 4 + 4 tan 2 t
2
4+ x
(
= 4 1 + tan 2 t ) = 4 sec 2 t = 2 sec t . Therefore,
∫
x 2 dx
2
= ∫
4 tan 2 t ⋅ 2 sec 2 t dt
2 sec t
( )
= 4∫ tan 2 t sec t dt = 4∫ sec 2 t − 1 sec t dt = 4∫ sec 3 t − sec t dt ( )
4+ x
= 4∫ sec 3 t dt − 4∫ sec t dt . To solve ∫ sec 3 t dt = ∫ sec 2 t ⋅ sec t dt use substitution method by
letting u = sec t and dv = sec 2 t then du = sec t tan t dt and v = tan t . Using the substitution
formula uv − ∫ v du we obtain ∫ sec 2 t ⋅ sec t dt = sec t tan t − ∫ tan t ⋅ sec t tan t dt
(
= sec t tan t − ∫ sec t tan 2 t dt = sec t tan t − ∫ sec t sec 2 t − 1 dt = sec t tan t − ∫ sec 3 t − sec t dt ) ( )
= sec t tan t − ∫ sec 3 t dt + ∫ sec t dt . Again at this point we know that ∫ sec 3 t dt
= sec t tan t − ∫ sec 3 t dt + ∫ sec t dt bringing − ∫ sec 3 t dt into the left hand side of the equation we
obtain ∫ sec 3 t dt + ∫ sec 3 t dt = sec t tan t + ∫ sec t dt . Therefore 2∫ sec 3 t dt = sec t tan t + ∫ sec t dt
thus ∫ sec 3 t dt =
1
2
[
sec t tan t + sec t dt ∫ ] = 12 [ sec t tan t + ln sec t + tan t ]. Now substituting this
value into 4∫ sec 3 t dt − 4∫ sec t dt we have

1
∫
4 sec 3 t dt − 4 sec t dt ∫ = 4⋅
2
[
sec t tan t + ln sec t + tan t ]− 4∫ sec t dt = 2 [ sec t tan t + ln sec t + tan t ]
− 4 ln sec t + tan t + c = 2 sec t tan t + 2 ln sec t + tan t − 4 ln sec t + tan t + c = 2 sec t tan t
4 + x2 x 4 + x2 x x 4+ x2 x + 4+ x2
− 2 ln sec t + tan t + c = 2 ⋅ ⋅ − 2 ln + +c = − 2 ln +c
2 2 2 2 2 2
x 4 + x2 x + 4 + x2 1 2x 2 
Check: Let y = − 2 ln + c , then y ′ =  4 + x 2 + 
2 2 2 2 4 + x2

 
   
2 1  2x   + 0 = 1  4 + 2x
2
− 2 4 + x 2 + 2x
−2 ⋅ ⋅ 1 +
 x + 4 + x2 2  2 4 + x2  2  4 + x2   
      x + 4 + x2  4 + x2
 
(2 + x ) x +
2
4 + x 2  − 2 4 + x 2 − 2 x

2 + x2 ( ) x + 4 + x 2  − 2 4 + x 2 − 2 x
 x − 4 + x2
= = ⋅
 x + 4 + x2  4 + x2  x + 4 + x2  4 + x2 x − 4 + x2
   
   
(2 + x ) x +
2
4 + x 2  − 2 4 + x 2 − 2 x
 x − 4 + x2 x4 − x3 4 + x2 − x3 4 + x2 − x2 4 + x2 ( )
= ⋅ =
 x + 4 + x2  4 + x2 x − 4 + x2 − 4 4 + x2
 
 
x 4 − 4x 2 − x 4 − 4x 2 x2
= = =
− 4 4 + x2 − 4 4 + x2 4 + x2
e. Given ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx let x = a sin t , then dx = a cos t dt and a 2 − x 2 = a 2 − a 2 sin 2 t
(
= a 2 1− sin 2 t ) = a 2 cos 2 t = a cos t . Therefore,
a2 a2  1 
∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = ∫ a cos t ⋅ a cos t dt = ∫ a 2 cos 2 t dt =
2 ∫ ( 1 + cos 2t ) dt =  t + sin 2t  + c
2  2 
   2 
a2 a2 2
 sin −1 x + x ⋅ a − x
2
+c a −1 x x a2 − x2 
= ( t + sin t cos t ) + c =   =  2 sin +  + c
2 2 a a a a 2
   
a2 x x a2 − x2 a2 1 1 1 − 2x 2
Check: Let y = sin −1 + +c, then y ′ = ⋅ + a2 − x2 +
2 a 2 2
1− ( ax )2 a 2 2 a2 − x2
a2 a a2 − x2 − x2 a2 a 2 − 2x 2 2a 2 − 2 x 2 a2 − x2
= ⋅ + = + = =
2 a a2 − x2 2 a2 − x2 2 a2 − x2 2 a2 − x2 2 a2 − x2 a2 − x2
=
a2 − x2
⋅
a2 − x2
=
(a 2
− x2 ) a2 − x2
= a2 − x2
2 2 2 2 2 2
a −x a −x a −x

f. Given ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx let x = a sec t , then dx = a sec t tan tdt and x2 − a2 = a 2 sec 2 t − a 2
= a 2 tan 2 t = a tan t . Therefore,
∫ x 2 − a 2 dx = ∫ a tan t ⋅ a sec t tan t dt = ∫a

2
∫ (
sec t tan 2 t dt = a 2 sec t sec 2 t − 1 dt = a 2 sec 3 t dt ) ∫
a2 a2
∫
− a 2 sec t dt = (tan t sec t + ln sec t + tan t ) − a 2 ln sec t + tan t + c = (tan t sec t − ln sec t + tan t )+ c
2 2
 
a2  x x2 − a2 x x2 − a2  x a2 x + x2 − a2
=  ⋅ − ln + +c = x2 − a2 − ln +c
2 a a a a  2 2 a
 
x a2 a2 x a2
= x2 − a2 − ln x + x 2 − a 2 + ln a + c = x2 −a2 − ln x + x 2 − a 2 + c
2 2 2 2 2
x a2 1 
2x 2
Check: Let y = x2 − a2 − ln x + x 2 − a 2 + c , then y ′ =  x 2 − a 2 + 
2 2 2 2 2 
 2 x −a 
a2 1  2x  x2 − a2 + x2 a2 1 x + x2 − a2
− ⋅ ⋅ 1 + +0 = − ⋅ ⋅
2 x + x2 − a2  2 x + x2 − a2
 2 x 2 −a 2  2 x2 − a2 x2 − a2
x2 − a2 + x2 a2 2 x 2 − 2a 2 x2 − a2 x2 − a2 x2 − a2
= − = = = ⋅ = x2 − a2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 x −a 2 x −a 2 x −a x −a x −a x −a
g. Given ∫
x2
2
dx let x = 3 sin t , then dx = 3 cos t dt and 9 − x 2 = 9 − 9 sin 2 t = (
9 1 − sin 2 t )
9− x
x 2 dx 9 sin 2 t ⋅ 3 cos t dt 9 sin 2 t 1 − cos 2t

∫ 9 − x2
= ∫ 3 cos t
= ∫ 1
dt = 9∫ sin 2 t dt = 9∫
2
dt
9 9 1  9 9 9  −1 x  9  x 9 − x 2 
+c
=
2 ∫ ( 1 − cos 2t ) dt =  t − sin 2t  + c
2 2 
=
2
t − sin t cos t + c
2
=
2
 sin −
3  2  3
⋅
3 
 
9  −1 x  9  x  9  −1 x  x
=  sin −  9 − x2  + c =  sin − 9− x2 + c
2 3 29  2 3 2
9 x x 9 1 1 1 − 2xx
Check: Let y = sin −1 − 9 − x2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ − 9 − x2 + ⋅ 
2 3 2 2 x2 3 2 
2 9 − x2 2 
1− 
9

=
9 3

1 
⋅ −
9 − x2
−

x2

=
9

−
(
 2 9 − x 2 − 2x 2) 

=
9
2  
9 − x 2 3  2 2 9 − x 2  2 9 − x2  4 9 − x2


 2 9 − x2
 
 18 − 4 x 2  9 9 − 2x 2 9 − 9 + 2x 2 2x 2 x2
−  = − = = =
 4 9 − x2  2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 9 − x2
 
h. Given ∫ 9 − x 2 dx let x = 3 sin t , then dx = 3 cos t dt and 9 − x2 = 9 − 9 sin 2 t = (

9 1 − sin 2 t )
= 9 cos 2 t = 9 cos t . Therefore,
9 9 1 
∫ ∫ 3 cos t ⋅ 3 cos t dt = ∫ 9 cos ∫ ( 1 + cos 2t ) dt
2
9 − x 2 dx = t dt = =  t + sin 2t  + c
2 2 2 
  
9 9  −1 x x 9 − x 2  9 −1 x x 9− x2 
= ( t + sin t cos t ) + c = sin + ⋅ +c =  2 sin 3 + +c
2 2  3 3 3   2 
   
9 x x 9 − x2 9 1 1 1 − 2x 2
Check: Let y = sin −1 + +c, then y ′ = ⋅ + 9 − x2 +
2 3 2 2
1− ( 3x )2 3 2 2 9 − x2
=
9
⋅
3
+
9 − x2 − x2
=
9
+
9 − 2x 2
=
9 + 9 − 2x 2
=
18 − 2 x 2
=
(
2 9 − x2 )
2 3 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2
=
9 − x2
=
9 − x2
⋅
9 − x2
=
(9 − x ) 2
9 − x2
= 9 − x2
2
2 9 − x2 9 − x2 9 − x2 9− x
1
i. Given ∫ x2 4+ x 2
dx let x = 2 tan t , then dx = 2 sec 2 t dt and 4 + x 2 = 4 + 4 tan 2 t = 2 1 + tan 2 t
= 2 sec 2 t = 2 sec t . Therefore,
dx 2 sec 2 t 1 sec dt 1 1 cos 2 t 1 cos t

∫ x2 4 + x2
dx = ∫ 4 tan 2 t ⋅ ( 2 sec t ) dt =
4 ∫ tan 2 t dt =
4 ∫ ⋅
cos t sin 2 t
dt =
4 ∫ sin 2 t dt let u = sin t
1 cos t du 1 1 1 1 1 1 4+ x2
=
4 ∫ u2
⋅
cos t
=
4 ∫ u2 du = − u −1 + c = −
4 4u
+c = −
4 sin t
+c = −
4 x
+c
2x ⋅ x − 1⋅ 4 + x 2 2 x2 − 4 + x2
2 2
2 4+ x 2
1 4+ x 1 2 4+ x 1
Check: Let y=− +c , then y ′ = − = −
4 x 4 x2 4 x2
  
x 2 − 4 + x 2 ⋅ 4 + x 2 
   x 2 − 4− x 2
1 4+ x 2 4+ x 2 −4 1
= − 2
= − 2
= − =
4 x 4x 4x 2 4 + x 2 x2 4 + x2

The following are additional standard forms of integration that have already been derived.
Trigonometric substitution can be used in most of these cases in order to confirm the result.
Table 5.2-1: Integration Formulas
dx 1 x dx x 1 x
1. ∫ a2 + x2 =
a
tan −1 + c
a
2. ∫ ( a 2 + x 2 )2 =
2a 2
(a 2
+x 2
)
+
2a 3
tan −1
a
+c
dx 1 x+a 1 a+x dx x 1 dx
3. ∫ a2 − x2 =
2a
ln
x−a
+c =
2a
ln
a−x
+c 4. ∫ ( a 2 − x 2 )2 =
2a 2
(a 2
−x 2
)
+
2a 2 ∫ a2 − x2
dx x x a2 x
5. ∫ a2 + x2
= sinh −1
a
+ c = ln x + a 2 + x 2 + c 6. ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx =
2
a2 + x2 +
2
sinh −1 + c
a
(
x a 2 + 2x 2 ) a2 + x2 a4 x a2 + x2 a
∫x ∫ a 2 + x 2 − a sinh −1
2
7. a 2 + x 2 dx = − sinh −1 + c 8. dx = +c
8 8 a x x
a2 + x2 x a2 + x2 x2 a2 x x a2 + x2
9. ∫ x
dx = sinh −1 −
a x
+c 10. ∫ a2 + x2
dx = −
2
sinh −1 +
a 2
+c
dx 1 a + a2 + x2 dx a2 + x2
11. ∫x = − ln
a x
+c 12. ∫ x2 a2 + x2
= −
a2x
+c
a2 + x2
dx x x a2 x
13. ∫ a −x2 2
= sin −1
a
+c 14. ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx =
2
a2 − x2 +
2
sin −1 + c
a
15. ∫x
2
a 2 − x 2 dx =
a4
8
x 1
a 8
(
sin −1 − x a 2 − x 2 a 2 − 2 x 2 + c ) 16. ∫
a2 − x2
dx = a 2 − x 2 − a ln
a + a2 − x2
+c
x x
a2 − x2 x a2 − x2 x2 a2 x 1
17. ∫ x2
dx = − sin −1
a
−
x
+c 18. ∫ a2 − x2
dx =
2
sin −1 − x a 2 − x 2 + c
a 2
dx 1 a + a2 − x2 dx a2 − x2
19. ∫x = − ln
a x
+c 20. ∫ x2 a2 − x2
=
a2x
+c
a2 − x2
dx x x a2 x
21. ∫ x −a2 2
= cosh −1
a
+ c = ln x + x 2 − a 2 + c 22. ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
x2 − a2 −
2
cosh −1 + c
a
23. ∫x
2
x 2 − a 2 dx =
x
8
(
2x 2 − a 2 ) x2 − a2 −
a4
8
x
cosh −1 + c
a
24. ∫
x2 − a2
dx = x 2 − a 2 − a sec −1
x
+c
x a
x2 − a2 x x2 − a2 x2 a2 x x
25. ∫ x2
dx = cosh −1
a
−
x
+c 26. ∫ x2 − a2
dx =
2
cosh −1 +
a 2
x2 − a2 + c
dx 1 x 1 a x2 − a2
27. ∫x x −a2 2
=
a
sec−1
a
+ c = cos −1
a x
+c 28. ∫ x2
dx
= +c
x2 − a2 a2x
dx  x−a x 2 a2 
29. ∫ 2ax − x 2
= sin −1 
 a 
+c 30. ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx =
2
a + x2 +
2 

ln  x + x 2 + a 2  + c


Section 5.2 Practice Problems – Integration Using Trigonometric Substitution

Evaluate the following indefinite integrals:
dx x2 dx
a. ∫ = b. ∫ dx = c. ∫ =
x 2 16 − x 2 9 − x2 x 9 + 4x 2
 
1  x2 
d. ∫ (49 + x2 )2 dx = e. ∫ 
 2
+ 5 x  dx

= f. ∫ x 2 − 25 dx =
 x −1 
dx 9 − 4x 2
g. ∫ 36 − x 2 dx = h. ∫ = i. ∫ dx =
( )
3 x
9 + 36 x 2 2

Calculus I 5.3 Integration by Partial Fractions
5.3 Integration by Partial Fractions

The primary objective of this section is to show that rational functions can be integrated by
f (x )
breaking them into simpler parts. A function F (x ) = , where f (x ) and g (x ) are polynomials,
g (x )
is referred to as a rational function. Depending on the degree of the f (x ) , the function F (x ) is
either a proper or an improper rational fraction.
• A proper rational fraction is a fraction where the degree of the numerator f (x ) is less than the
x +1 1 1 x
degree of the denominator g (x ) . For example, 2
, 3
, 2
, and 2
are
x − x−6 x −1 x + 2x − 3 x +1
proper rational fractions.
• An improper rational fraction is a fraction where the degree of the numerator f (x ) is at least
as large as the degree of the denominator g (x ) . In such cases, long division is used in order
to reduce the fraction to the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational fraction. For example,
x3 + 2 x3 x 4 − x 3 − x −1
, , and are improper rational fractions. (See Section 6.3 of
x2 − x − 6 x 2 +1 x3 − x2
Mastering Algebra – An Introduction for solved problems on long division.)
A fraction, depending on its classification of the denominator, can be represented in four
different cases. These cases are as follows:
CASE I - The Denominator Has Distinct Linear Factors

In this case the linear factors of the form ax + b appear only once in the denominator. To solve
this class of rational fractions we equate each proper rational fraction with a single fraction of the
A B C
form , , , etc. The following examples show the steps as to how this class of
ax + b cx + d ex + f
integrals are solved.
x +1
Example 5.3-1: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 3 + x 2 − 6 x dx .
First - Check to see if the integrand is a proper or an improper rational fraction. If the
integrand is an improper rational fraction use synthetic division (long division) to reduce the
rational fraction to the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational fraction.
Second - Factor the denominator x 3 + x 2 − 6 x into x(x − 2)(x + 3) .
Third - Write the linear factors in partial fraction form. Since each linear factor in the
denominator is occurring only once, the integrand can be represented in the following way:
x +1 x +1 A B C
= = + +
3 2
x + x − 6x x(x − 2 )(x + 3) x x−2 x+3
Fourth - Solve for the constants A , B , and C by equating coefficients of the like powers.
x +1 A (x − 2 )(x + 3) + Bx (x + 3) + Cx (x − 2 )
=
3 2
x + x − 6x x(x − 2 )(x + 3)

x +1 ( ) ( ) ( )
= A x 2 + 3x − 2 x − 6 + B x 2 + 3x + C x 2 − 2 x = Ax 2 + Ax − 6 A + Bx 2 + 3Bx + Cx 2 − 2Cx
x +1 = ( A + B + C )x 2 + ( A + 3B − 2C )x − 6 A therefore,
A+ B +C = 0 A + 3B − 2C = 1 −6 A = 1
1 3 2
which result in having A = − , B = , and C = −
6 10 15
Fifth - Rewrite the integral in its equivalent partial fraction form by substituting the constants
with their specific values.
x +1 A B C 1 1 3 1 2 1
∫ x 3 + x 2 − 6 x dx = ∫ x dx + ∫ x − 2 dx + ∫ x + 3 dx = − 6 ∫ x dx + 10 ∫ x − 2 dx − 15 ∫ x + 3 dx
Sixth - Integrate each integral individually using integration methods learned in previous sections.
1 1 3 1 2 1 1 3 2
−
6 ∫ x dx + 10 ∫ x − 2 dx − 15 ∫ x + 3 dx = − 6 ln x +
10
ln x − 2 − ln x + 3 + c
15
Seventh - Check the answer by differentiating the solution. The result should match the integrand.
1 3 2 1 1 3 1 2 1
Let y = − ln x + ln x − 2 − ln x + 3 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ ⋅1 + ⋅ ⋅1 − ⋅ ⋅1 + 0
6 10 15 6 x 10 x − 2 15 x + 3
=
− 150(x − 2 )(x + 3) + 270 x (x + 3) − 120 x (x − 2 )
=
( ) ( )
− 150 x 2 + x − 6 + 270 x 2 + 3 x − 120 x 2 − 2 x( )
900 x (x − 2 )(x + 3)
(
900 x x 3 + x 2 − 6x)
=
− 150 x 2 − 150 x + 900 + 270 x 2 + 810 x − 120 x 2 + 240 x
=
(− 150 + 270 − 120)x 2 + (− 150 + 810 + 240)x + 900
(
900 x 3 + x 2 − 6 x ) (
900 x 3 + x 2 − 6 x )
900 x + 900 900(x + 1) x +1
= = =
(
900 x 3 + x 2 − 6 x ) (
900 x 3 + x 2 − 6 x ) x + x 2 − 6x
3
dx
Example 5.3-2: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 2 + 3x + 2 .
Second - Factor the denominator x 2 + 3x + 2 into (x + 1)(x + 2) .
1 1 A B
= = +
2
x + 3x + 2 (x + 1)(x + 2) x +1 x + 2
Fourth - Solve for the constants A and B by equating coefficients of the like powers.
1 A (x + 2 ) + B (x + 1)
=
2
x + 3x + 2 (x + 1)(x + 2)

1 = A (x + 2) + B (x + 1) = Ax + 2 A + Bx + B
1 = ( A + B )x + (2 A + B ) therefore,
A+ B = 0 2A + B = 1
which result in having A = 1 and B = −1

1 A B 1 1
∫ x 2 + 3x + 2 dx = ∫ x + 1 dx + ∫ x + 2 dx = ∫ x + 1 dx − ∫ x + 2 dx
1 1
∫ x + 1 dx − ∫ x + 2 dx = ln x + 1 − ln x + 2 + c
Let y = ln x + 1 − ln x + 2 + c , then y ′ =
1
⋅1 −
1
⋅1 + 0 =
(x + 2) − (x + 1) = 1
x +1 x+2 (x + 1)(x + 2) 2
x + 3x + 2
x dx
Example 5.3-3: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 2 − 5x + 6 .
Second - Factor the denominator x 2 − 5 x + 6 into (x − 2)(x − 3) .
x x A B
= = +
2
x − 5x + 6 (x − 2)(x − 3) x−2 x−3
x A (x − 3) + B (x − 2 )
=
2
x − 5x + 6 (x − 2)(x − 3)
x = A (x − 3) + B (x − 2) = Ax − 3 A + Bx − 2 B
x = ( A + B )x − (3 A + 2 B ) therefore,
A+ B =1 3 A + 2B = 0
which result in having A = −2 and B = 3
x dx A B 2 3
∫ x 2 − 5x + 6 = ∫ x − 2 dx + ∫ x − 3 dx = − ∫ x − 2 dx + ∫ x − 3 dx

2 3
− ∫ x − 2 dx + ∫ x − 3 dx = − 2 ln x − 2 + 3 ln x − 3 + c
1 1 − 2(x − 3) + 3(x − 2 )
Let y = −2 ln x − 2 + 3 ln x − 3 + c , then y ′ = − 2 ⋅ ⋅1 + 3 ⋅ ⋅1 + 0 =
x−2 x−3 (x − 2)(x − 3)
−2 x + 6 + 3 x − 6 x
= 2
= 2
x − 5x + 6 x − 5x + 6
x 2 +1
Example 5.3-4: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 3 − x dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 3 − x into x x 2 − 1 = x(x − 1)(x + 1) .( )
x 2 +1 x 2 +1 A B C
= = + +
3
x −x x(x − 1)(x + 1) x x −1 x +1
x 2 +1 A (x − 1)(x + 1) + Bx (x + 1) + Cx (x − 1)
=
3
x −x x(x − 1)(x + 1)
x 2 +1 ( ) ( ) ( )
= A x 2 + x − x − 1 + B x 2 + x + C x 2 − x = Ax 2 − A + Bx 2 + Bx + Cx 2 − Cx
x 2 +1 = ( A + B + C )x 2 + (B − C )x − A therefore,
A+ B +C =1 B −C = 0 −A = 1
which result in having A = −1 , B = 1 , and C = 1

x 2 +1 A B C 1 1 1
∫ x 3 − x dx = ∫ x dx + ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ x + 1 dx = − ∫ x dx + ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ x + 1 dx
1 1 1
− ∫ x dx + ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ x + 1 dx = − ln x + ln x − 1 + ln x + 1 + c

1 1 1 − (x − 1)(x + 1) + x (x + 1) + x (x − 1)
Let y = − ln x + ln x − 1 + ln x + 1 + c , then y ′ = − + + +0 =
x x −1 x +1 x(x − 1)(x + 1)
− x 2 +1+ x 2 + x + x 2 − x x 2 +1
= =
(
x x 2 −1 ) x3 − x
x−3
Example 5.3-5: Evaluate the integral ∫ x (x 2 + x − 2) dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 2 + x − 2 into (x + 2)(x − 1) .
x−3 A B C
= + +
x(x + 2 )(x − 1) x x + 2 x −1
x−3 A (x + 2 )(x − 1) + Bx (x − 1) + Cx (x + 2 )
=
x(x + 2 )(x − 1) x(x + 2 )(x − 1)
x−3 ( ) ( ) ( )
= A x 2 + 2 x − x − 2 + B x 2 − x + C x 2 + 2 x = Ax 2 + Ax − 2 A + Bx 2 − Bx + Cx 2 + 2Cx
x−3 = ( A + B + C )x 2 + ( A − B + 2C )x − 2 A therefore,
A+ B +C = 0 A − B + 2C = 1 −2 A = −3
3 5 2
which result in having A = , B = − , and C = −
2 6 3
x−3 A B C 3 1 5 1 2 1
∫ x (x 2 + x − 2) dx = ∫ x dx + ∫ x + 2 dx + ∫ x − 1 dx = 2 ∫ x dx − 6 ∫ x + 2 dx − 3 ∫ x − 1 dx
3 1 5 1 2 1 3 5 2
2 ∫ x dx − 6 ∫ x + 2 dx − 3 ∫ x − 1 dx =
2
ln x − ln x + 2 − ln x − 1 + c
6 3
3 5 2 3 1 5 1 2 1
Let y = ln x − ln x + 2 − ln x − 1 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅1 − ⋅ ⋅1 − ⋅ ⋅1 + 0
2 6 3 2 x 6 x+2 3 x −1
=
9(x + 2 )(x − 1) − 5 x (x − 1) − 4 x (x + 2 )
=
( ) ( ) (
9 x 2 + x − 2 − 5 x 2 − x − 4 x 2 + 2x ) = (9 − 5 − 4)x + (9 + 5 − 8)x − 18
2
6 x (x + x − 2 ) 6 x (x + x − 2 )
6 x (x + 2 )(x − 1) 2 2

6 x − 18 6(x − 3) x−3
= = =
(
6x x 2 + x − 2 ) (
6x x 2 + x − 2 ) (
x x2 + x − 2 )
x3 + 2
Example 5.3-6: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 2 − x − 6 dx .
rational fraction to the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational fraction. In this case the
integrand is an improper rational fraction, i.e., the degree of the numerator is greater than the
degree of the denominator. Applying the long division method we obtain
x3 + 2 7x + 8
2
= (x + 1) + 2
x − x−6 x − x−6
To integrate the second term we proceed with the following steps:

Second - Factor the denominator x 2 − x − 6 into (x − 3)(x + 2) .
7x + 8 7x + 8 A B
= = +
2
x − x−6 (x − 3)(x + 2) x−3 x+ 2
7x + 8 A ( x + 2 ) + B ( x − 3)
=
2
x − x−6 (x − 3)(x + 2)
7x + 8 = Ax + 2 A + Bx − 3B
7x + 8 = ( A + B )x + (2 A − 3B ) therefore,
A+ B = 7 2 A − 3B = 8
29 6
which result in having A = and B =
5 5
x3 + 2 7x + 8 7x + 8 1 A B
∫ x 2 − x − 6 dx = ∫ (x + 1)dx + ∫ x 2 − x − 6 dx = ∫ (x + 1)dx + ∫ (x − 3)(x + 2) dx = 2
(x + 1)2 + ∫ x − 3 dx + ∫ x + 2 dx
1
= (x + 1)2 + 29 1 6
∫ x − 3 dx + 5 ∫ x + 2 dx
1
2 5
1
1
(x + 1)2 + 29 1 6
∫ x − 3 dx + 5 ∫ x + 2 dx =
1
( x + 1)2 + 29 ln x − 3 + 6 ln x + 2 + c
2 5 2 5 5

1 29 6 29 1 6 1
Let y = (x + 1)2 + ln x − 3 + ln x + 2 + c , then y ′ = (x + 1) + ⋅ ⋅1 + ⋅ ⋅1 + 0
2 5 5 5 x−3 5 x+2
29 1 6 1 5(x + 1)(x − 3)(x + 2 ) + 29(x + 2 ) + 6(x − 3) 5 x 3 − 35 x − 30 + 29 x + 58 + 6 x − 18

= (x + 1) + ⋅ + ⋅ = =
5 x−3 5 x+ 2 5 (x − 3)(x + 2 ) 5 (x − 3)(x + 2 )
=
5 x 3 + 10
=
(
5 x3 + 2 ) =
x3 + 2
5 (x − 3)(x + 2 )
(
5 x2 − x − 6 ) x2 − x − 6
1
Example 5.3-7: Evaluate the integral ∫ 49 − x 2 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator 49 − x 2 into (7 − x )(7 + x ) .
1 1 A B
= = +
49 − x 2 (7 − x )(7 + x ) 7−x 7+ x
1 A (7 + x ) + B (7 − x )
=
49 − x 2 (7 − x )(7 + x )
1 = A (7 + x ) + B (7 − x ) = 7 A + Ax + 7 B − Bx
1 = ( A − B )x + (7 A + 7 B ) therefore,
7 A + 7B = 1 A− B = 0
1 1
which result in having A = , and B =
14 14
1 A B 1 1 1 1
∫ 49 − x 2 dx = ∫ 7 − x dx + ∫ 7 + x dx =
14 ∫ 7 − x dx + 14 ∫ 7 + x dx
1 1 1 1 1 1
14 ∫ 7 − x dx + 14 ∫ 7 + x dx = 14 ln 7− x +
14
ln 7 + x + c
Seventh - Check the answer by differentiating the solution. The result should match the
1 1 1 1 1 1 7+ x+7−x
integrand. Let y = ln 7 − x + ln 7 + x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ + ⋅ +0 =
14 14 14 7 − x 14 7 + x 14(7 − x )(7 + x )
7+7 14 1
= = =
(
14 49 + 7 x − 7 x − x 2 ) (
14 49 − x 2 ) 49 − x 2

CASE II - The Denominator Has Repeated Linear Factors

In this case each linear factor of the form ax + b appears n times in the denominator. To solve
this class of rational fractions we equate each proper rational fraction, that appears n times in the
M1 M2 Mn
denominator, with a sum of n partial fractions of the form + + ... + . The
ax + b (ax + b ) 2
(ax + b )n
following examples show the steps as to how this class of integrals are solved.
x+3
Example 5.3-8: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 3 − 2 x 2 + x dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 3 − 2 x 2 + x into x x 2 − 2 x + 1 = x(x − 1)2 . ( )
Third - Write the linear factors in partial fraction form. Since one of the factors in the
denominator is repeated, the integrand can be represented in the following way:
x+3 x+3 x+3 A B C
= = = + +
3 2
x − 2x + x (
x x 2 − 2x +1 ) x(x − 1) 2 x x − 1 (x − 1)2
x+3 A (x − 1)2 + Bx (x − 1) + Cx
=
x 3 − 2x 2 + x x(x − 1)(x − 1)2
x+3 ( ) ( )
= A x 2 − 2 x + 1 + B x 2 − x + Cx = Ax 2 − 2 Ax + A + Bx 2 − Bx + Cx
x+3 = ( A + B )x 2 + (− 2 A − B + C )x + A therefore,
A+ B = 0 −2 A − B + C = 1 A=3
which result in having A = 3 , B = −3 , and C = 4

x+3 A B C 1 1 1
∫ x 3 − 2 x 2 + x dx = ∫ x dx + ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ (x − 1)2 dx = 3∫ x dx − 3∫ x − 1 dx + 4∫ (x − 1)2 dx
1 1 1 4
3 ∫ x dx − 3∫ x − 1 dx + 4∫ (x − 1)2 dx = 3 ln x − 3 ln x − 1 −
x −1
+c
4 1 1 4 3(x − 1)2 − 3x (x − 1) + 4 x
Let y = 3 ln x − 3 ln x − 1 − +c , then y ′ = 3 ⋅ − 3 ⋅ + +0 =
x −1 x x − 1 (x − 1)2 x (x − 1)2

3x 2 − 6 x + 3 − 3x 2 + 3x + 4 x x+3
= =
3
x − 2x + x 2
x − 2x 2 + x
3
dx
Example 5.3-9: Evaluate the integral ∫ x3 − x2 .
Second - Factor the denominator x 3 − x 2 into x 2 (x − 1) .
1 1 A B C
= = + +
3
x −x 2
x 2
(x − 1) x x 2 x −1
1 Ax (x − 1) + B (x − 1) + Cx 2
=
x3 − x2 x 2 (x − 1)
( )
1 = A x 2 − x + B (x − 1) + Cx 2 = Ax 2 − Ax + Bx − B + Cx 2
1 = ( A + C )x 2 + (− A + B )x − B therefore,
A+C = 0 −A + B = 0 −B = 1
which result in having A = −1 , B = −1 , and C = 1

dx A B C 1 1 1
∫ x3 − x2 = ∫ x dx + ∫ x 2 dx + ∫ x − 1 dx = − ∫ x dx − ∫ x 2 dx + ∫ x − 1 dx
1 1 1 1 1
− ∫ x dx − ∫ x 2 dx + ∫ x − 1 dx = − ln x +
x
+ ln x − 1 + c =
x
+ ln x − 1 − ln x + c
1 1 1 1 − (x − 1) + x 2 − x (x − 1)
Let y = + ln x − 1 − ln x + c , then y ′ = − + − +0 =
x x2 x −1 x x 2 (x − 1)
− x +1+ x 2 − x 2 + x 1
= =
3
x −x 2
x − x2
3
5dx
Example 5.3-10: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 3 − 2x 2 + x .

Second – Factor the denominator x 3 − 2 x 2 + x into x(x − 1)2 .
5 A B C
= + +
x(x − 1) 2 x x − 1 (x − 1)2
5 A (x − 1)2 + Bx (x − 1) + Cx
=
x 3 − 2x 2 + x x(x − 1)2
5 ( ) ( )
= A x 2 − 2 x + 1 + B x 2 − x + Cx = Ax 2 − 2 Ax + A + Bx 2 − Bx + Cx
5 = ( A + B )x 2 + (− 2 A − B + C )x + A therefore,
A+ B = 0 −2 A − B + C = 0 A=5

5dx A B C 1 1 1
∫ x 3 − 2x 2 + x = ∫ x dx + ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ (x − 1)2 dx = 5∫ x dx − 5∫ x − 1 dx + 5∫ (x − 1)2 dx
1 1 1 5
5 ∫ x dx − 5∫ x − 1 dx + 5∫ (x − 1)2 dx = 5 ln x − 5 ln x − 1 −
x −1
+c
5 1 1 1 5 5 5
Let y = 5 ln x − 5 ln x − 1 − +c , then y ′ = 5 ⋅ ⋅1 − 5 ⋅ ⋅1 + 5 ⋅ ⋅1 + 0 = − +
x −1 x x −1 (x − 1)2 x x − 1 (x − 1)2
=
5(x − 1)2 − 5 x (x − 1) + 5 x
=
( )
5 x 2 − 2 x + 1 − 5x 2 + 5x + 5x
=
5 x 2 − 10 x + 5 − 5 x 2 + 5 x + 5 x
=
5
x(x − 1) 2 3
x − 2x + x 2 3 2
x − 2x + x x − 2x 2 + x
3
x+6
Example 5.3-11: Evaluate the integral ∫ (x + 2)(x − 3)2 dx .

Second – Factor the denominator. However, the denominator is already in its reduced form of
(x + 2)(x − 3)2 .
x+6 A B C
= + +
(x + 2)(x − 3) 2 x + 2 x − 3 (x − 3)2
x+6 A (x − 3)2 + B(x + 2 )(x − 3) + C (x + 2 )
=
(x + 2)(x − 3)2 (x + 2)(x − 3)2
x+6 ( ) ( )
= A x 2 − 6 x + 9 + B x 2 − x − 6 + C (x + 2) = Ax 2 − 6 Ax + 9 A + Bx 2 − Bx − 6 B + Cx + 2C
x+6 = ( A + B )x 2 + (− 6 A − B + C )x + (9 A − 6 B + 2C ) therefore,
A+ B = 0 −6 A − B + C = 1 9 A − 6 B + 2C = 6
4 4 9
which result in having A = , B=− , and C =
25 25 5
x+6 A B C 4 1 4 1 9 1
∫ (x + 2)(x − 3)2 dx = ∫ x + 2 dx + ∫ x − 3 dx + ∫ (x − 3)2 dx = 25 ∫ x + 2 dx − 25 ∫ x − 3 dx + 5 ∫ (x − 3)2 dx
4 1 4 1 9 1 4 4 9 1
25 ∫ x + 2 dx − 25 ∫ x − 3 dx + 5 ∫ (x − 3)2 dx = 25
ln x + 2 −
25
ln x − 3 −
5 ( x − 3)
+c
4 4 9 1 4 1 4 1 9 1
Let y = ln x + 2 − ln x − 3 − + c , then y ′ = ⋅ − ⋅ + +0
25 25 5 ( x − 3) 25 x + 2 25 x − 3 5 (x − 3)2
=
4(x − 3)2 − 4(x + 2 )(x − 3) + 45(x + 2 )
=
( ) ( )
4 x 2 − 6 x + 9 − 4 x 2 − x − 6 + 45(x + 2 )
=
4 x 2 − 24 x + 36 − 4 x 2
25(x + 2 )(x − 3)2 25(x + 2 )(x − 3)2 25(x + 2 )(x − 3)2
4 x + 24 + 45 x + 90 25 x + 150 25(x + 6 ) x+6

+ = = =
25(x + 2 )(x − 3) 2
25(x + 2 )(x − 3) 2
25(x + 2 )(x − 3) 2
(x + 2)(x − 3)2
x+5
Example 5.3-12: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 3 + 4 x 2 + 4 x dx .

Second - Factor the denominator x 3 + 4 x 2 + 4 x into x x 2 + 4 x + 4 = x(x + 2)2 . ( )

x+5 x+5 x+5 A B C
= = = + +
3 2
x + 4x + 4x (
x x 2 + 4x + 4 ) x(x + 2 ) 2 x x + 2 ( x + 2 )2
x+5 A (x + 2 )2 + Bx (x + 2 ) + Cx
=
x 3 + 4x 2 + 4x x(x + 2 )(x + 2 )2
x+5 ( ) ( )
= A x 2 + 4 x + 4 + B x 2 + 2 x + Cx = Ax 2 + 4 Ax + 4 A + Bx 2 + 2 Bx + Cx
x+5 = ( A + B )x 2 + (4 A + 2 B + C )x + 4 A therefore,
A+ B = 0 4 A + 2B + C = 1 4A = 5
5 5 3
4 4 2
x+5 A B C 5 1 5 1 3 1
∫ x 3 + 4 x 2 + 4 x dx = ∫ x dx + ∫ x + 2 dx + ∫ (x + 2)2 dx = 4 ∫ x dx − 4 ∫ x + 2 dx − 2 ∫ (x + 2)2 dx
5 1 5 1 3 1 5 5 3 1
4 ∫ x dx − 4 ∫ x + 2 dx − 2 ∫ (x + 2)2 dx = 4
ln x − ln x + 2 + ⋅
4 2 x+2
+c
5 5 3 1 5 1 5 1 3 5(x + 2 )2 − 5 x (x + 2 ) − 6 x
Let y = ln x − ln x + 2 + ⋅ +c , then y ′ = ⋅ − ⋅ − +0 =
4 4 2 x+2 4 x 4 x+2 2(x + 2 )2 4 x ( x + 2 )2
5 x 2 + 20 x + 20 − 5 x 2 − 10 x − 6 x 4 x + 20 4(x + 5) x+5
= = = =
(
4 x 3 + 4x 2 + 4x ) (
4 x 3 + 4x 2 + 4x ) (
4 x 3 + 4x 2 + 4x ) x + 4x 2 + 4x
3
1
Example 5.3-13: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 5 + 2 x 4 + x 3 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 5 + 2 x 4 + x 3 into x 3 x 2 + 2 x + 1 = x 3 (x + 1)2 . ( )

Third - Write the linear factors in partial fraction form. Since both factors in the denominator
are repeated, the integrand can be represented in the following way:
1 1 1 A B C D E
= = = + + + +
5
x + 2x + x 4 3
(
x 3 x 2 + 2x +1 ) x (x + 1)
3 2 x x 2 x 3 x + 1 (x + 1)2
Fourth - Solve for the constants A , B , C , D , and E by equating coefficients of the like powers.
1 Ax 2 (x + 1)2 + Bx (x + 1)2 + C (x + 1)2 + Dx 3 (x + 1) + Ex 3
=
x 5 + 2x 4 + x 3 x 3 (x + 1)2
( ) ( ) (
1 = Ax 2 x 2 + 2 x + 1 + Bx x 2 + 2 x + 1 + C x 2 + 2 x + 1 + Dx 3 (x + 1) + Ex 3 )
1 = Ax 4 + 2 Ax 3 + Ax 2 + Bx 3 + 2 Bx 2 + Bx + Cx 2 + 2Cx + C + Dx 4 + Dx 3 + Ex 3
1 = ( A + D )x 4 + (2 A + B + D + E )x 3 + ( A + 2 B + C )x 2 + (B + 2C )x + C therefore,
A+ D = 0 2A + B + D + E = 0 A + 2B + C = 0 B + 2C = 0 C =1
which result in having A = 3 , B = −2 , C = 1 , D = −3 , and E = −1

1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ x 5 + 2 x 4 + x 3 dx = 3∫ dx − 2∫
x x 2
dx + ∫ x 3 dx − 3∫ x + 1 dx − ∫ (x + 1)2 dx
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
3 ∫ x dx − 2∫ x 2 dx + ∫ x 3 dx − 3∫ x + 1 dx − ∫ (x + 1)2 dx = 3 ln x + −
x 2 x2
− 3 ln x + 1 +
x +1
+c
2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
Let y = 3 ln x + − − 3 ln x + 1 + +c , then y ′ = 3 ⋅ − + − 3⋅ − +0
x 2x 2 x +1 x x 2
x 3 x + 1 (x + 1)2
3x 2 (x + 1)2 − 2 x(x + 1)2 + (x + 1)2 − 3 x 3 (x + 1) − x 3 3x 4 + 3x 2 + 6 x 3 − 2 x 3 − 2 x − 4 x 2 + x 2 + 1 + 2 x − 3x 4

= =
x 3 (x + 1)2 (
x 3 x 2 + 2x + 1 )
− 3x 3 − x 3 1
+ =
3
( 2
x x + 2x + 1 ) x + 2x 4 + x 3
5
1
Example 5.3-14: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 4 − 6 x 3 + 9 x 2 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 4 − 6 x 3 + 9 x 2 into x 2 x 2 − 6 x + 9 = x 2 (x − 3)2 . ( )

1 1 1 A B C D
= = = + + +
4
x − 6x + 9x 3 2
(
x 2 x 2 − 6x + 9 ) x 2
(x − 3) 2 x x 2 x − 3 ( x − 3) 2
1 Ax (x − 3)2 + B (x − 3)2 + Cx 2 (x − 3) + Dx 2
=
x 4 − 6x 3 + 9x 2 x 2 (x − 3)2
( ) (
1 = Ax (x − 3)2 + B (x − 3)2 + Cx 2 (x − 3) + Dx 2 = Ax x 2 + 9 − 6 x + B x 2 + 9 − 6 x + Cx 2 (x − 3) + Dx 2 )
1 = Ax 3 + 9 Ax − 6 Ax 2 + Bx 2 + 9 B − 6 Bx + Cx 3 − 3Cx 2 + Dx 2
1 = ( A + C )x 3 + (− 6 A + B − 3C + D )x 2 + (9 A − 6 B )x + 9 B therefore,
A+C = 0 −6 A + B − 3C + D = 0 9 A − 6B = 0 9B = 1
6 1 6 1
which result in having A = , B= , C=− , and D =
81 9 81 9
dx A B C D 6 dx 1 dx 6 dx 1 dx
∫ x 4 − 6x 3 + 9x 2 = ∫ x dx + ∫ x 2 dx + ∫ x − 3 dx + ∫ (x − 3)2 dx = +
81 x 9∫ ∫ x 2 − 81 ∫ x − 3 + 9 ∫ (x − 3)2
6 dx 1 dx 6 dx 1 dx 6 1 6 1
∫
+
81 x 9 ∫ x 2 − 81 ∫ x − 3 + 9 ∫ (x − 3)2 =
81
ln x − −
9 x 81
ln x − 3 −
9( x − 3 )
+c
6 1 6 1 6 1 1 6 1 1
Let y = ln x − − ln x − 3 − + c , then y ′ = ⋅ + − ⋅ + +0
81 9 x 81 9(x − 3) 81 x 9 x 2 81 x − 3 9(x − 3)2
=
6 x(x − 3)2 + 9(x − 3)2 − 6 x 2 (x − 3) + 9 x 2
=
( ) ( )
6 x x 2 − 6 x + 9 + 9 x 2 − 6 x + 9 − 6 x 3 + 18 x 2 + 9 x 2
81x 2
(x − 3) 2
(
81x 2 x 2 − 6 x + 9 )
6 x 3 − 36 x 2 + 54 x + 9 x 2 − 54 x + 81 − 6 x 3 + 18 x 2 + 9 x 2 81 1
= = =
(
81x 2 x 2 − 6 x + 9 ) (
81 x 4 − 6 x 3 + 9 x 2 ) x − 6x 3 + 9x 2
4

CASE III - The Denominator Has Distinct Quadratic Factors

In this case the quadratic factors of the form ax 2 + bx + c appear only once in the denominator and
are irreducible. To solve this class of rational fractions we equate each proper rational fraction
Ax + B Cx + D Ex + F
with a single fraction of the form 2
, 2
, 2
, etc. The following
ax + bx + c cx + dx + e ex + fx + g
examples show the steps as to how this class of integrals are solved.
x2 − x + 3
Example 5.3-15: Evaluate the integral ∫ x3 + x
dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 3 + x into x x 2 + 1 . ( )
Third - Write the factors in partial fraction form. Since one of the factors in the denominator
is in quadratic form, the integrand can be represented in the following way:
x2 − x + 3 x2 − x + 3 A Bx + C
= = +
x +x3
(
x x +1 2
) x x 2 +1
x2 − x + 3
=
( )
A x 2 + 1 + (Bx + C ) x
3
x +x (
x x 2 +1 )
x2 − x + 3 ( )
= A x 2 +1 + (Bx + C ) x = Ax 2 + A + Bx 2 + Cx
x2 − x + 3 = ( A + B )x 2 + Cx + A therefore,
A+ B =1 C = −1 A=3
which result in having A = 3 , B = −2 , and C = −1

x2 − x + 3 A Bx + C 1 −2 x − 1 1 2x 1
∫ x +x3
dx = ∫ x dx + ∫ x 2 + 1 dx = 3∫ x dx + ∫ x 2 + 1 dx = 3∫ x dx − ∫ x 2 + 1 dx − ∫ x 2 + 1 dx
Sixth - Integrate each integral individually using integration methods learned in previous
sections. To solve the second integral let u = x 2 + 1 .
1 2x 1 1 2 x du 1 1 1 1
3∫ x dx − ∫ x 2 + 1 dx − ∫ x 2 + 1 dx = 3∫ x dx − ∫ u ⋅ 2 x − ∫ x 2 + 1 dx = 3∫ dx − ∫ du − ∫
x u 2
x +1
dx
= 3 ln x − ln u − tan −1 x + c = 3 ln x − ln x 2 + 1 − tan −1 x + c

1 −1 1 3 2x 1
Let y = 3 ln x − ln x 2 + 1 − tan −1 x + c , then y ′ = 3 ⋅ + 2
⋅ 2x −
2
+0 = − −
x x +1 1+ x x x 2 +1 x 2 +1
=
( )
3 x 2 +1 − 2x 2 − x
=
3x 2 + 3 − 2 x 2 − x
=
x2 − x + 3
(
x x 2 +1 ) x3 + x x3 + x
1
Example 5.3-16: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 3 + 25x dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 3 + 25 x into x x 2 + 25 . ( )
1 1 A Bx + C
= = +
3
x + 25 x ( 2
x x + 25 ) x x 2 + 25
1
=
( )
A x 2 + 25 + (Bx + C ) x
3
x + 25 x (
x x + 25 2
)
1 ( )
= A x 2 + 25 + (Bx + C ) x = Ax 2 + 25 A + Bx 2 + Cx
1 = ( A + B )x 2 + Cx + 25 A therefore,
25 A = 1 C=0 A+ B = 0
1 1
which result in having A = , B=− , and C = 0
25 25
1 A Bx + C 1 1 1 x
∫ x 3 + 25x dx = ∫ x dx + ∫ x 2 + 25 dx =
25 ∫ x dx − 25 ∫ x 2 + 25 dx
sections. To solve the second integral let u = x 2 + 25 .
1 1 1 x 1 1 1 x du 1 1 1 1 1 1
25 ∫ x dx − 25 ∫ x 2 + 25 dx = 25 ∫ x dx − 25 ∫ u ⋅ 2 x =
25 ∫ x dx − 50 ∫ u du = 25
ln x − ln u + c
50
1 1
= ln x − ln x 2 + 25 + c
25 50

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x
Let y = ln x − ln x 2 + 25 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ − ⋅ ⋅ 2x + 0 = −
25 50 2
25 x 50 x + 25 25 x
(
25 x 2 + 25 )
=
(x 2
)
+ 25 − x 2
=
x 2 + 25 − x 2
=
25
=
1
(
25 x x 2 + 25 ) (
25 x 3 + 25 x ) (
25 x 3 + 25 x ) 3
x + 25 x
1
Example 5.3-17: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 4 + 16 x 2 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 4 + 16x 2 into x 2 x 2 + 16 . ( )
Third - Write the factors in partial fraction form. Since the factors in the denominator are in
quadratic form, the integrand can be represented in the following way:
1 1 Ax + B Cx + D
= = +
4
x + 16 x 2
(
x 2 x 2 + 16 ) x 2
x 2 + 16
Fourth - Solve for the constants A , B , C , and D by equating coefficients of the like powers.
1
=
( Ax + B ) (x 2 + 16)+ x 2 (Cx + D )
x 4 + 16 x 2 (
x 2 x 2 + 16 )
( )
1 = ( Ax + B ) x 2 + 16 + x 2 (Cx + D ) = Ax 3 + 16 Ax + Bx 2 + 16 B + Cx 3 + Dx 2
1 = ( A + C )x 3 + (B + D )x 2 + 16 Ax + 16 B therefore,
A+C = 0 B+D =0 16 A = 0 16 B = 1
1 1
which result in having A = 0 , B = , C = 0 , and D = −
16 16
1 Ax + B Cx + D B D 1 1 1 1
∫ x 4 + 16 x 2 dx = ∫ x 2
dx + ∫ x 2 + 16 dx = ∫ x 2 dx + ∫ x 2 + 16 dx =
16 ∫ x 2 dx − 16 ∫ x 2 + 16 dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
16 ∫ x 2 dx − 16 ∫ x 2 + 16 dx =
16 ∫ x 2 dx − 16 ∫ 16(x 2 + 1 ) dx =
16 ∫ x 2 dx − 256 ∫ (x 2 + 1 ) dx
16 16
1 1 1 x 1 1 x
= ⋅− − ⋅ 4 tan −1 + c = − − tan −1 + c
16 x 256 4 16 x 64 4

1 1 x 1 1 1 1 1 1 16
Let y = − − tan −1 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ ⋅ +0 = − ⋅
16 x 64 4 2 2
64 1 + x 4 2 256 16 + x 2
16 x 16 x
16
=
1
−
1
=
(16 + x )− x 2 2
=
16 + x 2 − x 2
=
16
=
1
16 x 2
(
16 16 + x 2
) 16 x (16 + x )
2 2
16 x 2
(16 + x ) 2
16 x 2
(16 + x ) 2 x + 16 x 2
4
1
Example 5.3-18: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 3 − 8 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 3 − 8 into (x − 2) x 2 + 2 x + 4 . ( )
1 1 A Bx + C
= = +
(x − 2) (x )
3 x − 2 x 2 + 2x + 4
x −8 2
+ 2x + 4
1
=
( )
A x 2 + 2 x + 4 + (Bx + C )(x − 2 )
(x − 2) (x 2 + 2 x + 4)
3
x −8
1 ( )
= A x 2 + 2 x + 4 + (Bx + C )(x − 2) = Ax 2 + 2 Ax + 4 A + Bx 2 − 2 Bx + Cx − 2C
1 = ( A + B )x 2 + (2 A − 2 B + C )x + (4 A − 2C ) therefore,
A+ B = 0 2 A − 2B + C = 0 4 A − 2C = 1
1 1 1
which result in having A = , B=− , and C = −
12 12 3
1 x−1
− 12
1 A Bx + C 1 1 1 1 1 x+4
∫ x3 − 8 ∫ ∫ x 2 + 2x + 4 ∫ ∫ x 2 + 2 x + 4 dx = 12 ∫ x − 2 dx − 12 ∫ x 2 + 2 x + 4 dx
3
dx = dx + dx = dx +
x−2 12 x−2
du du
sections. To solve the second integral let u = x 2 + 2 x + 4 , then = 2x + 2 and dx = . Also,
dx 2x + 2
1
x+4 can be rewritten as x + 4 = (x + 1) + 3 = (2 x + 2) + 3 . Therefore,
2

1 1 1 x+4 1 1 1 (x + 1) + 3 1 1 1
1 (2 x + 2) + 3
∫ ∫ x 2 + 2x + 4 ∫ ∫ x 2 + 2x + 4 ∫ ∫
2
dx − dx = dx − dx = dx − dx
12 x−2 12 12 x−2 12 12 x−2 12 x 2 + 2x + 4
1 1 1 2x + 2 1 3 1 1 1 2 x + 2 du 3 1
=
12 ∫ x − 2 dx − 24 ∫ x 2 + 2 x + 4 dx − 12 ∫ x 2 + 2 x + 4 dx = 12 ∫ x − 2 dx − 24 ∫ u
⋅ −
2 x + 2 12 ∫ (x + 1)2 + 3 dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x +1
=
12 ∫ x − 2 dx − 24 ∫ u du − 4 ∫ (x + 1)2 + 3 dx = 12 ln x−2 −
24
ln u −
4 3
tan −1
3
+c
1 1 3 x +1 1 1 3 x +1
= ln x − 2 − ln x 2 + 2 x + 4 − tan −1 +c = ln x − 2 − ln x 2 + 2 x + 4 − tan −1 +c
12 24 4⋅3 3 12 24 12 3
1 1 3 x +1
Let y = ln x − 2 − ln x 2 + 2 x + 4 − tan −1 +c , then
12 24 12 3
y′ =
1
⋅
1 1
− ⋅
1
⋅ (2 x + 2 ) −
3
⋅
1
⋅
(1⋅ 3 )− 0 ⋅ (x + 1) + 0 = 1 − x + 1
( 3 )2 12(x 2 + 2 x + 4 )
12 x − 2 24 x 2 + 2 x + 4 12 2 12(x − 2 )
1 +  x +1 
 3
3 3 3 1 x +1 3 1 −x −1− 3
− ⋅ ⋅ = − − = +
12 3 + (x + 1) 2 3 12(x − 2 )
(
12 x 2 + 2 x + 4 ) (
12 x 2 + 2 x + 4 ) 12(x − 2 )
(
12 x 2 + 2 x + 4 )
=
1
+
−x − 4
=
(x 2
)
+ 2 x + 4 + (− x − 4 )(x − 2 )
=
x 2 + 2x + 4 − x 2 + 2x − 4x + 8
12(x − 2 )
(
12 x 2 + 2 x + 4 ) 12(x − 2 ) (x 2
+ 2x + 4 ) (
12(x − 2 ) x 2 + 2 x + 4 )
4+8 12 1 1
= = = =
(
12(x − 2 ) x 2 + 2 x + 4 ) (
12(x − 2 ) x 2 + 2 x + 4 ) 3 2
x + 2x + 4x − 2x − 4x − 8 2
x −83
1
Example 5.3-19: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 3 + 8 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 3 + 8 into (x + 2) x 2 − 2 x + 4 . ( )
1 1 A Bx + C
= = +
(x + 2) (x )
3 x + 2 x 2 − 2x + 4
x +8 2
− 2x + 4
1
=
( )
A x 2 − 2 x + 4 + (Bx + C )(x + 2)
(x + 2) (x 2 − 2 x + 4)
3
x +8

( )
1 = A x 2 − 2 x + 4 + (Bx + C )(x + 2 ) = Ax 2 − 2 Ax + 4 A + Bx 2 + 2 Bx + Cx + 2C
1 = ( A + B )x 2 + (− 2 A + 2 B + C )x + (4 A + 2C ) therefore,
A+ B = 0 −2 A + 2 B + C = 0 4 A + 2C = 1
1 1 1
12 12 3
1 x+ 1
− 12
1 A Bx + C 1 1 1 1 1 x−4
∫ x 3 + 8 dx = ∫ ∫ x 2 − 2 x + 4 dx = ∫ ∫ x 2 − 2 x + 4 dx = 12 ∫ x + 2 dx − 12 ∫ x 2 − 2 x + 4 dx
3
dx + dx +
x+2 12 x+2
du du
sections. To solve the second integral let u = x 2 − 2 x + 4 , then = 2x − 2 and dx = . Also,
dx 2x − 2
1
x−4 can be rewritten as x − 4 = (x − 1) − 3 = (2 x − 2) − 3 . Therefore,
2
1 1 1 x−4 1 1 1 (x − 1) − 3 1 1 1
1 (2 x − 2) − 3
∫ ∫ x 2 − 2x + 4 ∫ ∫ x 2 − 2x + 4 ∫ ∫
2
dx − dx = dx − dx = dx − dx
12 x+2 12 12 x+2 12 12 x+2 12 x 2 − 2x + 4
1 1 1 2x − 2 1 3 1 1 1 2 x − 2 du 3 1
=
12 ∫ x + 2 dx − 24 ∫ x 2 − 2 x + 4 dx + 12 ∫ x 2 − 2 x + 4 dx = 12 ∫ x + 2 dx − 24 ∫ u
⋅ +
2 x + 2 12 ∫ (x − 1)2 + 3 dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x −1
=
12 ∫ x + 2 dx − 24 ∫ u du + 4 ∫ (x − 1)2 + 3 dx = 12 ln x+2 −
24
ln u +
4 3
tan −1
3
+c
1 1 3 x −1 1 1 3 x −1
= ln x + 2 − ln x 2 − 2 x + 4 + tan −1 +c = ln x + 2 − ln x 2 − 2 x + 4 + tan −1 +c
12 24 4⋅3 3 12 24 12 3
1 1 3 x −1
Let y = ln x + 2 − ln x 2 − 2 x + 4 + tan −1 +c , then
12 24 12 3
y′ =
1
⋅
1 1
− ⋅
1
⋅ (2 x − 2 ) +
3
⋅
1
⋅
(1⋅ 3 )− 0 ⋅ (x − 1) + 0 = 1 − x − 1
( 3 )2 12(x 2 − 2 x + 4 )
12 x + 2 24 x 2 − 2 x + 4 12 2 12(x + 2 )
1 +  x −1 
 3
3 3 3 1 x −1 3 1 −x +1+ 3
+ ⋅ ⋅ = − + = +
12 3 + (x − 1) 2 3 12(x + 2 )
(
12 x 2 − 2 x + 4 ) (
12 x 2 − 2 x + 4 ) 12(x + 2 )
(
12 x 2 − 2 x + 4 )
=
1
+
−x + 4
=
(x 2
)
− 2 x + 4 + (− x + 4 )(x + 2 )
=
x 2 − 2x + 4 − x 2 − 2x + 4x + 8
12(x + 2 )
(
12 x 2 − 2 x + 4 ) 12(x + 2 ) (x 2
− 2x + 4 ) (
12(x + 2 ) x 2 − 2 x + 4 )

4+8 12 1 1
= = = =
(
12(x + 2 ) x 2 − 2 x + 4 ) (
12(x + 2 ) x 2 − 2 x + 4 ) 3 2
x − 2x + 4x + 2x − 4x + 8 2 3
x +8
x2
Example 5.3-20: Evaluate the integral ∫ 16 − x 4 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator 16 − x 4 into 4 − x 2 4 + x 2 = (2 − x )(2 + x ) 4 + x 2 .( )( ) ( )
x2 x2 A B Cx + D
= = + +
(2 − x )(2 + x ) (4 + x 2 ) 2 − x 2 + x 4 + x2
4
16 − x
x2
=
( ) (
A(2 + x ) 4 − x 2 + B(2 − x ) 4 − x 2 + (2 − x )(2 + x )(Cx + D ) )
(2 − x )(2 + x ) (4 + x 2 )
4
16 − x
x2 ( ) (
= A(2 + x ) 4 + x 2 + B(2 − x ) 4 + x 2 + (2 − x )(2 + x )(Cx + D ) )
x2 = 8 A + 2 Ax 2 + 4 Ax + Ax 3 + 8B + 2 Bx 2 − 4 Bx − Bx 3 + 4Cx + 4 D − Cx 3 − Dx 2
x2 = ( A − B − C )x 3 + (2 A + 2 B − D )x 2 + (4 A − 4 B + 4C )x + (8 A + 8B + 4 D ) therefore,
A− B −C = 0 2 A + 2B − D = 1 4 A − 4 B + 4C = 0 8 A + 8B + 4 D = 0
1 1 1
which result in having A = , B = , C = 0 , and D = −
8 8 2
x2 A B Cx + D 1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ 16 − x 4 dx = ∫ 2 − x dx + ∫ 2 + x dx + ∫ 4 + x 2 dx = 8 ∫ 2 − x dx + 8 ∫ 2 + x dx − 2 ∫ 4 + x 2 dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8 ∫ 2 − x dx + 8 ∫ 2 + x dx − 2 ∫ 4 + x 2 dx = 8 ∫ 2 − x dx + 8 ∫ 2 + x dx − 2 ∫ 2 2 + x 2 dx
1 1 1 1 x 1 1 1 x
= ln 2 − x + ln 2 + x − ⋅ tan −1 + c = ln 2 − x + ln 2 + x − tan −1 + c
8 8 2 2 2 8 8 4 2

1 1 1 x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Let y = ln 2 − x + ln 2 + x − tan −1 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ + ⋅ − ⋅ 2
⋅ +0
8 8 4 2 8 2 − x 8 2 + x 4 1+ x 2
4
=
1
+
1
−
4
=
(2 + x ) (4 + x 2 )+ (2 − x ) (4 + x 2 )− 4(2 − x )(2 + x ) = 8 + 2x 2 + 4x + x 3 + 8
8(2 − x ) 8(2 + x )
(
8 4 + x2 ) 8(2 − x )(2 + x ) (4 + x 2 ) ( )(
8 4 − x2 4 + x2 )
+
2 x 2 − 4 x − x 3 − 16 + 4 x 2
=
(2 x 2
)
+ 2 x 2 + 4 x 2 + (8 + 8 − 16 )
=
8x 2
=
x2
( )(
8 4 − x2 4 + x2 ) (
8 16 − x 4 ) (
8 16 − x 4 ) 16 − x 4
5
Second - Factor the denominator x 4 − 1 into x 2 − 1 x 2 + 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1) x 2 + 1 . ( )( ) ( )
5 5 A B Cx + D
= = + +
(x − 1)(x + 1) (x )
4 x −1 x +1 x 2 +1
x −1 2
+1
5
=
( ) (
A(x + 1) x 2 + 1 + B(x − 1) x 2 + 1 + (x − 1)(x + 1)(Cx + D ) )
(x − 1)(x + 1) (x )
4
x −1 2
+1
5 ( ) (
= A(x + 1) x 2 + 1 + B(x − 1) x 2 + 1 + (x − 1)(x + 1)(Cx + D ) )
5 = Ax 3 + Ax 2 + Ax + A + Bx 3 − Bx 2 + Bx − B + Cx 3 + Dx 2 − Cx − D
5 = ( A + B + C )x 3 + ( A − B + D )x 2 + ( A + B − C )x + ( A − B − D ) therefore,
A+ B +C = 0 A− B + D = 0 A+ B −C = 0 A− B − D = 5
5 5 5
which result in having A = , B = − , C = 0 , and D = −
4 4 2
5 A B Cx + D 5 1 5 1 5 1
∫ x 4 − 1 dx = ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ x + 1 dx + ∫ 2
x +1
dx =
4 ∫ x − 1 dx − 4 ∫ x + 1 dx − 2 ∫ x 2 + 1 dx

5 1 5 1 5 1 5 5 5
4 ∫ x − 1 dx − 4 ∫ x + 1 dx − 2 ∫ x 2 + 1 dx =
4
ln x − 1 − ln x + 1 − tan −1 x + c
4 2
5 5 5 5 1 5 1 5 1
Let y = ln x − 1 − ln x + 1 − tan −1 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ − ⋅ − ⋅
2
⋅1 + 0
4 4 2 4 x −1 4 x +1 2 x +1
=
5
−
5
−
5
=
( ) (
5(x + 1) x 2 + 1 − 5(x − 1) x 2 + 1 − 10(x − 1)(x + 1)) =
5x 3 + 5x 2 + 5x + 5 − 5x 3
4(x − 1) 4(x + 1)
(
2 x 2 +1 ) 4(x − 1)(x + 1) x 2 + 1( ) ( )(
4 x 2 −1 4 + x 2 )
+ 5 x 2 − 5 x + 5 − 10 x 2 + 10 20 5
= =
( )(
4 x 2 −1 4 + x 2 ) (
4 x 4 −1 ) 4
x −1
1
Second - Factor the denominator x 3 − 64 into (x − 4) x 2 + 4 x + 16 . ( )
1 1 A Bx + C
= = +
(x − 4) (x 2 + 4 x + 16)
3 x − 4 x 2 + 4 x + 16
x − 64
1
=
( )
A x 2 + 4 x + 16 + (Bx + C )(x − 4 )
(x − 4) (x 2 + 4 x + 16)
3
x − 64
( )
1 = A x 2 + 4 x + 16 + (Bx + C )(x − 4 ) = Ax 2 + 4 Ax + 16 A + Bx 2 − 4 Bx + Cx − 4C
1 = ( A + B )x 2 + (4 A − 4 B + C )x + (16 A − 4C ) therefore,
A+ B = 0 4 A − 4B + C = 0 16 A − 4C = 1
1 1 1
which result in having A = , B=− , and C = −
48 48 6
1 x− 1
− 48
1 A Bx + C 1 1 1 1 1 x +8
∫ x 3 − 64 dx = ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ x 2 + 4 x + 16 dx = ∫ x − 4 dx − 48 ∫ x 2 + 4 x + 16 dx
6
dx + dx = dx +
x−4 2 48 x−4 48
x + 4 x + 16

du du
sections. To solve the second integral let u = x 2 + 4 x + 16 , then = 2x + 4 and dx = .
dx 2x + 4
1
Also, x + 8 can be rewritten as x + 8 = (x + 2) + 6 = (2 x + 4) + 6 . Therefore,
2
1 1 1 x +8 1 1 1 (x + 2 ) + 6 1 1 1
1 (2 x + 4) + 6
∫ ∫ x 2 + 4 x + 16 ∫ ∫ x 2 + 4 x + 16 ∫ ∫ x 2 + 4 x + 16 dx
2
dx − dx = dx − dx = dx −
48 x−4 48 48 x−4 48 48 x−4 48
1 1 1 2x + 4 1 6 1 1 1 2 x + 4 du 6 1
=
48 ∫ x − 4 dx − 96 ∫ x 2 + 4 x + 16 dx − 48 ∫ x 2 + 4 x + 16 dx = 48 ∫ x − 4 dx − 96 ∫ u
⋅ −
2 x + 4 48 ∫ (x + 2)2 + 12 dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x+2
=
48 ∫ x − 4 dx − 96 ∫ u du − 8 ∫ (x + 2)2 + 12 dx =
48
ln x − 4 − ln u −
96 8 12
tan −1
12
+c
1 1 12 x+2 1 1 12 x+2
= ln x − 4 − ln x 2 + 4 x + 16 − tan −1 +c = ln x − 4 − ln x 2 + 4 x + 16 − tan −1 +c
48 96 8 ⋅12 12 48 96 96 12
1 1 12 x+2
Let y = ln x − 4 − ln x 2 + 4 x + 16 − tan −1 +c , then
48 96 96 12
y′ =
1
⋅
1 1
− ⋅
1
⋅ (2 x + 4 ) −
12
⋅
1
⋅
(1⋅ 12 )− 0 ⋅ (x + 2) + 0 = 1
−
x+2
48 x − 4 96 x 2 + 4 x + 16 96
1 +  x + 2 
2
( 12 )2 48(x − 4 )
( 2
48 x + 4 x + 16 )
 12 
12 12 12 1 x+2 6 1 −x − 2 − 6
− ⋅ ⋅ = − − = +
96 12 + (x + 2 ) 2 12 48(x − 4 )
(
48 x 2 + 4 x + 16 ) (
48 x 2 + 4 x + 16 ) 48(x − 4 )
(
48 x 2 + 4 x + 16 )
=
1
+
−x − 8
=
(x 2
)
+ 4 x + 16 + (− x − 8)(x − 4 )
=
x 2 + 4 x + 16 − x 2 + 4 x − 8 x + 32
48(x − 4 )
(
48 x 2 + 4 x + 16 ) 48(x − 4 ) (x 2
+ 4 x + 16 ) (
48(x − 4 ) x 2 + 4 x + 16 )
16 + 32 48 1 1
= = = =
(
48(x − 4 ) x 2 + 4 x + 16 ) (
48(x − 4 ) x 2 + 4 x + 16 ) 3 2
x + 4 x + 16 x − 4 x − 16 x − 64 2 3
x − 64

CASE IV - The Denominator Has Repeated Quadratic Factors

In this case each irreducible quadratic factor of the form ax 2 + bx + c appears n times in the
denominator. To solve this class of rational fractions we equate each proper rational fraction,
that appears n times in the denominator, with a sum of n partial fractions of the form
M 1 x + N1 M 2x + N2 M n x + Nn
+ + ... + . The following examples show the steps as to how
2
ax + bx + c ( ax 2
+ bx + c )
2
( ax 2
+ bx + c )
n
this class of integrals are solved.

x2
Example 5.3-23: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 4 + 2 x 2 + 1 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 4 + 2 x 2 + 1 into x 2 + 1 . ( )

2
Third - Write the factors in partial fraction form. Since the quadratic form in the denominator
is repeated, the integrand can be represented in the following way:
x2 x2 Ax + B Cx + D
= = +
4
x + 2x + 1 2
(x + 1)
2 2 2
x +1 (x + 1)
2 2
x2
=
( Ax + B ) (x 2 + 1)+ Cx + D
x 4 + 2x 2 + 1 (x + 1)
2 2
x2 ( )
= ( Ax + B ) x 2 + 1 + Cx + D = Ax 3 + Ax + Bx 2 + B + Cx + D
x2 = Ax 3 + Bx 2 + ( A + C )x + (B + D ) therefore,
A=0 B =1 A+C = 0 B+D =0
which result in having A = 0 , B = 1 , C = 0 , and D = −1

x2 Ax + B Cx + D 0 +1 0 −1 1 1
∫ x 4 + 2 x 2 + 1 dx = ∫ x 2 + 1 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 1)2 dx = ∫ x 2 + 1 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 1)2 dx = ∫ x 2 + 1 dx − ∫ (x 2 + 1)2 dx
dx
sections. To solve the second integral let x = tan t , then = sec 2 t which implies dx = sec 2 t dt .
dt

1 1 sec 2 t sec 2 t sec 2 t

∫ x 2 + 1 dx − ∫ (x 2 + 1)2 dx = arc tan x − ∫ (tan 2 t + 1)2 dt = arc tan x − ∫
(sec t ) 2 2
dt = arc tan x − ∫
sec 4 t
dt
1 1 1 1
= arc tan x − ∫ 2
dt = arc tan x − ∫ cos 2 t dt = tan −1 x − ∫ ( 1 + cos 2t ) dt = tan −1 x −  t + sin 2t  + c
sec t 2 2 2 
1 1 1 x 1 1 x
= tan −1 x − ( t + sin t cos t ) + c = tan −1 x − tan −1 x − ⋅ ⋅ +c = tan −1 x − +c
2 2 2 1+ x 2 1+ x 2 2 2 x2 + 1( )
Or, we could use the already derived integration formulas by using Tables 5.2-1 and 5.4-3.
Note – Since the objective of this section is to teach the process for solving integrals using the
Partial Fractions method, in the remaining example problems, we will use the already derived
integration formulas summarized primarily in Tables 5.2-1 and 5.4-3 in order to solve this
class of problems.
1
Let y = tan −1 x −
x
+ c , then y ′ =
1
⋅
1 1 1⋅ x 2 + 1 − 2 x ⋅ x
− ⋅ +0 =
( 1 ) −
x 2 − 2x 2 + 1
2
(
2 x 2 +1 ) 2
2 x +1 2
x 2 +1
2
(
2 x 2 +1 ) ( ) (
2 x 2 +1
2
)
1 − x 2 +1 x 2 +1+ x 2 −1 2x 2 x2 x2
= − = = = =
(
2 x 2 +1 ) (
2 x 2 +1
2
) (
2 x 2 +1
2
) (
2 x 2 +1
2
) (x + 1)
2 2
x 4 + 2x 2 + 1
x 2 +1
Example 5.3-24: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 4 + 8x 2 + 16 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 4 + 8 x 2 + 16 into x 2 + 4 . ( ) 2
x 2 +1 x 2 +1 Ax + B Cx + D
= = +
4
x + 8 x + 16 2
(x 2
+4 ) 2
x +4 2
(x 2
+4 )2
x 2 +1
=
( Ax + B ) (x 2 + 4)+ Cx + D
x 4 + 8 x 2 + 16 (x 2
+4 )
2
x 2 +1 ( )
= ( Ax + B ) x 2 + 4 + Cx + D = Ax 3 + 4 Ax + Bx 2 + 4 B + Cx + D
x 2 +1 = Ax 3 + Bx 2 + (4 A + C )x + (4 B + D ) therefore,
A=0 B =1 4A + C = 0 4B + D = 1


x 2 +1 Ax + B Cx + D 0 +1 0−3 1 3
∫ x 4 + 8x 2 + 16 dx = ∫ x 2 + 4 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx = ∫ x 2 + 4 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx = ∫ x 2 + 4 dx − ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx
Sixth - Integrate each integral individually by using Tables 5.2-1 and 5.4-3.
1 3 1 x 3 x 3x 5 x 3x
∫ x 2 + 4 dx − ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx =
2
tan −1 − tan −1 −
2 16 2
(
8 x2 + 4 )
+c =
16
tan −1 −
2
(
8 x2 + 4 )
+c
Let y =
5 x
tan −1 −
3x
+ c , then y ′ =
5
⋅
1 1 3 1⋅ x 2 + 4 − 2 x ⋅ x
⋅ − ⋅
(
+0
)
16 2
(
8 x2 + 4 ) 16 ()
x 2
2
+1 2 8 x2 + 4
2
( )
5 3 x 2 − 2x 2 + 4 5 3 − x2 + 4 5 x 2 + 20 + 3 x 2 − 12 x 2 +1 x 2 +1
= − ⋅ = − ⋅ = = =
(
8 x2 + 4 ) 8
(
x2 + 4
2
) (
8 x2 + 4 ) 8
x2 + 4
2
( ) (
8 x2 + 4 ) 2
(x 2
+4 )
2
x 4 + 8 x 2 + 16
1
Example 5.3-25: Evaluate the integral ∫ x4 + 10 x2 + 25 dx .
integrand is a rational fraction use synthetic division (long division) to reduce the rational
fraction to the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational fraction.
Second - Factor the denominator x 4 + 10 x 2 + 25 into x 2 + 5 . ( )

2
1 1 Ax + B Cx + D
= = +
4
x + 10 x + 252
(x 2
+5 )
2
x +52
(x 2
+5 )
2
1
=
( Ax + B ) (x 2 + 5)+ Cx + D
x 4 + 10 x 2 + 25 (x 2
+5 )
2
( )
1 = ( Ax + B ) x 2 + 5 + Cx + D = Ax 3 + 5 Ax + Bx 2 + 5 B + Cx + D
1 = Ax 3 + Bx 2 + (5 A + C )x + (5B + D ) therefore,
A=0 B=0 5A + C = 0 5B + D = 1
which result in having A = 0 , B = 0 , C = 0 , and D = 1



1 Ax + B Cx + D 0+0 0 +1 1
∫ x4 + 10 x2 + 25 dx = ∫ x 2 + 5 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 5)2 dx = ∫ x 2 + 5 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 5)2 dx = ∫ (x 2 + 5)2 dx
1 1 x x
∫ (x 2 + 5)2 dx = 10 5
tan −1
5
+
10 (x 2
+ 5)
+c
Let y =
1
tan −1
x
+
x
+ c , then y ′ =
1
⋅
1
⋅
1
+
( )
1⋅ x 2 + 5 − 2 x ⋅ x
+0
10 5 5 ( 2
10 x + 5 ) 10 5  x 
  +1
2
5 (
10 x + 5 2
)
2
 5
5 1 x 2 − 2x 2 + 5 1 − x2 + 5 x2 + 5− x2 + 5 1 1
= + ⋅ = + = = =
( 2
50 x + 5 ) 10
(
x2 + 5
2
) (
10 x + 5 2
) (
10 x + 5 2
)
2
(
10 x + 5 2
) 2
(x 2
+5 )
2
x + 10 x 2 + 25
4
x3
Example 5.3-26: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 4 + 4 x 2 + 4 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 4 + 4 x 2 + 4 into x 2 + 2 . ( )2
x3 x3 Ax + B Cx + D
= = +
4
x + 4x + 4 2
(x 2
+2 )2
x +22
(x 2
+2 ) 2
x3
=
( Ax + B ) (x 2 + 2)+ Cx + D
x 4 + 4x 2 + 4 (x 2
+2 ) 2
x3 ( )
x3 = Ax 3 + Bx 2 + (2 A + C )x + (2 B + D ) therefore,
A =1 B=0 2A + C = 0 2B + D = 0
which result in having A = 1 , B = 0 , C = −2 , and D = 0


x3 Ax + B Cx + D x+0 −2 x + 0 x 2x
∫ x 4 + 4 x 2 + 4 dx = ∫ x 2 + 2 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 2)2 dx = ∫ x 2 + 2 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 2)2 dx = ∫ x 2 + 2 dx − ∫ (x 2 + 2)2 dx
x 2x x 1 x 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
∫ x 2 + 2 dx − ∫ (x 2 + 2)2 dx = ∫ u ⋅ 2 x du − 2∫ u 2 ⋅ 2 x du ∫ u du − 2 ∫ u 2 du = 2 ∫ u du − ∫ u
−2
= du
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= ln u − u − 2+1 + c = ln u + u −1 + c = ln u + + c = ln x 2 + 2 + +c
2 − 2 +1 2 2 u 2 2
x +2
1
Let y = ln x 2 + 2 +
1
+c , then y ′ =
1 2x
⋅ −
2x
+0 =
x
−
2x
=
(
x x 2 + 2 − 2x )
2 x +2 2 2 x2 + 2
(x 2
+2 ) 2
x +2 2
(x 2
+2 )
2
(x 2
+2 )
2
x 3 + 2x − 2x x3 x3
= = =
(x 2
+2 )
2
(x 2
+2 )
2
x 4 + 4x 2 + 4
2x 2 + x + 7
Example 5.3-27: Evaluate the integral ∫ x 4 + 8x 2 + 16 dx .
Second - Factor the denominator x 4 + 8 x 2 + 16 into x 2 + 4 . ( ) 2
2x 2 + x + 7 2x 2 + x + 7 Ax + B Cx + D
= = +
4
x + 8 x + 162
(x 2
+4 ) 2
x +4 2
(x 2
+4 )
2
2x 2 + x + 7
=
( Ax + B ) (x 2 + 4)+ Cx + D
x 4 + 8 x 2 + 16 (x 2
+4 )2
2x 2 + x + 7 ( )
2x 2 + x + 7 = Ax 3 + Bx 2 + (4 A + C )x + (4 B + D ) therefore,
A=0 B=2 4A + C = 1 4B + D = 7


2x 2 + x + 7 Ax + B Cx + D 0+2 x −1 2 x −1
∫ x 4 + 8x 2 + 16 dx = ∫ x 2 + 4 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx = ∫ x 2 + 4 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx = ∫ x 2 + 4 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx
2 x 1
= ∫ x 2 + 4 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx − ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx
2 x 1 1 x x 1 1 x x
∫ x 2 + 4 dx + ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx − ∫ (x 2 + 4)2 dx = 2 ⋅ tan −1 + ∫
2 2
⋅
u2 2x
du − tan −1 −
16 2 8 x2 + 4
+c
( )
1 x 1 1 1 x x x 1 1 x x
= 2 ⋅ tan −1 + ⋅ u − 2+1 − tan −1 − + c = tan −1 − − tan −1 − +c
2 2 2 − 2 +1 16 2
(
8 x +4 2
) 2 2u 16 2
( 2
8 x +4 )
x 1 1 x x 15 x −4 − x 15 x x+4
= tan −1 − − tan −1 − +c = tan −1 + +c = tan −1 − +c
2
(
2 x2 + 4 ) 16 2
(
8 x2 + 4 ) 16 2
(
8 x2 + 4 ) 16 2
(
8 x2 + 4 )
Let y =
15 x
tan −1 −
x+4
+ c , then y ′ =
15
⋅
1
⋅ −
( )
1 1 ⋅ x 2 + 4 − 2 x ⋅ (x + 4 )
+0
16 2
(
8 x2 + 4 ) 16 ()
x 2
2
+1 2 8 x2 + 4
2
( )
15 1 x 2 − 2 x 2 − 8x + 4 15 x 2 + 8x − 4 15 x 2 + 60 + x 2 + 8 x − 4 16 x 2 + 8 x + 56
= − ⋅ = + = =
( )
8 x2 + 4
8
( x2 + 4
2
) (
8 x2 + 4 ) (
8 x2 + 4 )
2
(
8 x2 + 4 )2
(
8 x2 + 4 )
2
8 (2 x + x + 7 )
2
2x 2
+ x+7 2x 2 + x + 7
= = =
8(x + 4 ) (x )
2
2 2
+4
2
x 4 + 8 x + 16
Section 5.3 Practice Problems – Integration by Partial Fractions
Evaluate the following integrals:

dx x 2 +1 1
a. ∫ x 2 + 5x + 6 = b. ∫ x 3 − 4 x dx = c. ∫ 36 − x 2 dx =
x+5 1 x2 + 3
d. ∫ x 3 + 2x 2 + x dx = e. ∫ x 3 − 2x 2 + x dx = f. ∫ x 2 − 1 dx =
1 1 1
g. ∫ x 3 − 1 dx = h. ∫ x4 − 1 dx = i. ∫ x 3 + 64 dx =

Calculus I 5.4 Integration of Hyperbolic Functions
5.4 Integration of Hyperbolic Functions

In the following examples we will solve problems using the formulas below:
Table 5.4-1: Integration Formulas for Hyperbolic Functions

1. ∫ sinh x dx = cosh x + c 2. ∫ cosh x dx = sinh x + c 3. ∫ tanh x dx = ln cosh x + c
4. ∫ coth x dx = ln sinh x + c 5. ∫ sec h x dx = sin
−1
(tanh x ) + c x
6. ∫ csc h x dx = ln tanh
2
+c
sinh 2 x x
7. ∫ tanh x sec h x dx = − sec h x + c 8. ∫ coth x csc h x dx = − csc h x + c 9. ∫ sinh
2
x dx =
4
− +c
2
sinh 2 x x
∫ tanh ∫ coth
2 2
11. x dx = x − tanh x + c 12. x dx = x − coth x + c
∫ cosh
2
10. x dx = + +c
4 2
∫ sec h ∫ csc h
2 2
13. x dx = tanh x + c 14. x dx = − coth x + c
Additionally, the following formulas, similar to the trigonometric functions, hold for the
hyperbolic functions:
1. Unit Formulas
cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 tanh h 2 x + sec h 2 x = 1 coth h 2 x − csc h 2 x = 1
2. Addition Formulas
sinh (x ± y ) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y cosh (x ± y ) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh h x sinh y
tanh x ± tanh y coth x coth y ± 1

tanh (x ± y ) = coth (x ± y ) =
1 ± tanh x tanh y coth y ± coth x
3. Half Angle Formulas

1 cosh x − 1 1 cosh x − 1
sinh x= x 0 sinh x=− x 0
2 2 2 2
1 cosh x + 1
cosh x=
2 2
1 cosh x − 1 1 cosh x − 1
tanh x= x 0 sinh x=− x 0 or,
2 cosh x + 1 2 cosh x + 1
1 sinh x cosh x − 1
tanh x = =
2 cosh x + 1 sinh x
4. Double Angle Formulas

sinh 2 x = 2 sinh x cosh x cosh 2 x = cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x = 2 cosh 2 x − 1 = 1+ 2 sinh 2 x
2 tanh x
tanh 2 x =
1 + tanh 2 x

Also, the hyperbolic functions are defined by
sinh x =
1 x
2
(
e − e −x ) cosh x =
2
(
1 x
e + e −x )
tanh x =
sinh x 2
=
1 (e x
− e −x ) =
e x − e −x
coth x =
cosh x 2
=
1 (e x
+ e −x ) =
e x + e −x
cosh x 1
2
(e x
+ e −x ) e x + e −x sinh x 1
2
(e x
− e −x ) e x − e −x
1 1 2 1 1 2
sec h x = = = csc h x = = =
cosh x 1
2
(e x
+e −x
) x
e +e −x sinh x 1
2
(e x
−e −x
) x
e − e −x
Also note that the negative argument of the hyperbolic functions is equal to the following:
sinh (− x ) = − sinh x tanh (− x ) = − tanh x coth (− x ) = − coth x
csc h (− x ) = − csc h x cosh (− x ) = cosh x sec h (− x ) = sec h x
Finally, we need to know how to differentiate the hyperbolic functions (addressed in Chapter 3,
Section 3.4) in order to check the answer to the given integrals below. The derivatives of
hyperbolic functions are repeated here and are as follows:
Table 5.4-2: Differentiation Formulas for Hyperbolic Functions

d du d du
sinh u = cosh u ⋅ coth u = − csc h 2 u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
cosh u = sinh u ⋅ sec h u = − sec h u tanh u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
tanh u = sec h 2 u ⋅ csc h u = − csc h u coth u ⋅
dx dx dx dx
Let’s integrate some hyperbolic functions using the above integration formulas.
Example 5.4-1: Evaluate the following integrals:

1
a. ∫ sinh 5x dx = b. ∫ sinh 6 x dx = c. ∫ cosh 7 x dx =
1
d. ∫ cosh 5 x dx = e. ∫ (sinh 4 x + cosh 2 x ) dx = f. ∫ csc h 8x dx =
1
∫ csc h ∫ csc h ∫x
2 2 2
g. 5 x dx = h. x dx = i. sec h 2 x 3 dx =
4
∫ x sec h (x + 5) dx = ∫x ∫ 2 x csc h
2 2 2
j. k. csc h 2 x 3 dx = l. 2 2
x dx =
Solutions:
du d du
a. Given ∫ sinh 5 x dx let u = 5 x , then = 5x = 5 which implies dx = . Therefore,
dx dx 5

du 1 1 1
∫ sinh 5x dx = ∫ sinh u ⋅ 5 =
5∫sinh u du =
5
cosh u + c =
5
cosh 5 x + c
1 1 d d 1 d 1
Check: Let y = cosh 5 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ sinh 5 x + c = ⋅ sinh 5 x ⋅ 5 x + 0 = ⋅ sinh 5 x ⋅ 5
5 5 dx dx 5 dx 5
5
= ⋅ sinh 5 x = sinh 5 x
5
x x du d x 1
b. Given ∫
sinh dx let u = , then
6 6
=
dx dx 6
=
6
x x
∫ sinh 6 dx = ∫ sinh u ⋅ 6 du = 6∫ sinh u du = 6 cosh u + c = 6 cosh
6
+c
x d x d x d x x 1
Check: Let y = 6 cosh + c , then y ′ = 6 ⋅ cosh + c = 6 ⋅ sinh ⋅ +0 = 6 ⋅ sinh ⋅
6 dx 6 dx 6 dx 6 6 6
6 x x
= ⋅ sinh = sinh
6 6 6
du d du
c. Given ∫ cosh 7 x dx let u = 7 x , then = 7x = 7 which implies dx = . Therefore,
dx dx 7
du 1 1 1
∫ cosh 7 x dx = ∫ cosh u ⋅ 7 =
7 ∫
cosh u du =
7
sinh u + c =
7
sinh 7 x + c
1 1 d d 1 d 1
Check: Let y = sinh 7 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ sinh 7 x + c = ⋅ cosh 7 x ⋅ 7x + 0 = ⋅ cosh 7 x ⋅ 7
7 7 dx dx 7 dx 7
7
= ⋅ cosh 7 x = cosh 7 x
7
x x du d x 1
d. Given ∫ cosh dx let u = , then
5 5
=
dx dx 5
=
5
x x
∫ cosh 5 dx = ∫ cosh u ⋅ 5 du = 5∫ cosh u du = 5 sinh u + c = 5 sinh
5
+c
x d x d x d x x 1
Check: Let y = 5 sinh + c , then y ′ = 5 ⋅ sinh + c = 5 ⋅ cosh ⋅ +0 = 5 ⋅ cosh ⋅
5 dx 5 dx 5 dx 5 5 5
5 x x
= ⋅ cosh = cosh
5 5 5
e. Given ∫ (sinh 4 x + cosh 2 x ) dx = ∫ sinh 4 x dx + ∫ cosh 2 x dx let:
du d du du
dx dx dx 4
dv d dv dv
b. v = 2 x , then = 2x ; = 2 ; dv = 2dx ; dx = .
dx dx dx 2
du dv 1 1
Therefore, ∫ sinh 4 x dx + ∫ cosh 2 x dx = ∫ sinh u ⋅ 4 + ∫ cosh v ⋅ 2 =
4 ∫
sinh u du +
2 ∫
cosh v dv

1 1 1 1 1 1
= cosh u + c1 + sinh v + c 2 = cosh 4 x + sinh 2 x + c1 + c 2 = cosh 4 x + sinh 2 x + c
4 2 4 2 4 2
1 1 1 d 1 d d 1 d
Check: Let y = cosh 4 x + sinh 2 x + c then y ′ = ⋅ cosh 4 x + ⋅ sinh 2 x + c = ⋅ sinh 4 x ⋅ 4x
4 2 4 dx 2 dx dx 4 dx
1 d 4 2
+ ⋅ cosh 2 x ⋅ 2 x + 0 = ⋅ sinh 4 x + ⋅ cosh 2 x = sinh 4 x + cosh 2 x
2 dx 4 2
du d du
f. Given ∫ csc h 8 x dx let u = 8 x , then =
dx dx
8
. Therefore,
du 1 1 u 1 8x 1
∫ csc h 8x dx = ∫ csc h u ⋅ 8 =
8 ∫
csc h u du =
8
ln tanh
2
+c =
8
ln tanh
2
+c =
8
ln tanh 4 x + c
1 1 d d 1 1 d
Check: Let y = ln tanh 4 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ln tanh 4 x + c = ⋅ ⋅ (tanh 4 x ) + 0
8 8 dx dx 8 tanh 4 x dx
2
1 − sinh 2 4 x
=
1
⋅
1
8 tanh 4 x
(
⋅ sec h 2 4 x ⋅ 4 + 0 ) =
1 4 sec h 2 4 x
⋅
8 tanh 4 x
=
1 sec h 2 4 x
⋅
2 tanh 4 x
=
1 1 − tanh 2 4 x
2
⋅
tanh 4 x
=
1
2
⋅ cosh 4 x
sinh 4 x
cosh 4 x
cosh 2 4 x − sinh 2 4 x 1
1 cosh 2 4 x 1 cosh 2 4 x 1 cosh 4 x 1 1
= ⋅
sinh 4 x
= ⋅
sinh 4 x
= ⋅ = =
2 2 2 cosh 2 4 x ⋅ sinh 4 x 2 cosh 4 x ⋅ sinh 4 x sinh 2 ⋅ 4 x
cosh 4 x cosh 4 x
1
= = csc h 8 x
sinh 8 x
du d du du
g. Given ∫ csc h 2 5 x dx let u = 5 x , then = 5x ; = 5 ; du = 5dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 5
du 1 1 1
∫ csc h ∫ csc h ∫
2 2
5 x dx = u⋅ = csc h 2 u du = − coth u + c = − coth 5 x + c
5 5 5 5
1
Check: Let y = − coth 5 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅
5
1 d
5 dx
(coth 5 x )⋅ d 5 x + d c
dx dx
1
( )
= − ⋅ − csc h 2 5 x ⋅ 5 + 0
5
5
= ⋅ csc h 2 5 x = csc h 2 5 x
5
1 1 du d x du 1
h. Given ∫ csc h 2 x dx let u = x ,
4 4
then = ; =
dx dx 4 dx 4
1 1
∫ csc h ∫ csc h = 4∫ csc h 2 u du = − 4 coth u + c = − 4 coth x + c
2 2
x dx = u ⋅ 4du
4 4
x d x d x d x x 1
Check: Let y = −4 coth + c , then y ′ = − 4 ⋅ coth + c = − 4 ⋅ − csc h 2 ⋅ +0 = 4 csc h 2 ⋅
4 dx 4 dx 4 dx 2 4 4
4 x x 1
= csc h 2 = csc h 2 = csc h 2 x
4 4 4 4
du d 3 du du
∫x
2
i. Given sec h 2 x 3 dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2

du 1 1 1
tanh x 3 + c
∫x ∫x ∫
2
sec h 2 x 3 dx = 2
sec h 2 u ⋅ = sec h 2 u du = tanh u + c =
3x 2/ 3 3 3
1 1 d d 1 d 3 1
Check: Let y = tanh x 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ tanh x 3 + c = ⋅ sec h 2 x 3 ⋅ x +0 = ⋅ sec h 2 x 3 ⋅ 3 x 2
3 3 dx dx 3 dx 3
3x 2
= ⋅ sec h 2 x 3 = x 2 sec h 2 x 3
3
∫ x sec h (x + 5) dx let u = x + 5 , then ( ) ; dudx = 2 x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = du2 x . Therefore,

2 2 2 du d 2
j. Given = x +5
dx dx
∫ x sec h (x + 5) dx
2 2
= ∫ x sec h
2
u⋅
du
2x
=
1
2 ∫
sec h 2 u du =
1
2
tanh u + c =
1
2
(
tanh x 2 + 5 + c )
1
Check: Let y = tanh x 2 + 5 + c , then y ′ =
2
( ) 1 d
⋅ tanh x 2 + 5 +
2 dx
d
dx
(c ) =
1
2
(
⋅ sec h 2 x 2 + 5 ⋅
d
dx
) (
x2 + 5 + 0 )
=
1
2
(
⋅ sec h 2 x 2 + 5 ⋅ 2 x ) 2x
=
2
(
⋅ sec h 2 x 2 + 5 = x sec h 2 x 2 + 5 ) ( )
du d 3 du du
∫x
2
k. Given csc h 2 x 3 dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
du 1 1 1
∫x
2
csc h 2 x 3 dx = ∫x
2
csc h 2 u ⋅ = ∫
csc h 2 u du = − coth u + c = − coth x 3 + c
3x 2 3 3 3
1 1 d d 1 d 3
Check: Let y = − coth x 3 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ coth x 3 + c = − ⋅ − csc h 2 x 3 ⋅ x +0
3 3 dx dx 3 dx
1 3x 2
= ⋅ csc h 2 x 3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = ⋅ csc h 2 x 3 = x 2 csc h 2 x 3
3 3
du d 2 du du
l. Given ∫ 2 x csc h 2 x 2 dx let u = x 2 , then = x ; = 2 x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2x
du
∫ 2 x csc h
2 2
x dx = ∫ 2 x csc h
2
u⋅ = ∫ csc h
2
u du = − coth u + c = − coth x 2 + c
2x
d d d 2
Check: Let y = − coth x 2 + c , then y ′ = − coth x 2 + c = csc h 2 x 2 ⋅ x +0 = csc h 2 x 2 ⋅ 2 x
dx dx dx
= 2 x csc h2 x 2
∫ sec h ∫x ∫ x csc h x
2 2
a. 5 x dx = b. sinh x 3 dx = c. 2
dx =
d. ∫ sinh
5
(x + 1) cosh (x + 1) dx = e. ∫ cosh
5
x sinh x dx = f. ∫ cosh
5
5 x sinh 5 x dx =
x x e 2x
∫ cosh ∫x ∫
4 2
g. sinh dx = h. cosh x 3 dx = i. sec h e 2 x dx =
2 2 3
j. ∫ sec h
2
(5 x − 1) dx = k. ∫ csc h 7 x coth 7 x dx = l. ∫ tanh
2
10 x dx =
x x
∫ cosh ∫ sinh ∫ 2 sinh x dx =
3 3
m. dx = n. x dx = o.
5

Solutions:
du d du du
a. Given ∫ sec h 2 5 x dx let u = 5 x , then = 5x ; = 5 ; du = 5 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 5
du 1 1 1
∫ sec h ∫ sec h ∫
2 2
5 x dx = u⋅ = sec h 2 u du = tanh u + c = tanh 5 x + c
5 5 5 5
1 1 d d 1 5
Check: Let y = tanh 5 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ tanh 5 x + c = sec h 2 5 x ⋅ 5 + 0 = sec h 2 5 x = sec h 2 5 x
5 5 dx dx 5 5
du d 3 du
∫x
2
b. Given sinh x 3 dx let u = x 3 , then = x = 3x 2 which implies du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = .
dx dx 3x 2
Thus,
du 1 1 1
cosh x 3 + c
∫x ∫x ∫
2
sinh x 3 dx = 2
sinh u ⋅ = sinh u du = cosh u + c =
3x 2 3 3 3
1 1 d d 1 d 1
Check: Let y = cosh x 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ cosh x 3 + c = ⋅ sinh x 3 ⋅ x 3 + 0 = ⋅ sinh x3 ⋅ 3x 2
3 3 dx dx 3 dx 3
2
3x
= ⋅ sinh x3 = x 2 sinh x3
3
du d 2 du du
∫ x csc h x
2
c. Given dx let u = x 2 , then = x ; = 2 x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2x
du 1 1 u 1 x2
∫ x csc h x 2 dx = ∫ x csc h u ⋅
2x
=
2 ∫ csc h u du =
2
ln tanh
2
+c =
2
ln tanh
2
+c
1 x2 1 d x2 d 1 1 d x2
Check: Let y = ln tanh + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ln tanh + c = ⋅ ⋅ tanh +0
2 2 2 dx 2 dx 2 tanh x2 dx 2
2
2
sinh 2 x
2
2 2 1− 2
2 x 2 x
1 1 2
d x2 1 sec h 2 2 x x 1 − tanh 2 cosh 2 x
2 x x
= ⋅ 2
⋅ sec h ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ 2
2 tanh x 2 dx 2 2 tanh x 2 2 2 tanh x
2 2 sinh x2
2 2 2 2
2
cosh x
2
2 2
cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x
2 2 1
x2
cosh 2 x
2
cosh 2 x
2 cosh
x x x 2 x x
= ⋅ 2
= ⋅ 2
= ⋅
2 2
= 2 2
=
2 x2 2 x2 2 x x x x
2
sinh
2
sinh
2 cosh 2 ⋅ sinh 2 cosh ⋅ sinh sinh 2 ⋅ x2
x2 x2 2 2 2 2
cosh cosh
2 2
x
= 2
= x csc h x 2
sinh x
du d du
d. Given ∫ sinh 5 (x + 1) cosh (x + 1) dx let u = sinh (x + 1) , then = sinh (x + 1) ; = cosh (x + 1) ;
dx dx dx
du
du = cosh (x + 1) ⋅ dx ; dx = . Therefore,
cosh (x + 1)

du 1 6 1
(x + 1) cosh (x + 1) dx = cosh (x + 1) ⋅ sinh 6 ( x + 1) + c
∫ sinh ∫u ∫u
5 5 5
= du = u +c =
cosh (x + 1) 6 6
1 1
Check: Let y = sinh 6 (x + 1) + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 6 sinh 5 (x + 1) ⋅ cosh (x + 1) + 0 = sinh 5 (x + 1) cosh (x + 1)
6 6
du d du du
e. Given ∫ cosh 5 x sinh x dx let u = cosh x , then = cosh x ; = sinh x ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx sinh x
du 1 6 1
cosh 6 x + c
∫ cosh ∫u ∫u
5 5 5
x sinh x dx = sinh x ⋅ = du = u +c =
sinh x 6 6
1 1 6
Check: Let y = cosh 6 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 6 cosh 5 x ⋅ sinh x + 0 = cosh 5 x sinh x = cosh 5 x sinh x
6 6 6
du d du du
f. Given ∫ cosh 5 5 x sinh 5 x dx let u = cosh 5 x , then = cosh 5 x ; = 5 sinh 5 x ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx 5 sinh 5 x
du 1 1 1 6 1
cosh 6 5 x + c
∫ cosh ∫u ∫
5 5
5 x sin 5 5 x dx = sinh 5 x ⋅ = u 5 du = ⋅ u +c =
5 sinh 5 x 5 5 6 30
1 6 cosh 5 5 x ⋅ 5 sinh 5 x 30
Check: Let y = cosh 6 5 x + c , then y ′ = +0 = cosh 5 5 x sinh 5 x = cosh 5 hx sinh 5 x
30 30 30
x x x du d x du 1 x 2du
g. Given ∫ cosh 4 sinh dx let u = cosh , then = cosh ; = sinh ; dx = x
. Therefore,
2 2 2 dx dx 2 dx 2 2 sin 2
x x x 2 du 2 5 2 x
cosh 5 + c
∫ cosh ∫u = 2∫ u 4 du =
4 4
sinh dx = sinh ⋅ u +c =
2 2 2 sinh x 5 5 2
2
2 x 2 x x 1 10 x x x x
Check: Let y = cosh 5 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 5 cosh 4 ⋅ sinh ⋅ + 0 = cosh 4 sin = cosh 4 sinh
5 2 5 2 2 2 10 2 2 2 2
du d 3 du du
∫x
2
h. Given cosh x 3 dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3 x 2 ⋅ dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
du 1 1 1
sinh x 3 + c
∫x ∫x ∫
2
cosh x 3 dx = 2
cosh u ⋅ = cosh u du = ⋅ sinh u + c =
3x 2 3 3 3
1 1 3 2
Check: Let y = sinh x 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ cosh x 3 ⋅ 3 x 2 + c = x cosh x 3 + 0 = x 2 cosh x 3
3 3 3
e 2x du d 2 x du du
i. Given ∫ 3
sec h e 2 x dx let u = e 2 x , then =
dx dx
e ;
dx
= 2e 2 x ; du = 2e 2 x ⋅ dx ; dx =
2e 2 x
. Thus,
∫
e 2x
sec h e 2 x dx =
1 2x
∫
e sec h u ⋅
du
=
1
∫
sec h u du =
1
sin −1 (tanh u ) + c =
1
6
(
sin −1 tanh e 2 x + c )
3 3 2e 2 x 6 6
1
6
(
Check: Let y = sin −1 tanh e 2 x + c , then y ′ = ) 1
2 2x
⋅
d
dx
tanh e 2 x + 0 =
sec h 2 e 2 x
2 2x
⋅
d 2x
dx
e
6 1 − tanh e 6 sec h e

sec h 2 e 2 x 2e 2 x sec h 2 e 2 x e 2x
= ⋅ 2e 2 x = ⋅ = ⋅ sec h e 2 x
6 sec h e 2 x 6 sec h e 2 x 3
du d
j. Given ∫ sec h 2 (5 x − 1) dx let u = 5 x − 1 , then = (5 x − 1) ; du = 5 ; du = 5dx ; dx = du . Therefore,
dx dx dx 5
du 1 1 1
(5 x − 1) dx = tanh (5 x − 1) + c
∫ sec h ∫ sec h ∫
2 2
u⋅ = sec h 2 u du = tanh u + c =
5 5 5 5
1 1 d 1
Check: Let y = tanh (5 x − 1) + c , then y ′ = ⋅ sec h 2 (5 x − 1) ⋅ (5 x − 1) + 0 = ⋅ sec h 2 (5 x − 1) ⋅ 5
5 5 dx 5
5
⋅ sec h 2 (5 x − 1) = sec h 2 (5 x − 1)
5
du d du du
k. Given ∫ csc h 7 x coth 7 x dx let u = 7 x , then = 7x ; = 7 ; du = 7 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 7
du 1 1 1
∫ csc h 7 x coth 7 x dx = ∫ csc h u coth u 7
=
7 ∫
csc h u coth u du = − csc h u + c = − csc h 7 x + c
7 7
1 1 d 1
Check: Let y = − csc h 7 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ − csc h 7 x coth 7 x ⋅ 7x + 0 = ⋅ csc h 7 x coth 7 x ⋅ 7
7 7 dx 7
7
⋅ csc h 7 x coth 7 x = csc h 7 x coth 7 x
7
du d du du
∫ tanh
2
l. Given 10 x dx let u = 10 x , then = 10 x ; = 10 ; du = 10 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 10
du 1 1 1
∫ tanh
2
10 x dx = ∫ tanh
2
u⋅ = ∫
tanh 2 u du = (u − tanh u ) + c = (10 x − tanh 10 x ) + c
10 10 10 10
Check: Let y =
1
10
(10 x − tanh 10 x ) + c , then y ′ =
1  2 d 
10 − sec h 10 x ⋅ 10 x  + 0
10  dx 
=
1
10
(
10 − sec h 2 10 x ⋅10 )
(
10 1 − sec h 2 10 x ) = 1 − sec h 10 x = tanh
2 2
10 x
10
x x x x x x x x
m. ∫ cosh
3
dx = ∫ cosh 2 cosh dx = ∫ 1 + sinh 2  cosh dx = ∫  cosh + sinh 2 cosh  dx
5 5 5  5 5  5 5 5
x x x x du d x du 1 1
= ∫ cosh dx + ∫ sinh 2 cosh dx let u = , then = ; = ; du = dx ; dx = 5 du . Therefore,
5 5 5 5 dx dx 5 dx 5 5
x x x
∫ cosh 5 dx + ∫ sinh ∫ cosh u 5du + ∫ sinh ∫
2
2
cosh dx = u cosh u 5du = 5 sinh u + 5 sinh 2 u cosh u du
5 5
dw d dw dw
To solve the second integral let w = sinh u , then = sinh u ; = cosh u ; dx = thus,
dx dx dx cosh u
dw 5 5 x x
= 5 sinh u + 5∫ w 2 cosh u ⋅ = 5 sinh u + 5∫ w 2 dw = 5 sinh u + w 3 + c = sinh 3 + 5 sinh + c
cosh u 3 3 5 5

x 5 x x 1 5 x x 1
Check: Let y = 5 sinh + sinh 3 + c , then y ′ = 5 ⋅ cosh ⋅ + ⋅ 3 sinh 2 ⋅ cosh ⋅ + 0
5 3 5 5 5 3 5 5 5
5 x 15 x x x x x x x
= ⋅ cosh + ⋅ sinh 2 ⋅ cosh = cosh 1 + sinh 2  = cosh ⋅ cosh 2 = cosh 3
5 5 15 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
∫ sinh ∫ sinh ∫ ( cosh ) ∫ ( cosh )

3 2 2 2
n. x dx = x sinh x dx = x − 1 sinh x dx = x sinh x − sinh x dx
= ∫ cosh 2 x sinh x dx − ∫ sinh x dx = ∫ cosh 2 x sinh x dx − cosh x . To solve the first integral let u = cosh x ,
du d du du
then = cosh x ; = sinh x ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx sinh x
du 1 3
∫ cosh ∫u ∫u
2 2 2
x sinh x dx − cosh x = sinh x ⋅ − cosh x = du − cosh x = u − cosh x + c
sinh x 3
cosh 3 x
= − cosh x + c
3
1 1
Check: Let y = cosh 3 x − cosh + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3 cosh 2 x ⋅ sinh x − sinh x + 0 = cosh 2 x ⋅ sinh x − sinh x
3 3
( )
= sinh x cosh 2 x − 1 = sinh x ⋅ sinh 2 x = sinh 3 x
x 1
o. Given ∫ 2 sinh x dx = 2 ∫ x sinh x dx let u = x and dv = sinh x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sinh x dx
which implies v = cosh x . Using the substitution by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
1 1 1 1 1
2 ∫ x sinh x dx = 2
x cosh x −
2
cosh x dx ∫ =
2
x cosh x − sinh x + c
2
1 1 1 cosh x x sinh x
Check: Let y = x cosh x − sinh x + c , then y ′ = (cosh x + x sinh x ) − 1 cosh x + 0 = +
2 2 2 2 2 2
cosh x x sinh x 1
− = = x sinh x
2 2 2
a. ∫ tanh
8
x sec h 2 x dx = b. ∫ tanh
5
(x + 3) sec h 2 (x + 3) dx = c. ∫ coth
3
x csc h 2 x dx =
x
∫ coth ∫ tanh 5x dx = ∫ 2 tanh 3 dx =
5
d. 3 x csc h 2 3 x dx = e. f.
x x
g. ∫ sec h 5x tanh 5x dx = h. ∫ sec h 2 tanh 2 dx = i. ∫ csc h
2
( 1 − 2 x ) dx =
sec h x
∫x ∫x ∫
2
j. coth x 3 dx = k. 2
sec h 5 x 3 dx = l. dx =
x

Solutions:
du d du du
∫ tanh
8
a. x sec h 2 x dx let u = tanh x , then = tanh x ; = sec h 2 x ; du = sec h 2 x dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx sec h 2 x
du 1 8+1 1 9 1
tanh 9 x + c
∫ tanh ∫u ∫u
8
x sec h 2 x dx = 8
⋅ sec h 2 x ⋅ = 8
du = u +c = u +c =
sec h x 2 8 +1 9 9
1 1
Check: Let y = tanh 9 x + c then y ′ = ⋅ 9 (tanh x )9−1 ⋅ sec h 2 x + 0 = (tanh x )8 sec h 2 x = tanh 8 x sec h 2 x
9 9
du d du
b. ∫ tanh
5
(x + 3) sec h 2 (x + 3) dx let u = tanh (x + 3) , then = tanh (x + 3) ; = sec h 2 (x + 3) c ;
dx dx dx
du du
; du = sec h 2 (x + 3) dx ; dx = . Thus, ∫ tanh
5
(x + 3) sec h 2 (x + 3) dx = ∫u
5
⋅ sec 2 (x + 3) ⋅
sec h 2
(x + 3) sec (x + 3)
2
1 5+1 1 6 1
tanh 6 ( x + 3 ) + c
∫u
5
= du = u +c = u +c =
5 +1 6 6
1 1
Check: Let y = tanh 6 (x + 3) + c then y ′ = ⋅ 6 [ tanh (x + 3) ]6−1 ⋅ sec h 2 (x + 3) + 0 = tanh 5 (x + 3) sec h 2 (x + 3)
6 6
du d du
c. Given ∫ coth 3 x csc h 2 x dx let u = coth x , then = coth x ; = − csc h 2 x c ; du = − csc h 2 x dx
dx dx dx
du −du −1 3+1
∫ coth ∫u = − ∫ u 3 du =
3
; dx = − . Therefore, x csc h 2 x dx = 3
⋅ csc h 2 x ⋅ u +c
2 2 3 +1
csc h x csc h x
1 1
= − u 4 + c = − coth 4 x + c
4 4
1 1
Check: Let y = − coth 4 x + c then y ′ = − ⋅ 4(coth x )4−1 ⋅ − csc h 2 x + 0 = coth 3 x csc h 2 x
4 4
du d du
d. Given ∫ coth 5 3x csc h 2 3x dx let u = coth 3x , then = coth 3 x ; = −3 csc h 2 3 x c ; du = −3 csc h 2 3 x dx
dx dx dx
du −du 1
∫ coth ∫u ∫
5
; dx = − . Therefore, 3 x csc h 2 3 x dx = 5
⋅ csc h 2 3 x ⋅ = − u 5 du
2 2 3
3 csc h 3 x 3 csc h 3 x
1 1 5+1 1 6 1
= − ⋅ u +c = − u +c = − coth 6 3 x + c
3 5 +1 18 18
1 1
Check: Let y = − coth 6 3 x + c then y ′ = − ⋅ 6 (coth 3 x )6−1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ − csc 2 3 x + 0 = coth 5 3x csc h 2 3x
18 18
du d du du
e. Given ∫ tanh 5x dx let u = 5x , then =
dx dx
5x ;
dx
=5 ; du = 5 dx ; dx =
5
. Therefore,

du 1 1 1
∫ tanh 5x dx = ∫ tanh u ⋅ 5 =
5 ∫
tanh u du =
5
ln cosh u + c =
5
ln cosh 5 x + c
1 1 1 5 sinh 5 x
Check: Let y = ln cosh 5 x + c then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ sinh 5 x ⋅ 5 + 0 = ⋅ = tanh 5 x
5 5 cosh 5 x 5 cosh 5 x
x x du d x du 1
f. Given ∫ 2 tanh dx let u = , then = ; = ; 3du = dx ; dx = 3du . Therefore,
3 3 dx dx 3 dx 3
x x
∫ 2 tanh 3 dx = 2∫ tanh u ⋅ 3du = 6∫ tanh u du = 6 ln cosh u + c = 6 ln cosh +c
3
x 1 x 1 6 x x
Check: Let y = 6 ln cosh + c , then y ′ = 6 ⋅ x
⋅ sinh ⋅ +0 = tanh = 2 tanh
3 cosh 3 3 3 3 3
3
du d du du
g. Given ∫ sec h 5 x tanh 5 x dx let u = 5 x , then = 5x ; =5 ; du = 5dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 5
du 1 1 1
∫ sec h 5x tanh 5x dx = ∫ sec h u ⋅ tanh u ⋅ 5 =
5 ∫
sec h u tanh u du = − sec h u + c = − sec h 5 x + c
5 5
1 1 5 sec h 5 x tanh 5 x
Check: Let y = − sec h 5 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ sec h 5 x tanh 5 x ⋅ 5 + 0 = = sec h 5 x tanh 5 x
5 5 5
x x x du d x du 1
h. Given ∫ sec h tanh dx let u = , then = ; = ; 2du = dx ; dx = 2du . Therefore,
2 2 2 dx dx 2 dx 2
x x x
∫ sec h 2 tanh 2 dx = ∫ sec h u ⋅ tanh u ⋅ 2du = 2∫ sec h u tanh u du = − 2 sec h u + c = − 2 sec h
2
+c
x x x 1 2 x x x x
Check: Let y = −2 sec h + c then y ′ = − 2 ⋅ − sec h tanh ⋅ + 0 = ⋅ sec h tanh = sec h tanh
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
du d du du
i. Given ∫ csc h 2 ( 1 − 2 x ) dx let u = 1− 2 x , then = 1− 2 x ; = −2 ; du = −2dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx −2
du 1 1 1
∫ csc h
2
(1 − 2 x ) dx = ∫ csc h
2
u⋅− = − csc h 2 u du = coth u + c = coth ( 1 − 2 x ) + c
∫
2 2 2 2
1 1
Check: Let y = coth ( 1 − 2 x ) + c then y ′ = ⋅ − csc h 2 ( 1 − 2 x ) ⋅ −2 + 0 = csc h 2 ( 1 − 2 x )
2 2
du d 3 du du
∫x
2
j. Given coth x 3 dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
du 1 1 1
ln sinh x 3 + c
∫x ∫x ∫
2
coth x 3 dx = 2
⋅ coth u ⋅ = coth u ⋅ du = ln sinh u + c =
3x 2 3 3 3
1 1 1 3 x 2 cosh x 3
Check: Let y = ln sinh x 3 + c then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ cosh x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 + 0 = ⋅ = x 2 coth x 3
3 3 sinh x3 3 sinh x 3

du d du du
∫x
2
k. Given sec h 5 x 3 dx let u = 5x 3 , then = 5x 3 ; = 15x 2 ; du = 15 x 2 dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx 15x 2
∫x
2
sec h 5 x 3 dx = ∫x
2
⋅ sec h u ⋅
du
2
=
1
15 ∫
sec h u ⋅ du =
1
15
sin −1 (tanh u ) + c =
1
15
(
sin −1 tanh 5 x 3 + c )
15 x
Check: Let y =
1
15
sin −1 tanh 5 x 3 + c( ) then y ′ =
1
⋅
d
dx
tanh 5 x 3 + 0 =
sec h 2 5 x 3
2
d
⋅ 5x 3
3 dx
15 1 − tanh 2 5 x 3 15 sec h 5 x
sec h 2 5 x 3 15 x 2 sec h 2 5 x 3
= ⋅15 x 2 = ⋅ = x 2 sec h 5 x 3
3 15 sec h 5 x 3
15 sec h 5 x
1
sec h x du d 12 du 1 − 12 1
l. Given ∫ x
dx let u = x 2 , then =
dx dx
x ; = x
dx 2
=
2 x
; dx = 2 x du . Therefore,
∫
sec h x
dx = ∫
sec h u
⋅ 2 x du = 2∫ sec h u ⋅ du = 2 sin −1 (tanh u ) + c = 2 sin −1 tanh x + c ( )
x x
( tanh x )+ c 2 sec h 2 x 2 d 12
1
−1 2 d
Check: Let y = 2 sin then y ′ = ⋅ tanh x 2 + 0 = ⋅ x
1 dx 1 dx
1 − tanh 2 x 2 sec h 2 x 2
1 1 1
2 sec h 2 x 2 1 2 sec h 2 x 2 sec h x 2 sec h x
= 1
⋅ 1
= 1
⋅ 1
= 1
=
x
sec h x2 2x 2 2x 2 sec h x2 x2

5 dx x dx
∫ sec h x2 ∫ sinh x 2 ∫x
2
a. = b. = c. sinh x dx =
5 3
x
1 cosh 5 x + sinh 5 x  1 + cosh x 
d. ∫ cosh 7 x dx = e. ∫ sinh 5 x
dx = f. ∫  sinh x 
 dx =
∫ ( cosh x sec h x + e ) dx
3x 3x
∫ 2 sinh ∫e
3x sinh 8 x
g. csc h dx = h. = i. cosh 8 x dx =
2 2
cosh x 1 coth 7 x
x
j. ∫ e 3 sinh
3
dx = k. ∫ e tanh 5 x sec h 2 5 x dx = l. ∫ e3 csc h 2 7 x dx =
Solutions:
dx 2
du d 52 du 2 − 53 2 5
a. Given ∫ sec h 5 x 2 let u = x 5 , then = x ; = x = ; dx = 5 x 3 du . Therefore,
5
x3 dx dx dx 5 5
5 x3 2
5
5 dx 5 x 3 du 5 5 5  5 
∫ sec h x 2 = ∫ sec h u ⋅ = ∫
sec h u ⋅ du = sin −1 (tanh u ) + c = sin −1  tanh x 2  + c
5 5 2 2 2  
x3 2 x3

2
5 5 d 2
5 sec h 2 x 5 d 52
Check: Let y = sin −1  tanh 5 x 2  + c , then y ′ = ⋅ tanh x 5 + 0 = ⋅ x
2   2 dx 2 dx
2 5
2 1 − tanh 2 x 5 2 sec h x
2 2 2
5
5 sec h 2 x 5 2 10 sec h 2 x 5 sec h x 5 sec h x 2
= 2
⋅ 3
= 3
⋅ 2
= 3
=
5
2 sec h x 5 5x 5 10 x 5 sec h x 5 x5 x3
x dx du d 2 du du
∫ sinh x 2 ∫ x csc h x
2
b. Given = dx let u = x 2 , then = x ; = 2x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx 2x
x dx x du 1 du 1 1 u 1 x2
∫ sinh x 2 = ∫ ⋅
sinh u 2 x
=
2 ∫ sinh u
=
2∫csc h u du =
2
ln tanh
2
+c =
2
ln tanh
2
+c
2 x2 2 x2
1 x2 1 1 x 2 2x
2 2 x sec h 2 x 1 − tanh 2
Check: Let y = ln tanh + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ sec h ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅
2 2 2 tanh x2 2 2 4 tanh x2 2 tanh x
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
sinh 2 x cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x
1− 2 2 2 1
2 x2 2 2 x2
x cosh x cosh 2 x x cosh 2 x x cosh 2 x
= ⋅ 2
= ⋅ 2
= ⋅ 2
= ⋅ =
2 sinh x
2 2 x2
sinh 2 sinh x2 2 cosh 2 x 2 ⋅ sinh x2 2 cosh x2 ⋅ sinh x2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cosh x2 cosh x2 cosh x2
2 2 2
x x
= =
sinh x 2
2
sinh 2 ⋅ x2
∫x ∫ dv = ∫ sinh x dx which implies

2
c. Given sinh x dx let u = x 2 and dv = sinh x dx then du = 2 x dx and
implies v = cosh x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫x
2
∫
sinh x dx = x 2 ⋅ cosh x − cosh x ⋅ 2 x dx = x 2 cosh x − 2 x cosh x dx ∫ (1 )
To integrate ∫ x cosh x dx let u = x and dv = cosh x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cosh x dx which
implies v = sinh x . Using the integration by parts formula again we have
∫ x cosh x dx = x ⋅ sinh x − ∫ sinh x ⋅ dx = x sinh x − cosh x + c (2)

Combining equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) together we obtain
∫x
2
sinh x dx = x 2 cosh x − 2 x cosh x dx = x 2 cosh x − 2 (x sinh x − cosh x + c ) = x 2 + 2 cosh x − 2 x sinh x + c
∫ ( )
( )
Check: Let y = x 2 + 2 cosh x − 2 x sinh x + c , then y ′ = 2 x cosh x + x 2 + 2 sinh h x − 2 sinh x − 2 x cosh x + 0 ( )
( )
= x 2 + 2 sinh h x − 2 sinh x = x 2 sinh h x + 2 sinh x − 2 sinh x = x 2 sinh h x

1 du d du du
d. Given ∫ cosh 7 x dx = ∫ sec h 7 x dx let u = 7 x , then =
dx dx
7x ;
dx
=7 ; du = 7dx ; dx =
7
. Thus,
1 du 1 1 1
sin −1 (tanh u ) + c sin −1 (tanh 7 x ) + c
∫ cosh 7 x dx = ∫ sec h 7 x dx = ∫ sec h u ⋅ 7 =
7 ∫
sec h u du =
7
=
7
1 1 d sec h 2 7 x d
Check: Let y = sin −1 (tanh 7 x ) + c , then y ′ = tanh 7 x + 0 =
⋅ ⋅ 7x
7 7 1 − tanh 2 7 x dx 7 sec h 2 7 x dx
sec h 2 7 x 7 sec h 2 7 x 1
= ⋅7 = ⋅ = sec h 7 x =
7 sec h 7 x 7 sec h 7 x cosh 7 x
cosh 5 x + sinh 5 x  cosh hx 

e. Given ∫ dx = ∫  + 1 dx = ∫ (coth 5 x + 1) dx = ∫ coth 5 x dx + ∫ dx let u = 5 x , then
sinh 5 x  sinh 5 x 
du d du du
= 5x ; =5 ; du = 5dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 5
cosh 5 x + sinh 5 x  cosh hx  du 1

∫ sinh 5 x
dx = ∫  sinh 5x + 1 dx = ∫ coth 5x dx + ∫ dx = ∫ coth u ⋅ 5x + x = 5 ∫ coth u du + x
1 1
= ln sinh u + x + c = ln sinh 5 x + x + c
5 5
1 1 cosh 5 x ⋅ 5 5 cosh 5 x
Check: Let y = ln sinh 5 x + x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ +1+ 0 = ⋅ +1 = coth 5 x + 1
5 5 sinh 5 x 5 sinh 5 x
 1 + cosh x   1 cosh x  x
f. ∫  sinh x 
 dx = ∫  sinh x + sinh x  dx = ∫ csc h x dx + ∫ coth x dx = ln tanh
2
+ ln sinh x + c
x 1 d 1 d
Check: Let y = ln tanh + ln sinh x + c , then y ′ = x
⋅ tanh x
2
+ ⋅ sinh x + 0
2 tanh dx sinh x dx
2
sinh 2 x
2
1−
1 1 1 sec h 2 2x cosh x
2 x
1 1 − tanh 2 cosh x 1 cosh 2 x
= ⋅ sec h 2 2x ⋅ + ⋅ cosh x = + = ⋅ + = ⋅ 2
tanh x
2
2 sinh x 2 tanh 2x sinh x 2 tanh 2x sinh x 2 sinh x
2
cosh x
2
cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x
2 2 1
cosh x 1 cosh 2 x cosh x 1 cosh 2 x cosh x 1 cosh 2x cosh x
+ = ⋅ 2
+ = ⋅ 2
+ = ⋅
2
+
sinh x 2 sinh x
2
sinh x 2 sinh x
2
sinh x 2 cosh x ⋅ sinh x sinh x
2 2
cosh x cosh x
2 2
1 cosh x 1 cosh x 1 cosh x 1+ cosh x
= x ⋅ sinh x
+ = x
+ = + =
2 cosh sinh x sinh 2 ⋅ sinh x sinh x sinh x sinh x
2 2 2
3x 3x 3x 1 sinh 32x
g. ∫ 2 sinh
2
csc h
2
dx = ∫
2 sinh ⋅
2 sinh 3 x
dx = 2∫
sinh 32x
dx = 2∫ dx = 2 x + c
2

Check: Let y = 2 x + c , then y ′ = 2 ⋅ x1−1 + 0 = 2 ⋅ x 0 = 2
∫ ( cosh x sec h x + e ) dx ∫ (1 + e ) dx = ∫ dx + ∫ e dx =
 1  1 3x
∫  cosh x ⋅ cosh x + e
3x 3x 3x 3x
h. =  dx = x+ e +c
 3
1 1 3
Check: Let y = x + e 3 x + c , then y ′ = x1−1 + ⋅ e 3 x ⋅ 3 + 0 = x 0 + ⋅ e 3 x = 1+ e 3 x
3 3 3
du d du du
i. Given ∫ e sinh 8 x cosh 8 x dx let u = sinh 8 x , then = sinh 8 x ; = 8 cosh 8 x ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx 8 cosh 8 x
du eu 1 u 1 u 1 sinh 8 x
∫ e sinh 8 x cosh 8 x dx = ∫ e u cosh 8 x ⋅
8 cosh 8 x
= ∫ 8
du =
8∫e du =
8
e +c =
8
e +c
1 1 sinh 8 x 8 sinh 8 x
Check: Let y = e sinh 8 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅e ⋅ cosh 8 x ⋅ 8 + 0 = ⋅e cosh 8 x = e sinh 8 x cosh 8 x
8 8 8
cosh x x x du d x du 1 x 3du
j. Given ∫ e 3 sinh dx let u = cosh , then = cosh ; = sinh ; dx = . Therefore,
3 3 dx dx 3 dx 3 3 sin 3x
cosh x x x 3du cosh x

∫ e 3 sinh dx = ∫ e u sinh ⋅ = 3∫ e u du = 3e u + c = 3e 3 +c
3 3 sinh x
3
cosh x cosh x x 1 3 cosh 3x x cosh x x

Check: Let y = 3e 3 + c , then y ′ = 3e 3 ⋅ sinh ⋅ +0 = e ⋅ sinh = e 3 sinh
3 3 3 3 3
du d du
k. Given ∫ e tanh 5 x sec h 2 5 x dx let u = tanh 5 x , then = tanh 5 x ; = 5 sec h 2 5 x ; du = 5 sec h 2 5 x dx
dx dx dx
du
; dx = . Therefore,
5 sec h 2 5 x
du 1 u 1 u 1 tanh 5 x
∫e ∫e ∫
tanh 5 x
sec h 2 5 x dx = u
sec h 2 5 x ⋅ = e du = e +c = e +c
5 sec h 5 x2 5 5 5
1 1 tanh 5 x 5 tanh 5 x
Check: Let y = e tanh 5 x + c , then y ′ = e ⋅ sec h 2 5 x ⋅ 5 + 0 = e sec h 2 5 x = e tanh 5 x sec h 2 5 x
5 5 5
1 coth 7 x
1 du d 1 du 7
l. Given ∫ e 3 csc h 2 7 x dx let u = coth 7 x , then = coth 7 x ; = − csc h 2 7 x
3 dx dx 3 dx 3
7 3du
; du = − csc h 2 7 x dx ; dx = − . Therefore,
3 7 csc h 2 7 x
1 coth 7 x 1 coth 7 x
−3du 3 u 3 3
∫ e3 csc h 2 7 x dx = ∫ e u csc h 2 7 x ⋅
7 csc h 2 7 x
= −
7∫e du = − eu + c = − e 3
7 7
+c
1 coth 7 x
3 3 13 coth 7 x 1 1 coth 7 x
Check: Let y = − e 3 + c , then y ′ = − e ⋅ − csc h 2 7 x ⋅ 7 + 0 = e 3 csc h 2 7 x
7 7 3

• To integrate even powers of sinh x and cosh x use the following identities:
1 1
cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 sinh 2 x = ( cosh 2 x − 1) cosh 2 x = ( cosh 2 x + 1)
2 2
To integrate odd powers of sin x and cos x use the following equalities:
∫ ( sinh x ) sinh x dx = ∫ ( cosh x − 1) sinh x dx

n n
∫ sinh = ∫ sinh 2n x sinh x dx =
2 n +1 2 2
x dx ( let u = cosh x )
∫ ( cosh x ) ∫ (1 + sinh x )
n n
∫ cosh 2n +1 x dx = ∫ cosh 2n x cosh x dx = 2 2
cosh x dx = cosh x dx ( let u = sinh x )
• To integrate products of sinh x , sinh y , cosh x , and cosh y use the identities below:
1
sinh x sinh y = [ cosh (x + y ) − cosh (x − y ) ]
2
1
cosh x cosh y = [ cosh (x + y ) + cosh (x − y ) ]
2
1
sinh x cosh y = [ sinh (x + y ) + sinh (x − y ) ]
2
• To integrate tanh n x , set

tanh n x ( )
= tanh n −2 x tanh 2 x = tanh n −2 x 1 − sec h 2 x = tanh n −2 x − tanh n −2 x sec h 2 x
• To integrate coth n x , set

coth n x ( )
= coth n −2 x coth 2 x = coth n −2 x 1 + csc h 2 x = coth n −2 x + coth n −2 x csc h 2 x
• To integrate sec h n x
( )
n−2
For even powers, set sec h n x = sec h n −2 x sec h 2 x = 1 − tanh 2 x 2 sec h 2 x
∫ sec h ∫ sec h
3 2
x dx as x sec h x dx (see Example 5.4-6, problem letter h).
• To integrate csc h n x
( )
n−2
For even powers, set csc h n x = csc h n −2 x csc h 2 x = coth 2 x − 1 2 csc h 2 x
∫ csc h ∫ csc h
3 2
x dx as x csc h x dx (see Example 5.4-6, problem letter i).
In the following examples we use the above general rules in order to solve integral of products
and powers of hyperbolic functions:
a. ∫ sinh 5x cosh 7 x dx = b. ∫ sinh x cosh x dx = c. ∫ cosh 3x cosh 2 x dx =
∫ sinh 3x sinh 5x dx = ∫ cosh 3x cosh 5x dx = ∫ sinh x dx =
5
d. e. f.

∫ sinh ∫ cosh ∫ tanh

3 5 4
∫ sinh ∫ sec h ∫ cosh

7 4 3
Solutions:
1 1
a. ∫ sinh 5x cosh 7 x dx = ∫ 2 [ sinh (5 + 7)x + sinh (5 − 7)x ] dx = ∫ 2 [ sinh ( 12 x ) + sinh (− 2 x ) ] dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=
2 ∫ (sinh 12 x − sinh 2 x ) dx = 2 ∫ sinh 12 x dx − 2 ∫ sinh 2 x dx = ⋅ cosh 12 x − ⋅ cosh 2 x + c
2 12 2 2
1 1
= cosh 12 x − cosh 2 x + c
24 4
1 1 1 1 12 2
Check: Let y = cosh 12 x − cosh 2 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅12 sinh 12 x − ⋅ 2 sinh 2 x + 0 = sinh 12 x − sinh 2 x
24 4 24 4 24 4
1 1 1 1 1 1
= sinh 12 x − sinh 2 x = sinh 12 x + sinh (− 2 x ) = sinh (5 + 7 )x + sinh (5 − 7 )x = sinh 5 x cosh 7 x
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
b. ∫ sinh x cosh x dx = ∫ 2 [ sinh ( 1 + 1)x + sinh ( 1 − 1)x ] dx = ∫ 2 [ sinh (2 x ) + sinh (0 x ) ] dx =
2 ∫ (sinh 2 x + 0) dx
1 1 1 1
=
2 ∫
sinh 2 x dx = ⋅ cosh 2 x
2 2
=
4
cosh 2 x + c
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = cosh 2 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 2 sinh 2 x + 0 = sinh 2 x = ⋅ 2 sinh x cosh x = sinh x cosh x
4 4 2 2
1 1 1
c. ∫ cosh 3x cosh 2 x dx = ∫ 2 [ cosh (3 + 2)x + cosh (3 − 2)x ] dx = ∫ 2 (cosh 5x + cosh x ) dx =
2 ∫
cosh 5 x dx
1 1 1 1 1 1
+
2 ∫
cosh x dx = ⋅ sinh 5 x + sinh x + c
2 5 2
=
10
sinh 5 x + sinh x + c
2
1 1 1 1 5 1
Check: Let y = sinh 5 x + sinh x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 5 cosh 5 x + ⋅ cosh x + 0 = cosh 5 x + cosh x
10 2 10 2 10 2
1 1 1 1
= cosh 5 x + cosh x = cosh ( 3 + 2 )x + cosh ( 3 − 2 )x = cosh 3x cosh 2 x
2 2 2 2
1 1
d. ∫ sinh 3x sinh 5x dx = ∫ 2 [ cosh (3 + 5)x − cosh (3 − 5)x ] dx = ∫ 2 [ cosh (8x ) − cosh (− 2 x ) ] dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=
2 ∫ (cosh 8x − cosh 2 x ) dx =
2 ∫
cosh 8 x dx −
2 ∫
cosh 2 x dx = ⋅ sinh 8 x − ⋅ sinh 2 x + c
2 8 2 2
1 1
= sinh 8 x − sinh 2 x + c
16 4

1 1 1 1 8 2
Check: Let y = sinh 8 x − sinh 2 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ cosh 8 x ⋅ 8 − ⋅ cosh 2 x ⋅ 2 + 0 = cosh 8 x − cosh 2 x
16 4 16 4 16 4
1 1 1 1
= cosh 8 x − cosh 2 x = [ cosh (8 x ) − cosh (− 2 x ) ] = [ cosh (3 + 5)x − cosh (3 − 5)x ] = sinh 3x sinh 5 x
2 2 2 2
1 1
e. ∫ cosh 3x cosh 5x dx = ∫ 2 [ cosh (3 + 5)x + cosh (3 − 5)x ] dx = ∫ 2 [ cosh (8x ) + cosh (− 2 x ) ] dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= ∫ 2 (cosh 8x + cosh 2 x ) dx =
2 ∫
cosh 8 x dx +
2
cosh 2 x dx ∫ = ⋅ sinh 8 x + ⋅ sinh 2 x + c
2 8 2 2
1 1
= sinh 8 x + sinh 2 x + c
16 4
1 1 1 1 8 2
Check: Let y = sinh 8 x + sinh 2 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ cosh 8 x ⋅ 8 + ⋅ cosh 2 x ⋅ 2 + 0 = cosh 8 x + cosh 2 x
16 4 16 4 16 4
1 1 1 1
= cosh 8 x + cosh 2 x = [ cosh (8 x ) + cosh (− 2 x ) ] = [ cosh (3 + 5)x + cosh (3 − 5)x ] = cosh 3x cosh 5 x
2 2 2 2
∫ ( sinh x ) ∫ ( cosh )
2 2
∫ sinh 5 x dx = ∫ sinh 4 x sinh x dx = 2 2
f. sinh x dx = x −1 sinh x dx . Let u = cosh x , then
du d du du
= cosh x ; = sinh x ; du = sinh x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx sinh x
∫ ( cosh ) ∫ (u ) ∫ (u )
2 2 du
∫ sinh
5 4
x dx = 2
x −1 sinh x dx = 2
−1 sinh x dx = − 2u 2 + 1 sinh x ⋅
sinh x
∫ (u ) 1 5 2 3 1 2
cosh 5 x − cosh 3 x + cosh x + c
∫u ∫ ∫
4
= − 2u 2 + 1 du = 4
du − 2 u 2 du + du = u − u +u +c =
5 3 5 3
1 2 1 2
Check: Let y = cosh 5 x − cosh 3 x + cosh x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 5 cosh 4 x ⋅ sinh x − ⋅ 3 cosh 2 x ⋅ sinh x + sinh x
5 3 5 3
(
= sinh x cosh 4 x − 2 sinh x cosh 2 x + sinh x = sinh x cosh 4 x − 2 cosh 2 x + 1 = sinh x cosh 2 x − 1 ) ( ) 2
(
= sinh x sinh 2 x ) 2
= sinh x sinh 4 x = sinh 5 x
∫ ( cosh ) du d
∫ sinh ∫ sinh
3 2 2
g. x dx = x sinh x dx = x − 1 sinh x dx . Let u = cosh x , then = cosh x
dx dx
du du
; = sinh x ; du = sinh x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx sinh x
∫ ( cosh ) ∫ (u ) ∫ (u )
du
∫ sinh ∫u ∫
3 2 2 2 2
x dx = x − 1 sinh x dx = − 1 sinh x ⋅ = − 1 du = du − du
sinh x
1 3 1
= u −u +c = cosh 3 x − cosh x + c
3 3

1 1
Check: Let y = cosh 3 x − cosh x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3 cosh 2 x ⋅ sinh x − sinh x + 0 = sinh x cosh 2 x − sinh x
3 3
( )
= sinh x cosh 2 x − 1 = sinh x sinh 2 x = sinh 3 x
∫ ( cosh x ) cosh x dx = ∫ (1 + sinh x ) cos x dx .

2 2
∫ cosh ∫ cosh
5 4 2 2
h. x dx = x cosh x dx = Let u = sinh x ,
du d du du
then = sinh x ; = cosh x ; du = cosh x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx cosh x
∫ (1 + sinh x ) cosh x dx = ∫ (1 + u ) cosh x ⋅ cosh x ∫ (1 + u ) du ∫ (u )

2 2 2 du 2 2
∫ cosh
5 4
x dx = 2
= = + 2u 2 + 1 du
1 5 2 3 1 2
sinh 5 x + sinh 3 x + sinh x + c
∫u ∫ ∫
4
= du + 2 u 2 du + du = u + u +u +c =
5 3 5 3
1 2 5 6
Check: Let y = sinh 5 x + sinh 3 x + sinh x + c , then y ′ = sinh 4 x ⋅ cosh x + sinh 2 x ⋅ cosh x + cosh x + 0
5 3 5 3
= cosh x sinh 4 x + 2 cosh x sinh 2 x + cosh x = cosh x sinh 4 x + 2 sinh 2 x + 1 = cosh x 1 + sinh 2 x ( ) ( ) 2
= cosh x cosh 2 x ( ) 2
= cosh x cosh 4 x = cosh 5 x
∫ tanh ∫ tanh ∫ tanh x (1 − sec h x ) dx = ∫ tanh x dx − ∫ tanh x sec h x dx

4 2
i. x dx = x tanh 2 x dx = 2 2 2 2 2
∫ (1 − sec h x ) dx − ∫ tanh x sec h x dx = − ∫ tanh 2 x sec h 2 x dx − ∫ sec h 2 x dx + ∫ dx . To solve the first

2 2 2
=
du d du du
integral let u = tanh x , then = tanh x ; = sec h 2 x ; du = sec h 2 x dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx sec h 2 x
du 1 1
∫
− tanh 2 x sec h 2 x dx = − u 2 sec h 2 x ⋅ ∫ sec h x 2
= − ∫ u 2 du = − u 3 = − tanh 3 x . Therefore,
3 3
1
tanh 3 x − tanh x + x + c
∫ tanh ∫ tanh ∫ ∫ ∫
4 2
x dx = x tanh 2 x dx = − tanh 2 x sec h 2 x dx − sec h 2 x dx + dx = −
3
1
Check: Let y = − tanh 3 x − tanh x + x + c , then y ′ = − tanh 2 x sec h 2 x − sec h 2 x + 1
3
( ) ( )(
= sec h 2 x − tanh 2 x − 1 + 1 = 1 − tanh 2 x − tanh 2 x − 1 + 1 = − tanh 2 x − 1 + tanh 4 x + tanh 2 x + 1 )
( )
= − tanh 2 x + tanh 2 x + (− 1 + 1) + tanh 4 x = tanh 4 x
∫ ( sinh x ) sinh x dx = ∫ ( cosh x − 1 ) sinh x dx .

3 3
∫ sinh ∫ sinh
7 6 2 2
j. x dx = x sinh x dx = Let u = cosh x , then
du d du du
= cosh x ; = sinh x ; du = sinh x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx sinh x
∫ ( cosh ) ∫ (u ) ∫ (u )
3 3 du
∫ sinh
7 6
x dx = 2
x −1 sinh x dx = 2
−1 sinh x dx = − 3u 4 + 3u 2 − 1 sinh x ⋅
sinh x

∫ (u ) 1 7 1 1
∫u ∫ ∫ ∫
6
= − 3u 4 + 3u 2 − 1 du = 6
du − 3 u 4 du + 3 u 2 du − du = u − 3⋅ u 5 + 3⋅ u 3 − u + c
7 5 3
1 3
= cosh 7 x − cosh 5 x + cosh 3 x − cosh x + c
7 5
1 3 7 15
Check: Let y = cosh 7 x − cosh 5 x + cosh 3 x − cosh x + c , then y ′ = cosh 6 x ⋅ sinh x − cosh 4 x ⋅ sinh x
7 5 7 5
+ 3 cosh 2 x ⋅ sinh x − sinh x + 0 = sinh x cosh 6 x − 3 sinh x cosh 4 x + 3 sinh x cosh 2 x − sinh x
(
= sinh x cosh 6 x − 3 cosh 4 x + 3 cosh 2 x − 1 = sinh x cosh 2 x − 1 ) ( ) 3
(
= sinh x sinh 2 x ) 3
= sinh x sinh 6 x = sinh 7 x
∫ sec h ∫ sec h ∫ sec h x (1 − tanh x ) dx = ∫ sec h x dx − ∫ tanh x sec h x dx

4 2
k. x dx = x sec h 2 x dx = 2 2 2 2 2
∫ (1 − tanh x ) dx − ∫ tanh x sec h x dx = ∫ dx − ∫ tanh x dx − ∫ tanh x sec h x dx .

2 2 2 2 2 2
= To solve the third
du d du du
integral let u = tanh x , then = tanh x ; = sec h 2 x ; du = sec h 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx sec h 2 x
du 1 1
∫
− tanh 2 x sec h 2 x dx = − ∫ u 2 sec h 2 x ⋅
sec h x 2
= − ∫ u 2 du = − u 3 = − tanh 3 x . Thus,
3 3
1
∫ sec h ∫ sec h ∫ dx − ∫ tanh ∫ ∫ dx − ∫ tanh
4 2
x dx = x sec h 2 x dx = 2
x dx − tanh 2 x sec h 2 x dx = 2
x dx − tanh 3 x
3
1 1 1
= x − (x − tanh x ) − tanh 3 x + c = − tanh 3 x + tanh x + (x − x ) + c = − tanh 3 x + tanh x + c
3 3 3
1 3
Check: Let y = − tanh 3 x + tanh x + c , then y ′ = − tanh 2 x ⋅ sec h 2 x + sec h 2 x = − tanh 2 x sec h 2 x + sec h 2 x
3 3
( )
= sec h 2 x 1 − tanh 2 x = sec h 2 x sec h 2 x = sec h 4 x
∫ ( cosh x ) cosh x dx = ∫ (1 + sinh x ) cosh x dx .

du d
∫ cosh
3 2 2
l. x dx = Let u = sinh x , then = sinh x
dx dx
du du
; = cosh x ; du = cosh x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx cosh x
∫ (1 + sinh x ) cosh x dx = ∫ (1 + u )cosh x ⋅ cosh x ∫ (1 + u ) du

du
∫ cosh ∫u ∫
3 2 2 2 2
x dx = = = du + du
1 3 1
= u +u +c = sinh 3 x + sinh x + c
3 3
1 1
Check: Let y = sinh 3 x + sinh x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3 sinh 2 x ⋅ cosh x + cosh x + 0 = cosh x sinh 2 x + cosh x
3 3
( ) (
= cosh x 1 + sinh 2 x = cosh x cosh 2 x = cosh 3 x )

∫ cosh x dx = ∫ cosh 5x dx = ∫ sinh x dx =

4 2 4
a. b. c.
∫ tanh x dx = ∫ coth x dx = ∫ tanh x dx =

3 4 6
d. e. f.
∫ coth ∫ sec h ∫ csc h

3 3 3
Solutions:
2
∫ (cosh x ) ∫ (1 + cosh )
2 1  1 1
∫ ∫  2 (cosh 2 x + 1 ) dx = 4 ∫ (cosh 2 x + 1 ) dx
2
a. cosh 4 xdx = 2
dx = = 2
2 x + 2 cosh 2 x dx
  4
1 1 2 x 1 1 1 1 x 1 1
=
4 ∫
dx +
4 ∫
cosh 2 2 x dx +
4
cosh 2 x dx ∫ = +
4 4 ∫ 2 ( 1 + cosh 4 x ) dx + 2 ⋅ 2 sinh 2 x = + ⋅
4 4 2
dx ∫
1 1 x x 1 1 1 3 1 1
+
8 ∫
cosh 4 x dx + sinh 2 x
4
= + + ⋅ sinh 4 x + sinh 2 x + c
4 8 8 4 4
=
8
x+
32
sinh 4 x + sinh 2 x + c
4
3x 1 1 3 4 cosh 4 x 2 cosh 2 x 3 1 2
Check: Let y = + sinh 4 x + sinh 2 x + c , then y ′ = + + = + cosh 4 x + cosh 2 x
8 32 4 8 32 4 8 8 4
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
=  +  + cosh 4 x + cosh 2 x = + ( 1 + cosh 4 x ) + cosh 2 x = + ⋅ ( 1 + cosh 4 x ) + cosh 2 x
4 8 8 4 4 8 4 4 4 2 4
2
=
1 1 2
+ ⋅ cosh 2 2 x + cosh 2 x
4 4 4
=
1
4
(
1 + cosh 2 2 x + 2 cosh 2 x ) = 14 ( cosh 2 x + 1 ) 2 1
=  ( cosh 2 x + 1 )
2 
(
= cosh 2 x ) = cosh x
2 4
5 x dx = ∫ (1 + sinh 5 x )dx = ∫ dx + ∫ sinh

1 1
∫ cosh ∫ dx + ∫ 2 ( cosh 10 x − 1 ) dx = ∫
2 2 2
b. 5 x dx = x+ cosh 10 x dx
2
1 1 1 x  1 1 x sinh 10 x
−
2 ∫
dx = x + ⋅ sinh 10 x − + c
2 10 2
= x1 −  + sinh 10 x + c = +
 2 20
+c
2 20
x sinh 10 x 1 1 1 10 1 1
Check: Let y = + + c , then y ′ = + ⋅ cosh 10 x ⋅10 + 0 = + ⋅ cosh 10 x = + cosh 10 x
2 20 2 20 2 20 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
= 1 −  + cosh 10 x = 1 +  cosh 10 x −  = 1 + ( cosh 10 x − 1 ) = 1 + sinh 2 5 x = cosh 2 5 x
 2 2 2 2 2
∫ (sinh x ) ∫ (cosh )
2 1  1 1
∫ ∫  2 (cosh 2 x − 1 ) dx ∫ (cosh 2 x − 1 ) dx
2
c. sinh 4 x dx = 2
dx = = = 2
2 x − 2 cosh 2 x + 1 dx
  4 4
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 x 1 1
=
4 ∫
cosh 2 2 x dx −
4 ∫
cosh 2 x dx +
4
dx ∫ =
4 ∫ 2 ( 1 + cosh 4 x ) dx − 2 ⋅ 2 sinh 2 x + 4 = ⋅
4 2
dx ∫

1 1 x x x 1 1 1 3 1 1
+
8 ∫
cosh 4 x dx − sinh 2 x +
4 4
=  +  + ⋅ sinh 4 x − sinh 2 x + c = x + sinh 4 x − sinh 2 x + c
8 4 8 4 4 8 32 4
3x 1 1 3 4 cosh 4 x 2 cosh 2 x 3 1 2
Check: Let y = + sinh 4 x − sinh 2 x + c , then y ′ = + − = + cosh 4 x − cosh 2 x
8 32 4 8 32 4 8 8 4
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
=  +  + cosh 4 x − cosh 2 x = + ( 1 + cosh 4 x ) − cosh 2 x = + ⋅ ( 1 + cosh 4 x ) − cosh 2 x
4 8 8 4 4 8 4 4 4 2 4
2
=
1 1 2
+ ⋅ cosh 2 2 x − cosh 2 x
4 4 4
=
1
4
(
1 + cosh 2 2 x − 2 cosh 2 x ) = 14 ( cosh 2 x − 1 ) 2 1
=  ( cosh 2 x − 1 )
2 
(
= sinh 2 x ) 2
= sinh 4 x
∫ tanh ∫ tanh ∫ (1 − sec h x ) tanh x dx = − ∫ sec h 2 x tanh x dx + ∫ tanh x dx . To solve

3 2 2
d. x dx = x tanh x dx =
du d du du
the first integral let u = tanh x , then = tanh x ; = sec h 2 x ; du = sec h 2 dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx sec h 2 x
du 1 1
∫
− sec h 2 x tanh x dx = − ∫ sec h 2 x ⋅ u ⋅
sec h x 2
= − ∫ u du = − u 2 = − tan 2 x . Combining the term
2 2
∫ tanh ∫ tanh ∫ (1 − sec h x ) tanh x dx ∫ ( − sec h )

3 2 2 2
x dx = x tanh x dx = = x tanh x + tanh x dx
1 1
= − ∫ sec h 2 x tanh x dx + ∫ tanh x dx = − tanh 2 x + ∫ tanh x dx = − tanh 2 x + ln cosh x + c
2 2
1 1 1
Check: Let y = − tanh 2 x + ln cosh x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 2 tanh x ⋅ sec h 2 x + ⋅ sinh x + 0
2 2 cosh x
= − tanh x sec h 2 x +
sinh x
cosh x
( )
= − tanh x sec h 2 x + tanh x = tanh x 1 − sec h 2 x = tanh x tanh 2 x = tanh 3 x
∫ coth ∫ coth ∫ coth x ( csc h x + 1) dx = ∫ coth x csc h x dx + ∫ coth x dx

4 2
e. x dx = x coth 2 x dx = 2 2 2 2 2
( )
= ∫ coth 2 x csc h 2 x dx + ∫ csc h 2 x + 1 dx = ∫ coth 2 x csc h 2 x dx + ∫ csc h 2 x dx + ∫ dx .
du d du
To solve the first integral let u = coth x , then = coth x ; = − csc h 2 x ; du = − csc h 2 x dx
dx dx dx
du du
; dx = − 2
. Grouping the terms together we find ∫ coth 2 x csc h 2 x dx = ∫ u 2 csc h 2 x ⋅ −
csc h x csc h 2 x
1 1
= − ∫ u 2 du = − u 3 = − coth 3 x . Therefore,
3 3
∫ coth ∫ coth ∫ coth x ( csc h x + 1) dx = ∫ coth x csc h x dx + ∫ csc h x dx + ∫ dx

4 2
x dx = x coth 2 x dx = 2 2 2 2 2

1 1
= − coth 3 x + ∫ csc h 2 x dx + ∫ dx = − coth3 x − coth x + x + c
3 3
1 3
Check: Let y = − coth 3 x − coth x + x + c , then y ′ = − coth 2 x ⋅ − csc h 2 x + csc h 2 x + 1 + 0
3 3
( )
= coth 2 x csc h 2 x + csc h 2 x + 1 = csc h 2 x coth 2 x + 1 + 1 = coth 2 x − 1 coth 2 x + 1 + 1 ( )( )
= coth 4 x + coth 2 x − coth 2 x − 1 + 1 = coth 4 x
∫ tanh = ∫ tanh 4 x tanh 2 x dx = ∫ tanh x (1 − sec h x ) dx = ∫ ( tanh x − tanh x sec h x ) dx =

6 4 2 4 4 2
f. x dx
∫ tanh ∫
4
x dx − tanh 4 x sec h 2 x dx . In example 5.4-5, problem letter i, we found that
1
∫ tanh
4
x dx = − tanh 3 x − tanh x + x + c . Therefore,
3
∫ tanh ∫ tanh ∫ tanh x (1 − sec h x ) dx = ∫ tanh x dx − ∫ tanh x sec h x dx

6 4
x dx = x tanh 2 x dx = 4 2 4 4 2
 1  1 1
=  − tanh 3 x − tanh x + x  − ∫ tanh 4 x sec h 2 x dx = − tanh5 x − tanh 3 x − tanh x + x + c
 3  5 3
1 1 5 3
Check: Let y = − tanh 5 x − tanh 3 x − tanh x + x + c , then y ′ = − tanh 4 x ⋅ sec h 2 x − tanh 2 x ⋅ sec h 2 x
5 3 5 3
− sec h 2 x + 1 + 0 = − tanh 4 x sec h 2 x − tanh 2 x sec h 2 x − sec h 2 x + 1 = − sec h 2 x tanh 4 x + tanh 2 x + 1 + 1 ( )

( )( ) (
= − 1 − tanh 2 x tanh 4 x + tanh 2 x + 1 + 1 = − tanh 4 x + tanh 2 x + 1 − tanh 6 x − tanh 4 x − tanh 2 x + 1 )
= − tanh 4 x − tanh 2 x − 1 + tanh 6 x + tanh 4 x + tanh 2 x + 1 = tanh 6 x
∫ coth = ∫ coth 2 x coth x dx = ∫ ( csc h ) = ∫ csc h 2 x coth x dx + ∫ coth x dx . To solve the

3 2
g. x dx x + 1 coth x dx
du d du du
first integral let u = coth x , then = coth x ; = − csc h 2 x ; du = − csc h 2 dx ; dx = − . Thus,
dx dx dx csc h 2 x
du 1 1
∫ csc h ∫ csc h = − ∫ u du = − u 2 = − coth 2 x . Combining the term
2 2
x coth x dx = x ⋅u ⋅ −
2 2 2
csc h x
∫ coth ∫ coth ∫ ( csc h ) ∫ ( csc h )

3 2 2 2
x dx = x coth x dx = x + 1 coth x dx = x ⋅ coth x + coth x dx
1 1
∫ csc h
2
∫
x coth x dx + coth x dx = − ∫
coth 2 x + coth x dx = − coth 2 x + ln sinh x + c
2 2
1 1 1
Check: Let y = − coth 2 x + ln sinh x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 2 coth x ⋅ − csc h 2 x + ⋅ cosh x + 0
2 2 sinh x
= coth x csc h 2 x +
cosh x
sinh x
(
= coth x csc h 2 x + coth x = coth x csc h 2 x + 1 = coth x coth 2 x = coth 3 x )

∫ sec h ∫ sec h ∫ (1 − tanh x ) sec h x dx = − ∫ tanh x sec h x dx + ∫ sec h x dx

3 2 2 2
h. x dx = x sec h x dx =
= − ∫ tanh x ⋅ tanh x sec h x dx + ∫ sec h x dx . To solve the first integral let u = tanh x and dv = tanh x sec h x dx ,
then du = sec h 2 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ tanh x sec h x dx which implies v = − sec h x . Using the integration by
parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫ ∫ ∫
− tanh 2 x sec h x dx = − tanh x ⋅ tanh x sec h x dx = tanh x sec h x − sec h x sec h 2 x dx = tanh x sec h x
∫
− sec h 3 x dx . Combining the terms we have
∫ sec h ∫ tanh x ⋅ tanh x sec h x dx − ∫ sec h x dx = tanh x sec h x − ∫ sec h 3 x dx + ∫ sec h x dx . Moving the
3
x dx =
∫ sec h
3
x dx term from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand side we obtain
∫ sec h ∫ ∫ ∫
3
x dx + sec h 3 x dx = 2 sec h 3 x dx = tanh x sec h x + sec h x dx . Therefore,
∫ sec h
3
x dx =
1
2
( ∫
tanh x sec h x + sec h x dx ) =
1
2
1
tanh x sec h x + sin −1 ( tanh x ) + c
2
1 1 sec h 2 x ⋅ sec h x − sec h x tanh x ⋅ tanh x

Check: Let y = tanh x sec h x + sin −1 (tanh x ) + c , then y ′ =
2 2 2
sec h 2 x sec h 3 x − sec h x tanh 2 x sec h 2 x sec h 3 x − sec h x tanh 2 x sec h x

+ +0 = + = +
2 1 − tanh 2 x 2 2 sec h 2 x 2 2
=
sec h 3 x − sec h x tanh 2 x + sec h x
=
(
sec h 3 x + sec h x 1 − tanh 2 x ) = sec h x + sec h x sec h
3 2
x
2 2 2
sec h 3 x + sec h 3 x 2 sec h 3 x
= = = sec h 3 x
2 2
∫ csc h ∫ csc h ∫ ( coth ) ∫ coth ∫

3 2 2 2
i. x dx = x csc h x dx = x − 1 csc h x dx = x csc h x dx − csc h x dx
= ∫ coth x ⋅ coth x csc h x dx − ∫ csc h x dx . To solve the first integral let u = coth x and dv = coth x csc h x dx ,
then du = − csc h 2 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ coth x csc h x dx which implies v = − csc h x . Using the integration by
parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫ coth ∫ coth x ⋅ coth x csc h x dx = coth x ⋅ − csc h x − ∫ csc h x ⋅ csc h 2 x dx = − coth x csc h x
2
x csc h x dx =
∫
− csc h 3 x dx . Combining the terms we have
∫ csc h ∫ coth x ⋅ coth x csc h x dx − ∫ csc h x dx = − coth x csc h x − ∫ csc h 3 x dx − ∫ csc h x dx . Moving
3
x dx =

the ∫ csc h 3 x dx term from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand side we obtain
∫ csc h ∫ ∫ ∫
3
x dx + csc h 3 x dx = 2 csc h 3 x dx = − coth x csc h x − csc h x dx . Therefore,
∫ csc h
3
x dx =
1
2
( ∫
− coth x csc h x − csc h x dx ) 1
= − coth x csc h x − ln tanh
2
1
2
x
2
+c
1
Check: Let y = − coth x csc h x − ln tanh
1 x
+c, then y ′ =
(
− − csc h 2 x ⋅ csc h x − csc h x coth x ⋅ coth x )
2 2 2 2
sec h 2 x
csc h 3 x + csc h x coth 2 x sec h 2 x
− 2
+0 = − 2
. The 2nd term is simplified as follows:
(
4 tanh x
2
) 2 4 tanh ( x
2
)
sinh 2 x cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x
1− 2 2 2 1 x
sec h 2 x 2 x
cosh 2 x cosh 2 x cosh 2 x cosh
2 1 1 − tanh 2 1 1 1 1 2
= ⋅ = ⋅ 2
= ⋅ 2
= ⋅ 2
= ⋅
(
4 tanh x
2
) 4 tanh x 4
2
sinh x
2
4 sinh x
2
4 sinh 2x 4
cosh 2
x
2
⋅ sinh
x
2
cosh x cosh x cosh x
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 csc h x
= = = = . Therefore,
x x x
2 ⋅ sinh 2 ⋅ 2 2 sinh x 2
2 ⋅ 2 cosh ⋅ sinh
2 2
2 x
csc h 3 x + csc h x coth 2 x sec h 2 csc h 3 x + csc h x coth 2 x csc h x
− = −
2 4 tanh ( x
2
) 2 2
=
csc h 3 x + csc h x coth 2 x − csc h x
=
(
csc h 3 x + csc h x coth 2 x − 1 ) = csc h x + csc h x csc h
3 2
x
2 2 2
sec h 3 x + sec h 3 x 2 csc h 3 x
= = = csc h 3 x
2 2
∫ sinh x cosh x dx = ∫ sinh x cosh x dx = ∫ sinh x cosh x dx =

2 2 2 5 4 2
a. b. c.
∫ sinh x cosh x dx = ∫ tanh x sec h x dx = ∫ tanh x sec h x dx =

3 2 5 4 3 3
d. e. f.
∫ coth ∫ coth ∫ coth

2
g. x csc h 2 x dx = h. 3
x csc h 3 x dx = i. 3
x csc h 4 x dx =
Solutions:
1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ sinh ∫ ∫ 2 ( cosh 4 x − 1 ) dx ∫ ( cosh 4 x − 1) dx ∫ ∫
2
a. x cosh 2 x dx = sinh 2 2 x dx = = = cosh 4 x dx − dx
4 4 8 8 8
1 1 x 1 1
= ⋅ sinh 4 x − + c = sinh 4 x − x + c
8 4 8 32 8
1 1 4 cosh 4 x 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = sinh 4 x − x + c , then y ′ = − +0 = cosh 4 x − = ( cosh 4 x − 1)
32 8 32 8 8 8 8

1 1 1
= ⋅ ( cosh 4 x − 1) = ⋅ sinh 2 2 x = sinh 2 x cosh 2 x
4 2 4
∫ sinh x (cosh x ) cosh x dx = ∫ sinh x (1 + sinh x ) cos x dx

2 2 2 2
∫ sinh ∫ sinh
2
b. x cosh 5 x dx = 2
x cosh 4 x cosh x dx = 2 2
∫ sinh x (1 + sinh x + 2 sinh x ) cosh x dx ∫ ( sinh )

2 4 2 2
= = x cosh x + sinh 6 x cosh x + 2 sinh 4 x cosh x dx
1 1 2
sinh 3 x + sinh 7 x + sinh 5 x + c
∫ sinh ∫ ∫
2
= x cosh x dx + sinh 6 x cosh x dx + 2 sinh 4 x cosh x dx =
3 7 5
1 1 2 3 sinh 2 x cosh x 7 sinh 6 x cosh x

Check: Let y = sinh 3 x + sinh 7 x + sinh 5 x + c , then y ′ = +
3 7 5 3 7
+
10 sinh 4 x cosh x
5
= sinh 2 x cosh x + sinh 6 x cosh x + 2 sinh 4 x cosh x = sinh 2 x cosh x 1 + sinh 4 x + 2 sinh 2 x ( )
(
= sinh 2 x cosh x 1 + sinh 2 x )
2
= sinh 2 x cosh x cosh 2 x( )
2
= sinh 2 x cosh x cosh 4 x = sinh 2 x cosh 5 x
∫ ( 12 sinh 2 x )
2 1 1
∫ sinh ∫ ( sinh x cosh x ) ( cosh 2 x − 1 ) dx ∫
4 2
c. x cosh 2 x dx = sinh 2 x dx = ⋅ = − sinh 2 2 x dx
2 8
1 1 1 1 1 1
∫sinh 2 2 x cosh 2 x dx ∫ 2 ( cosh 4 x − 1 ) dx + 8 ∫ sinh ∫ ∫
2
+ = − 2 x cosh 2 x dx = dx − cosh 4 x dx
8 8 16 16
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⋅ sinh 3 2 x = x − ⋅ sinh 4 x + sinh 3 2 x + c = x− sinh 4 x + sinh 3 2 x + c
8 6 16 16 4 48 16 64 48
1 1 1 1 4 cosh 4 x 6 sinh 2 2 x cosh 2 x

Check: Let y = x − sinh 4 x + sinh 3 2 x + c , then y ′ = − + +0
16 64 48 16 64 48
1
= − ( cosh 4 x − 1) + 1 sinh 2 2 x cos 2 x 1 1
= − ⋅ ( cosh 4 x − 1) + sinh 2 2 x cosh 2 x
1
16 8 8 2 8
2
1 1 1 1
= − ⋅ sinh 2 2 x + sinh 2 2 x cosh 2 x =  sinh 2 x  ⋅ ( cosh 2 x − 1) = ( sinh x cosh x )2 sinh 2 x
8 8 2  2
= sinh 2 x cosh 2 x ⋅ sinh 2 x = sinh 4 x cosh 2 x
∫ sinh ∫ sinh x (1 + sinh x )dx = ∫ ( sinh x + sinh x ) dx = ∫ sinh x dx + ∫ sinh x dx .

3
d. x cosh 2 x dx = 3 2 3 5 3 5
In
1 2
Example, 5.4-5, problem letters f and g, we found ∫ sinh 5 x dx = cosh 5 x − cosh 3 x + cosh x + c and
5 3
1
∫ sinh
3
x dx = cosh 3 x − cosh x + c . Therefore,
3
1 1 2 
∫ sinh ∫ sinh ∫
3
x cosh 2 x dx = 3
x dx + sinh 5 x dx = cosh 3 x − cosh x + c +  cosh 5 x − cosh 3 x + cosh x + c 
3 5 3 

1 1 2 1 1
= cosh 5 x + cosh 3 x − cosh 3 x − cosh x + cosh x + c = cosh 5 x − cosh 3 x + c
5 3 3 5 3
1 1 1 3
Check: Let y = cosh 5 x − cosh 3 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 5 cosh 4 x ⋅ sinh x − ⋅ cosh 2 x ⋅ sinh x + 0
5 3 5 3
( )
= sinh x cosh 4 x − sinh x cosh 2 x = sinh x cosh 2 x cosh 2 x − 1 = sinh x cosh 2 x sinh 2 x = sinh 3 x cosh 2 x
∫ tanh ∫ tanh ∫ tanh x (1 − tanh x ) sec h x dx = − ∫ tanh 7 x sec h 2 x dx

5
e. x sec h 4 x dx = 5
x sec h 2 x sec h 2 x dx = 5 2 2
1 1
tanh8 x + tanh6 x + c
∫
+ tanh 5 x sec h 2 x dx = −
8 6
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = − tanh 8 x + tanh 6 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 8 tanh 7 x ⋅ sec h 2 x + ⋅ 6 tanh 5 x ⋅ sec h 2 x + 0
8 6 8 6
( )
= − tanh 7 x sec h 2 x + tanh 5 x sec h 2 x = tanh 5 x sec h 2 x 1 − tanh 2 x = tanh 5 x sec h 2 x sec h 2 x
= tanh 5 x sec h 4 x
∫ tanh ∫ tanh ∫ (1 − sec h x )sec h x ⋅ tanh x sec h x dx

3
f. x sec h 3 x dx = 2
x sec h 2 x ⋅ tanh x sec h x dx = 2 2
= − ∫ sec h 4 x ⋅ tanh x sec h x dx + ∫ sec h 2 x ⋅ tanh x sec h x dx . To solve the first and the second integral
du d du du
let u = sec h x , then = sec h x ; = − sec h x tanh x ; dx = − . Therefore,
dx dx dx sec h x tanh x
∫ tanh ∫ tanh ∫
3
x sec h 3 x dx = 2
x sec h 2 x ⋅ tanh x sec h x dx = − sec h 4 x ⋅ tanh x sec h x dx
tanh x sec h x tanh x sec h x

∫
+ sec h 2 x ⋅ tanh x sec h x dx = − u 4 ⋅ − ∫ ∫
du + u 2 ⋅ − ∫u ∫
4
du = du − u 2 du
tanh x sec h x tanh x sec h x
1 5 1 3 1 1
= u − u +c = sec h 5 x − sec h 3 x + c
5 3 5 3
1 1 5 3
Check: Let y = sec h 5 x − sec h 3 x + c , then y ′ = sec h 4 x ⋅ − sec h x tanh x − sec h 2 x ⋅ − sec h x tanh x
5 3 5 3
4 2
( 4
= − sec h x ⋅ sec h x tanh x + sec h x ⋅ sec h x tanh x = − sec h x + sec h x sec h x tanh x 2
)
( )
= 1 − sec h 2 x sec h 2 x sec h x tanh x = tanh 2 x sec h 2 x sec h x tanh x = tanh 3 x sec h 3 x
du d du −du
g. Given ∫ coth 2 x csc h 2 x dx let u = coth x , then = coth x ; = − csc h 2 x ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx csc h 2 x
u 2 csc h 2 x 1 1
∫ coth 2 x csc h 2 x dx = ∫ du = − ∫ u 2 du = − u 3 + c = − coth 3 x + c
− csc h x 2 3 3

1 1 3
Check: Let y = − coth 3 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 3 coth 2 x ⋅ − csc h 2 x + 0 = ⋅ coth 2 x csc h 2 x = coth 2 x csc h 2 x
3 3 3
∫ coth ∫ coth x coth ∫ coth x (1 + csc h x ) csc h x dx = ∫ csc h x coth x dx

3
h. x csc h 3 x dx = 2
x csc h 3 x dx = 2 2 4
1 1
csc h 5 x − csc h 3 x + c
∫
+ csc h 2 x coth x dx = −
5 3
1 1 5 3
Check: Let y = − csc h 5 x − csc h 3 x + c , then y ′ = − csc h 4 x ⋅ − csc h x coth x − csc h 2 x ⋅ − csc h x coth x
5 3 5 3
( )
= csc h 5 x coth x + csc h 3 x coth x = csc h 3 x coth x csc h 2 x + 1 = csc h 3 x coth x coth 2 x = coth 3 x csc h 3 x
∫ coth ∫ coth ∫ coth x ( coth x − 1) csc h x dx = ∫ coth x csc h x dx

3
i. x csc h 4 x dx = 3
x csc h 2 x csc h 2 x dx = 3 2 2 5 2
1 1
coth 6 x + coth 4 x + c
∫
− coth 3 x csc h 2 x dx = −
6 4
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = − coth 6 x + coth 4 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 6 coth 5 x ⋅ − csc h 2 x + ⋅ 4 coth 3 x ⋅ − csc h 2 x + 0
6 4 6 4
( )
= coth 5 x csc h 2 x − coth 3 x csc h 2 x = coth 3 x csc h 2 x coth 2 x − 1 = coth 3 x csc h 2 x csc h 2 x
= coth 3 x csc h 4 x
Table 5.4-3 provides a summary of the basic integration formulas covered in this book.
Section 5.4 Practice Problems – Integration of Hyperbolic Functions
∫ cosh 3x dx = ∫ (sinh 2 x − e ) dx ∫ csc h 5x dx =

3x
a. b. = c.
d. ∫x
2
sec h 2 x3dx = e.
2 3
∫3x ( )
csc h 2 x 4 + 1 dx = f. ∫x
3
( )
csc h 2 x 4 + 5 dx =
g. ∫ cosh
7
( x + 1) sinh ( x + 1) dx = h. ∫ csc h (5x + 3) coth (5x + 3) dx = i. ∫e
x +1
sec h e x +1 dx =
∫ tanh x sec h x dx = ∫ coth ( x + 1) csc h ( x + 1) dx = ∫ e tanh e dx =

5 2 6 2 3x 3x
a. b. c.
∫ x sec h ( x + 1) dx =
cosh (3 x + 5 )
∫ sec h ( 3x + 2) dx = ∫e sinh (3 x + 5) dx
3 4
d. e. f. =
∫ tanh x dx = ∫ coth x dx = ∫ coth x dx =

5 5 6
g. h. i.

Table 5.4-3: Basic Integration Formulas

x n +1
1. ∫ a dx = ax + c a≠0
2. ∫x
n
dx =
n +1
+c n ≠ −1
3. ∫ a f (x ) dx = a ∫ f (x ) dx a≠0 4. ∫ [ f (x ) + g (x ) ] dx = ∫ f (x ) dx + ∫ g (x ) dx
5. ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c 6. ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
7. ∫ tan x dx = ln sec x + c 8. ∫ cot x dx = ln sin x + c
9. ∫ sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + c 10. ∫ csc x dx = ln csc x − cot x + c
11. ∫ tan x sec x dx = sec x + c 12. ∫ cot x csc x dx = − csc x + c

x sin 2 x x sin 2 x
∫ sin ∫ cos
2 2
13. x dx = − +c 14. x dx = + +c
2 4 2 4
∫ tan ∫ tan
2 2
15. x dx = tan x − x + c 16. x dx = tan x − x + c
∫ cot ∫ sec
2 2
17. x dx = − cot x − x + c 18. x dx = tan x + c
1
∫ csc
2
19. x dx = − cot x + c 20. ∫ x dx = ln x + c
ax
21. ∫ ln xdx = x ln x − x + c
22. ∫ a x dx =
ln a
+c a 0 and a ≠ 1
1 1 x 1 x
∫e dx = e x + c
x
23. 24. ∫ 2
a −x 2
dx =
a
arc sin + c = sin −1 + c
a a a
1 1 x 1 x 1 1 a+x
25. ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx =
a
arc tan + c = tan −1 + c
a a a
26. ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx =
2a
ln
a−x
+c
1 1 x−a 1 1 x 1 x
27. ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx =
2a
ln
x+a
+c 28. ∫x x2 − a2
dx =
a
arc sec + c = sec−1 + c
a a a
29. ∫ sinh x dx = cosh x + c 30. ∫ cosh x dx = sinh x + c

31. ∫ tanh x dx = ln cosh x + c 32. ∫ coth x dx = ln sinh x + c
33. ∫ sec h x dx = sin

−1
(tanh x ) + c x
34. ∫ csc h x dx = ln tanh
2
+c
35. ∫ tanh x sec h x dx = − sec h x + c 36. ∫ coth x csc h x dx = − csc h x + c

sinh 2 x x sinh 2 x x
∫ sinh ∫ cosh
2 2
37. x dx = − +c 38. x dx = + +c
4 2 4 2
∫ tanh ∫ coth
2 2
39. x dx = x − tanh x + c 40. x dx = x − coth x + c
∫ sec h ∫ csc h
2 2
41. x dx = tanh x + c 42. x dx = − coth x + c

Appendix - Exercise Solutions
Chapter 1 Solutions:
Section 1.1 Solutions - Sequences
1. List the first four and tenth terms of the given sequence.
2n + 1 2 ⋅1 + 1 3 2⋅ 2 +1 5
a. Given a n = , then a1 = = − = −1.5 a2 = = − = −1.25
− 2n − 2 ⋅1 2 − 2⋅2 4
2⋅3 +1 7 2⋅ 4 +1 9 2 ⋅ 10 + 1 21
a3 = = − = −1.17 a4 = = − = −1.13 a10 = = − = −1.05
− 2⋅3 6 − 2⋅4 8 − 2 ⋅ 10 20
k (k + 1) 1 ⋅ (1 + 1) 1⋅ 2 2 2 ⋅ (2 + 1) 2⋅3 6
b. Given bk = , then b1 = = = = 2 b2 = = = = 1.5
k 2
12 1 1 22 4 4
3 ⋅ (3 + 1) 3⋅ 4 12 4 ⋅ (4 + 1) 4⋅5 20 10 ⋅ (10 + 1) 110

b3 = = = = 1.33 b4 = = = = 1.25 b10 = = = 1.1
32 9 9 42 16 16 102 100
c. Given d n = 3 − (− 2 )n , then d1 = 3 − (− 2 )1 = 3 − (− 2 ) = 3 + 2 = 5
d 2 = 3 − (− 2 )2 = 3 − (+ 4 ) = 3 − 4 = −1 d3 = 3 − (− 2 )3 = 3 − (−8) = 3 + 8 = 11
d 4 = 3 − (− 2 )4 = 3 − (+16 ) = 3 − 16 = −13 d10 = 3 − (− 2 )10 = 3 − (+1024 ) = 3 − 1024 = −1021
1 (− 1)2
1
(− 1)n+1 , then  1  (− 1)
n 1+1
 1 1 1 1
d. Given k n =  −  k1 =  −  = − ⋅ = − ⋅ = −
 2 n+2  2  1+ 2 2 3 2 3 6
1 (− 1)3 1 (− 1)4
2 3
 1
k2 =  − 
(− 1)2+1 = ⋅
1 1
= ⋅− = −
1  1  (− 1)
k3 =  − 
3+1
= − ⋅
1 1
= − ⋅ = −
1
 2 2+2 4 4 4 4 16  2 3+ 2 8 5 8 5 40
1 (− 1)5 1 (− 1)11
4 10
 1
k4 =  − 
(− 1)4+1 = ⋅ =
1 1
⋅− = −
1  1
k10 =  − 
(− 1)10+1 = ⋅ =
−1
 2 4+2 16 6 16 6 96  2 10 + 2 1024 12 12,288
2. Write s3 , s 4 , s 5 , s 8 , and s10 for the following sequences.
n(n + 1) 3 ⋅ (3 + 1) 3⋅ 4 3⋅ 4⋅3 36
a. Given s n = , then s3 = −1
= −1
= = = 18
−1 2 2
2n 2⋅3 2⋅3
4 ⋅ (4 + 1) 4⋅5 4⋅5⋅4 80 5 ⋅ (5 + 1) 5⋅6 5⋅6⋅5 150
s4 = −1
= −1
= = = 40 s5 = −1
= −1
= = = 75
2⋅4 2⋅4 2 2 2⋅5 2⋅5 2 2
8 ⋅ (8 + 1) 8⋅9 8⋅9⋅8 576 10 ⋅ (10 + 1) 10 ⋅ 11 10 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 1100
s8 = = = = = 288 s10 = = = = = 550
2 ⋅ 8−1 2 ⋅ 8−1 2 2 2 ⋅ 10−1 2 ⋅ 10−1 2 2
b. Given s n = (− 1)n +1 2 n − 2 , then s3 = (− 1)3+1 ⋅ 23− 2 = (− 1)4 ⋅ 21 = 1⋅ 2 = 2
s4 = (− 1)4 +1 ⋅ 24 − 2 = (− 1)5 ⋅ 22 = −1⋅ 4 = −4 s5 = (− 1)5+1 ⋅ 25− 2 = (− 1)6 ⋅ 23 = 1⋅ 8 = 8
s8 = (− 1)8+1 ⋅ 28− 2 = (− 1)9 ⋅ 26 = −1⋅ 64 = −64 s10 = (− 1)10 +1 ⋅ 210 − 2 = (− 1)11 ⋅ 28 = −1⋅ 256 = −256
c. Given s n =
(− 2)n +1 (n − 2) , then s3 =
(− 2)3+1(3 − 2) =
(− 2)4 ⋅ 1 =
16
= 2.67
2n 2⋅3 6 6
s4 =
(− 2) (4 − 2)
4 +1
=
(− 2) 5
⋅2
=
−32 ⋅ 2
= −8 s5 =
(− 2) (5 − 2)
5 +1
=
(− 2)6 ⋅ 3 =
64 ⋅ 3
= 19.2
2⋅4 8 8 2⋅5 10 10
s8 =
(− 2) (8 − 2)
8 +1
=
(− 2) 9
⋅6
=
−512 ⋅ 6
= −192 s10 =
(− 2) 10 +1
(10 − 2) =
(− 2)11 ⋅ 8 =
−2048 ⋅ 8
= −819.2
2⋅8 16 16 2 ⋅ 10 20 20

Calculus I Chapter 1 Solutions
3. Write the first five terms of the following sequences.
a. Given a n = (− 1)n +1 (n + 2 ) , then a1 = (− 1)1+1 (1 + 2 ) = (− 1)2 ⋅ 3 = 1⋅ 3 = 3
a2 = (− 1)2 +1 (2 + 2 ) = (− 1)3 ⋅ 4 = −1⋅ 4 = −4 a3 = (− 1)3+1 (3 + 2 ) = (− 1)4 ⋅ 5 = 1⋅ 5 = 5
a4 = (− 1)4 +1 (4 + 2 ) = (− 1)5 ⋅ 6 = −1⋅ 6 = −6 a5 = (− 1)5+1 (5 + 2 ) = (− 1)6 ⋅ 7 = 1⋅ 7 = 7
i −2 1− 2 −1
 1   1   1  1 100
b. Given a i = 3  , then a1 = 3  = 3  = 3⋅ = 3⋅ = 300
 100   100   100  1 1
100
2− 2 0 3− 2 1
 1   1   1   1  1 3
a2 = 3  = 3  = 3 ⋅1 = 3 a3 = 3  = 3  = 3⋅ 1
=
 100   100   100   100  100 100
4− 2 2 5− 2 3
 1   1  1 3  1   1  1 3
a4 = 3  = 3  = 3⋅ = a5 = 3  = 3  = 3⋅ =
 100   100  1002 10,000  100   100  1003 1,000,000
i −1 1−1 0
 1  1  1
c. Given c i = 3 −  , then c1 = 3 −  = 3 −  = 3 ⋅ 1 = 3
 5  5  5
2 −1 1 3−1 2
 1  1 1 3  1  1 1 3
c2 = 3 −  = 3 −  = 3 ⋅ − = − = −0.6 c3 = 3 −  = 3 −  = 3 ⋅ 2 = = 0.12
 5  5 5 5  5  5 5 25
4 −1 3 5 −1 4
 1  1 1 3  1  1 1 3
c4 = 3 −  = 3 −  = 3 ⋅ − 3 = − = −0.024 c5 = 3 −  = 3 −  = 3 ⋅ 4 = = 0.0048
 5  5  5 125  5  5  5 625
d. Given a n = (3n − 5)2 , then a1 = (3 ⋅ 1 − 5)2 = (3 − 5)2 = (− 2 )2 = 4
a2 = (3 ⋅ 2 − 5)2 = (6 − 5)2 = 12 = 1 a3 = (3 ⋅ 3 − 5)2 = (9 − 5)2 = 42 = 16
a4 = (3 ⋅ 4 − 5)2 = (12 − 5)2 = 7 2 = 49 a5 = (3 ⋅ 5 − 5)2 = (15 − 5)2 = 102 = 100

a
e. Given u k = ar k − 2 + 2 , then u1 = ar1− 2 + 2 = ar −1 + 2 = +2
r
u2 = ar 2 − 2 + 2 = ar 0 + 2 = a + 2 u3 = ar 3− 2 + 2 = ar1 + 2 = ar + 2
u4 = ar 4 − 2 + 2 = ar 2 + 2 u5 = ar 5− 2 + 2 = ar 3 + 2
k −2 1− 2 −1
2 2 2 1 3 9
f. Given bk = −3  , then b1 = − 3 ⋅   = − 3⋅  = − 3⋅ = − 3⋅ = −
3 3 3 2 2 2
3
2− 2 0 3− 2
2 2 2 2 3/ ⋅ 2
b2 = − 3 ⋅   = − 3 ⋅   = −3 ⋅ 1 = −3 b3 = − 3 ⋅   = − 3⋅ = − = −2
3 3 3 3 3/
4− 2 2 5− 2 3
2 2 4 4 2 2 8 8
b4 = − 3 ⋅   = − 3⋅  = − 3⋅ = − b5 = − 3 ⋅   = − 3⋅  = − 3⋅ = −
3 3 9 3 3 3 27 9
j 1 1 1+ 2 3
g. Given c j = + j , then c1 = +1 = +1 = =
j +1 1+1 2 2 2
2 2 2+6 8 3 3 3 + 12 15
c2 = +2 = +2= = c3 = +3 = +3= =
2 +1 3 3 3 3 +1 4 4 4
4 4 4 + 20 24 5 5 5 + 30 35
c4 = +4 = +4= = c5 = +5 = +5= =
4 +1 5 5 5 5 +1 6 6 6
n +1 1+1 2 2 2
 1   1   1  3 −1 2
h. Given y n = 1 −  , then y1 = 1 −  = 1 −  =   =   = 0.67 2
 n+2  1+ 2   3  3  3

2 +1 3 3 3 3+1 4 4 4
 1   1  4 −1 3  1   1  5 −1 4
y2 = 1 −  = 1 −  =   =   = 0.753 y3 = 1 −  = 1 −  =   =   = 0.84
 2+2  4  4  4  3+ 2  5  5  5
4 +1 5 5 5 5 +1 6 6 6
 1   1  6 −1 5  1   1  7 −1 6
y4 = 1 −  = 1 −  =   =   = 0.835 y5 = 1 −  = 1 −  =   =   = 0.866
 4+2  6  6  6  5+2  7  7  7
i. Given u k = 1 − (− 1)k +1 , then u1 = 1 − (− 1)1+1 = 1 − (− 1)2 = 1 − 1 = 0
u2 = 1 − (− 1)2 +1 = 1 − (− 1)3 = 1 − (−1) = 1 + 1 = 2 u3 = 1 − (− 1)3+1 = 1 − (− 1)4 = 1 − 1 = 0
u4 = 1 − (− 1)4 +1 = 1 − (− 1)5 = 1 − (−1) = 1 + 1 = 2 u5 = 1 − (− 1)5+1 = 1 − (− 1)6 = 1 − 1 = 0

k 1 1 1
j. Given y k = , then y1 = = = = 1
2 k −1 21−1 20 1
2 2 2 3 3 3
y2 = 2 −1
= 1
= = 1 y3 = 3−1
= 2
= = 0.75
2 2 2 2 2 4
4 4 4 5 5 5
y4 = 4 −1
= 3
= = 0.5 y5 = 5 −1
= 4
= = 0.313
2 2 8 2 2 16
1 1
k. Given yn = 9k (k − 2) , then y1 = 91 (1 − 2) = 9 ⋅ −1 = −9
1 1 1 1 1
y2 = 9 2 (2 − 2 ) = 9 2 ⋅ 0 = 0 y3 = 9 3 (3 − 2 ) = 9 3 ⋅ 1 = 9 3 = 3
9
1 1 1 1
y4 = 9 4 (4 − 2 ) = 9 4 ⋅ 2 = 2 4 9 y5 = 9 5 (5 − 2 ) = 9 5 ⋅ 3 = 3 5 9
n2 − 2 12 − 2 1− 2 1
l. Given c n = , then c1 = = = −
n +1 1+1 2 2
22 − 2 4−2 2 32 − 2 9−2 7
c2 = = = c3 = = =
2 +1 3 3 3 +1 4 4
42 − 2 16 − 2 14 52 − 2 25 − 2 23
c4 = = = c5 = = =
4 +1 5 5 5 +1 6 6
4. Given n! read as “n factorial” which is defined as n != n (n − 1)(n − 2 )(n − 3) 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 , find
a. 8 ! = 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 40,320
2n + 1 2 ⋅1 + 1 2 +1 3
b. Given an = , then a1 = = = = 3
n! 1! 1! 1
2⋅ 2 +1 4 +1
a2 = = = 5 = 5 = 2.5 a3 =
2⋅3 +1
=
6 +1
=
7
=
7
= 1.17
2! 2! 2 ⋅1 2 3! 3! 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 6
2⋅ 4 +1 8 +1 9 3
a4 = = = = = 0.375
4! 4! 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 8
1 + 3n −1 1 + 310 −1 1 + 39 19,684 1 + 312 −1 1 + 311 177,148

c. Given cn = , then c10 = = = and c12 = = =
(n !) 2
(10 !)2 10 ! 10 ! 10 ! 10 ! (12 !)
2 12 ! 12 ! 12 ! 12 !
n ! (n − 1)
d. The first, fifth, tenth, and fifteenth terms of yn = .
2+n!
1 ! (1 − 1) 1! ⋅ 0 0
y1 = = = = 0
2 +1! 2 +1! 3
5 ! (5 − 1) 5! ⋅4 (5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) ⋅ 4 = 120 ⋅ 4 = 480 = 3.934
y5 = = =
2+5! 2+5! 2 + (5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) 2 + 120 122
10 ! (10 − 1) 10 ! ⋅ 9 (10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) ⋅ 9 = 3,628,800 ⋅ 9 = 32,659,200 = 8.9999 ≈ 9
y10 = = =
2 + 10 ! 2 + 10 ! 2 + (10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) 2 + 3,628,800 3,628,802

10 ! (10 − 1) 10 ! ⋅ 9 10 ! ⋅ 9 1/ 0/ ! ⋅ 9
or, a quicker way of solving this problem is as follows: y10 = = ≈ = = 9
2 + 10 ! 2 + 10 ! 10 ! 1/ 0/ !
15 ! (15 − 1) 15 ! ⋅ 14 (15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1) ⋅ 14 ≈ 14 or
y15 = = =
2 + 15 ! 2 + 15 ! 2 + (15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1)
15 ! (15 − 1) 15 ! ⋅ 14 15 ! ⋅ 14 1/ 5/ ! ⋅ 14
y15 = = ≈ = = 14
2 + 15 ! 2 + 15 ! 15 ! 1/ 5/ !
5. Write the first three terms of the following sequences.
a. Given cn =
(2n − 3)(n + 1) , then c1 =
[ (2 ⋅ 1) − 3] (1 + 1) = (2 − 3) ⋅ 2 =
−1 ⋅ 2
=
2
(n − 4)n (1 − 4) ⋅ 1 − 3 ⋅1 −3 3
c2 =
[ (2 ⋅ 2) − 3] (2 + 1) = (4 − 3) ⋅3 =
1 ⋅3
= −
3
c3 =
[(2 ⋅ 3) − 3] (3 + 1) = (6 − 3) ⋅ 4 =
3 ⋅4
= −
12
= −3
(2 − 4) ⋅ 2 − 2⋅2 −4 4 (3 − 4) ⋅ 3 − 1⋅ 3 −3 4
 1  n−2  1  1− 2   1   −1 
b. Given, an =    , then a1 =    =     which is undefined
 n −1  2 + n   1−1  2 +1 0 3 
 1   2 − 2  1  0   1  3−2 11 1
a2 =    =    = 0 a3 =    =    =
 2 −1  2 + 2   1  4   3 −1  2 + 3   25 10
c. Given sn = (− 1) n +1 2 n +1 , then s1 = (− 1)1+1 ⋅ 21+1 = (− 1)2 ⋅ 22 = 1⋅ 4 = 4
s2 = (− 1)2 +1 ⋅ 22 +1 = (− 1)3 ⋅ 23 = −1⋅ 8 = −8 s3 = (− 1)3+1 ⋅ 23+1 = (− 1)4 ⋅ 24 = 1⋅ 16 = 16
k (k − 1) 1 ⋅ (1 − 1) 1⋅ 0 0
d. Given yk = (− 1)k +1 , then y1 = (− 1)1+1 ⋅ = (− 1)2 ⋅ = = 0
2 2 2 2
2 ⋅ (2 − 1) 2 ⋅1 2 3 ⋅ (3 − 1) 3⋅ 2 6
y2 = (− 1)2 +1 ⋅ = (− 1)3 ⋅ = − = 1 y3 = (− 1)3+1 ⋅ = (− 1)4 ⋅ = = 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
 n −1   1−1  0
e. Given bn = n 2   , then b1 = 12 ⋅   = 1⋅   = 0
2+n  2 + 1  3
 2 −1  1 4  3 −1   2  18
b2 = 22 ⋅   = 4⋅  = = 1 b3 = 32 ⋅   = 9⋅  = = 3.6
2+2 4 4  2+3 5 5
f. Given xa = (5 − a )a +1 2a , then x1 = (5 − 1)1+1 ⋅ 21 = 42 ⋅ 2 = 16 ⋅ 2 = 32
x2 = (5 − 2 )2 +1 ⋅ 22 = 33 ⋅ 4 = 27 ⋅ 4 = 108 x3 = (5 − 3)3+1 ⋅ 23 = 24 ⋅ 8 = 16 ⋅ 8 = 128
Section 1.2 Solutions - Series
n n
1. Given ∑ a = 10 and ∑ b = 25 , find
i =1
i
i =1
i
n n n n n
a. ∑ (2ai + 4bi ) =
i =1
∑i =1
2ai + ∑
i =1
4bi = 2 ∑
i =1
ai + 4 ∑b
i =1
i = (2 ⋅ 10 ) + (4 ⋅ 25) = 20 + 100 = 120
n n n n n
b. ∑ (− ai + bi ) =
i =1
∑
i =1
− ai + ∑
i =1
bi = − ∑ ∑b
i =1
ai +
i =1
i = −10 + 25 = 15
n n n n n
c. ∑ (3a
i =1
i + 5bi ) = ∑ 3a + ∑ 5b
i =1
i
i =1
i = 3 ∑ a + 5∑ b
i =1
i
i =1
i = (3 ⋅ 10 ) + (5 ⋅ 25) = 30 + 125 = 155
n n n n n
1 1  1 1 1 1 1  1
d. ∑
i =1
 a i + bi  =
 2 5  ∑i =1
2
ai + ∑
i =1
5
bi =
2 ∑
i =1
ai +
5 ∑b
i =1
i
 2   5

=  ⋅ 10  +  ⋅ 25  = 5 + 5 = 10


2. Evaluate each of the following series.

5
a. ∑ 2 + k = (2 + 1) + (2 + 2) + (2 + 3) + (2 + 4) + (2 + 5) = 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 = 25
k =1
6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
b. ∑ (− 2)
n =0
n +1
= + + +
(− 2)0+1 (− 2)1+1 (− 2)2+1 (− 2)3+1 (− 2)4+1 (− 2)5+1 (− 2)6+1
+ + + = + +
(− 2)1 (− 2)2 (− 2)3 (− 2)4
+
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + = − + − + − + − = −0.5 + 0.25 − 0.125 + 0.0625 − 0.031 + 0.016 − 0.008
(− 2)5 (− 2)6 (− 2)7 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
= (−0.5 − 0.125 − 0.031 − 0.008) + (0.25 + 0.0625 + 0.016 ) = −0.664 + 0.328 = −0.336
4
c. ∑ (− 1)
n =0
n +1
= (− 1)0 +1 + (− 1)1+1 + (− 1)2 +1 + (− 1)3+1 + (− 1)4 +1 = (− 1)1 + (− 1)2 + (− 1)3 + (− 1)4 + (− 1)5 = −1/ + 1/ − 1/ + 1/ − 1 = −1
[ ][ ][ ][
3
d. ∑ j −3j 2
= − 3 − 3 ⋅ (− 3)2 + − 2 − 3 ⋅ (− 2 )2 + − 1 − 3 ⋅ (− 1)2 + 0 − 3 ⋅ 02 + 1 − 3 ⋅ 12 + 2 − 3 ⋅ 22 + 3 − 3 ⋅ 32][ ][ ][ ]
j = −3
= [− 3 − (3 ⋅ 9 ) ] + [− 2 − (3 ⋅ 4 ) ] + [− 1 − (3 ⋅ 1) ] + 0 + [1 − (3 ⋅ 1) ] + [2 − (3 ⋅ 4 ) ] + [3 − (3 ⋅ 9 ) ] = [− 3 − 27] + [− 2 − 12] + [− 1 − 3] + [1 − 3]
+[2 − 12] + [3 − 27] = −30 − 14 − 4 − 2 − 10 − 24 = −84

5
e. ∑ (a + 2)
a =3
a
= (3 + 2 )3 + (4 + 2 )4 + (5 + 2 )5 = 53 + 64 + 75 = 125 + 1296 + 16807 = 18,228
5
(− 1)i +1 (− 1)0+1 + (− 1)1+1 + (− 1)2+1 + (− 1)3+1 + (− 1)4+1 + (− 1)5+1 (− 1)1 + (− 1)2 + (− 1)3 + (− 1)4 + (− 1)5 + (− 1)6
f. ∑
i =0
2i
=
20 21 22 23 24 25
=
1 2 4 8 16 32
1 1 1 1 1
= −1+ − + − + = −1 + 0.5 − 0.25+ 0.125− 0.063 + 0.031 = −1.313+ 0.656 = −0.657
2 4 8 16 32
3
g. ∑ (2k − 3)
k = −2
k +2
= [(2 ⋅ −2 ) − 3]−2 + 2 + [(2 ⋅ −1) − 3]−1+ 2 + [(2 ⋅ 0 ) − 3]0 + 2 + [(2 ⋅ 1) − 3]1+ 2 + [(2 ⋅ 2 ) − 3]2 + 2 + [(2 ⋅ 3) − 3]3+ 2
= [− 4 − 3]0 + [− 2 − 3]1 + [0 − 3]2 + [2 − 3]3 + [4 − 3]4 + [6 − 3]5 = (− 7 )0 + (− 5)1 + (− 3)2 + (− 1)3 + 14 + 35 = 248
5 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1   1   1   1   1 
h. ∑
m =1

 − 1
m 
=  − 1 +  − 1 +  − 1 +  − 1 +  − 1
1   2   3   4   5 
= (1 − 1)2 + (0.5 − 1)2 + (0.333 − 1)2 + (0.25 − 1)2 + (0.2 − 1)2
= 02 + (− 0.5)2 + (0.667 )2 + (− 0.75)2 + (− 0.8)2 = 0.25+ 0.445 + 0.563+ 0.64 = 1.898
3. Find the sum of the following series within the specified range.
3
a. ∑10
i = −3
i
= 10−3 + 10−2 + 10−1 + 100 + 101 + 102 + 103 = 0.001 + 0.01 + 0.1 + 1 + 10 + 100 + 1000 = 1111.111
6
n −1 0 −1 1−1 2 −1 3 −1 4 −1 5 −1 6 −1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
b. ∑2
n =0
n
=
20
+ 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = − + + + +
2 2 2 2 2 2
+ +
1 2 4 8 16 32 64
= −1 + 0.25 + 0.25 + 0.1875
+0.125 + 0.08 = −0.108

4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
c. ∑ 10
a =0
a
=
100
+
101
+
102
+
103
+
104
= + + + +
1 10 100 1000 10000
= 1 + 0.1 + 0.01 + 0.001 + 0.0001 = 1.1111
5
d. ∑ (n 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
− n = 12 − 1 + 22 − 2 + 32 − 3 + 42 − 4 + 52 − 5 = 0 + (4 − 2 ) + (9 − 3) + (16 − 4 ) + (25 − 5) = 2 + 6 + 12 + 20 = 40
n =1

6
e. ∑ (− 1)
m =0
m +1
= (− 1)0 +1 + (− 1)1+1 + (− 1)2 +1 + (− 1)3+1 + (− 1)4 +1 + (− 1)5+1 + (− 1)6 +1 = (− 1)1 + (− 1)2 + (− 1)3 + (− 1)4 + (− 1)5
+ (− 1)6 + (− 1)7 = −1/ + 1/ − 1/ + 1/ − 1/ + 1/ − 1 = −1

5
1 + (− 1)k 1 + (− 1)0 1 + (− 1)1 1 + (− 1)2 1 + (− 1)3 1 + (− 1)4 1 + (− 1)5 1+1 1−1 1+1 1−1 1+1 1−1
f. ∑
k =0 2 k
=
2 0
+ 1
2
+
2 2
+
2 3
+
2 4
+
25
=
1
+
2
+
4
+
8
+
16
+
32
2 0 2 0 2 0
= + + + + + = 2 + 0.5 + 0.125 = 2.625
1 2 4 8 16 32
6
g. ∑ [5(a − 1) + 3] = [5(1 − 1) + 3] + [5(2 − 1) + 3] + [5(3 − 1) + 3] + [5(4 − 1) + 3] + [5(5 − 1) + 3] + [5(6 − 1) + 3] = [5 ⋅ 0 + 3] + [5 ⋅1 + 3]
a =1
+[5 ⋅ 2 + 3] + [5 ⋅ 3 + 3] + [5 ⋅ 4 + 3] + [5 ⋅ 5 + 3] = 3 + 8 + 13 + 18 + 23 + 28 = 93
5 k −1 0 −1 1−1 2 −1 3−1 4 −1 5 −1 −1 0 1 2
 1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1
h. ∑
k =0
− 
 3
= − 
 3
+ − 
 3
+ − 
 3
+ − 
 3
+ − 
 3
+ − 
 3
= − 
 3
+ −  + −  + − 
 3  3  3
3 4
 1  1 1 1 1 1
+ −  + −  = − 3 +1− + − + = −3 + 1 − 0.33 + 0.11 − 0.04 + 0.01 = −2.25
 3   3  3 9 27 81
5
i. ∑ ( j − 3 j ) = (1 − 3 ⋅1 )+ (2 − 3 ⋅ 2 )+ (3 − 3 ⋅ 3 )+ (4 − 3 ⋅ 4 )+ (5 − 3 ⋅ 5 ) = (1 − 3) + (2 − 12) + (3 − 27) + (4 − 48) + (5 − 75)
j =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
= −2 − 10 − 24 − 44 − 72 = −152
4 4
n +1 n2  1 + 1 2 + 1 3 + 1 4 + 1   12 22 32 42   2 3 4 5   1 4 9 16 
j. ∑
n =1
n
− ∑n =1
n +1
= 
 1
+
2
+
3
+ − + + + =  + + + − + + + 
4   1 + 1 2 + 1 3 + 1 4 + 1   1 2 3 4   2 3 4 5 
= (2 + 1.5 + 1.33 + 1.25) − (0.5 + 1.33 + 2.25 + 3.2 ) = 6.08 − 7.28 = −1.2
5
5 5 5 5 5
k. ∑ 5k
k =1
−1
= 5 ⋅ 1−1 + 5 ⋅ 2−1 + 5 ⋅ 3−1 + 5 ⋅ 4−1 + 5 ⋅ 5−1 = + + + + = 5 + 2.5 + 1.67 + 1.25 + 1 = 11.42
1 2 3 4 5
4
l. ∑ (− 0.1)
i =1
2i − 5
= (− 0.1)2⋅1−5 + (− 0.1)2⋅2 −5 + (− 0.1)2⋅3−5 + (− 0.1)2⋅4 −5 = (− 0.1)−3 + (− 0.1)−1 + (− 0.1)1 + (− 0.1)3
1 1 1 1
= + − 0.1 − 0.001 = + − 0.1 − 0.001 = −1000 − 10 − 0.1 − 0.001 = −1010.101
(− 0.1)3 (− 0.1)1 − 0.001 − 0.1
4. Rewrite the following terms using the sigma notation.
5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 n
a. + + + + + =
2 3 4 5 6 7 ∑n+2
n=0
b. + + + + + =
2 3 4 5 6 7 ∑ n+1
n =1
5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1
c. 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 = ∑2
k =0
k +1
d. 1 + + + + + =
2 3 4 5 6 ∑k
k =1
6 6
1 2 3 4 5 n−1 1 1 1 1 1 (− 1)n+1
e. 0 + + + + + =
2 3 4 5 6 ∑
i =1
n
f. 1 − + − + − =
2 3 4 5 6 ∑
n =1
n
Section 1.3 Solutions - Arithmetic Sequences and Arithmetic Series
1. Find the next seven terms of the following arithmetic sequences.

a. Substituting s1 = 3 and d = 2 into the general arithmetic sequence s n = s1 + (n − 1)d for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 we obtain
s 2 = s1 + (2 − 1)d = s1 + d = 3 + 2 = 5
s3 = s1 + (3 − 1)d = s1 + 2d = 3 + (2 ⋅ 2 ) = 3 + 4 = 7

s4 = s1 + (4 − 1)d = s1 + 3d = 3 + (3 ⋅ 2 ) = 3 + 6 = 9
s5 = s1 + (5 − 1)d = s1 + 4d = 3 + (4 ⋅ 2 ) = 3 + 8 = 11
s6 = s1 + (6 − 1)d = s1 + 5d = 3 + (5 ⋅ 2 ) = 3 + 10 = 13
s7 = s1 + (7 − 1)d = s1 + 6d = 3 + (6 ⋅ 2 ) = 3 + 12 = 15
Thus, the first seven terms of the arithmetic sequence are (3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 )
b. Substituting s1 = −3 and d = 2 into the general arithmetic sequence s n = s1 + (n − 1)d for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 we obtain
s 2 = s1 + (2 − 1)d = s1 + d = −3 + 2 = −1
s3 = s1 + (3 − 1)d = s1 + 2d = −3 + (2 ⋅ 2 ) = −3 + 4 = 1
s4 = s1 + (4 − 1)d = s1 + 3d = −3 + (3 ⋅ 2 ) = −3 + 6 = 3
s5 = s1 + (5 − 1)d = s1 + 4d = −3 + (4 ⋅ 2 ) = −3 + 8 = 5
s6 = s1 + (6 − 1)d = s1 + 5d = −3 + (5 ⋅ 2 ) = −3 + 10 = 7
s7 = s1 + (7 − 1)d = s1 + 6d = −3 + (6 ⋅ 2 ) = −3 + 12 = 9
Thus, the first seven terms of the arithmetic sequence are (− 3, − 1, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 )
c. Substituting s1 = 10 and d = 0.8 into the general arithmetic sequence s n = s1 + (n − 1)d for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 we obtain
s 2 = s1 + (2 − 1)d = s1 + d = 10 + 0.8 = 10.8

s3 = s1 + (3 − 1)d = s1 + 2d = 10 + (2 ⋅ 0.8) = 10 + 1.6 = 11.6
s4 = s1 + (4 − 1)d = s1 + 3d = 10 + (3 ⋅ 0.8) = 10 + 2.4 = 12.4
s5 = s1 + (5 − 1)d = s1 + 4d = 10 + (4 ⋅ 0.8) = 10 + 3.2 = 13.2
s6 = s1 + (6 − 1)d = s1 + 5d = 10 + (5 ⋅ 0.8) = 10 + 4 = 14
s7 = s1 + (7 − 1)d = s1 + 6d = 10 + (6 ⋅ 0.8) = 10 + 4.8 = 14.8
Thus, the first seven terms of the arithmetic sequence are (10, 10.8, 11.6, 12.4, 13.2, 14, 14.8 )
2. Find the general term and the eighth term of the following arithmetic sequences.
a. Given s1 = 3 and d = 4 , the nth term of the arithmetic sequence is equal to s n = s1 + (n − 1)d = 3 + (n − 1) ⋅ 4 = 3 + 4n − 4
= 4n − 1 . Substituting n = 8 into the general equation s n = 4n − 1 we have s8 = 4 ⋅ 8 − 1 = 32 − 1 = 31
b. Given s1 = −3 and d = 5 , the nth term of the arithmetic sequence is equal to s n = s1 + (n − 1)d = −3 + (n − 1) ⋅ 5 = −3 + 5n − 5
= 5n − 8 . Substituting n = 8 into the general equation s n = 5n − 8 we have s8 = 5 ⋅ 8 − 8 = 40 − 8 = 32
c. Given s1 = 8 and d = −1.2 , the nth term of the arithmetic sequence is equal to s n = s1 + (n − 1)d = 8 + (n − 1) ⋅ −1.2
= 8 − 1.2n + 1.2 = −1.2n + 9.2 . Substituting n = 8 into the general equation s n = −1.2n + 9.2 we have s8 = −1.2 ⋅ 8 + 9.2
= −9.6 + 9.2 = −0.4

3. Find the next six terms in each of the following arithmetic sequences.
a. Given the arithmetic sequence 5, 8,  , s1 = 5 and d = 8 − 5 = 3 . Therefore, using the general arithmetic equation
sn = s1 + (n − 1)d or sn +1 = sn + d the next six terms are as follows:
s3 = s2 + d = 8 + 3 = 11 s4 = s3 + d = 11 + 3 = 14 s5 = s4 + d = 14 + 3 = 17
s6 = s5 + d = 17 + 3 = 20 s7 = s6 + d = 20 + 3 = 23 s8 = s7 + d = 23 + 3 = 26
Thus, the first eight terms of the arithmetic sequence are (5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26 )
b. Given the arithmetic sequence x, x + 4,  , s1 = x and d = (x + 4 ) − x = 4 . Therefore, using the general arithmetic equation
s3 = s2 + d = (x + 4 ) + 4 = x + 8 s4 = s3 + d = (x + 8) + 4 = x + 12

s5 = s4 + d = (x + 12 ) + 4 = x + 16 s6 = s5 + d = (x + 16 ) + 4 = x + 20
s7 = s6 + d = (x + 20 ) + 4 = x + 24 s8 = s7 + d = (x + 24 ) + 4 = x + 28
Thus, the first eight terms of the arithmetic sequence are ( x , x + 4, x + 8, x + 12, x + 16, x + 20, x + 24, x + 28 )
c. Given the arithmetic sequence 3 x + 1, 3 x + 4,  , s1 = 3 x + 1 and d = (3 x + 4 ) − (3 x + 1) = 3 . Therefore, using the general
arithmetic equation sn = s1 + (n − 1)d or sn +1 = sn + d the next six terms are as follows:
s3 = s2 + d = (3 x + 4 ) + 3 = 3 x + 7 s4 = s3 + d = (3 x + 7 ) + 3 = 3 x + 10
s5 = s4 + d = (3 x + 10 ) + 3 = 3 x + 13 s6 = s5 + d = (3 x + 13) + 3 = 3 x + 16
s7 = s6 + d = (3 x + 16 ) + 3 = 3 x + 19 s8 = s7 + d = (3 x + 19 ) + 3 = 3 x + 22
Thus, the first eight terms of the arithmetic sequence are (3 x + 1, 3 x + 4, 3 x + 7, 3 x + 10, 3 x + 13, 3 x + 16, 3 x + 19, 3 x + 22 )
d. Given the arithmetic sequence w, w − 10,  , s1 = w and d = (w − 10 ) − w = −10 . Using the general arithmetic equation
s3 = s2 + d = (w − 10 ) − 10 = w − 20 s4 = s3 + d = (w − 20 ) − 10 = w − 30
s5 = s4 + d = (w − 30 ) − 10 = w − 40 s6 = s5 + d = (w − 40 ) − 10 = w − 50
s7 = s6 + d = (w − 50 ) − 10 = w − 60 s8 = s7 + d = (w − 60 ) − 10 = w − 70
Thus, the first eight terms of the arithmetic sequence are (w , w − 10, w − 20, w − 30, w − 40, w − 50, w − 60, w − 70 )
4. Find the sum of the following arithmetic series.
20
a. The first three terms of the given series are ∑ (2i − 4) = (2 ⋅10 − 4) + (2 ⋅11 − 4) + (2 ⋅12 − 4) + 
i =10
= 16 + 18 + 20 +  .
Therefore, s1 = 16 , d = 18 − 16 = 2 , and n = 11 . Substituting s1 , d , and n into the arithmetic series formula

n 11
S n = [2 s1 + (n − 1)d ] we can obtain S11 = [2 ⋅ 16 + (11 − 1) ⋅ 2] = 5.5 ⋅ (32 + 10 ⋅ 2) = 5.5 ⋅ (32 + 20) = 5.5 ⋅ 52 = 286
2 2
1000
b. The first three terms of the given series are ∑k
k =1
= 1 + 2 + 3 +  . Therefore, s1 = 1 , d = 2 − 1 = 1 , and n = 1000 .
n
Substituting s1 , d , and n into the arithmetic series formula S n = [2s1 + (n − 1)d ] we obtain
2
1000
S1000 = [2 ⋅ 1 + (1000 − 1) ⋅ 1] = 500 ⋅ [2 + 999] = 500 ⋅ 1001 = 500500
2
100
c. The first three terms of the given series are ∑ (2k − 3) = (2 ⋅1 − 3) + (2 ⋅ 2 − 3) + (2 ⋅ 3 − 3) + 
k =1
= −1 + 1 + 3 +  .
Therefore, s1 = −1 , d = 1 − (− 1) = 2 , and n = 100 . Substituting s1 , d , and n into the arithmetic series formula
Sn =
n
[2s1 + (n − 1)d ] we obtain S100 = 100 [ (2 ⋅ −1) + (100 − 1) ⋅ 2] = 50 ⋅ (−2 + 99 ⋅ 2) = 50 ⋅ (−2 + 198) = 50 ⋅ 196 = 9800
2 2
15
d. The first three terms of the given series are ∑ 3i = (3 ⋅1) + (3 ⋅ 2) + (3 ⋅ 3) + 
i =1
= 3+6+9+  .

n 15
S n = [2 s1 + (n − 1)d ] we obtain S15 = [ (2 ⋅ 3) + (15 − 1) ⋅ 3] = 12.5 ⋅ (6 + 14 ⋅ 3) = 12.5 ⋅ 48 = 600
2 2
10
e. The first three terms of the given series are ∑ (i + 1) = (1 + 1) + (2 + 1) + (3 + 1) + 
i =1
= 2+3+ 4+  .

Sn =
n
[2s1 + (n − 1)d ] we obtain S10 = 10 [ (2 ⋅ 2) + (10 − 1) ⋅ 1] = 5 ⋅ (4 + 9) = 5 ⋅ 13 = 65
2 2
15
f. The first three terms of the given series are ∑ (2k − 1) = (2 ⋅ 5 − 1) + (2 ⋅ 6 − 1) + (2 ⋅ 7 − 1) + 
k =5
= 9 + 11 + 13 +  .
Sn =
n
[2s1 + (n − 1)d ] we obtain S11 = 11 [ (2 ⋅ 9) + (11 − 1) ⋅ 2] = 5.5 ⋅ (18 + 20) = 5.5 ⋅ 38 = 209
2 2
10
g. The first three terms of the given series are ∑ (3i + 4) = (3 ⋅ 4 + 4) + (3 ⋅ 5 + 4) + (3 ⋅ 6 + 4) + 
i =4
= 16 + 19 + 22 +  .
Sn =
n
[2s1 + (n − 1)d ] we obtain S7 = 7 [ (2 ⋅ 16) + (7 − 1) ⋅ 3] = 3.5 ⋅ (32 + 18) = 3.5 ⋅ 50 = 175
2 2
13
h. The first three terms of the given series are ∑ (3 j + 1) = (3 ⋅ 5 + 1) + (3 ⋅ 6 + 1) + (3 ⋅ 7 + 1) + 
j =5
= 16 + 19 + 22 +  .

n 9
S n = [2 s1 + (n − 1)d ] we obtain S9 = [ (2 ⋅ 16 ) + (9 − 1) ⋅ 3] = 4.5 ⋅ (32 + 24 ) = 4.5 ⋅ 56 = 252
2 2
18
i. The first three terms of the given series are ∑ (4k − 3) = (4 ⋅ 7 − 3) + (4 ⋅ 8 − 3) + (4 ⋅ 9 − 3) + 
k =7
= 25 + 29 + 33 +  .
Sn =
n
[2s1 + (n − 1)d ] we obtain S12 = 12 [ (2 ⋅ 25) + (12 − 1) ⋅ 4] = 6 ⋅ (50 + 44) = 6 ⋅ 94 = 564
2 2
5. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 6 and the third term is 24 . Find the tenth term.
Since s1 = 6 and s3 = 24 we use the general formula s n = s1 + (n − 1)d in order to solve for d . Therefore,
18
s3 = s1 + (3 − 1)d ; 24 = 6 + 2d ; 24 − 6 = 2d ; d = ; d = 9 . Then, s10 = s1 + (10 − 1)d = s1 + 9 ⋅ d = 6 + 9 ⋅ 9 = 87
2
6. Given the first term s1 and d , find S 50 for each of the following arithmetic sequences.
n
a. Given s1 = 2 and d = 5 , use the n th term for an arithmetic series S n = [2s1 + (n − 1)d ] to find S 50 .
2
50
S50 = [ (2 ⋅ 2) + (50 − 1) ⋅ 5] = 50 (4 + 245) = 25 ⋅ 249 = 6225
2 2
n
b. Given s1 = −5 and d = 6 , use the n th term for an arithmetic series S n = [2s1 + (n − 1)d ] to find S 50 .
2
50
S50 = [ (2 ⋅ −5) + (50 − 1) ⋅ 6] = 50 (− 10 + 294) = 25 ⋅ 284 = 7100
2 2
n
c. Given s1 = 30 and d = 10 , use the n th term for an arithmetic series S n = [2s1 + (n − 1)d ] to find S 50 .
2
50
S50 = [ (2 ⋅ 30) + (50 − 1) ⋅ 10] = 50 (60 + 490) = 25 ⋅ 550 = 13750
2 2
7. Find the sum of the following sequences for the indicated values.
a. Given the sequence −8, 6,  the first term s1 and the common difference d are equal to s1 = −8 and d = 6 − (−8) = 14 .
n
Thus, using the general arithmetic series S n = [2s1 + (n − 1)d ] , S15 is equal to:
2

15
S15 = [ (2 ⋅ −8) + (15 − 1) ⋅ 14] = 15 (− 16 + 196) = 7.5 ⋅ 180 = 1350
2 2
b. Given the sequence −20, 20,  the first term s1 and the common difference d are equal to s1 = −20 and d = 20 − (−20 )
n
= 40 . Thus, using the general arithmetic series S n = [2s1 + (n − 1)d ] , S100 is equal to:
2
100
S100 = [ (2 ⋅ −20) + (100 − 1) ⋅ 40] = 50(−40 + 3960) = 50 ⋅ 3920 = 196,000
2
Section 1.4 Solutions - Geometric Sequences and Geometric Series
1. Find the next four terms of the following geometric sequences.

a. Substituting s 1 = 3 , r = 0.5 into sn = s1r n −1 we obtain
s2 = 3 ⋅ r 2 −1 = 3r = 3 ⋅ 0.5 = 1.5 s3 = 3 ⋅ r 3−1 = 3r 2 = 3 ⋅ 0.52 = 3 ⋅ 0.25 = 0.75

s4 = 3 ⋅ r 4 −1 = 3r 3 = 3 ⋅ 0.53 = 3 ⋅ 0.125 = 0.375 s5 = 3 ⋅ r 5−1 = 3r 4 = 3 ⋅ 0.54 = 3 ⋅ 0.0625 = 0.1875
Thus, the first five terms of the geometric sequence are (3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.375, 0.1875 )
b. Substituting s1 = −5 , r = 2 into sn = s1r n −1 we obtain
s2 = − 5 ⋅ r 2 −1 = −5r = −5 ⋅ 2 = −10 s3 = − 5 ⋅ r 3−1 = − 5r 2 = − 5 ⋅ 22 = −5 ⋅ 4 = −20

s4 = − 5 ⋅ r 4 −1 = − 5r 3 = − 5 ⋅ 23 = −5 ⋅ 8 = −40 s5 = − 5 ⋅ r 5−1 = − 5r 4 = − 5 ⋅ 24 = −5 ⋅ 16 = −80
Thus, the first five terms of the geometric sequence are (− 5, − 10, − 20, − 40, − 80 )
c. Substituting s1 = 5 , r = 0.75 into sn = s1r n −1 we obtain
s2 = 5 ⋅ r 2 −1 = 5r = 5 ⋅ 0.75 = 3.75 s3 = 5 ⋅ r 3−1 = 5r 2 = 5 ⋅ 0.752 = 5 ⋅ 0.563 = 2.81

s4 = 5 ⋅ r 4 −1 = 5r 3 = 5 ⋅ 0.753 = 5 ⋅ 0.42 = 2.11 s5 = 5 ⋅ r 5−1 = 5r 4 = 5 ⋅ 0.754 = 5 ⋅ 0.316 = 1.58
Thus, the first five terms of the geometric sequence are (5, 3.75, 2.81, 2.11, 1.58 )
2. Find the eighth and the general term of the following geometric sequences.
a. Substituting s1 = 2 , r = 3 into sn = s1r n −1 the eighth and the n th term are equal to:
n −1
( 3) ( 3)
7 7 n −1
s8 = 2r 8−1 = 2r 7 = 2 ⋅ = 2 ⋅ 3 2 = 2 ⋅ 46.76 = 93.53 and sn = 2 ⋅ = 2⋅3 2
b. Substituting s1 = −4 , r = 1.2 into sn = s1r n −1 the eighth and the n th term are equal to:
s8 = − 4r 8−1 = − 4r 7 = − 4 ⋅ (1.2 )7 = − 4 ⋅ 1.27 = −4 ⋅ 3.583 = −14 ⋅ 33 and sn = − 4 ⋅ (1.2 )

n −1
c. Substituting s1 = 4 , r = −2.5 into sn = s1r n −1 the eighth and the n th term are equal to:
s8 = 4r 8−1 = 4r 7 = 4 ⋅ (− 2.5)7 = − 4 ⋅ 2.57 = −4 ⋅ 610.35 = −2441.4 and sn = 4 ⋅ (− 2.5 )n −1
3. Find the next six terms and the n th term in each of the following geometric sequences.
1
1 1
a. Given 1, ,  , then s1 = 1 and r = 4
1
= . Using the general geometric equation sn = s1r n −1 the next six terms are:
4 4
2 3
1 1 1 1
s3 = 1 ⋅ r 3−1 = r 2 =   = 2 s4 = 1 ⋅ r 4 −1 = r 3 =   = 3
4
  4 4
  4
4 5
1 1 1 1
s5 = 1 ⋅ r 5−1 = r 4 =   = 4 s6 = 1 ⋅ r 6 −1 = r 5 =   = 5
4
  4 4
  4
6 7
1 1 1 1
s7 = 1 ⋅ r 7 −1 = r 6 =   = 6 s8 = 1 ⋅ r 8−1 = r 7 =   = 7
4 4 4 4

 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
Thus, the first eight terms of the geometric sequence are  1, , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7  and the n th term is equal to
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
n −1
1 1n −1 1
sn = 1 ⋅   = =
4 4n −1 4n −1
1
1 1 1 1⋅ 2 2 1
b. Given − , ,  , then s1 = − and r = 4 =− = − = − . Using the general geometric equation sn = s1r n −1
2 4 2 −1 4 ⋅1 4 2
2
the next six terms are:
2 3
1 3−1 1 1  1 1 1 4 −1 1 1  1 1
s3 = − ⋅r = − r2 = − ⋅  −  = − 3 s4 = − ⋅r = − r3 = − ⋅  −  = 4
2 2 2  2 2 2 2 2  2 2
4 5
1 5−1 1 1  1 1 1 6 −1 1  1 1
s5 = − ⋅r = − r4 = − ⋅  −  = − 5 s6 = − ⋅r = r5 = − ⋅  −  = 6
2 2 2  2 2 2 2  2 2
6 7
1 7 −1 1 1  1 1 1 8−1 1 1 1 1
s7 = − ⋅r = − r6 = − ⋅  −  = − 7 s8 = − ⋅r = − r7 = −  −  = 8
2 2 2  2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
Thus, the first eight terms of the geometric sequence are  − , 2 , − 3 , 4 , − 5 , 6 , − 7 , 8  and the n th term is
 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 
equal to sn = −
1  1
⋅− 
n −1
= −
1 (− 1)n −1
⋅ n −1 = −
(− 1)n −1 = − (− 1)n −1 = − (− 1)n −1
2  2 2 2 2 ⋅ 2n −1 2n −1+1 2n
−3 p
1 p −3 p 1 − 3 p ⋅ 3 − 9 p/
c. Given p, − 3 p,  , then s1 = and r = p
= p
= = − 9 . Using the general geometric equation
3 3 1⋅ p p/
3 3
sn = s1r n −1 the next six terms are:

p 3−1 p p p p 4 −1 p p p
s3 = ⋅r = ⋅ r 2 = ⋅ (− 9 )2 = ⋅ 92 = 3 3 p s4 = ⋅r = ⋅ r 3 = ⋅ (− 9 )3 = − ⋅ 93 = − 35 p
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
p p p p p p p p
s5 = ⋅ r 5−1 = ⋅ r 4 = ⋅ (− 9 )4 = ⋅ 94 = 37 p s6 = ⋅ r 6 −1 = ⋅ r 5 = ⋅ (− 9 )5 = − ⋅ 95 = − 39 p
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
p p p p p p p
s7 = ⋅ r 7 −1 = ⋅ r 6 = ⋅ (− 9 )6 = ⋅ 96 = 311 p s8 = ⋅ r 8−1 = r 7 = ⋅ (− 9 )7 = − ⋅ 97 = − 313 p
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
 1 
Thus, the first eight terms of the geometric sequence are  , − 3 p, 33 p, − 35 p, 37 p, − 39 p, 311 p, − 313 p  and the n th
 3 p 
p
term is equal to sn = ⋅ (− 9 )
3
n −1 p
3
n −1 2 n −1
= ⋅ (− 1) 3
p
= ⋅ (− 1) ⋅ 3
3
n −1 2 n − 2
( )
= p (− 1) 3
n −1 2 n − 2 −1
= p (− 1) 3
n −1 2 n − 3
4. Given the following terms of a geometric sequence, find the common ratio r .
1
1 1 1
a. Substitute s1 = 25 and s 4 = into sn = s1r n −1 and solve for r , i.e., s4 = s1r 4 −1 ; = 25r 3 ; 5 = r 3 ; = r3
5 5 25 125
1
( )
1
1  1 3 1 3× 1 1 1
; 3
= r 3 ;  3  = r 3 3 ; =r 3 ; =r ; r=
5 5  3× 1 5 5
5 3
1 1
1 1
b. Substitute s1 = 4 and s5 = into sn = s1r n −1 and solve for r , i.e., s5 = s1r 5−1 ; = 4r 5−1 ; 64 = r 4 ; 64
4
= r4
64 64 4
1
1
( )
1
1 1 1  1 4 1 4× 1 1 1
; = r4 ; = r4 ; 4 = r4 ;  4  = r4 4 ; =r 4 ; =r ; r=
64 × 4 256 4 4  4× 1 4 4
4 4
1
( )
1
1  1 7
c. Substitute s1 = 3 and s8 = 1 into sn = s1r n −1 and solve for r , i.e., s8 = s1r 8−1 ; 1 = 3r 7 ; = r7 ;   = r7 7
3 3
1 7× 1 1 1
; =r 7 ; 1
=r ; r=
1 7
37 37 3

5. Write the first five terms of the following geometric sequences.

2 n −1 2⋅1−1 2 −1
 1  1  1 1
a. Given sn =  −  , then s1 =  −  = −  = −
 3  3  3 3
2⋅2 −1 4 −1 3 2⋅3−1 6 −1 5
 1  1  1 1  1  1  1 1
s2 =  −  = −  = −  = − 3 s3 =  −  = −  = −  = − 5
 3  3  3  3  3  3  3  3
2⋅4 −1 8 −1 7 2⋅5 −1 10 −1 9
 1  1  1 1  1  1  1 1
s4 =  −  = −  = −  = − 7 s5 =  −  = −  = −  = − 9
 3  3  3 3  3  3  3 3
 1 1 1 1 1 
Thus, the first five terms of the geometric sequence are  − , − 3 , − 5 , − 7 , − 9 
 3 3 3 3 3 
2n+2 2⋅1+ 2 2+ 2 4
 1 1 1 1 1
b. Given s n =   , then s1 =   =   =   = 4
 3 3 3 3
  3
2⋅2 + 2 4+ 2 6 2⋅3+ 2 6+ 2 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s2 =   =   =   = 6 s3 =   =   =   = 8
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2⋅4 + 2 8+ 2 10 2⋅5 + 2 10 + 2 12
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s4 =   =   =   = s5 =   =   =   =
3 3 3 310 3 3 3 312
 1 1 1 1 1 
Thus, the first five terms of the geometric sequence are  4 , 6 , 8 , 10 , 12 
 3 3 3 3 3 
2 n −3 2⋅1−3 2 −3 −1
 1  1  1  1
c. Given s n =  −  , then s1 =  −  = −  = −  = −5
  5  5  5  5
2⋅2 −3 4 −3 2⋅3−3 6 −3 3
 1  1 1  1  1  1 1
s2 =  −  = −  = − s3 =  −  = −  = −  = −
 5  5 5  5  5  5 53
2⋅4 −3 8−3 5 2⋅5 −3 10 −3 7
 1  1  1 1  1  1  1 1
s4 =  −  = −  = −  = − 5 s5 =  −  = −  = −  = −
 5  5  5 5  5  5  5 57
 1 1 1 1 
Thus, the first five terms of the geometric sequence are  − 5, − , − 3 , − 5 , − 7 
 5 5 5 5 
n 1
 1  1 1
d. Given s n =  −  , then s1 =  −  = − = −0.5
 2  2 2
2 3
 1 1 1  1 1 1
s2 =  −  = 2 = = 0.25 s3 =  −  = − 3 = − = −0.125
 2  2 4  2  2 8
4 5
 1 1 1  1 1 1
s4 =  −  = 4 = = 0.063 s5 =  −  = − 5 = − = −0.031
 2 2 16  2 2 32
Thus, the first five terms of the geometric sequence are (− 0.5, 0.25, − 0.125, 0.063, − 0.031)
6. Evaluate the sum of the following geometric series.

6
a. ∑3
k =1
k −1
= 31−1 + 32 −1 + 33−1 + 34 −1 + 35−1 + 36 −1 = 30 + 31 + 32 + 33 + 34 + 35 = 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + 243 = 364
or we can use the geometric series formula S n =

( )
s1 1 − r n 3
where s1 = 1 , r = = 3 , and n = 6 . Therefore,
1− r 1
S6 =
(
1 ⋅ 1 − 36
=
)
1 − 729
=
728
= 364
1− 3 −2 2
10
b. ∑ (− 2)
k =3
k −3
= (− 2 )3−3 + (− 2 )4 −3 + (− 2 )5−3 + (− 2 )6 −3 + (− 2 )7 −3 + (− 2 )8−3 + (− 2 )9 −3 + (− 2 )10 −3 = (− 2 )0 + (− 2 )1 + (− 2 )2
+ (− 2 )3 + (− 2 )4 + (− 2 )5 + (− 2 )6 + (− 2 )7 = 1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + 16 − 32 + 64 − 128 = −85


( )
s1 1 − r n
where s1 = 1 , r =
−2
= −2 , and n = 8 . Therefore,
1− r 1
S8 =
[
1 ⋅ 1 − (− 2 )8 ] =
1 − 256
= −
255
= −85
1 − (− 2 ) 1+ 2 3
8 j +1 8 j +1  1  4 +1  1 5+1  1 6 +1  1 7 +1  1 8+1   1 5  1 6 
 1  1
c. ∑ j =4
4 − 
 2
= 4 ∑ j =4
− 
 2
= 4  −  +  −  +  −  +  −  +  −   = 4  −  +  −  
 2   2  2  2  2    2   2  
 1 7  1 8  1 9 
+ 4  −  +  −  +  −   = 4 (−0.03 + 0.012 − 0.008 + 0.004 − 0.002 ) = 4(−0.024 ) = −0.096
 2   2   2  

( )
s1 1 − r n
where s1 = −0.12 , r =
0.012
= −0.4 , and n = 5 . Therefore,
1− r − 0.03
S5 =
[
− 0.12 ⋅ 1 − (− 0.4 )5 ] =
−0.12 ⋅ (1 + 0.0102 )
= −
0.1212
= −0.09
1 − (− 0.4 ) 1 + 0.4 1.4
4
1 1
d. ∑ (− 2)
m =1
m −3
= (− 2 )1−3 + (− 2 )2 −3 + (− 2 )3−3 + (− 2 )4 −3 = (− 2 )−2 + (− 2 )−1 + (− 2 )0 + (− 2 )1 =
(− 2) 2
+
−2
+1− 2
1 1
= − + 1 − 2 = 0.25 − 0.5 − 1 = −1.25
4 2

( )
s1 1 − r n
where s1 = 0.25 , r =
−0.5
1− r 0.25
S4 =
[
0.25 ⋅ 1 − (− 2 )4 ] =
0.25 ⋅ (1 − 16 )
= −
3.75
= −1.25
1 − (− 2 ) 1+ 2 3
10
e. ∑ (− 3)
n =5
n−4
= (− 3)5− 4 + (− 3)6 − 4 + (− 3)7 − 4 + (− 3)8− 4 + (− 3)9 − 4 + (− 3)10 − 4 = (− 3)1 + (− 3)2 + (− 3)3 + (− 3)4 + (− 3)5 + (− 3)6
= −3 + 9 − 27 + 81 − 243 + 729 = 546

( )
s1 1 − r n
where s1 = −3 , r =
9
1− r −3
S6 =
[
− 3 ⋅ 1 − (− 3)6 ] =
−3 ⋅ (1 − 729 )
=
2184
= 546
1 − (− 3) 1+ 3 4
5
f. ∑ (− 3)
k =1
k −1
= (− 3)1−1 + (− 3)2 −1 + (− 3)3−1 + (− 3)4 −1 + (− 3)5−1 = 1 + (− 3)1 + (− 3)2 + (− 3)3 + (− 3)4 = 1 − 3 + 9 − 27 + 81 = 61

( )
s1 1 − r n
where s1 = 1 , r =
−3
1− r 1
S5 =
[
1 ⋅ 1 − (− 3)5 ] =
1 + 243
=
244
= 61
1 − (− 3) 1+ 3 4
5
g. ∑4
m =1
m
= 41 + 42 + 43 + 44 + 45 = 4 + 16 + 64 + 256 + 1024 = 1364

( )
s1 1 − r n
where s1 = 4 , r =
16
= 4 , and n = 5 . Therefore,
1− r 4
S5 =
(
4 ⋅ 1 − 45
=
)
4 ⋅ (1 − 1024 )
=
4092
= 1364
1− 4 −3 3
4 4
h. ∑
3j
27
=
1
27 ∑3 j
=
27
(
1 1 2 3 4
3 +3 +3 +3 =
1
27
)
(3 + 9 + 27 + 81) = 120 = 4.44
27
j =1 j =1


( )
s1 1 − r n
where, s1 =
3 9
= 0.111 , r = = 3 , and n = 4 . Therefore,
1− r 27 3
S4 =
(
0.111 ⋅ 1 − 34
=
)
0.111 ⋅ (1 − 81)
=
8.88
= 4.44
1− 3 −2 2
[ ] [ ]
6 k +1 6
1
i. ∑
k =3
6 
2
= 6 ∑ 0.5
k =3
k +1
= 6 0.53+1 + 0.54 +1 + 0.55+1 + 0.56 +1 = 6 0.54 + 0.55 + 0.56 + 0.57 = 6 [0.063 + 0.031]
+6 [0.016 + 0.008] = 6 (0.118) = 0.708 ≈ 0.7

( )
s1 1 − r n
where, s1 = 6 ⋅ 0.54 = 0.375 , r =
0.031
= 0.5 , and n = 4 . Thus,
1− r 0.063
S4 =
0.375 ⋅ 1 − 0.54( =
)
0.375 ⋅ (1 − 0.063)
=
0.351
= 0.702 ≈ 0.7
1 − 0.5 0.5 0.5
7. Given the first term s1 and r , find S 8 for each of the following geometric sequences.
a. Given s1 = 3 and r = 3 use the geometric series formula S n =

(
s1 1 − r n )
to find S8 , i.e.,
1− r
S8 =
(
3 ⋅ 1 − 38
=
)
3 ⋅ (1 − 6561)
=
19680
= 9840
1− 3 −2 2
b. Given s1 = −8 and r = 0.5 use the geometric series formula S n =

(
s1 1 − r n )
to find S8 , i.e.,
1− r
S8 =
(
− 8 ⋅ 1 − 0.58
=
)
−8 ⋅ (1 − 0.0039 )
= −
7.968
= −15.94
1 − 0.5 0. 5 0.5
c. Given s1 = 2 and r = −2.5 use the geometric series formula S n =

(
s1 1 − r n )
to find S8 , i.e.,
1− r
S8 =
[
2 ⋅ 1 − (− 2.5)8 ] =
2 ⋅ [1 − 1525.88]
= −
2 ⋅ 1524.88
= −
3049.76
= −871.36
1 − (− 2.5) 1 + 2.5 3.5 3.5
8. Solve for x and y .
7
a. Given ∑ (ix + 2) = 30 , then (3x + 2) + (4 x + 2) + (5x + 2) + (6 x + 2) + (7 x + 2) = 30 ; (3x + 4 x + 5x + 6 x + 7 x) + 10 = 30
i =3
20
; 25 x + 10 = 30 ; 25 x = 30 − 10 ; x = ; x = 0.8
25
4
b. Expanding ∑ (ix + y ) = 20 we obtain (x + y ) + (2 x + y ) + (3x + y ) + (4 x + y ) = 20 ; 10 x + 4 y = 20 .
i =1
6
Expanding ∑ (ix + y )
i =2
= 10 we obtain (2 x + y ) + (3 x + y ) + (4 x + y ) + (5 x + y ) + (6 x + y ) = 10 ; 20 x + 5 y = 10 . Using
substitution method we obtain x = −2 and y = 10
Section 1.5 Solutions - Limits of Sequences and Series
1. State which of the following sequences are convergent.

To see if a sequence is convergent or divergent consider the nth term of the sequence and let it approach infinity.
n +1 n ∞
a. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = = ∞ The sequence diverges
2 2 2
n2 − 1 n2 n 2/ =1
b. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ n = ∞ The sequence diverges
n n n/
c. lim n →∞ 2n +1 ≈ lim n →∞ 2n = 2∞ = ∞ The sequence diverges

1 1 1 1
d. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = = = 0 The sequence converges
4n +1 4n 4∞ ∞
n −1 n n/ 1 1
e. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = = 0 The sequence converges
n2 n2 n 2/ =1 n ∞
n +1 n
1 1
f. lim n →∞   ≈ lim n →∞   = lim n →∞ 0.2n = 0.2∞ = 0 The sequence converges
5 5
2. State which of the following geometric sequences are convergent.
1 1 1 1 1
a. The sequence , , , ,  , n ,  converges to 0 since, for large values of n , the absolute value of the difference
4 16 64 256 4
1
between and 0 is very small.
4n
b. The sequence − 5, 25, − 125, 625, − 3125, , (− 5)n ,  diverges since, as n increases, the nth term increases without bound.
c. The sequence 2, − 2, 2, − 2, , 2(− 1)n +1,  diverges since, as n increases, the nth term oscillates back and forth between
+2 and −2 .
n −1
1 1 1 1
d. The sequence 1, , , , ,   ,  converges to 0 since, for large values of n , the absolute value of the difference
2 4 8 2
n −1
1
between   and 0 is very small.
2
e. The sequence − 9, 27, − 81, 243, , (− 1)n 3n +1,  diverges since, as n increases, the nth term oscillates back and forth from
a large positive number to a large negative number.

n −1
1 1 1 1 1
f. The sequence 1, , , , , ,   ,  converges to 0 since, for large values of n , the absolute value of the
3 9 27 81 3
n −1
1
difference between   and 0 is very small.
3
Again note that an easier way of knowing if a sequence is convergent or divergent is by considering the nth term and letting it
approach to infinity as shown in practice problems 1.5-1 and 1.5-3.
3. State whether or not the following sequences converges or diverges as n → ∞ . If it does converge, find the limit.
n2 n2 n 2/ 1 1
a. lim n →∞ 3
≈ lim n →∞ 3
= lim n →∞ 3/ =1
= lim n →∞ = = 0 converges to 0
n −4 n n n ∞
5n + 1 5n 5n 5n/
b. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ 5 = 5 converges to 5
n +12
n 2 n n/
25n 52 n 52 n ⋅ 5− n
c. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ 52 n − n = lim n →∞ 5n = 5∞ = ∞ diverges
5n +1 5n 1
5n + 25 5n 1 1 1 1 1 1
d. lim n →∞ n
≈ lim n →∞ 3n
= lim n →∞ 3n −n
= lim n →∞ 3n − n
= lim n →∞ 2n
= 2⋅∞
= ∞
= = 0
125 5 5 ⋅5 5 5 5 5 ∞
converges to 0
e. lim n →∞
(n + 2)2 ≈ lim n →∞
n2
= lim n →∞
n 2/
= lim n →∞ 1 = 1 converges to 1
n2 n2 n 2/
2n 2n 2n/
f. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ 1 = 1 converges to 1
2n + 1 2n 2n/

n 2 + 2n n2 n n/ 1 1
g. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ 2
= lim n →∞ 2/
= lim n →∞ = = 0 converges to 0
4
n +1 n 4 n n n ∞
5 5 5 5
h. lim n →∞ 2
≈ lim n →∞ 2
= 2
n +1 n ∞ ∞
n +1 n n/
i. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ 1 = 1 converges to 1
n −1 n n/
n n n/ 1 1 1
j. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ 2 = 2 = = 0 converges to 0
n3 − 1 n3 n3/ = 2 n ∞ ∞
1 1
k. lim n →∞ 10 n = 10 ∞ = 100 = 1 converges to 1
l. lim n →∞
(n − 1)2 ≈ lim n →∞
n2 n2 n 2/
= lim n →∞ − 2 = lim n →∞ − 2/ = lim n →∞ − 1 = −1 converges to −1
(1 − n )(1 + n ) −n⋅n n n
1
− 1 1 1 1
m. lim n →∞ 100 n = lim n →∞ = = = = 1 converges to 1
1 1 0 1
100
100 n 100 ∞
3 3
n. lim n →∞ 3 n = 3 ∞ = 30 = 1 converges to 1
n + 100 n n/ 1 1 1
o. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ 2 = 2 = = 0 converges to 0
n3 − 10 n3 n3/ = 2 n ∞ ∞
1 1 1
100 n 100 n 100 ∞ 1000 1
p. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = = = = 0 converges to 0
n2 + 3 n2 ∞2 ∞ ∞
1 1 1
q. lim n →∞ − 1 ≈ lim n →∞ − 1 = − 1 = 0 − 1 = −1 converges to −1
n +1 n ∞
1 1 1
r. lim n →∞ (0.25)− n = lim n →∞ = = = ∞ diverges
0.25n 0.25∞ 0
n +1 n n/
s. lim n →∞ ≈ lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ = lim n →∞ 1 = 1 converges to 1
n +1 n n/
n n n/
t. lim n →∞ + 2 ≈ lim n →∞ + 2 = lim n →∞ + 2 = lim n →∞ (1 + 2 ) = 1 + 2 = 3 converges to 3
n +1 n n/
4. Find the sum of the following geometric series.
∞ j ∞ ∞
1 1 s1
a. Given ∑ 3 8 
j =0
, then s1 = 3 and r =
8
. Since r 1 we can use the equation S∞ = ∑s r = ∑s r
n =0
1
n
n =1
1
n −1
=
1− r
3
∞ j
1 3 3 3 3×8 24
j =0
3 
8
∑ =
1−
1
=
8 −1
=
7
= 1
7
=
1× 7
=
7
8 8 8 8
∞ j ∞ ∞
 1 1 s1
b. Given ∑
j =0
3 −  , then s1 = 3 and r = − . Since r
 4 4
1 we can use the equation S∞ = ∑
n =0
s1r n = ∑s r
n =1
1
n −1
=
1− r
3
∞ j
1 3 3 3 3 3× 4 12
to obtain the sum, i.e., ∑ 3 − 4  =
 1
=
1+
1
=
4 +1
=
5
= 1 =
5 1 × 5
=
5
j =0 1− − 
 4  4 4 4 4
∞ k −1 ∞ k −1
3 3 3
c. Given ∑
k =1
3 
2
, then s1 = 3 and r =
2
. Since r 〉 1 the geometric series ∑
k =1
3 
2
has no finite sum.

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ k −1
5 5 5  1  5 1 5 1
d. Given ∑ 100
k =1
k +1
= ∑ 100
k =1
2
⋅ 100 k −1
= ∑
k =1
  =
10000  100k −1  ∑ 10000  100 
k =1
, then s1 =
10000
and r =
100
.
∞ ∞ ∞ k −1
s1 5  1 
Since r 1 we can use the equation S∞ = ∑
n =0
s1r n = ∑
n =1
s1r n −1 =
1− r
to obtain the sum, i.e., ∑
k =1
 
10000  100 
5 5 5
10000 10000 10000 5 × 100 500 5 1
= = = = = = =
1 100 − 1 99 10000 × 99 990000 9900 1980
1−
100 100 100
∞ j ∞ ∞
1 1 s1
e. Give ∑
j =0
  , then s1 = 1 and r = . Since r
 3 3
1 we can use the equation S∞ = ∑
n =0
s1r n = ∑s r
n =1
1
n −1
=
1− r
1
∞ j
1 1 1 1 1× 3 3
to obtain the sum, i.e., ∑  3 
j =0
=
1−
1
=
3 −1
=
2
= 1 =
2 1 × 2
=
2
3 3 3 3
∞ j ∞ ∞
1 1 s1
f. Given ∑  − 5 
j =0
, then s1 = 1 and r = −
5
. Since r 1 we can use the equation S∞ = ∑s r = ∑s r
n =0
1
n
n =1
1
n −1
=
1− r
1
∞ j
 1 1 1 1 1 1× 5 5
j =0
 5∑
−  =
 1
1− − 
=
1+
1
=
5 +1
=
6
= 1 =
6 1 × 6
=
6
 5 5 5 5 5
5. Find the sum of the following infinite geometric series.
1 1 1 1 1
a. Given the series 5 − 1 + − +  , s1 = 5 and r = − . Since r = − = = 0.2 1 we can use the equation
5 25 5 5 5
5
s 1 1 5 5 5 5 1 5×5 25
S∞ = 1 to obtain the sum, i.e., 5 − 1 + − + = = = = = = =
1− r 5 25  1 1 5 +1 6 6 1 × 6 6
1− −  1+
 5 5 5 5 5
1 1 2
b. Given the series − + 2 − 8 + 32 +  s1 = − and r = 1 = −4 . Since r = − 4 = 4 is greater than one the geometric
2 2 −2
1
series − + 2 − 8 + 32 +  has no finite solution.
2
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
c. Given the series 1 + + + +  s1 = 1 and r = 6 = . Since r = = = 0.17 1 we can use the equation
6 36 216 1 6 6 6
1
s1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1× 6 6
S∞ = to obtain the sum, i.e., 1 + + + + = = = = 1 = =
1− r 6 36 216 1 6 −1 5 5 1 × 5 5
1−
6 6 6 6
1
1 1 1 10 1 1 1
d. Given the series 1 + + + +  s1 = 1 and r = = . Since r = = = 0.1 1 we can use the equation
10 100 1000 1 10 10 10
1
s1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 × 10 10
S∞ = to obtain the sum, i.e., 1 + + + + = = = = 1 = =
1− r 10 100 1000 1 10 − 1 9 9 1 × 9 9
1−
10 10 10 10
6. Write the following repeating decimals as the quotient of two positive integers.
0.0066
a. Given 0.666666  = 0.66 + 0.0066 + 0.000066 , which is a gemetric series, then s1 = 0.66 and r = = 0.01 . Since
0.66

s1
th ratio r is less than one, we can use the infinite geometric series equation s∞ = to obtain the sum of the infinite
1− r
s1 0.66 0.66 66 22 22
series 0.66 + 0.0066 + 0.000066 , i.e., s∞ = = = = = . Thus, 0.666666 =
1 − r 1 − 0.01 0.99 99 33 33
b. Given 3.027027027  , consider the decimal portion of the number 3.027027027  and write it in its equivalent form of
0.000027
0.027027027  = 0.027 + 0.000027 + 0.000000027 . Since this is a geometric series, then s1 = 0.027 and r =
0.027
s1
= 0.001 . Since the ratio r is less than one, we can use the infinite geometric series equation s∞ = to obtain the sum
1− r
s1 0.027 0.027 27 3
of the infinite series 0.027 + 0.000027 + 0.000000027 , i.e., s∞ = = = = = . Thus,
1− r 1 − 0.001 0.999 999 111
3
3.027027027 = 3
111
0.0011
c. 0.111111  = 0.11 + 0.0011 + 0.000011 , which is a gemetric series, then s1 = 0.11 and r = = 0.01 . Since the
0.11
s1
ratio r is less than one, we can use the infinite geometric series equation s∞ = to obtain the sum of the infinite series
1− r
s1 0.11 0.11 11 1 1
0.11 + 0.0011 + 0.000011 , i.e., s∞ = = = = = . Thus, 0.111111 =
1 − r 1 − 0.01 0.99 99 9 9
Section 1.6 Solutions - The Factorial Notation

a. 11 ! = 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 39,916,800
b. (10 − 3) ! = 7 ! = 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 5040
12 ! 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ! 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5/ ! 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6
c. = = = = 3,991,680
5! 5! 5/ ! 1
14 ! 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ! 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 1/ 0/ ! 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11
d. = = = = 24,024
10 ! 10 ! 1/ 0/ ! 1
3 5 3
15 ! 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ! 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8/ ! 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 1/ 2/ ⋅ 11 ⋅ 1/ 0/ ⋅ 9/ 15 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3
e. = = = = = 1,351,350
8!4! 8!4! 8/ ! ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 1
5 3
10 ! 10 ! 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ! 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8/ ! 10 ⋅ 9 1/ 0/ ⋅ 9/ 5⋅3 15
f. = = = = = = =
4 ! (10 − 2 ) ! 4 !8 ! 4 !8 ! 4 ! 8/ ! 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 4 ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
/ 4 4
12 ! 6 ! 12 ! 6 ! 1/ 2/ ! 6 ! 6! 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 6⋅5⋅4⋅3 360
g. = = = = = =
14 ! 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ! 14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 1/ 2/ ! 14 ⋅ 13 1/ 4/ ⋅ 13 7 ⋅ 13 91
7
h.
(7 − 3) ! 9 ! =
4!9!
=
4!9!
=
4/ ! 9/ !
=
1
=
1
12 ! (7 − 2 ) ! 12 ! 5 ! 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9 ! ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ! 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 9/ ! ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4/ ! 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 5 6600
2. Write the following products in factorial form.
15 ! 25 !
a. 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 7 ! b. 10 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 14 ⋅ 15 = c. 22 ⋅ 23 ⋅ 24 ⋅ 25 =
9! 21 !
8! 9! 35 !
d. 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 = e. 4 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 9 = f. 35 =
3! 3! 34 !
3. Expand the following factorial expressions.
a. 5(n !) = 5[n (n − 1) (n − 2 ) (n − 3 ) (n − 4 ) (n − 5 ) (n − 6 )  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1]

b. (n − 7 ) ! = (n − 7 ) (n − 8) (n − 9) (n − 10) (n − 11) (n − 12)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1

c. (n + 10) ! = (n + 10) (n + 9) (n + 8) (n + 7 ) (n + 6) (n + 5) (n + 4) (n + 3) (n + 2) (n + 1) n (n − 1) (n − 2)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
d. (5n − 5) ! = (5n − 5 ) (5n − 6 ) (5n − 7 ) (5n − 8 ) (5n − 9 ) (5n − 10 )  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
e. (2n − 8) ! = (2n − 8) (2n − 9) (2n − 10) (2n − 11) (2n − 12) (2n − 13)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
f. (2n + 6) ! = (2n + 6) (2n + 5) (2n + 4) (2n + 3) (2n + 2) (2n + 1) 2n (2n − 1) (2n − 2) (2n − 3)  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
g. (2n − 5) ! = (2n − 5 ) (2n − 6 ) (2n − 7 ) (2n − 8 ) (2n − 9 ) (2n − 10 )  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
h. (3n + 3) ! = (3n + 3 ) (3n + 2 ) (3n + 1) 3n (3n − 1) (3n − 2 ) (3n − 3 )  4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1
a.
(n − 2) ! =
(n − 2) ! =
(n/ − 2/ ) ! =
1
(n − 4) ! (n − 4) (n − 3) (n − 2) ! (n − 4) (n − 3) (n/ − 2/ ) ! (n − 4) (n − 3)
b.
(n + 4) ! =
(n + 4) (n + 3) (n + 2) (n + 1) n ! =
(n + 4) (n + 3) (n + 2) (n + 1) n/ ! = (n + 4 ) (n + 3 ) (n + 2 ) (n + 1)
n! n! n/ !
c.
(n + 5) ! =
(n + 5) (n + 4) (n + 3) (n + 2) (n + 1) (n ) (n − 1) (n − 2) ! =
(n + 5) (n + 4) (n + 3) (n + 2) (n + 1) (n ) (n − 1) (n/ − 2/ ) !
(n − 2) ! (n − 2) ! (n/ − 2/ ) !
= (n + 5 ) (n + 4 ) (n + 3 ) (n + 2 ) (n + 1) (n ) (n − 1)
d.
(n − 1) (n + 1) ! =
(n − 1) (n + 1) ! =
(n − 1) (n/ + 1/ ) ! =
n −1
(n + 2) ! (n + 2) (n + 1) ! (n + 2) (n/ + 1/ ) ! n+2
e.
(3n ) ! (3n − 2) ! =
(3n ) ! (3n − 2) ! =
(3/ n/ ) ! (3/ n/ − 2/ ) ! =
1
(3n + 1) ! (3n − 4) ! (3n + 1) (3n ) ! (3n − 4) (3n − 3) (3n − 2) ! (3n + 1) (3/ n/ ) ! (3n − 4) (3n − 3) (3/ n/ − 2/ ) ! (3n + 1) (3n − 4) (3n − 3)
f.
(n − 1) ! =
(n − 1) ! =
(n − 1) ! =
(n/ − 1/ ) ! =
1
(n + 2) ! (n !)2 (n + 2) ! (n !) (n !) (n + 2) ! (n !) (n ) (n − 1) ! (n + 2) ! (n !) (n ) (n/ − 1/ ) ! (n + 2) ! (n !) (n)
g.
(2n − 3) ! 2(n !) =
(2n − 3) ! 2 [ (n ) (n − 1) (n − 2) ! ] =
(2/ n/ − 3/ ) ! 2 [ (n ) (n − 1) (n/ − 2/ ) ! ] =
2(n ) (n − 1)
(2n ) ! (n − 2) ! (2n ) (2n − 1) (2n − 2) (2n − 3) ! (n − 2) ! [ (2n ) (2n − 1) (2n − 2) (2/ n/ − 3/ ) ! ] (n/ − 2/ ) ! (2n ) (2n − 1) (2n − 2)
=
(2/ n/ ) (n − 1) =
n −1
(2/ n/ ) (2n − 1) (2n − 2) (2n − 1) (2n − 2)
5. Write the following expressions in factorial notation form. Simplify the answer.
2
 5 5! 5! 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/ ! 5 ⋅ 4/ 5⋅2 10
a.   = = = = = = = 10
3
  3 ! (5 − 3) ! 3!2! 3/ ! 2 ! 1 ⋅ 2/ 1 1
5 3 2
10  10 ! 10 ! 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/ ! 1/ 0/ ⋅ 9/ ⋅ 8/ ⋅ 7 5⋅3⋅ 2⋅7 210
b.   = = = = = = = 210
6  6 ! (10 − 6 ) ! 6!4! 6/ ! 4 ! 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 1 1
 8 8! 8/ ! 1
c.   = = = = 1
 0 0 ! (8 − 0 ) ! 0 ! 8/ ! 1 ⋅1
 8 8! 8/ ! 1
d.   = = = = 1
 8 8 ! (8 − 8) ! 8/ ! 0 ! 1 ⋅1
2 2
 6 6! 6! 6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/ ! 6/ ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4/ 2⋅5⋅2 20
e.   = = = = = = = 20
 3 3 ! (6 − 3) ! 3 ! 3 ! 3 ! 3
/ ! 1 ⋅ 2
/ ⋅ 3/ 1 1

 5 5! 5! 5 ⋅ 4/ ! 5
f.   = = = = = 5
1  1 ! (5 − 1) ! 1! 4 ! 1 ! 4/ ! 1
n  n! n! n! n ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ (n − 2 ) ⋅ (n − 3) ⋅ (n − 4 ) ⋅ (n/ − 5/ ) !
g.   = = = =
 n − 5 (n − 5) ! [n − (n − 5) ] ! (n − 5) ! (n/ − n/ + 5) ! (n − 5) ! 5 ! (n/ − 5/ ) ! 5 !
n ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ (n − 2 ) ⋅ (n − 3) ⋅ (n − 4 ) n ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ (n − 2 ) ⋅ (n − 3) ⋅ (n − 4 ) n ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ (n − 2 ) ⋅ (n − 3 ) ⋅ (n − 4 )
= = =
5! 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 120
 2n  2n ! 2n ! 2n ! 2n ⋅ (2/ n/ − 1/ ) !
h.   = = = = = 2n
 2n − 1 (2n − 1) ! [2n − (2n − 1) ] ! (2n − 1) ! (2/ n/ − 2/ n/ + 1) ! (2n − 1) ! 1 ! (2/ n/ − 1/ ) !
 3n  3n ! 3n ! 3n ! 3n ⋅ (3n − 1) ⋅ (3n − 2 ) ⋅ (3/ n/ − 3/ ) !

i.   = = = =
 3n − 3 (3n − 3) ! [3n − (3n − 3) ] ! (3n − 3) ! (3/ n/ − 3/ n/ + 3) ! (3n − 3) ! 3 ! (3/ n/ − 3/ ) ! ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3
3/ n ⋅ (3n − 1) ⋅ (3n − 2 ) n ⋅ (3n − 1) ⋅ (3n − 2 )
= =
1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3/ 2
n  n! n! n! n ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ (n − 2 ) ⋅ (n − 3) ⋅ (n − 4 ) ⋅ (n − 5) ⋅ (n/ − 6/ ) !
j.   = = = =
 n − 6 (n − 6) ! [n − (n − 6) ] ! (n − 6) ! (n/ − n/ + 6) ! (n − 6) ! 6 ! (n/ − 6/ ) ! 6 !
n ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ (n − 2 ) ⋅ (n − 3) ⋅ (n − 4 ) ⋅ (n − 5) n ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ (n − 2 ) ⋅ (n − 3 ) ⋅ (n − 4 ) ⋅ (n − 5 )
= =
6 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 720
6. Expand the following binomial expressions.
 4  4  4  4  4  4  4  4  4
a. ( x − 2 )4 =   x 4 +   x 4 −1 ⋅ (− 2 ) +   x 4 − 2 (− 2 )2 +   x 4 −3 (− 2 )3 +   x 4 − 4 (− 2 )4 =   x 4 − 2  x3 + 4  x 2 − 8  x1
0
  1
  2
  3
  4
  0
  1
  2
  3
 4 4! 2⋅4! 3 4⋅4! 8⋅4 ! 16 ⋅ 4 ! 4! 4 2⋅4! 3 4⋅4! 2

+ 16  x 0 = x4 − x + x2 − x+ = x − x + x
4
  0 ! (4 − 0 ) ! 1 ! (4 − 1) ! 2 ! (4 − 2 ) ! 3 ! (4 − 3) ! 4 ! (4 − 4 ) ! 0 !4! 3! 2!2!
8⋅4 ! 16 ⋅ 4 ! 4/ ! 4 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/ ! 3 4 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2/ ! 2 8 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/ ! 16 ⋅ 4/ !
− x+ = x − x + x − x+ = x 4 − 8 x 3 + 24 x 2 − 32 x + 16
3 !1 ! 4!0! 0 ! 4/ ! 3/ ! 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2/ ! 3/ ! 1 ! 4/ ! 0 !
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

b. (u + 2 )7 =  u 7 +  u 7 −1 ⋅ 2 +  u 7 − 2 ⋅ 22 +  u 7 −3 ⋅ 23 +  u 7 − 4 ⋅ 24 +  u 7 −5 ⋅ 25 +  u 7 − 6 ⋅ 26 +  u 7 − 7 ⋅ 27
0
  1
  2
  3
  4
  5
  6
  7
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7! 2⋅7 ! 6 4⋅7 !
=  u 7 + 2 u 6 + 4 u 5 + 8 u 4 + 16 u 3 + 32 u 2 + 64 u + 128 u 0 = u7 + u + u5
0
  1
  2
  3
  4
  5
  6
  7
  0 ! (7 − 0 ) ! 1 ! (7 − 1) ! 2 ! (7 − 2 ) !
8⋅7 ! 16 ⋅ 7 ! 3 32 ⋅ 7 ! 2 64 ⋅ 7 ! 128 ⋅ 7 ! 7 ! 7 2⋅7 ! 6 4⋅7 ! 5 8⋅7 ! 4

+ u4 + u + u + u+ = u + u + u + u
3 ! (7 − 3) ! 4 ! (7 − 4 ) ! 5 ! (7 − 5) ! 6 ! (7 − 6 ) ! 7 ! (7 − 7 ) ! 0! 7! 1! 6 ! 2! 5! 3! 4!
16 ⋅ 7 ! 3 32 ⋅ 7 ! 2 64 ⋅ 7 ! 128 ⋅ 7 !
+ u + u + u+ = u 7 + (2 ⋅ 7 ) u 6 + (7 ⋅ 12 ) u 5 + (8 ⋅ 35) u 4 + (16 ⋅ 35) u 3 + (32 ⋅ 21) u 2 + (64 ⋅ 7 )u + 128
4! 3! 5! 2! 6 ! 1! 7! 0!
= u7 + 14u6 + 84u5 + 280u4 + 560u 3 + 672u 2 + 448u + 128
5  5 5  5 5  5 5  5

c. ( y − 3)5 =   y 5 +   y 5−1 ⋅ (− 3) +   y 5− 2 (− 3)2 +   y 5−3 (− 3)3 +   y 5− 4 (− 3)4 +   y 5−5 (− 3)5 =   y 5 − 3  y 4
0
  1
  2
  3
  4
  5
  0
  1 
5  5 5  5 5! 3⋅5 ! 9⋅5 ! 27 ⋅ 5 ! 2 81 ⋅ 5 !

+ 9  y 3 − 27  y 2 + 81  y1 − 243  y 0 = y5 − y4 + y3 − y + y
 2  3  4  5 0 ! (5 − 0 ) ! 1 ! (5 − 1) ! 2 ! (5 − 2 ) ! 3 ! (5 − 3) ! 4 ! (5 − 4 ) !
243 ⋅ 5 ! 5 ! 5 3 ⋅ 5 ! 4 9 ⋅ 5 ! 3 27 ⋅ 5 ! 2 81 ⋅ 5 ! 243 ⋅ 5 !
− = y − y + y − y + y− = y 5 − (3 ⋅ 5) y 4 + (9 ⋅ 10 ) y 3 − [27 ⋅ 10]y 2
5 ! (5 − 5) ! 0! 5! 1! 4 ! 2!3! 3! 2! 4 ! 1! 5! 0!

+ (81 ⋅ 5) y − 243 = y 5 − 15 y 4 + 90 y 3 − 270 y 2 + 405 y − 243
7. Use the general equation for binomial expansion to solve the following exponential numbers to the nearest hundredth.
a. (0.95)5 = (1 − 0.05)5 therefore, a = 1 , b = −0.05 , n = 5 . Using the general binomial expansion formula
n n n  n  n − r +1 r −1 n

(a + b )n =  a n +  a n −1b +  a n − 2b 2 +  +  a b +  +  b n we obtain the following:
0 1  2  r − 1 n
5  5 5  5 5  5

(1 − 0.05)5 =   ⋅ 15 +   ⋅ 14 ⋅ (− 0.05) +   ⋅ 13 ⋅ (− 0.05)2 +   ⋅12 ⋅ (− 0.05)3 +   ⋅12 ⋅ (− 0.05)4 +   ⋅ (− 0.05)5
 0 1   2  3  4  5
5  5 5 5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5!
=   − 0.05  + 0.0025  −  = − 0.05 + 0.0025 − = − 0.05 + 0.0025 −
0
  1
  2
  0 ! (5 − 0 ) ! 1! (5 − 1) ! 2 ! (5 − 2 ) ! 5! 4 ! 2 ! 3!
2
5/ ! 5 ⋅ 4/ ! 5 ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ !
= − 0.05 + 0.0025 −  = 1− 0.25+ 0.025 −  ≈ 0.775
5/ ! 4/ ! 2/ ⋅ 1 ⋅ 3/ !
Therefore, (0.95)5 to the nearest hundredth is equal to 0.78 . (Note that this is an estimate.)
b. (2.25)7 = (2 + 0.25)7 therefore, a = 2 , b = 0.25 , n = 7 . Using the general binomial expansion formula
n n n  n  n − r +1 r −1 n

(a + b )n =  a n +  a n −1b +  a n − 2b 2 +  +  a b +  +  b n we obtain the following:
0 1  2  r − 1 n
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

(2 + 0.25)7 =   27 +  26 ⋅ 0.25 +  25 ⋅ 0.252 +  24 ⋅ 0.253 +  23 ⋅ 0.254 +   22 ⋅ 0.255 +  2 ⋅ 0.256 +  ⋅ 0.257
0
  1
  2
  3
  4
  5
  6
  7
7 7 7 7 7 128 ⋅ 7! 16 ⋅ 7! 2 ⋅ 7! 0.25 ⋅ 7! 0.0313 ⋅ 7!

= 128 + 16  + 2 + 0.25 + 0.0313  +  = + + + + +
0
  1
    2 3
  4
  0 ! (7 − 0 ) ! 1! (7 − 1) ! 2 ! (7 − 2 ) ! 3! (7 − 3) ! 4! (7 − 4 ) !
128 ⋅ 7! 16 ⋅ 7! 2 ⋅ 7! 0.25 ⋅ 7! 0.0313 ⋅ 7! 128 ⋅ 7/ ! 16 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/ ! 2/ ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5/ ! 0.25 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/ ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4/ ! 0.0313 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/ ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4/ !

= + + + + + = + + + + +
7! 6! 2! 5! 3! 4! 4! 3! 7/ ! 6/ ! 2/ ⋅ 1 ⋅ 5/ ! 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 ⋅ 4/ ! 4/ !⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1
= 128+112+ 42 + 8.75 + 1.095 +  ≈ 291.845
Therefore, (2.25)7 to the nearest hundredth is equal to 291.85 . (Note that this is an estimate.)
c. (1.05)4 = (1 + 0.05)4 therefore, a = 1 , b = 0.05 , n = 4 . Using the general binomial expansion formula
n n n  n  n − r +1 r −1 n

(a + b )n =   a n +   a n −1b +   a n − 2b 2 +  +   a b +  +   b n we obtain the following:
0 1  2  r − 1 n
 4  4  4  4  4  4  4  4  4
(1 + 0.05)4 =   ⋅ 14 +   ⋅13 ⋅ 0.05 +   ⋅12 ⋅ 0.052 +   ⋅11 ⋅ 0.053 +   ⋅ 0.054 =  + 0.05  + 0.0025 + 0.000125 + 
0
  1
  2
  3
  4
  0
  1
  2
  3
4! 0.05 ⋅ 4! 0.0025 ⋅ 4! 0.000125 ⋅ 4! 4! 0.05 ⋅ 4! 0.0025 ⋅ 4! 0.000125 ⋅ 4!
= + + + + = + + + +
0 ! (4 − 0) ! 1! (4 − 1) ! 2 ! (4 − 2 ) ! 3 ! (4 − 3) ! 4! 3! 2 ! 2! 3 ! 1!
2
4/ ! 0.05 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/ ! 0.0025 ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2/ ! 0.000125 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3/ !
= + + + +  = 1+ 0.2+ 0.015 + 0.0005 +  = 1.2155
4/ ! 3/ ! 2/ ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2/ ! 3/ !
Therefore, (1.05)4 to the nearest hundredth is equal to 1.22 .
8. Find the stated term of the following binomial expressions.
a. To find the eighth term of (x + 3)12 first identify the a, b, r , and n terms, i.e., a = x , b = 3 , r = 8 , and n = 12 .

 n  n − r +1 r −1 n!
Then, use the equation  a b = a n − r +1b r −1
 r − 1 (r − 1) ! (n − r + 1) !
12  5 7 12! 12 ! 5 1/ 2/ ⋅11 ⋅ 1/ 0/ ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 7/ !
  x ⋅ 3 = x5 ⋅ 37 = x ⋅ 2187 = 2187 x 5 ⋅ = (2187 ⋅ 792 )x5 = 1,732,104 x 5
7
  7 ! (12 − 7 ) ! 7 ! 5 ! 7/ ! ⋅ 5/ ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅1
b. To find the ninth term of (x − y )10 first identify the a, b, r , and n terms, i.e., a = x , b = − y , r = 9 , and n = 10 .
 n  n − r +1 r −1 n!
 r − 1 (r − 1) ! (n − r + 1) !
10  2 10! 10 ! 2 8 10 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 8/ ! 2 8 90 2 8
  x ⋅ (− y )8 = x 2 ⋅ y8 = x y = x y = x y = 45 x 2 y 8
8  8 ! (10 − 8) ! 8! 2 ! 8/ ! ⋅ 2 ⋅1 2
c. To find the seventh term of (u − 2a )11 first identify the a, b, r , and n terms, i.e., a = u , b = −2a , r = 7 , and n = 11 .
 n  n − r +1 r −1 n!
 r − 1 (r − 1) ! (n − r + 1) !
3 2
11 11! 11! 11 ⋅ 1/ 0/ ⋅ 9/ ⋅ 8/ ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6/ !
 u 5 ⋅ (− 2a )6 = 64a 6u 5 = 64a 6 u 5 = 64a 6 u 5 = (64 ⋅ 462 )a 6u 5 = 29,568a 6 u5
6  6 ! (11 − 6 ) ! 6! 5! 6/ ! 5/ ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅1
d. To find the twelfth term of (x − 1)18 first identify the a, b, r , and n terms, i.e., a = x , b = −1 , r = 12 , and n = 18 .
 n  n − r +1 r −1 n!
 r − 1 (r − 1) ! (n − r + 1) !
2 3 2
18  7 18! 7 18 ! / 8/ ⋅ 17 ⋅ 1/ 6/ ⋅ 1/ 5/ ⋅ 1/ 4/ ⋅ 13 ⋅ 1/ 2/ ⋅ 1/ 1/ !
71 7 17 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3
/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 13
11  x ⋅ (− 1) = − x 11 ! (18 − 11) ! = − x 11!9 ! = − x 1/ 1/ !⋅ 9/ ⋅ 8/ ⋅ 7/ ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5/ ⋅ 4/ ⋅ 3/ ⋅ 2/ ⋅ 1 = − x = − (17 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 2 )x 7
11 7
  6
/
= − 442x 7

Section 2.1 Practice Problems – The Difference Quotient Method
1. Find the derivative of the following functions by using the difference quotient method.
a. Given f (x ) = x 2 − 1 , then
f (x + h ) − f (x )
=
[(x + h) − 1]− (x − 1) = x/
2 2 2
+ h 2 + 2hx − 1/ − x/ 2 + 1/
=
h 2 + 2hx
=
h/ (h + 2 x )
h h h h h/
f (x + h ) − f (x )
= h + 2 x . Therefore, f ′(x ) = lim h→0 = lim h→0 (h + 2 x ) = 0 + 2 x = 2 x
h
b. Given f (x ) = x 3 + 2 x − 1 , then
f (x + h ) − f (x )
=
[(x + h) + 2(x + h) − 1]− [x
3 3
+ 2x − 1 ]
h h
=
x/ 3 + h3 + 3 x 2 h + 3 xh 2 + 2/ x/ + 2h − 1/ − x/ 3 − 2/ x/ + 1/
=
h3 + 3 x 2 h + 3 xh 2 + 2h
=
h/ h 2 + 3 x 2 + 3 xh + 2
= h 2 + 3 x 2 + 3 xh + 2 .
( )
h h h/
f (x + h ) − f (x )
Therefore, f ′(x ) = lim h→0
h
(
= lim h →0 h 2 + 3 x 2 + 3 xh + 2 = 02 + 3 ⋅ x 2 + 3 ⋅ 0 ⋅ h + 2 = 3 x 2 + 2 )
x+h x (x + h )(x − 1) − x(x + h − 1)
−
x f (x + h ) − f (x ) x + h − 1 x −1 = (x + h − 1)(x − 1) (x + h )(x − 1) − x(x + h − 1)
c. Given f (x ) = , then = =
x −1 h h h h [ (x + h − 1)(x − 1)]
x/ 2 − x/ + h/ x/ − h − x/ 2 − h/ x/ + x/ h/ 1
= = − = − . Therefore,
( 2
h x − x + hx − h − x + 1 ) ( 2
h/ x − 2 x + hx − h + 1 ) x 2 − 2 x + hx − h + 1
f (x + h ) − f (x )  −1  −1 −1 1
f ′(x ) = lim h→0 = lim h →0  2  = 2 = 2 = −
h  x − 2 x + hx − h + 1  x − 2x + 0 ⋅ x − 0 + 1 x − 2x + 1 ( x − 1)2
1 1 − x 2 + (x + h )2
d. Given f (x ) = −
1
, then
f (x + h ) − f (x )
=
−
(x + h ) 2
+
x 2
=
x 2 (x + h )2
=
− x 2 + (x + h )2
=
(
− x 2 + x 2 + h 2 + 2hx )
x 2 h h h hx (x + h )
2 2 2
( 2
hx x + h + 2hx 2
)
− x/ 2 + x/ 2 + h 2 + 2hx h/ (h + 2 x ) h + 2x
= = = . Therefore,
2
(
hx x + h + 2hx2 2
) 2
( 2
h/ x x + h + 2hx 2
) x + h 2 x 2 + 2hx3
4
f (x + h ) − f (x )  h + 2x  0 + 2x 2 x/ 2
f ′(x ) = lim h →0 = lim h →0  4 2 2
 = 4
3 2 2 3
= 4/ =3 =
h  x + h x + 2hx  x + 0 ⋅ x + 2⋅0⋅ x x x3
e. Given f (x ) = 20 x 2 − 3 , then
f (x + h ) − f (x )
=
[
20(x + h )2 − 3 − 20 x 2 − 3 ][ ] = [20(x 2
) ][
+ 2hx + h 2 − 3 − 20 x 2 − 3 ]
h h h
2/ 0/ x + 40hx + 20h 2 − 3/ − 2/ 0/ x + 3/
2/
40hx + 20h 2
2/
h/ (40 x + 20h )
= = = = 40 x + 20h
h h h/
f (x + h ) − f (x )
Therefore, f ′(x ) = lim h→0 = lim h →0 (40 x + 20h ) = 40 x + (20 ⋅ 0 ) = 40 x + 0 = 40 x
h
f. Given f (x ) = x3 , then
f (x + h ) − f (x )
=
(x + h )3 − x3
=
(x + h )3 − x3
⋅
(x + h )3 + x3
=
(x + h )3 − x3
h h h (x + h )3 + x3 h (x + h )3 + x3
=
x3 + h3 + 3 x 2 h + 3 xh 2 − x3
=
(
h/ h 2 + 3 x 2 + 3 xh ) =
h 2 + 3 x 2 + 3 xh
. Therefore,
h x3 + h3 + 3 x 2 h + 3 xh 2 + x3 h/ x3 + h3 + 3 x 2 h + 3 xh 2 + x3 x3 + h3 + 3 x 2 h + 3 xh 2 + x3

f (x + h ) − f (x )  h 2 + 3 x 2 + 3 xh  02 + 3x 2 + 3x ⋅ 0
f ′(x ) = lim h→0 = lim h →0   =

h  x3 + h3 + 3 x 2 h + 3 xh 2 + x3  x 3 + 03 + 3 x 2 ⋅ 0 + 3 x ⋅ 0 2 + x 3

3 4 −3 1
3x 2 3x 2 3x 2 3 2 − 32 3 2− 2 3 2 3 2 3
= = = 3
= x ⋅x = x = x = x = x
x3 + x3 2 x3 2 2 2 2 2
2x 2
10 10 10 x − 5 − 10 x + h − 5
−
10 f (x + h ) − f (x ) x+h−5 x−5 = x+h−5 ⋅ x−5 10 x − 5 − 10 x + h − 5
g. Given f (x ) = , then = =
x−5 h h h h⋅ x + h −5 ⋅ x −5
x−5 − x+h−5 x−5 + x+h−5 x/ − 5/ − x/ − h + 5/

= 10 ⋅ ⋅ = 10 ⋅
h⋅ x + h −5 ⋅ x −5 x−5 + x+h−5 (h ⋅ x+h−5 ⋅ x−5 ⋅ )( x−5 + x+h−5 )
− h/ −10
= 10 ⋅ = . Therefore,
(h/ ⋅ x+h−5 ⋅ x−5 ⋅ )( x−5 + x+h−5 ) ( x+h−5 ⋅ x−5 ⋅ )( x−5 + x+h−5 )
 
f (x + h ) − f (x )  − 10  −10
f ′(x ) = lim h→0 = lim h →0   =
h 

( x+h−5 ⋅ x−5 ⋅ )( x−5 + x+h−5 

) ( x+0−5 ⋅ x−5 ⋅ )( x−5 + x+0−5 )
5
−10 −10 − 1/ 0/ −5 −5 5
= = = = = = −
( x−5 ⋅ x−5 ⋅ )( x−5 + x−5 ) (x − 5) ⋅ (2 x−5 ) 2/ (x − 5) ( x−5 ) (x − 5) 1+ 1
2 ( x − 5)
3
2 ( x − 5)3
 a (x + h ) + b   ax + b  cx(ax + ah + b ) − (cx + ch ) (ax + b )
 − 
h. Given f (x ) =
ax + b
, then
f (x + h ) − f (x )
= 
c ( x + h )   cx 
=
cx(cx + ch )
cx h h h
acx 2 + achx + bcx − acx 2 − bcx − achx − bch a/ c/ x/ 2 + a/ c/ h/ x/ + b/ c/ x/ − a/ c/ x/ 2 − b/ c/ x/ − a/ c/ h/ x/ − bch −bc/ h/ −b

= = = = 2 .
chx(cx + ch ) chx(cx + ch ) c/ h/ x(cx + ch ) cx + chx
f (x + h ) − f (x )  −b  b b
Therefore, f ′(x ) = lim h→0 = lim h →0  2  = − 2 = − 2
h  cx + chx  cx + c ⋅ 0 ⋅ x cx
2. Compute f ′(x ) for the specified values by using the difference quotient equation as the lim h→0 .
f (x + h ) − f (x ) (x + h )3 − x3 at x = 1
a. Given f (x ) = x3 , then using f ′(x ) = lim h →0 we obtain f ′(x ) = lim h →0
h h
f ′(1) = lim h →0
(1 + h )3 − 13 = lim h →0
1/ + h3 + 3h + 3h 2 − 1/
= lim h →0
h/ h 2 + 3 + 3h ( )
= lim h →0 h 2 + 3 + 3h = 02 + 3 + 3 ⋅ 0 = 3
h h h/
f (x + h ) − f (x ) 1 + 2(x + h ) − (1 + 2 x )
b. Given f (x ) = 1+ 2 x , then using f ′(x ) = lim h →0 we obtain f ′(x ) = lim h →0 at x = 0
h h
1 + 2(0 + h ) − (1 + 2 ⋅ 0 ) 1/ + 2h − 1/ 2h/
f ′(0 ) = lim h →0 = lim h →0 = lim h →0 = lim h →0 2 = 2
h h h/
c. Given f (x ) = x 3 + 1 , then using f ′(x ) = lim h →0

f (x + h ) − f (x )
we obtain f ′(x ) = lim h →0
(x + h )3 + 1 − x3 + 1 [ ]( ) at x = −1
h h
f ′(−1) = lim h →0
[(− 1 + h) + 1]− [(− 1) + 1]
3 3
= lim h →0
(− 1/ + h 3
)
+ 3h + 3h 2 + 1/ − (− 1/ + 1/ )
= lim h →0
h3 + 3h + 3h 2 − 0 ( )
h h h
= lim h →0
(
h/ h 2 + 3 + 3h ) (
= lim h →0 h 2 + 3 + 3h = 02 + 3 + 3 ⋅ 0 = 3)
h/

f (x + h ) − f (x )
d. Given f (x ) = x 2 (x + 2 ) = x 3 + 2 x 2 , then using f ′(x ) = lim h →0 we obtain
h
f ′(x ) = lim h →0
[(x + h) + 2(x + h) ]− (x
3 2 3
+ 2x2 ) at x = 2 f ′(2) = lim h →0
[(2 + h) + 2(2 + h) ]− (2
3 2 3
+ 2 ⋅ 22 )
h h
= limh →0
[8 + h 3
+ 12h + 6h 2 + 8 + 2h 2 + 8h − 16 ] = lim h →0
1/ 6/ + h3 + 20h + 8h 2 − 1/ 6/
= lim h →0
h/ h 2 + 8h + 20 ( )
h h h/
( )
= lim h →0 h 2 + 8h + 20 = 02 + 8 ⋅ 0 + 20 = 20
e. Given f (x ) = x −2 + x −1 + 1 =
1
+
1
+1 =
x + x2
+ 1 =
x + x 2 + x3
=
x/ 1 + x + x 2
=
1 + x + x2 (
, then using
)
2
x x x3 x3 x3/ = 2 x2
1 + x + h + (x + h )2 1 + x + x2
−
f (x + h ) − f (x ) (x + h )2 x2
f ′(x ) = lim h →0 we obtain f ′(x ) = lim h →0 at x = 1
h h
1 + 1 + h + (1 + h )2 1 + 1 + 12 2 + h + 1 + h 2 + 2h
f ′(1) = lim h →0
(1 + h ) 2
−
1 2
= lim h →0 1 + h 2 + 2h
−3
= lim h →0
(
3 + h 2 + 3h − 3 1 + h 2 + 2h )
h h (
h 1 + h + 2h 2
)
2
3/ + h + 3h − 3/ − 3h − 6h 2
− 2h − 3h 2
h/ (−2h − 3) −2h − 3
= lim h →0 = lim h →0 = lim h →0 = lim h →0
(
h 1 + h + 2h 2
) (
h 1 + h + 2h 2
) (
h/ 1 + h + 2h 2
) 1 + h 2 + 2h
=
(−2 ⋅ 0) − 3 = −3
= −3
1 + 02 + 2 ⋅ 0 1
f. Given f (x ) = x + 2 , then using f ′(x ) = lim h →0

f (x + h ) − f (x )
we obtain f ′(x ) = lim h →0
( x+h +2 − )( x +2 )
h h
at x = 10 f ′(10) = lim h →0
( 10 + h + 2)− ( 10 + 2) = lim h →0
10 + h + 2/ − 10 + 2/
= lim h →0
10 + h − 10
h h h
= lim h →0
( 10 + h )− 10
⋅
( 10 + h )+ 10 = lim h →0
1/ 0/ + h − 1/ 0/
= lim h →0
h/
=
1
h ( 10 + h )+ 10 (
h ⋅ 10 + h + 10 ) (
h/ ⋅ 10 + h + 10 ) 10 + 0 + 10
1 1 1 1
= = = = = 0.158
10 + 10 2 10 2 ⋅ 3.16 6.32
Section 2.2 Solutions - Differentiation Rules Using the Prime Notation
1. Find the derivative of the following functions. Compare your answers with the practice problem number one in
Section 2.1.
a. Given f (x ) = x 2 − 1 , then f ′(x ) = 2 x 2 −1 − 0 = 2 x
b. Given f (x ) = x 3 + 2 x − 1 , then f ′(x ) = 3x 3−1 + 2 ⋅1x1−1 − 0 = 3x 2 + 2 x 0 = 3 x 2 + 2
c. Given f (x ) =
x
, then f ′(x ) =
[1 ⋅ (x − 1)] − [1 ⋅ x] = x/ − 1 − x/ = − 1
x −1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2 ( x − 1)2
d. Given f (x ) = −
1
, then f ′(x ) = −
(0 ⋅ x )− (2 x ⋅1) = − 0 − 2 x =
2
2 x/
=
2
4 4
x 2
x x x 4/ =3
x3
e. Given f (x ) = 20 x 2 − 3 , then f ′(x ) = (20 ⋅ 2)x 2 −1 − 0 = 40 x
3
3 32 −1 3 3− 2 3 1 3
f. Given f (x ) = x 3 = x 2 , then f ′(x ) = x = x 2 = x2 = x
2 2 2 2

0 ⋅ (x − 5) 12  − 10 ⋅ 1 (x − 5)− 12 
   −1
g. Given f (x ) =
10
=
10 
, then f ′(x ) = 
2  = 0 − 5(x − 5) 2 = −5
1 1
x−5 (x − 5) 2 x−5 x−5 (x − 5) 2 ⋅ (x − 5)
−5 −5 −5 5
= = = = −
(x − 5)
1 +1
2 (x − 5)
3
2 (x − 5) 3 ( x − 5) x−5
ax + b a ⋅ cx − c ⋅ (ax + b ) acx − acx − bc bc b

h. Given f (x ) = , then f ′(x ) = = = − 2/ =1/ 2 = − 2
cx (cx )2
(cx )2
c x cx
2. Differentiate the following functions:
a. Given f (x ) = x 2 + 10 x + 1 , then f ′(x ) = 2 x 2−1 + 10 x 1−1 + 0 = 2 x + 10 x 0 = 2 x + 10
b. Given f (x ) = x 8 + 3 x 2 − 1 , then f ′(x ) = 8 x 8−1 + (3 ⋅ 2 )x 2−1 − 0 = 8 x 7 + 6 x
c. Given f (x ) = 3 x 4 − 2 x 2 + 5 , then f ′(x ) = (3 ⋅ 4 )x 4−1 − (2 ⋅ 2 )x 2−1 + 0 = 12 x 3 − 4 x
( )
d. Given f (x ) = 2 x 5 + 10 x 4 + 5 x = 2 x 5 + 20 x 4 + 10 x , then f ′(x ) = (2 ⋅ 5)x 5−1 + (20 ⋅ 4 )x 4−1 + (10 ⋅1)x 1−1 = 10 x 4 + 80 x 3 + 10 x 0
4 3
= 10 x + 80 x + 10
( ) ( )
e. Given f (x ) = a 2 x 3 + b 2 x + c 2 , then f ′(x ) = 3 ⋅ a 2 x3−1 + 1 ⋅ b 2 x1−1 + 0 = 3a 2 x 2 + b 2 x 0 = 3a 2 x 2 + b 2
f. Given f (x ) = x 2 (x − 1) + 3 x = x3 − x 2 + 3 x , then f ′(x ) = 3 x 3−1 − 2 x 2−1 + 3 x1−1 = 3 x 2 − 2 x + 3 x 0 = 3 x 2 − 2 x + 3
( )( )
g. Given f (x ) = x3 + 1 x 2 − 5 , then f ′(x ) = 3 x 2 x 2 − 5 + 2 x x3 + 1 [ ( )] [ ( )] = 3 x 4 − 15 x 2 + 2 x 4 + 2 x = 5 x 4 − 15 x 2 + 2 x
( )
h. Given f (x ) = 3 x 2 + x − 1 (x − 1) , then f ′(x ) = [ (6 x + 1) ⋅ (x − 1) ] + [1 ⋅ (3x 2 + x − 1) ] = 6 x 2 − 6 x + x − 1 + 3x 2 + x − 1
= (6 + 3)x 2 + (− 6 + 1 + 1)x + (− 1 − 1) = 9 x 2 − 4 x − 2
( )
i. Given f (x ) = x x 3 + 5 x 2 − 4 x = x 4 + 5 x 3 − 4 x , then f ′(x ) = 4 x 4−1 + (5 ⋅ 3)x 3−1 − (4 ⋅1)x 1−1 = 4 x 3 + 15 x 2 − 4 x 0
= 4 x 3 + 15 x 2 − 4
j. Given f (x ) =
x3 +1
, then f ′(x ) =
[(3x + 0)⋅ x]− [1 ⋅ (x + 1)]
2 3
=
3x 3 − x 3 − 1
=
2x3 − 1
2
x x x 2
x2
k. Given f (x ) =
x 5 + 2x 2 −1
, then f ′(x ) =
[(5x 4
) ][ (
+ 4 x ⋅ 3x 2 − 6 x ⋅ x5 + 2 x 2 − 1 )] =
15 x 6 + 1/ 2/ x/ 3/ − 6 x 6 − 1/ 2/ x/ 3/ + 6 x
3x 2 (3x ) 2 2 9x4
=
9x 6 + 6x
=
(
3/ x/ 3 x5 + 2 ) = 3x 5
+2
4/ =3
9x 4 3 = 9/ x 3x3
l. Given f (x ) =
x2
=
x2
, then f ′(x ) =
[ 2 x ⋅ (4 x − 1) ] − 4 ⋅ x 2 [ ] =
8x 2 − 2x − 4x 2
=
4x 2 − 2x
=
2 x (2 x − 1)
(x − 1) + 3x 4 x − 1 (4 x − 1)2 (4 x − 1) 2
(4 x − 1) 2
(4 x − 1)2
 1 x2
m. Given f (x ) = x 2  2 +  = 2 x 2 + = 2 x 2 + x , then f ′(x ) = (2 ⋅ 2 )x 2−1 + x 1−1 = 4 x + x 0 = 4 x + 1
 x x
2x 2x 2 + 2x [ (4 x + 2) ⋅ (x − 1) ] − [1 ⋅ (2 x 2 + 2 x ) ] 4 x 2 − 4 x + 2/ x/ − 2 − 2 x 2 − 2/ x/
n. Given f (x ) = (x + 1) ⋅ = , then f ′(x ) = =
x −1 x −1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
=
(4 − 2)x 2 − 4 x − 2 =
2x2 − 4x − 2
(x − 1)2 ( x − 1)2
x 3 + 3x − 1
[ (3x + 3)⋅ x ]−  4 x ⋅ (x
2 4 3 3 
+ 3x − 1 

) 3 x 6 + 3 x 4 − 4 x 6 − 12 x 4 + 4 x 3
o. Given f (x ) = , then f ′(x ) = =
x4 x8 x8

=
− x 6 − 9x 4 + 4x 3
=
(
x 3/ − x 3 − 9 x + 4 )= − x 3
+ 9x − 4
x 8
x 8/ =5
x5
(  2x 3 + 5 
p. Given f (x ) = x 2 − 1  )  3   2 3
 , then f ′(x ) = 2 x ⋅  2 x + 5  +  6 x ⋅ x − 2 x + 5 ( )( ) ⋅ (x − 1) = 4 x
2 3
+ 10
 x   x   x 2 
  
( ) ( )
 6x 3 − 2x 3 − 5  2  3  5 3 2 5 3 2
+  ⋅ x − 1 = 4 x 3 + 10 +  4 x − 5  x 2 − 1 = 4 x 3 + 10 + 4 x − 4 x − 5 x + 5 = 8 x − 4 x + 5 x + 5
 x 2   x 2  x 2
x 2
   
q. Given f (x ) =
3x 4 + x 2 + 2
, then f ′(x ) =
[( )
12 x3 + 2 x ⋅ (x − 1) − 1 ⋅ 3 x 4 + x 2 + 2 ][( )] =
12 x 4 − 12 x 3 + 2 x 2 − 2 x − 3 x 4 − x 2 − 2
x −1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2
9 x 4 − 12 x 3 + x 2 − 2 x − 2
=
( x − 1)2
1 1
r. Given f (x ) = x −1 + = x −1 + x 2 , then f ′(x ) = − x −1−1 + 2 x 2−1 = − x −2 + 2 x = − + 2x
x −2 x2
3. Compute f ′(x ) at the specified value of x . Compare your answers with the practice problem number two in
Section 2.1.
a. Given f (x ) = x3 , then f ′(x ) = 3x3−1 = 3x 2 at x = 1 f ′(x ) = 3 ⋅ 12 = 3
b. Given f (x ) = 1+ 2 x , then f ′(x ) = 0 + (2 ⋅1)x1−1 = 2x 0 = 2 at x = 0 f ′(x ) = 2
c. Given f (x ) = x 3 + 1 , then f ′(x ) = 3x 3−1 + 0 = 3x 2 at x = −1 f ′(x ) = 3 ⋅ (− 1)2 = 3
d. Given f (x ) = x 2 (x + 2) = x 3 + 2 x 2 , then f ′(x ) = 3x 3−1 + (2 ⋅ 2)x 2−1 = 3x 2 + 4 x
at x = 2 f ′(x ) = 3 ⋅ 2 2 + 4 ⋅ 2 = 3 ⋅ 4 + 8 = 12 + 8 = 20
2 1
e. Given f (x ) = x −2 + x −1 + 1 , then f ′(x ) = − 2 x −2−1 − x −1−1 + 0 = − 2 x −3 − x −2 = − 3
−
x x2
2 1
at x = 1 f ′(x ) = − − = −2 − 1 = −3
13 12
1
1 12 −1 1 1− 2 1 −1 1 1
f. Given f (x ) = x + 2 = x 2 + 2 , then f ′(x ) = x +0 = x 2 = x 2 = =
2 2 2 1
2 x
2x 2
1 1 1
at x = 10 f ′(x ) = = = = 0.158
2 10 2 ⋅ 3.16 6.32
4. Find f ′(0 ) and f ′(2 ) for the following functions:
a. Given f (x ) = x 3 − 3 x 2 + 5 , then f ′(x ) = 3 x 3−1 − (3 ⋅ 2 )x 2−1 + 0 = 3 x 2 − 6 x
( ) ( )
Therefore, f ′(0 ) = 3 ⋅ 0 2 − (6 ⋅ 0 ) = 0 − 0 = 0 and f ′(2 ) = 3 ⋅ 2 2 − (6 ⋅ 2 ) = 12 − 12 = 0
b. Given f (x ) = (x + 1)(x − 1) , then f ′(x ) = [3 x ⋅ (x − 1) ]+ [1 ⋅ (x + 1) ] = 3 x − 3 x + x + 1 = 4 x − 3 x + 1

3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2
Therefore, f ′(0 ) = (4 ⋅ 0 ) − (3 ⋅ 0 ) + 1 = 0 − 0 + 1 = 1 and f ′(2 ) = (4 ⋅ 2 )− (3 ⋅ 2 )+ 1 = 32 − 12 + 1 = 21

3 2 3 2
c. Given f (x ) = x (x + 1) = x + x , then f ′(x ) = 3 x

2 3
+x 2 −1
= 3x + x = 3x + 1 1−1 0 2
Therefore, f ′(0 ) = (3 ⋅ 0 )+ 1 = 0 + 1 = 1 and f ′(2 ) = (3 ⋅ 2 )+ 1 = 12 + 1 = 13

2 2
d. Given f (x ) = 2 x 5 + 10 x 4 − 4 x , then f ′(x ) = (2 ⋅ 5)x 5−1 + (10 ⋅ 4 )x 4−1 − 4 x 1−1 = 10 x 4 + 40 x 3 − 4 x 0 = 10 x 4 + 40 x3 − 4
( )( ) (
Therefore, f ′(0 ) = 10 ⋅ 0 4 + 40 ⋅ 0 3 − 4 = −4 and f ′(2 ) = 10 ⋅ 2 4 + 40 ⋅ 2 3 − 4 = 160 + 320 − 4 = 476 )( )

e. Given f (x ) = 2 x −2 − 3 x −1 + 5 x , then f ′(x ) = (2 ⋅ −2 )x −2 −1 + (− 3 ⋅ −1)x −1−1 + 5 x1−1 = − 4 x −3 + 3 x −2 + 5 x 0
4 3 4 3
= − 4 x −3 + 3 x −2 + 5 = − 3
+ 2
+ 5 . Therefore, f ′(0 ) = − + + 5 which is undefined due to division by zero and
3
x x 0 02
4 3 4 3
f ′(2 ) = − + +5 = − + + 5 = −0.5 + 0.75 + 5 = 5.25
23 22 8 4
( )
f. Given f (x ) = x −2 x 5 − x 3 + x = x 3 − x + x = x 3 , then f ′(x ) = 3 x 3−1 = 3x 2
Therefore, f ′(0 ) = 3⋅ 0 2 = 0 and f ′(2 ) = 3⋅ 2 2 = 12
g. Given f (x ) =
x
, then f ′(x ) =
[1 ⋅ (1 + x )]− [2 x ⋅ x]
2
=
1 + x 2 − 2x 2
=
1 − x2
1+ x 2
(1 + x )
2 2
(1 + x ) 2 2 (1 + x )2 2
1− 02 1− 22 1− 4 −3 3
Therefore, f ′(0 ) = = 1 and f ′(2 ) = = = = −
(1 + 0 )2 2
(1 + 2 )
2 2 (1 + 4) 2
5 2 25
h. Given f (x ) =
1
+ x 3 , then f ′(x ) =
(0 ⋅ x ) − (1 ⋅1) + 3x 3−1 = − 1 + 3x 2
x x2 x2
0
1
( ) 2
1 1
Therefore, f ′(0 ) = − 2 + 3 ⋅ 02 which is undefined due to division by zero and f ′(2 ) = − 2 + 3 ⋅ 22 = − + 12 = 11.75
4
( )
ax 2 + bx [ (2ax + b ) ⋅ (cx − d ) ] − [c ⋅ (ax 2 + bx ) ] 2acx 2 − 2adx + b/ c/ x/ − bd − acx 2 − b/ c/ x/
i. Given f (x ) = , then f ′(x ) = =
cx − d (cx − d )2 (cx − d )2
=
acx 2 − 2adx − bd
. Therefore, f ′(0 ) =
(ac ⋅ 0 )− (2ad ⋅ 0) − bd
2
=
0 − 0 − bd
=
−bd/
= −
b
and
(cx − d ) 2
(c ⋅ 0 − d ) 2
(0 − d ) 2
d 2=
/ 1 d
f ′(2 ) =
(ac ⋅ 2 )− (2ad ⋅ 2) − bd
2
=
4ac − 4ad − bd
(c ⋅ 2 − d )2 (2c − d )2
5. Given f (x ) = x 2 + 1 and g (x ) = 2 x − 5 find h(x ) and h ′(x ) .
(
a. Given h(x ) = x 3 f (x ) where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 , then h(x ) = x 3 x 2 + 1 = x 5 + x 3 and h ′(x ) = 5 x 4 + 3 x 2 )
b. Given f (x ) = 3 + h(x ) where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 , then h(x ) = f (x ) − 3 = x 2 + 1 − 3 = x 2 − 2 and h ′(x ) = 2 x ( )
c. Given 2 g (x ) = h(x ) − 1 where g (x ) = 2 x − 5 , then h(x ) = 2 g (x ) + 1 = 2(2 x − 5) + 1 = 4 x − 10 + 1 = 4 x − 9 and h ′(x ) = 4
2 x g (x ) − 1 2 x (2 x − 5) − 1 4 x 2 − 10 x − 1
d. Given 3h(x ) = 2 x g (x ) − 1 where g (x ) = 2 x − 5 , then h(x ) = = = and
3 3 3
[ (8 x − 10) ⋅ 3] − [0 ⋅ (4 x 2 − 10 x − 1) ] 3(8 x − 10 ) 8 x − 10
h ′(x ) = = =
32 9 3
e. Given 3[ f (x ) ]2 − 2h(x ) = 1 where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 , then h(x ) =

1
2
( 1 3
) 1 3 2
− 1 + 3[ f (x ) ]2 = − + [ f (x ) ]2 = − + x 2 + 1 and
2 2 2 2
( )
( )
h ′(x ) = 3 x 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 x = 6 x 3 + 6 x
f. Given h(x ) = g (x ) ⋅ 3 f (x ) where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 and g (x ) = 2 x − 5 , then h(x ) = (2 x − 5) ⋅ 3 x 2 + 1 = (2 x − 5) 3 x 2 + 3 ( ) ( )

= 6 x 3 − 15 x 2 + 6 x − 15 and h′(x ) = 18 x 2 − 30 x + 6
f (x ) x2 + 1 2
g. Given 3h(x ) − f (x ) = 0 where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 , then h(x ) = = and h ′(x ) = x
3 3 3

h. Given 2 g (x ) + h(x ) = f (x ) where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 and g (x ) = 2 x − 5 , then h(x ) = f (x ) − 2 g (x ) = x 2 + 1 − 2(2 x − 5) ( )

= x 2 + 1 − 4 x + 10 = x 2 − 4 x + 11 and h ′(x ) = 2 x − 4
i. Given f (x ) = x 3 + 5 x 2 + h(x ) where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 , then h(x ) = f (x ) − x 3 − 5x 2 = x 2 + 1 − x 3 − 5 x 2 = − x3 + (− 5 + 1)x 2 + 1 ( )

= − x 3 − 4 x 2 + 1 and h ′(x ) = − 3 x 2 − 8 x
j. Given h(x ) =
x3 +1
− f (x ) where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 , then h(x ) =
x3 + 1
− x 2 + 1 and h ′(x ) =
3x 2 ⋅ x − 1 ⋅ x3 + 1
( ) [ ][ ( )] − 2x
x x x2
3x3 − x3 − 1 2x3 − 1
= − 2x = − 2x
x2 x2
k. Given h(x ) = 2 f (x ) + g (x ) where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 and g (x ) = 2 x − 5 , then h(x ) = 2 x 2 + 1 + (2 x − 5) = 2 x 2 + 2 + 2 x − 5 ( )
= 2 x 2 + 2 x − 3 and h ′(x ) = 4 x + 2
[ ( )]
1
l. Given [h(x )] − f (x ) = 10 where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 , then [ h(x ) ]2 = 10 + f (x ) ; h(x ) = 10 + f (x ) = 10 + x 2 + 1
2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 −1
1 2
= x 2 + 11 2 and h ′(x ) = x + 11 2 ⋅ 2/ x = x x 2 + 11 2
2/
2 g (x ) 2 g (x ) 2(2 x − 5) 4 x − 10
m. Given f (x ) = where f (x ) = x 2 + 1 and g (x ) = 2 x − 5 , then h(x ) = = = and h ′(x )
h(x ) f (x ) x2 + 1 x2 + 1
=
[4 ⋅ (x + 1)]− [2 x ⋅ (4 x − 10) ] = 4 x + 4 − 8x + 20 x = − 4 x + 20 x + 4
2 2 2 2
(x + 1) 2 2
(x + 1) (x + 1) 2 2 2 2
3 f (x ) 1
n. Given = where f (x ) = x + 1 , then h(x ) = 3 x f (x ) = 3 x (x + 1) = 3 x
2 2 3
+ 3 x and h ′(x ) = 9 x 2 + 3
h(x ) x
1 f (x ) 1
o. Given f (x ) = , which is equivalent to = ; f ( x ) ⋅ [ h ( x ) + 4] = 1 ⋅ 1 ; f ( x ) h ( x ) + 4 f ( x ) = 1
h(x ) + 4 1 h(x ) + 4
1 − 4 f (x ) 1 4 f (x ) 1 1
; f (x )h(x ) = 1 − 4 f (x ) , and f (x ) = x 2 + 1 , then h(x ) = = − = −4 = 2 − 4 and h ′(x )
f (x ) f (x ) f (x ) f (x ) x +1
=
[0 ⋅ (x + 1)]− [2 x ⋅1] − 0 = 0 − 2 x
2
= −
2x
(x + 1)
2 2
(x + 1) 2 2
(x + 1)
2 2
Section 2.3 Solutions - Differentiation Rules Using the d Notation

dx
dy
1. Find for the following functions:
dx
a. Given y = x 5 + 3 x 2 + 1 , then
dy
dx
=
d 5
dx
x + 3x 2 + 1 =
d 5 d
dx dx
( d
dx
)
x + 3 x 2 + 1 = 5 x 4 + (3 ⋅ 2 )x + 0 = 5 x 4 + 6 x
2
b. Given y = 3 x + 5 , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
2
3x + 5 =
d
dx
2 d
dx
( )
3 x + 5 = (3 ⋅ 2 )x + 0 = 6 x
3 1
c. Given y = x − , then
x
dy
dx
=
d  3 1
dx 
x −  =
x
d 3
dx
x − x −1 =
d 3 d −1
dx
x −
dx
( )
x = 3 x 2 + x −1−1 = 3 x 2 + x −2 = 3 x 2 +
1
x2
x2 dy d  x 2 
 3 d 2  2 d 3 
 1 − x dx x  −  x dx 1 − x  ( ) ( ) [ (1 − x )⋅ 2 x]−  x ⋅ (− 3x )
3 2 2 

d. Given y = , then = =     =
1 − x3 dx dx  1 − x3  1 − x3
2
( ) (1 − x ) 3 2
=
2 x − 2 x 4 + 3x 4
=
x4 − 2x
=
(
x x3 − 2 )
(1 − x )3 2
(1 − x )
3 2
(1 − x ) 3 2

 d   d 
 (x − 1) ⋅ dx 1 − 1 ⋅ dx (x − 1) 
e. Given y = 4 x 2 +
1
x −1
, then
dy
dx
=
d 
 4x2 +
dx 
1 
 =
x −1
d
dx
d
4x2 + 
 1 
 = 8x +
dx  x − 1 
  
(x − 1)2
 ( )
0 −1 1
= 8x + = 8x −
(x − 1) 2
( x − 1)2
x2 + 2x
dy d  x 2 + 2 x 
 3

d 2   2
 
d 3 
 x + 1 dx x + 2 x  −  x + 2 x dx x + 1 
 =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [(x + 1)⋅ (2 x + 2)]
3
f. Given y = 3 , then = =
x +1 dx dx  x3 + 1  3
x +1
2
( ) (x + 1) 3 2
[( ) ] = 2 x + 2 x + 2 x + 2 − 3x − 6 x = − x − 4 x + 2 x + 2
− x 2 + 2 x ⋅ 3x 2 4 3 4 3 4 3
(x + 1)
3 2
(x + 1) (x + 1) 3 2 3 2
g. Given y = x (x + 5 x − 2 ) = x + 5 x − 2 x , then (x + 5x − 2 x ) = dxd x

dy d d d
3 2
= 5 4 3 5 4 3 5
+ 5 x 4 − 2 x3 = 5 x 4 + 20 x 3 − 6 x 2
dx dx dx dx
h. Given y = x 2 (x + 3)(x − 1) = x3 + 3 x 2 (x − 1) , then ( ) dy

dx
=
d
dx
[( 
x3 + 3 x 2 (x − 1) =  (x − 1)

)d 3
dx
]
x + 3x 2 ( ) + (x 3
+ 3x 2 ) dxd (x − 1) 
= [(x − 1)⋅ (3x 2
)] [( ) ]
+ 6 x + x3 + 3 x 2 ⋅ 1 = 3 x3 + 6 x 2 − 3 x 2 − 6 x + x3 + 3 x 2 = 4 x3 + 6 x 2 − 6 x = 2 x 2 x 2 + 3 x − 3 ( )
i. Given y = 5 x −
1
x 3
, then
dy
dx
=
d  1 
 5 x − 3  =
dx  x 
d
dx
5 x − x −3 =
d
dx
5x −
d −3
dx
( ) x
3
x = 5 + 3 x −3−1 = 5 + 3 x −4 = 5 + 4
j. Given y =
(x − 1)(x + 3) =
x 2 + 3x − x − 3
=
x 2 + (3 − 1)x − 3
=
x2 + 2x − 3
, then
dy
=
d  x2 + 2x − 3 
 
x2 x2 x2 x2 dx dx  x2 
 2 d 2
(   2
) (
d 2
 x dx x + 2 x − 3  −  x + 2 x − 3 dx x 
  
)
 = x ⋅ (2 x + 2 ) − x + 2 x − 3 ⋅ 2 x
2 2
[ ] [( ) ] = 2x 3
+ 2 x 2 − 2 x3 − 4 x 2 + 6 x
=
x4 x4 x4
2
− 2x + 6x −2 x/ (x − 3) 2 ( x − 3)
= 4
= 4/ =3
= −
x x x3
 x − 1  x2 − x dy d  x 2 − x 
 d 2   2 d 
3 ⋅ dx x − x  −  x − x ⋅ dx 3
 = [3 ⋅ (2 x − 1) ] − x − x ⋅ 0
2 ( ) ( ) [( ) ]
k. Given y = x = , then = =   
 3  3 dx dx  3  32 9
3(2 x − 1) − 0 3/ (2 x − 1) 2x − 1
= = =
9 9/ = 3 3
l. Given y = x (x + 3) , then
2 −1 dy
dx
=
d 2
dx
 d   d
[ 
x (x + 3)−1 = (x + 3)−1 x 2  +  x 2 (x + 3)−1  =
 dx   dx 
] [(x + 3) −1
][ (
⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ − (x + 3)−2 )]
2x x2
= 2 x (x + 3)−1 − x 2 (x + 3)−2 = −
x + 3 ( x + 3 )2
 x  x −3 dy  x −3 d  x   x  d  x −3 x−3

(1 + x ) d d
x − x (1 + x )
m. Given y =    , then =    +    = ⋅ dx dx
1+ x   5  dx  5  dx  1 + x   1 + x  dy  5  5 (1 + x )2
d d
5 ( x − 3) − ( x − 3) 5
x dx dx x − 3 [(1 + x ) ⋅ 1] − [x ⋅ 1] x [5 ⋅ 1] − [(x − 3) ⋅ 0] x − 3 x/ + 1 − x/ x 5/
+ ⋅ = ⋅ + ⋅ = ⋅ + ⋅
1+ x 52 5 (1 + x )2 1+ x 25 5 (1 + x )2 1 + x 2/ 5/ 5
x−3 1 x 1 x−3 x
= ⋅ + ⋅ = +
5 (1 + x )2 1 + x 5 5(1 + x )2 5(1 + x )

 d 3  3 d 
 1  x 3
dy d d  x 3  (x − 1) dx x  −  x dx (x − 1)
n. Given y = x3 1 +  = x3 + , then = x3 +   = 3x 2 +    
 x −1 x −1 dx dx dx  x − 1  (x − 1)2
= 3x 2 +
[(x − 1)⋅ 3x ]− [x ⋅1] 2 3
= 3x 2 +
3x3 − 3x 2 − x3
= 3x 2 +
2 x3 − 3x 2
= 3x2 +
x 2 (2 x − 3 )
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)2 ( x − 1)2
1  2x − 1  2x − 1 dy d  2x − 1 
 2 d   d 
 3 x + x dx (2 x − 1) − (2 x − 1) dx 3 x + x 
2
( ) ( )
o. Given y =   = , then =   =    
x  3x + 1  3x 2 + x dx dx  3 x 2 + x  3x 2 + x
2
( )
=
[(3x + x)⋅ 2]− [(2 x − 1)⋅ (6 x + 1) ] = 6 x
2 2
(
+ 2 x − 12 x 2 + 2 x − 6 x − 1 ) = 6x 2
+ 2/ x/ − 12 x 2 − 2/ x/ + 6 x + 1
=
− 6x2 + 6x + 1
(3x + x) 2 2
(3x 2
+x )2
(3x + x) (3 x + x )
2 2 2 2
bx dx (ax + bx + c ) − (ax + bx + c ) dx bx 

 d 2   d  2
ax 2 + bx + c dy d  ax 2 + bx + c      bx ⋅ (2ax + b )
p. Given y = , then = = =
bx dx dx  bx 
 (bx )2 (bx )2
(
− ax 2 + bx + c ⋅ b ) =
2abx 2 + b/ 2/ x/ − abx 2 − b/ 2/ x/ − bc
=
abx 2 − bc
=
(
b/ ax 2 − c ) = ax 2
−c
(bx ) 2
b x2 2 2 2
b x b 2/ =1 2
x bx 2
dy x3 − 2
d  x3 − 2 
 4 d 3   3 d 4 
 x − 3 dx x − 2  −  x − 2 dx x − 3  ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [(x − 3)⋅ 3x ]− [(x − 2)⋅ 4 x ]
4 2 3 3
q. Given y = 4 , then = =     =
x −3 dx dx  x 4 − 3  x4 − 3
2
( ) (x − 3) 4 2
3x 6 − 9 x 2 − 4 x 6 + 8 x3 − x6 + 8 x3 − 9 x2
= =
(x − 3)
4 2
(x 4
−3 )2
 

 (1 + x )2 d 5 x  − 5 x d (1 + x )2  [(1 + x) ⋅ 5]− [5x ⋅ 2(1 + x) ]
2
5x dy d  5x  dx   dx
r. Given y = , then = =   =
(1 + x )2 dx dx  (1 + x )2  (1 + x )4 (1 + x )4
=
( )
5 x 2 + 2 x + 1 − 10 x(1 + x )
=
5 x 2 + 1/ 0/ x/ + 5 − 1/ 0/ x/ − 10 x 2
=
− 5x2 + 5
(1 + x )4 (1 + x )4 (1 + x )4
2. Find the derivative of the following functions:
a.
d 2
dt
(
3t + 5t =
d
dt
) d
( )
3t 2 + (5t ) = (3 ⋅ 2 ) t 2 −1 + (5 ⋅ 1) t1−1 = 6t + 5t 0 = 6t + 5
dt
b.
d
dx
(
6 x3 + 5 x − 2 =
d
dx
)
6x 3 +
d
dx dx
( )
(5 x ) + d (− 2) = (6 ⋅ 3)x 3−1 + (5 ⋅1)x1−1 + 0 = 18 x 2 + 5 x 0 = 18 x 2 + 5
c.
d 3
du
(
u + 2u 2 + 5 =
d 3
du
u +
d
du
)
2u 2 +
d
du
( ) ( )
5 = 3u 3−1 + (2 ⋅ 2 )u 2−1 + 0 = 3u 2 + 4u
d  t 2 + 2t 
 d 2
5 ⋅ dt t + 2t ( ) −  (t 2
+ 2t ⋅ ) dtd 5 [5 ⋅ (2t + 2)] − [(t 2 + 2t )⋅ 0] 5 (2t + 2 ) − 0 5/ (2t + 2 ) 2t + 2
d. =  = = = = or,
dt  5  52 25 25 2/ 5/ 5
5
d  t 2 + 2t 
dt  5 
=
1 d 2
5 dt
1 d d 
( 1
t + 2t =  t 2 + 2t  = (2t + 2 ) =
5  dt dt  5 5
)
2t + 2
d  s 3 + 3s − 1 
 2 d 3   3 d 2
(
 s ⋅ dt s + 3s − 1  −  s + 3s − 1 ⋅ dt s 
  
2 2 ) (
3
 = s ⋅ 3s + 3 − s + 3s − 1 ⋅ 2 s
) [ ( )] [( ) ] 3 s 4 + 3s 2 − 2 s 4 − 6 s 2 + 2 s
e. = =
ds  s2 
 s4 s4 s4

s 4 − 3s 2 + 2 s
=
(
s/ s 3 − 3s + 2
=
)
s3 − 3s + 2
4 4/ =3
s s s3

(1 + w) ⋅ d w2  − w2 ⋅ d (1 + w) [ ]
 = 3w2 + [(1 + w) ⋅ 2 w] − w ⋅ 1
2  2   2

d  3 w  
d 3 d  w  dw   dt
f. w + = w + = 3w 2 + 
dw  1 + w  dw dw  1 + w  (1 + w)2 (1 + w)2
2 w + 2 w2 − w2 w 2 + 2w
= 3w2 + = 3w 2 +
(1 + w) 2
(1 + w )2
g.
d 2
dt
[
t (t + 1) t 2 − 3 =
d
(
dt
)]
t3 + t 2 t 2 − 3 = t 2 − 3
d 3 2
dt
[(
t + t + t3 + t 2
d 2
dt
)( )] (
t − 3 = t 2 − 3 ⋅ 3t 2 + 2t + t 3 + t 2 ⋅ 2t) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
= 3t 4 + 2t 3 − 9t 2 − 6t + 2t 4 + 2t 3 = 5t 4 + 4t 3 − 9t 2 − 6t , or
d 2
dt
[
t (t + 1) t 2 − 3 =
d
(
dt
t3 + t 2 t 2 − 3 =)]
d 5 4
dt
[(
t + t − 3t 3 − 3t 2 =
d 5 d 4
dt dt
)(
d
dt
d
)] (
t + t − 3 t 3 − 3 t 2 = 5t 4 + 4t 3 − 9t 2 − 6t
dt
)
h.
d
dx
[
(x + 1) x 2 + 5 ( )] = (x + 5) dxd (x + 1) + (x + 1) dxd (x + 5) = [(x + 5)⋅1]+ [(x + 1) ⋅ 2 x] = x
2 2 2 2
+ 5 + 2x2 + 2x = 3 x 2 + 2 x + 5
or,
d
dx
[
(x + 1) x 2 + 5 ( )] = dxd (x 3
+ x2 + 5x + 5 = ) d 3 d 2 d
dx
x +
dx dx
d
x + 5x + 5 = 3 x 2 + 2 x + 5
dx
 d 2  2 d   d   d 
d  u2 u  d  u 2  d  u  (1 − u ) ⋅ du u  − u ⋅ du (1 − u ) (1 + u ) ⋅ du u  − u ⋅ du (1 + u )
i.    −   
 −  = −   =
du 1 − u 1 + u  du  1 − u  du  1 + u  (1 − u )2 (1 + u )2
[ (1 − u ) ⋅ 2u ] − [u 2 ⋅ −1] [ (1 + u ) ⋅ 1 ] − [u ⋅ 1] 2u − 2u 2 + u 2 1+ u − u 2u − u 2 1 u(2 − u ) 1
= − = − = − = −
(1 − u )2 (1 + u )2 (1 − u ) 2
(1 + u ) 2
(1 − u )2 (1 + u )2 (1 − u)2 (1 + u)2
d  3r 3 − 2r 2 + 1 
 d

3 2   3
 
2 d 
r ⋅ dr 3r − 2r + 1  −  3r − 2r + 1 ⋅ dr r  ( 2 3 2
 = r ⋅ 9r − 4r − 3r − 2r + 1 ⋅ 1
) ( ) [ ( )] [( ) ]
j. =
dr  r 
 r2 r2
9r 3 − 4r 2 − 3r 3 + 2r 2 − 1 6r 3 − 2r 2 − 1
= =
r2 r2
d  3s 2 1 d  3s 2  d  1 
 3

d 2  2 d 3
 

 s + 1 ⋅ ds 3s  − 3s ⋅ ds s + 1 
−
( ) ( )  2 d   d 2
 s ⋅ ds 1 − 1 ⋅ ds s 
   
k.  −  = −   =
ds  s 3 + 1 s 2  ds  s 3 + 1  ds  s 2  3
s +1
2
( ) s 4
=
[(s + 1)⋅ 6s]− [3s
3 2
⋅ 3s 2 ] − (s ⋅ 0)− (1 ⋅ 2s ) = 6s
2 4
+ 6s − 9s 4
−
0 − 2s
=
− 3s 4 + 6 s
+
2 s/
= −
(
3s s 3 − 2 )+ 2
(s + 1) 3 2
s 4
(s + 1)
3 2
s 4
(s + 1)
3 2
s 4/ =3
(s + 1)
3 2
s3
 d 3  3 d   2 d   d 2
d  u3 u + 1 d  u 3  d  u + 1  (1 − u ) ⋅ du u  − u ⋅ du (1 − u ) u ⋅ du (u + 1) − (u + 1) ⋅ du u 
l.  − 2  = −   =    −   
du 1 − u u  du  1 − u  du  u 2  (1 − u )2 u4
=
[(1 − u )⋅ 3u ]− [u ⋅ −1] − [u ⋅1]− [(u + 1)⋅ 2u] = 3u
2 3 2 2
− 3u 3 + u 3
−
u 2 − 2u 2 − 2u
=
− 2u 3 + 3u 2
−
− u 2 − 2u
(1 − u )2 u4 (1 − u )2 u4 (1 − u )2 u4
u 2 (− 2u + 3) u/ (u + 2 ) u 2 (2u − 3 ) u+2
= + 4/ =3 = − +
(1 − u )2 u u3 (1 − u) 2
3. Find the derivative of the following functions at the specified value.
a.
d 3
dx
(
x + 3x 2 + 1 =
d 3
dx
x +
d
dx
d
) ( ) ( )
3 x 2 + (1) = 3 x3−1 + (3 ⋅ 2 )x 2 −1 + 0 = 3 x 2 + 6 x
dx

at x = 2
d 3
dx
( )
x + 3 x 2 + 1 = 3 ⋅ 22 + 6 ⋅ 2 = 12 + 12 = 24
b.
d
dx
[ ( )] (
dx dx
) ( ) (
(x + 1) x 2 − 1 = x 2 − 1 d (x + 1)+ (x + 1) d x 2 − 1 = x 2 − 1 ⋅ 1+ (x + 1) ⋅ 2 x = x 2 − 1+ 2 x 2 + 2 x = 3x 2 + 2 x − 1 )
at x = 1
d
dx
[ ( )] ( )
(x + 1) x 2 − 1 = 3 ⋅ 12 + (2 ⋅ 1) − 1 = 3 + 2 − 1 = 4
c.
d
ds
[3s 2 (s − 1) = ]
d
ds
3s 3 − 3s 2 =
d
(
ds
3s 3 +
d
ds
)
− 3s 2 = 9 s 2 − 6 s ( ) ( )
at s = 0
d
ds
[ ] ( )
3s 2 (s − 1) = 9 ⋅ 02 − (6 ⋅ 0 ) = 0
d t2 +1 
 d 2   2 d
( 
(t − 1) dt t + 1  −  t + 1 dt (t − 1)
    =
) ( ) [ (t − 1) ⋅ 2t ] − [(t 2 + 1)⋅ 1] 2t 2 − 2t − t 2 − 1 t 2 − 2t − 1
d.   = = =
dt  t − 1  (t − 1)2 (t − 1)2 (t − 1)2 (t − 1)2
at t = −1
d t2 +1  (− 1)2 + (− 2 ⋅ −1) − 1 = 1 + 2 − 1 = 2 = 1
  =
dt  t − 1  (− 1 − 1)2 4 4 2
2 d 3  3 d
[(u + 1) ⋅ 3u ]− [u
 2
e.
d  u3 
  =
(u + 1) du u  − u du (u + 1) 
    =
2 2 3
⋅ 2(u + 1) ] = [(u 2
) ][
+ 2u + 1 ⋅ 3u 2 − 2u 4 + 2u 3 ]
du  (u + 1)2  (u + 1)4 (u + 1) 4
(u + 1) 4
=
3u 4 + 6u 3 + 3u 2 − 2u 4 − 2u 3
=
u 4 + 4u 3 + 3u 2
at u = 1
d  u3 
  =
14 + 4 ⋅ 13 + 3 ⋅ 12 ( ) ( )
=
1+ 4 + 3
=
8
=
1
(u + 1) 4
(u + 1) 4 du  (u + 1) 
2
(1 + 1)4 24 16 2
d  w w2 +1 ( d w/ )
w 2
+ 1  d  w 2
+ 1 


d 2
(
  2
 
d
)

3w du w + 1  −  w + 1 du 3w
 = [3w ⋅ 2 w] − w + 1 ⋅ 3
2 ( ) ( ) [( ) ]
f.   =   =   =
dw  3w 2  dw  3w2/ =1  dw  3w  (3w)2 9 w2
=
6 w 2 − 3w 2 − 3
=
(
3 w2 − 1 )=w 2
−1
at w = 2
d  w w2 +1 
 
(
=
22 − 1
=
3)=
1
9w 2
9w 2
3w 2 dw  3w 2  3⋅ 2 2 12 4 ( )
g.
d
dv
[(
v 2 +1 v3 =
dv
) ]
d 5 3
v +v =
d 5 d 3
dv
(
v + v = 5v 4 + 3v 2
dv
)
at v = −2
d
dv
[( ) ]
v 2 + 1 v 3 = 5 ⋅ (− 2 )4 + 3 ⋅ (− 2 )2 = (5 ⋅ 16 ) + (3 ⋅ 4 ) = 80 + 12 = 92
d  x 3 
 2
 
(
d 3  3 d 2


 x + 1 dx x  −  x dx x + 1 

) ( ) [(x + 1)⋅ 3x ]− [x
2 2 3
⋅ 2x ] 3x 4 + 3x 2 − 2 x 4 x 4 + 3x 2
h. = = = =
dx  x 2 +1  x2 + 1
2
( ) (x + 1) 2 2
(x + 1)
2 2
(x + 1)
2 2
at x = 0
d  x 3 
=
04 + 3 ⋅ 02 0+0
= 2 =
0
= 0
( )
dx  x 2 +1  2
0 +1
2
1 1 ( )
 d 5  5 d 
i.
d  3  u 2 
u  =
d  u 5 
=
(1 − u ) du u  − u du (1 − u )
    = [(1 − u )⋅ 5u ]− [(u ⋅ −1)]
4 5
=
5u 4 − 5u 5 + u 5
=
− 4u 5 + 5u 4
du   1 − u 
 
du  1 − u  (1 − u )2
(1 − u ) 2
(1 − u ) 2
(1 − u )2
at u = 0
d  3  u 2 
u  =
− 4 ⋅ 05 + 5 ⋅ 0 4
=
0+0
=
0
= 0
( ) ( )
du   1 − u 
  (1 − 0)2 1 1
4. Given the functions below find their derivatives at the specified value.
a.
ds
dt
( )
given s = t 2 − 1 + (3t + 2 )2 , then
ds
dt
=
ds 2
dt
ds ds
( )
t − 1 + (3t + 2 )2 = 2t + 2(3t + 2 )2 −1 ⋅ (3t + 2 ) = 2t + 2(3t + 2 ) ⋅ 3
dt dt

ds
= 2t + 18t + 12 = 20t + 12 = (20 ⋅ 2 ) + 12 = 40 + 12 = 52 at t = 2
dt
dy t 3 + 3t 2 + 1 dy
2t
d 3
dt
t + 3t 2 + 1 − t 3 + 3t 2 + 1 2t
d
dt
(
2t ⋅ 3t 2 + 6t − t 3 + 3t 2 + 1 ⋅ 2
)( ) ( ) ( )
b. given y = , then = =
dt 2t dt (2t )2
4t 2
=
6t 3 + 12t 2 − 2t 3 − 6t 2 − 2
=
4t 3 + 6t 2 − 2
=
(
2/ 2t 3 + 3t 2 − 1 ) = 2t 3
+ 3t 2 − 1
2 2 2
4t 4t 4/ t 2t 2
2
dy 2 ⋅ 13 + 3 ⋅ 12 − 1 2 + 3 −1 4
at t = 1 = = = = 2
dt 2 ⋅ 12 2 2
c.
dw
dx
2
given w = x 2 + 1 + 3 x , then (
dw
dx
=
d 2
dx
2
)
x + 1 + 3x = 2 x 2 + 1 ( ) ( ) 2 −1 d 2
dx
( d
)
x + 1 + 3x = 2 x 2 + 1 ⋅ 2 x + 3
dx
( )
dw
= 4 x3 + 4 x + 3 = 4 ⋅ (− 1)3 + (4 ⋅ −1) + 3 = −4 − 4 + 3 = −5
at x = −1
dx
d.
dy
dx
2
given y = x 2 x3 + 2 x + 1 + 3 x , then(dy
dx
=
d  2 3

dx 
) 2
x x + 2 x + 1 + 3x  =


d  2 3

dx 
2 d
x x + 2 x + 1  + 3x
 dx
( ) ( )
(
= x3 + 2 x + 1 ) 2 d 2
dx
x + x2
d 3
dx
x + 2x + 1 ( ) 2 

(2  
)
+ 3 =  x3 + 2 x + 1 ⋅ 2 x  +  x 2 ⋅ 2 x3 + 2 x + 1
 
( ) 2 −1
⋅
d 3
dx
( 
x + 2x + 1  + 3

)
( ) [ (
2
= 2 x x3 + 2 x + 1 + 2 x 2 x3 + 2 x + 1 3x 2 + 2 + 3 )( )] at x = 0
dy
dx
= 0+0+3 = 3
Section 2.4 Solutions - The Chain Rule
1. Find the derivative of the following functions. Do not simplify the answer to its lowest term.
( ) ( ) ⋅ 2 x = 6 x (x + 2)
a. Given y = x 2 + 2 , then y ′ = 3 x 2 + 2
3 3−1 2 2
b. Given y = (x + 1) , then y ′ = − 2(x + 1) ⋅ 2 x = − 4 x (x + 1)

2 −2 2 −2 −1 2 −3
c. Given y = (x − 1) , then y ′ = 5(x 3 − 1) ⋅ 3 x 2 = 15 x (x − 1)

3
5−1
5 2 3 4
2 2 −1
 1   1  2x  1  x/ 4  1 
d. Given y = 1 −  , then y ′ = 21 −  ⋅ = 41 − ⋅ = 3  1 − 2 
2  2  2 
 x   x  x4  x  x 4/ =3
x  x 
e. Given y = 2 x 3 +
1
, then y ′ = (2 ⋅ 3)x 3−1 +
(0 ⋅ 3x )− (6 x ⋅1) = 6 x + 0 − 6 x = 6 x − 6 x/
2
2 2
= 6x2 −
2
3x 2
(3x ) 2 2 9x 9x 4 4/ =3
3x3
 1 + x2   1 + x2 
f. Given y =  3  , then y ′ = 4  3 
4 4 −1
⋅
[2 x ⋅ x ]− [3x (1 + x )] = 4  1 + x  ⋅ 2 x − 3x
3 2 2 2
3
4 2
− 3x 4
= 4
 1 + x2 

3
 x   x  x6  x3  x6  x3 
       
⋅
− x 4 − 3x 2
3
 1 + x 2  − x 2/ x 2 + 3
= 4 3  ⋅ = − 4
(
 1 + x2 
 ) 3
 x2 + 3 
 
x 6  x  x 6
/ = 4  3   x4 
   x   
3  3 3−1 3 2
 x +1  x +1    x +1 1   x +1  x +1
g. Given y = x 2   , then y ′ = 2 x 2 −1 ⋅    + 3  ⋅ ⋅ x2  = 2 x   + x2 
 3    3     3  3
  3   3 
[
h. Given y = x (x + 1)2 + 2 x ] = [x (x
3 2
) ] = (x
+ 2x + 1 + 2x
3 3
+ 2x2 + x + 2x ) = (x
3 3
) 3
+ 2 x 2 + 3 x , then y ′ = 3 x3 + 2 x 2 + 3 x ( ) 3−1
(
⋅ 3x 2 + 4 x + 3 = 3 x 3 + 2 x 2 ) ( + 3 x ) (3 x + 4 x + 3 )
2 2
−1 −1−1 −2
x  x  1  x  1 
i. Given y =  − 2 x3  , then y ′ = −  − 2 x3  ⋅  − (2 ⋅ 3)x3−1  = −  − 2 x 3   − 6 x 2 
 3   3   3   3   3 

(
j. Given y = x3 + 3 x 2 + 1 , then y ′ = 4 x3 + 3 x 2 + 1 ) 4
( ) ⋅ (3x + (3 ⋅ 2)x + 0) = 4(x + 3 x + 1) (3 x + 6 x )
4 −1 3−1 2 −1 3 2 3 2
 t2 
k. Given y = 
 2 
 , then y ′ = 3  t 
3 3−1
⋅
[2t ⋅ (1 + t )]− [2t ⋅ t ] = 3 t  ⋅ 2t + 2/ t/ − 2/ t/ = 3t ⋅ 2t
2 2 2
2
3/ 3/ 4
1+ t 

2

 2
1+ t  (1 + t ) 2 21+ t 
  (1 + t ) (1 + t ) (1 + t )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3t 4 ⋅ 2t 6t 4 +1 6t 5
= = =
(1 + t ) ⋅ (1 + t ) (1 + t )
2 2
(1 + t )
2 2 2 2+ 2 2 4
l. Given y = (1 + x ) , then y ′ = − (1 + x ) ( )
−2 −1 − 2 −1−1 −2 2
⋅ −2 x − 2 −1 = 2 x −3 1 + x − 2 =
(
x 3 1 + x −2 ) 2
m. Given y =
(x + 1)−2 , then y ′ =
[− 2 (x + 1) − 2 −1
][
⋅ 1 ⋅ x3 − 3 x3−1 ⋅ (x + 1)− 2 ] = [− 2 x (x + 1) ]− [3 x (x + 1) ]
3 −3 2 −2
x3 x6 x6
2   1  2 −1 3x 2   2  6x2 1
 1 
n. Given y =   +
1
, then y ′ = 2   ⋅  − 1 =  1  ⋅ 6 x − 1 = −

 1 − x3  x


  1 − x3  1 − x3 ( )
2

x2  1 − x3  1 − x3
 ( )
2

x2 1 − x3 ( ) 3
x2
o. Given y =
x3
− x 2 , then y ′ =
[3x ⋅ (x + 2)]− [3x ⋅ x ] − 2 x
3−1 3 2 3
2 −1
=
( )
3x 2 x3 + 2 − 3x5
− 2x =
3/ x/ 5/ + 6 x 2 − 3/ x/ 5/
− 2x
x3 + 2 (x + 2) 3 2
(x + 2)
3 2
(x + 2)
3 2
=
6x2
−
2x
=
6x2 − 2x x3 + 2 ( ) 2
(x + 2)
3 2 1 x3 + 2
2
( )
2. Find the derivative of the following functions at x = 0 , x = 1 , and x = −1 .
(
a. Given y = x 3 + 1 , then y ′ = 5 x3 + 1 )5
( ) 5 −1
(
⋅ 3 x 2 = 15 x 2 x3 + 1 . Therefore, )
4
( )( ) = 0 ⋅1
y′(0 ) = 15 ⋅ 02 03 + 1
4 4
= 0 ⋅1 = 0
y′(1) = (15 ⋅ 1 )(1 + 1) = 15⋅ 2

2 3 4 4
= 15⋅ 24 = 15⋅ 16 = 240 and
[
y′(−1) = 15 ⋅ (− 1) 2 ] [(− 1) + 1] 3 4
= 15 ⋅ (− 1 + 1) 4 = 15 ⋅ 04 = 15 ⋅ 0 = 0
(
b. Given y = x3 + 3 x 2 − 1 , then y ′ = 4 x3 + 3 x 2 − 1 ) 4
( ) (3x
4 −1 2
) (
+ 6 x = 12 x x3 + 3 x 2 − 1 ) (x + 2) . Therefore,
3
(
y′(0 ) = (12 ⋅ 0 ) 03 + 3 ⋅ 02 − 1 ) (0 + 2) = 0.(− 1)
3 3
⋅2 = 0
( ) 3
y′(1) = (12 ⋅ 1) 13 + 3 ⋅ 12 − 1 (1 + 2 ) = 12 ⋅ (1 + 3 − 1) 3 ⋅ 3 = 12 ⋅ 27 ⋅ 3 = 972 and
[
y′(−1) = (12 ⋅ −1) (− 1) 3 + 3 ⋅ (− 1)2 − 1 ] (− 1 + 2) = − 12 (− 1 + 3 − 1)
3 3
= − 12 (− 2 + 3) 3 = − 12 ⋅ 13 = −12 ⋅ 1 = −12
2 2 −1
 x   x  1 ⋅ (x + 1) − 1 ⋅ x  x  x/ + 1 − x/  x  1 2x
c. Given y =   , then y ′ = 2  ⋅ = 2 ⋅ = 2 ⋅ = . Thus,
 x +1  x +1 (x + 1)2  x + 1  (x + 1)2  x + 1  (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3
2⋅0 0 0
y′(0 ) = = = = 0
(0 + 1) 3 13 1
2 ⋅1 2 2 1
y′(1) = = = = = 0.25 and
(1 + 1) 3 23 8 4
2 ⋅ −1 −2 2
y′(−1) = = = − which is undefined due to division by zero
(− 1 + 1) 3 03 0
2
( 
)
2 
d. Given y = x x 2 + 1 , then y ′ = 1 ⋅ x 2 + 1  + 2 x 2 + 1
  
( ) ( ) 2 −1 
(
⋅ 2 x = x2 + 1

) 2
( )
+ 4 x x 2 + 1 . Therefore,
(
y′(0 ) = 02 + 1 ) 2
(
+ (4 ⋅ 0 ) 02 + 1 = 12 + 0 = 1 )

y′(1) = 12 + 1( ) 2
( )
+ (4 ⋅ 1) 12 + 1 = 22 + 4 ⋅ 2 = 4 + 8 = 12 and
y′(−1) = [(− 1) + 1] 2 2
[ ]
+ (4 ⋅ −1) (− 1)2 + 1 = (1 + 1) 2 − 4 ⋅ (1 + 1) = 22 − 4 ⋅ 2 = 4 − 8 = −4
(
e. Given y = x3 + 2 x 2 + 1 , then y ′ = 3 x3−1 + 2 ⋅ 3 x 2 + 1 ) 3
( ) 3−1
(
⋅ 2 x = 3 x 2 + 12 x x 2 + 1 ) 2
. Therefore,
y′(0 ) = 3 ⋅ 02 + (12 ⋅ 0 ) 02 + 1 ( ) 2
= 3 ⋅ 0 + 0 ⋅12 = 0 + 0 = 0
y′(1) = 3 ⋅ 12 + (12 ⋅ 1) 12 + 1 ( ) 2
= 3 + 12 ⋅ 22 = 3 + 12 ⋅ 4 = 3 + 48 = 51 and
y′(−1) = 3 ⋅ (− 1) 2 + (12 ⋅ −1) (− 1) 2 + 1 [ ] 2

= 3 ⋅ 1 − 12 ⋅ (1 + 1)2 = 3 − 12 ⋅ 22 = 3 − 12 ⋅ 4 = 3 − 48 = −45
 x2
f. Given y = 

3
 2 
 , then y ′ = 3 x 
3−1
⋅
[2 x ⋅ (1 + x )]− [2 x ⋅ x ]
2 2
= 3  ⋅
2
 x 2  2 x + 2 x3 − 2 x3
 1+ x2



 1 + x2 
  (1 + x ) 2 2  1 + x2 
  1 + x2
2
( )
=
3x 4
⋅
2x
=
(3 ⋅ 2)x 4+1 =
6 x5
. Therefore,
(1 + x ) (1 + x )
2 2 2 2
(1 + x ) 2 2+ 2
(1 + x ) 2 4
6 ⋅ 05 0 0
y′(0 ) = = = = 0
(1 + 0 ) 2 4 14 1
6 ⋅ 15 6 6 3
y′(1) = = = = = 0.375 and
(1 + 1 ) 2 4 2 4 16 8
6 ⋅ (− 1) 5
6 ⋅ −1 6 6 3
y′(− 1) = = = − = − = − = −0.375
[1 + (− 1) ] 2 4 (1 + 1) 4
2 4 16 8
 x 
g. Given y = 
 x 
 , then y ′ = 5
5 5 −1
⋅
[1 ⋅ (x + 1)]− [2 x ⋅ x] = 5 x  ⋅ x + 1 − 2 x
2 4 2 2
=
5x4
⋅
1 − x2

2
 x +1   x2 + 1  (x + 1) 2

2 
 x +1 (x + 1) 2 2 2
(x + 1) (x + 1)
2 4 2 2
=
(
5x4 1 − x2 ) = 5x (1 − x ) . Therefore, 4 2
(x + 1)
2 4+ 2
(x + 1) 2 6
5 ⋅ 0 ⋅ (1 − 0 ) 4
0 ⋅1 0 2
y′(0 ) = = = = 0
(0 + 1) 2 1 16 6
5 ⋅ 1 ⋅ (1 − 1 )
4
5 ⋅ (1 − 1) 2
5⋅0 0
y′(1) = = = = = 0 and
(1 + 1) 2 2 6 64 64 6
5 ⋅ (− 1) ⋅ (1 − (− 1) ) 4
5 ⋅ 1 ⋅ (1 − 1) 5⋅0 0 2
y′(−1) = = = = = 0
((− 1) + 1) (1 + 1)
2 2 6 64 6 6
3(x + 1) ( )
 3−1   3
(x + 1) ( ) ( )
2
3 ⋅ 2 x ⋅ x 2  − 2 x ⋅ x 2 + 1  2 3
h. Given y = (x + 1) ⋅
2 3 2 2
1 3  = 6x x + 1 − 2x x + 1
2
= y= , then y ′ =  4
 
x2 x2 x x 4
=
(
2 x/ x 2 + 1 ) [3x − (x + 1)]
2 2 2
=
(
2 x2 + 1 ) (3x
2 2
− x2 − 1 ) =
(
2 x2 + 1 ) (2 x − 1)
2 2
. Therefore,
x 4/ =3 x3 x3
y′(0 ) =
(
2 02 + 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 0 2 − 1) ( 2
) = 2 ⋅1 ⋅ (0 −1) = 2 ⋅ −1 = − 2 which is undefined due to division by zero
2
3 0 0 0
0
y′(1) =
( 2
2 1 + 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 − 1 ) ( 2 2
) = 2⋅2 2
⋅ (2 − 1) 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 1
= =
8
= 8 and
3 1 1 1
1
y′(−1) =
[
2 (− 1) + 1 2
] ⋅ [2 ⋅ (− 1) − 1]
2 2
=
2(1 + 1)2 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 1 −1)
=
2 ⋅ 22 ⋅ (2 −1)
=
2 ⋅ 4 ⋅1 8
= − = −8
(− 1)3 −1 −1 −1 1

 x3 
i. Given y = 
 3 
 + 5 x , then y ′ = 2 x 
2 2 −1
⋅
[3x 2
] [ ] + 5 = 2
⋅ (x − 1) − 1 ⋅ x3 x3   3 x3 − 3 x 2 − x3 
⋅ +5
 
 x −1 
 x −1
  (x − 1) 2  x −1 
   (x − 1)2 
=
2 x3 2 x3 − 3x 2
⋅ +5 =
2 x3 x 2 (2 x − 3)
⋅ +5 =
2 x3 ⋅ x 2 2 x3 − 3x 2
+5 =
2 x3+ 2 (2 x − 3)
+5=
2 x5 (2 x − 3)
+ 5 . Therefore,
( )
x − 1 (x − 1) 2 x − 1 (x − 1) 2
(x − 1) (x − 1) 2
(x − 1) 1+ 2
(x − 1) 3
2 ⋅ 05 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 0 − 3) 0 ⋅ (0 − 3) 0
y′(0 ) = +5 = +5 = +5 = 0+5 = 5
(0 − 1) 3
1 3 1
2 ⋅ 15 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 1 − 3) 2 ⋅ (2 − 3) 2 ⋅ −1 2
y′(1) = +5 = +5 = + 5 = − + 5 which is undefined due to division by zero and
(1 − 1) 3 03 0 0
2 ⋅ (− 1) 5 ⋅ [(2 ⋅ −1) − 3] 2 ⋅ −1 ⋅ [− 2 − 3] −2 ⋅ −5 10 5
y′(−1) = +5 = +5 = +5 = + 5 = + 5 = 1.25 + 5 = 6.25
(− 1 − 1) 3
(− 2) 3 −8 8 4
3. Use the chain rule to differentiate the following functions.
2 d 3 d 2
a.
d  (t + 1)3 
  = 
3 
t ⋅ dt (t + 1)  − (t + 1) ⋅ dt t 
   = t ⋅ 3(t + 1) − (t + 1) ⋅ 2t
2 2 3
[ ][ ] =
3t 2 (t + 1)2 − 2t (t + 1)3
=
t/ (t + 1)2 [3t − 2(t + 1)]
4
dt  t 2  t4 t4 t t 4/ =3
=
(t + 1)2 (3t − 2t − 2) =
(t + 1) 2 (t − 2)
t 3
t3
 2 3
d  u +1 
 4 d 2

 (
3u
du
3 
u +1  −  u 2 +1
)
 
3 d
du

3u 4 

( ) ( )  4 2
3u ⋅ 3 u + 1
3−1
(  
 
) 3
(
⋅ 2u  −  u 2 + 1 ⋅ (3 ⋅ 4 )u 4−1 ⋅1

)
b. = =
du  3u 4 
  3u 4 2
( ) 9u 8
=
(
18u 5 u 2 + 1 − 12u 3 )
2
(u + 1) = 6u (u + 1) [3u
2 3 3/ 2 2 2
(
− 2 u2 + 1 )] =
( )(
2
2 u 2 + 1 3u 2 − 2 u 2 − 2 ) = 2(u + 1) (u − 2)
2 2 2
8 8/ =5 5 5
9u 9u 3u 3u
2 d 3 d
[ ][ ]
 3  2
(1 − x ) dx (2 x + 1)  − (2 x + 1) dx (1 − x ) 
 = (1 − x ) ⋅ 3(2 x + 1) ⋅ 2 − (2 x + 1) ⋅ 2(1 − x ) ⋅ −1
2 3−1 3 2 −1
d  (2 x + 1)3    
c.   =
dx  (1 − x )2  (1 − x )4 (1 − x )4
6(1 − x ) 2 (2 x + 1) 2 + 2(2 x + 1) 3 (1 − x ) 2(1/ − x/ )(2 x + 1) 2 [3(1 − x ) + (2 x + 1) ] 2 (2 x + 1) 2 (4 − x )
= = =
(1 − x )4 (1 − x ) 4/ =3 (1 − x )3
d.
d
dx
 3
( 2
)3 

3 d 2  3
 
2 d 3


(
 x − 1 (2 x + 1)  = (2 x + 1) dx x − 1  +  x − 1 dx (2 x + 1)  = (2 x + 1) ⋅ 2 x − 1
3 3 3
)
2 −1 
⋅ 3x 2 

( ) ( )

( 2
) 



[ 2 
( )] (
+  x3 − 1 ⋅ 3(2 x + 1)3−1 ⋅ 2 = 6 x 2 (2 x + 1)3 x3 − 1 + 6 x3 − 1 (2 x + 1)2  = 6(2 x + 1)2 x3 − 1 x 2 (2 x + 1) + x3 − 1
 
) ( )[ ( )]
( )(
= 6(2 x + 1)2 x3 − 1 2 x3 + x 2 + x3 − 1 = 6(2 x + 1) 2 x 3 − 1 3 x 3 + x 2 − 1 ) ( )( )
2 2 −1
d  3 1   3 1  d  3 1   3 1  d 3 d 1   3 1 
e. s − 2  = 2 s − 2 ⋅ s − 2  = 2 s − 2  ⋅  s − ds 2  = 2 s − 2
ds  s + 6 

s + 6 ds  s + 6  s + 6   ds s + 6 

s + 6
 d
( d 2
)
 3−1 s + 6 ⋅ ds (1) − 1 ⋅ ds s + 6
2
( )  3 1   2 0 − 2 s   3

1   2 2s


⋅ 3s −  = 2 s − 2  ⋅ 3s − 2 = 2 s − ⋅ 3s +


s2 + 6
2
( ) 

 s + 6
 s +6 
2 
 2 
s + 6 
 (
s2 + 6 ) ( ) 2

 2
d  t −1  (
3
 2


t +1
d 2
)
dt
3 
t −1  −  t2 −1
 
(
3 d 2
dt

t +1 

) (
 2


t +1 ⋅ 3 t2 −1 )
3−1   (
3 
⋅ 2t  −  t 2 − 1 ⋅ 2t 
  
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
f. = =
dt  t 2 + 1 
 
2
t +1
2 2
(
t +1
2
) ( )

 2
(
2 2 
)(
2 3
6t t + 1 t − 1  − 2t t − 1 
2)
2t t 2 − 1 3 t 2 + 1 − t 2 − 1 ( ) ( ) [( ) ( )] ( )[ 2
2t t 2 − 1 3t 2 + 3 − t 2 + 1 ] = 4t (t − 1) (t 2 2 2
+2 )
= = =
t2 +1
2
( t2 +1 )
2
( ) (t + 1) 2 2
(t + 1) 2 2
2  3

(u + 1)
2
( )
d
(u + 1)  − (u + 1) dud (u + 1) 
2 3 2 3 2
g.
d  2
 u +1 
du  
(
3 1  
  =
u +1  
d  2
)
 u +1
du 
3
(u
1 
+ 1)2
=
d  u2 + 1 
du  (u + 1)2 
=  ( ) du
(u + 1)4
  
  

(u + 1) ⋅ 3 u + 1
2 2
( ) 3 −1  
⋅ 2u  −  u 2 + 1
 
( ) 3 
⋅ 2(u + 1) 2 − 1 
 =
 2 2 2 
( 2 3
)

6u (u + 1) u + 1  − 2 u + 1 (u + 1) ( )
=
(u + 1)4 (u + 1)4
=
(
2(u/ + 1/ ) u 2 + 1 3u (u + 1) − u 2 + 1 )[
2
( )] = 2(u + 1) (3u 2 2 2
+ 3u − u 2 − 1 ) = 2(u + 1) (2u2 2 2
+ 3u − 1 )
(u + 1) 4/ =3
(u + 1) 3
(u + 1) 3
d θ 2 +3 
2
 θ2 +3 
2 −1

d θ +3 2   2
θ +3  

 (θ − 1)3 d θ 2 + 3  −  θ 2 + 3 d (θ − 1)3 
dθ   dθ 
( ) ( )
h.   = 2  ⋅   = 2 ⋅
dθ  (θ − 1)3   (θ − 1)  dθ  (θ − 1) 3   (θ − 1)  (θ − 1)6
3 3
=
(
2θ 2 + 3 ) ⋅ [(θ − 1) 3
] [(
⋅ 2θ − θ 2 + 3 ⋅ 3(θ − 1) 2 ) ] =
( )
2 θ 2 + 3 2θ (θ − 1)3 − 3 θ 2 + 3 (θ − 1)2
⋅ = ⋅
( 2/
)
2 θ 2 + 3 (θ − 1) 2θ (θ − 1) − 3 θ + 3
2
( ) [ ( )]
(θ − 1) 3
(θ − 1) 6
(θ − 1)3 (θ − 1)6 (θ − 1) 3 (θ − 1) 6/ = 4
=
(
2θ 2 + 3 ) ⋅ [2θ (θ − 1) − 3(θ 2
+3 )] =
( )(
2 θ 2 + 3 ⋅ 2θ 2 − 2θ − 3θ 2 − 9 ) = − 2(θ 2
)(
+ 3 ⋅ θ 2 + 2θ + 9 )
(θ − 1) 3
(θ − 1) 4
(θ − 1) 3+ 4
(θ − 1) 7
d 

r7
 r 2 + 2r (
3 d 7
r − r7
d 2
)
r + 2r
3  2 3 7 −1   7

2
 r + 2r ⋅ 7 r  − r ⋅ 3 r + 2r ( ) ( ) ( )
2 −1
⋅
d 2
dr
( 
r + 2r 

)
i.  = dr dr =
 (
dr  r 2 + 2r )
3
 r 2
+ 2 r
6
( )
r 2 + 2r
6
( )
=
(
7 r 6 r 2 + 2r ) − [r ⋅ 3(r + 2r )⋅ (2r + 2) ]
3 7 2
=
(
7 r 6 r 2 + 2r ) − [r ⋅ 3r (r + 2)⋅ 2(r + 1) ] = 7r (r
3 7 6 2
+ 2r ) − 6r (r + 2)(r + 1)
3 8
(r + 2r ) 2 6
(r + 2r )
2 6
(r + 2r )
2 6
4. Given the following y functions in terms of u , find y ′ .
a. Given y = 2u 2 − 1 and u = x − 1 , then y = 2(x − 1)2 − 1 and y ′ = 2 ⋅ 2(x − 1)2 −1 − 0 = 4( x − 1)
b. Given y =
u x3
and u = x 3 , then y = 3 and y ′ =
3 x3−1 ⋅ x3 − 1 − 3 x3−1 ⋅ x3 [ ( )] [ ] = [3x (x − 1)]− [3x ⋅ x ]
2 3 2 3
u −1 x −1 x3 − 1
2
( ) (x − 1) 3 2
3/ x5/ − 3 x 2 − 3/ x5/ 3x2

= = −
(x − 1)
3 2
(x − 1)
3 2
u 2 x2 + 1
 2 
2 x ⋅ 1 + x 2 + 1  − 2 x 2 + 1
  
(
2 −1 
⋅ 2x ⋅ x2 + 1 

) ( ) ( )
c. Given y = and u = x + 1 , then y = and y ′ =
1 + u2 (
1 + x2 + 1 )
2
 2 2
1 + x + 1 
2
( )
 2 2
( 2 2
2 x + 2 x x + 1  − 4 x x + 1 ⋅ x + 1 ) [ ( 2
2x + 2x x2 + 1 − 4x x2 + 1
2 )( )] ( ) ( ) 2x − 2x x + 1 ( 2
) 2
 2
2 x 1 − x 2 + 1 
 
( )
= = = =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
 2 2  2 2  2 2  2 2 
1 + x + 1  1 + x + 1  1 + x + 1  1 + x + 1 
 
1 1
d. Given y = u 2 − and u = x 4 , then y = x8 − and y ′ = 8 x8−1 − 0 = 8x 7
2 2

4 1 1

0 ⋅ 1 − x
2
( )  − 4(1 − x )
4 2 4 −1 
⋅ −2 x ⋅ 1
 = 0 + 8x 1 − x(2
) 3
e. Given y = u and u = , then y = and y ′ =
1− x 2 (1 − x ) 2 4
(1 − x ) 2 8
(
1 − x2
8
)
=
(
8x 1 − x )
2 3/
=
8x
(1 − x ) 2 8/ =5
(1 − x ) 2 5
f. Given y =
u2
and u = x − 1 , then y =
(x − 1)2 =
(x − 1)2 and y ′ =
[2(x − 1) 2 −1
][
⋅ x3 − 3 x 2 ⋅ (x − 1) 2 ]
(u + 1) 3
(x − 1 + 1)3 x 3
x 6
2 x3 (x − 1) − 3 x 2 (x − 1)2 x 2/ (x − 1) [2 x − 3(x − 1) ] (x − 1) (2 x − 3x + 3) ( x − 1)(− x + 3)

= 6
= = =
x x 6/ = 4 x4 x4
Section 2.5 Solutions - Implicit Differentiation
Use implicit differentiation method to solve the following functions.
a. Given x 2 y + x = y , then
d 2
dx
(
x y+x =
d
dx
) ( )
( y ) ; 2 x ⋅ y + x 2 ⋅ y′ + 1 = y′ ; 2 x y + 1 = y′ − x 2 y′ ; 2 x y + 1 = y′ 1 − x 2 ( )
2x y + 1
; y′ =
1 − x2
b. Given x y − 3 x 2 + y = 0 , then
d
dx
x y − 3x 2 + y =
d
dx
( )
(0) ; (1 ⋅ y + x ⋅ y′) − 6 x + y′ = 0 ; y − 6 x = − x y′ − y′ ; y − 6 x = − y′(x + 1)
y − 6x y − 6x 6x − y
; = − y′ ; y′ = − ; y′ =
x +1 x +1 x +1
c. Given x 2 y 2 + y = 3y 3 , then
dx
(
d 2 2
x y +y =
d
dx
) ( ) ( )
3y 3 ; 2 x ⋅ y 2 + 2 y y′ ⋅ x 2 + y′ = 9 y 2 y′ ; 2 x y 2 + 2 x 2 y y′ = 9 y 2 y′ − y′
; 2 x y 2 = 9 y 2 y′ − y′ − 2 x 2 y y′ ; 2 x y 2 = y′ 9 y 2 − 1 − 2 x 2 y ; y ′ = ( ) 2 x y2
9 y2 − 1 − 2 x2 y
d. Given x y + y 3 = 5 x , then
d
dx
(
x y + y3 =
d
dx
)
(5 x ) ; (1 ⋅ y + y′ ⋅ x ) + 3 y 2 ⋅ y′ = 5 ; y + y′x + 3 y 2 y′ = 5 ; x y′ + 3 y 2 y′ = 5 − y
( )
; y′ x + 3 y 2 = 5 − y ; y′ =
5− y
x + 3 y2
e. Given 4 x 4 y 4 + 2 y 2 = y − 1 , then
d
dx
(
4x4 y 4 + 2 y 2 =
d
dx
) (
( y − 1) ; 4 4 x3 ⋅ y 4 + 4 y 3 y′ ⋅ x 4 + 4 y y′ = y′ ; 16 x3 y 4 + 16 x 4 y 3 y′ )
+4 y y′ = y′ ; 16 x3 y 4 = y′ − 16 x 4 y 3 y′ − 4 y y′ ; 16 x3 y 4 = y′ 1 − 16 x 4 y 3 − 4 y ; y′ = ( ) 16 x 3 y 4
1 − 16 x 4 y 3 − 4 y
f. Given x y + x 2 y 2 − 10 = 0 , then
d
dx
(
x y + x 2 y 2 − 10 =
d
dx
) (
(0) ; (1 ⋅ y + y′ ⋅ x ) + 2 x ⋅ y 2 + 2 y y′ ⋅ x 2 = 0 ; y + y′x + 2 x y 2 )
+ 2 x 2 y y′ = 0 ; y + 2 x y 2 = − y′x − 2 x 2 y y′ ; y + 2 x y 2 = − y′ x + 2 x 2 y ; y′ = − ( ) y + 2 x y2
x + 2x2 y
g. Given x y 2 + y = x 2 , then
d
dx
(
x y2 + y =
d 2
dx
) ( ) (
x ; 1 ⋅ y 2 + 2 y y′ ⋅ x + y′ = 2 x ; 2 y y′x + y′ = 2 x − y 2 ; y′ = )
2 x − y2
2x y + 1
h. Given x y 3 + x 3 y = x , then
d
dx
(
x y 3 + x3 y =
d
dx
) ( ) (
(x ) ; 1 ⋅ y 3 + 3 y 2 y′ ⋅ x + 3 x 2 ⋅ y + y′ ⋅ x 3 = 1 ; y 3 + 3 x y 2 y′ + 3 x 2 y + x 3 y′ = 1 )
(
; 3 x y 2 y′ + x 3 y′ = 1 − y 3 − 3 x 2 y ; y′ 3 x y 2 + x 3 = 1 − y 3 − 3 x 2 y ; y ′ = ) 1 − y3 − 3x2 y
3x y2 + x3
1
i. Given y 2 + x 2 y = x , then
d  12
dx 
 d
 y + x2 y  =
 dx ( x ) ;
1 12 −1
2
y ⋅ y ′ + 2 x ⋅ y + y ′ ⋅ x 2
= 1 ;
1 − 12
2
(
y y′ + 2 x y + x 2 y′ = 1 )


 
 1 −1   1  1 − 2 xy
; y′ y 2 + x 2  = 1 − 2 xy ; y′ 1 + x 2  = 1 − 2 xy ; y′ =
2 1
   2y 2


 + x2
2 y
j. Given x 2 y + y 2 = y 4 , then
1
d 2
dx
(
x y + y2 =
d  14 
) 1 1 −1
( )
1 −3
 y  ; 2 x ⋅ y + y′ ⋅ x 2 + 2 y y′ = y 4 y′ ; 2 x y + x 2 y′ + 2 y y′ = y 4 y′

dx    4 4
1 − 34  1 −3 −2 x y −2 x y
; x 2 y′ + 2 y y′ − y y′ = −2 x y ; y′ x 2 + 2 y − y 4  = −2 x y ; y′ = ; y′ =
4  4  2 1 − 3
2 1
x + 2y − y 4 x + 2y −
4 4 3
4 y
k. Given x + y 2 = x 2 − 3 , then
d
dx
(
x + y2 =
d 2
dx
) ( )
x − 3 ; 1 + 2 y y′ = 2 x ; 2 y y′ = 2 x − 1 ; y ′ =
2x − 1
2y
l. Given x 4 y 2 + y = −3 , then
d 4 2
dx
(
x y +y =
d
dx
) (
(− 3) ; 4 x3 ⋅ y 2 + 2 y y′ ⋅ x 4 + y′ = 0 ; 4 x3 y 2 + 2 x 4 y y′ + y′ = 0 )
(
; 2 x 4 y y′ + y′ = −4 x3 y 2 ; y′ 2 x 4 y + 1 = −4 x3 y 2 ; y′ = ) − 4 x3 y2
2 x4 y + 1
m. Given y 7 − x 2 y 4 − x = 8 , then
d 7
dx
(
y − x2 y 4 − x =
d
dx
) (
(8) ; 7 y 6 y′ − 2 x ⋅ y 4 + 4 y 3 y′ ⋅ x 2 − 1 = 0 ; 7 y 6 y′ − 2 x y 4 − 4 x 2 y 3 y′ = 1 )
(
; 7 y 6 y′ − 4 x 2 y 3 y′ = 1 + 2 x y 4 ; y′ 7 y 6 − 4 x 2 y 3 = 1 + 2 x y 4 ; y′ = ) 1 + 2 x y4
7 y6 − 4 x 2 y3
n. Given (x + 3)2 = y 2 − x , then

d
dx
[ dx
] ( )
(x + 3)2 = d y 2 − x ; 2(x + 3) = 2 y y′ − 1 ; 2 x + 6 + 1 = 2 y y′ ; y′ = 2 x + 7
2y
o. Given 3 x 2 y 5 + y 2 = − x , then
d
dx
(
3x 2 y 5 + y 2 =
d
dx
) ( )
(− x ) ; 3 2 x ⋅ y 5 + 5 y 4 y′ ⋅ x 2 + 2 y y′ = −1 ; 6 x y 5 + 15 x 2 y 4 y′ + 2 y y′ = −1
(
; 15 x 2 y 4 y′ + 2 y y′ = −1 − 6 x y 5 ; y′ 15 x 2 y 4 + 2 y = −1 − 6 x y 5 ; y′ = − ) 1 + 6 x y5
15 x 2 y 4 + 2 y
Section 2.6 Solutions - The Derivative of Functions with Fractional Exponent
1. Find the derivative of the following exponential expressions.

1
1 1 −1 1 1−5 1 −4
a. Given y = x 5 , then y′ = x 5 = x 5 = x 5
5 5 5
( )
1
1 3
3 3 −1
3 2 3− 2
b. Given y = 4 x3 2 = 4 x 2 , then y′ = ⋅ 4 x 2 = ⋅ 4/ x 2 = 6 x 2
2 2/
1
(2 x + 1)3 −1 ⋅ 2 = 2 (2 x + 1) 3 = 2 (2 x + 1) − 3
1 1 1− 3 2
c. Given y = (2 x + 1)3 , then y′ =
3 3 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) −7
1 1 −1 1−8
1 2 4x x
d. Given y = 2 x 2 + 1 8 , then y′ = 2x + 1 8 ⋅ 4x = 2x2 + 1 8 = 2x2 + 1 8
8 8 2
( ) ( ) ⋅ (6 x + 3) = 53 (2 x ) ( ) ( )( ) −2
3 3 −1 −2
3 3 9
e. Given y = 2 x 3 + 3 x 5 , then y′ = 2 x + 3x 5 2 3
+ 3x 5 ⋅ 3 2x2 + 1 = 2x2 + 1 2x3 + 3x 5
5 5
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) −1
2 2 −1 2 −3
2 3 2 3
f. Given y = x 3 + 8 3 , then y′ = x +8 3 ⋅ 3x 2 = x +8 3 ⋅ 3/ x 2 = 2 x 2 x 3 + 8 3
3 3/
( )
1 1 3 1 3 32 −1 1 1 3 3− 2 1 1− 3
g. Given y = x3 2 − (3 x − 1)3 = x 2 − (3 x − 1)3 , then y′ = x − (3 x − 1)3 −1 ⋅ 3 = x 2 − (3 x − 1) 3 ⋅ 3/
2 3 2 3/
3 12 2
= x − (3 x − 1) − 3
2
2 2
1
(x + 1)8 −1 ⋅ x 2 = 2 x (x + 1)8 + x (x + 1) 8 = 2 x ( x + 1)8 + x ( x + 1) − 8
1 1 1 1 1−8 1 7
h. Given y = x 2 (x + 1) 8 , then y′ = 2 x ⋅ (x + 1)8 +
8 8 8

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) −3
2 −1 2 −5
2 1
2 3 1 1 −1 6 1 1− 2 6 1 − 12
i. Given y = x 3 + 1 5 + x 2 , then y′ = x + 1 5 ⋅ 3x 2 + x 2 = x 2 x3 + 1 5 + x 2 = x 2 x 3 + 1 5 + x
5 2 5 2 5 2
 2 
2 2 −1  2 2 −3 2
2 −1
1 ⋅ x 3  −  x 3 ⋅ (x + 1)
2
3 x 3 − x 3 (x + 1) x 3 − x 3 ( x + 1)
x +1
j. Given y = 2 , then y′ =   
4
 = 3
4
= 3
4
x 3 x 3 x 3 x3
( ) ( ) (
 2/ x3 2
) ( )
1− 2   1
1 2 1 −1
2 
1
2 x + 1 2  − 2 x ⋅ x 2 + 1 2 
(x + 1)  x + 1 2 ⋅ 2 x ⋅ x  − 2 x ⋅ x + 1 2  
1
2 2
2  2/   
k. Given y = , then y′ =    = 
x2 x4 x4
( ) −1
( )
1
x3 x2 + 1 2 − 2x x2 + 1 2
=
x4
 1 
1 1 −1 2 1
1 − 23
2(x + 1) ⋅ x 3  −  x 3 ⋅ (x + 1) 
2 −1
2 x 3 ( x + 1) − x ( x + 1) 2
l. Given y =
(x + 1)2 , then y′ =    3  = 3
1 2 2
x3 x3 x3
d
2. Use the notation to find the derivative of the following exponential expressions.
dx
2 2 −1
d  15   1 d 15 1
1 1 −1 2 1 −4 2 1−4 2 −3
a. x  = 2  x 5  ⋅ x = 2 x 5 ⋅ x 5 = x 5 ⋅ x 5 = x 5 5 = x 5 , or
dx     dx 5 5 5 5
2
d  15
 d 52 2 2 −1 2 2 −5 2 −3
x
 = x = x5 = x 5 = x 5
dx 
 dx 5 5 5
(x − 1) 2 = (x − 1)2 ⋅ (x − 1) = (x − 1) − 2 ⋅ 1 = 1 ( x − 1) − 2
1 1
d 1 1 −1 d 1 1
b.
dx 2 dx 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) −2
1 1 −1 1− 3
d 2 1 d 2 1 2x 2
c. x + 1 3 = x2 + 1 3 ⋅ x + 1 = x2 + 1 3 ⋅ 2x = x +1 3
dx 3 dx 3 3
( ) − 1 −1 d
( 3x2 3
) ( ) ( ) ( ) −5
−1 −1− 4
d 3 1 1
d. x + 1 4 = − x3 + 1 4 ⋅ x3 + 1 = − x3 + 1 4 ⋅ 3x 2 = − x +1 4
dx 4 dx 4 4
 2 d 1  1 d
2  2 1 1 −1   1  x2
 x dx (x − 1)2  − (x − 1)2 dx x   x ⋅ 2 (x − 1)2  − (x − 1)2 ⋅ 2 x 
1 1
d  (x − 1)2
1  ( x − 1) − 2 − 2 x ( x − 1) 2
e.  =     =   = 2
dx  x 2  x4 x4 x4
 
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ⋅ (3x ) ( )
1  3x2 + 2  3
d 3 1 3 1 −1
d 3 1 −7 −7
f. x + 2x 8 = x + 2x 8 ⋅ x + 2 x = x3 + 2 x 8 2
+2 =   x + 2x 8
dx 8 dx 8  8 
 
d  3
( )( )  = dxd (x + 1)x ( ) ( ) ( )
1   2 d 3  
2 3
2
d 2  2   2 2 −1 
g.  x +1 x
3 3
 = x 3 ⋅ x + 1  +  x3 + 1 ⋅ x 3  =  x 3 ⋅ 3x 2  +  x3 + 1 ⋅ x 3 
dx      dx   dx     3 
−1
( ) ( )
8
2+ 2 2 3 −1 2x 3
= 3x 3 + x +1 ⋅ x 3 = 3x 3 + ⋅ x3 + 1
3 3
 2
( )
d 3  3 d 2
( ) ( ) ( )
1  2 2  3 1 2 
1 1 1 −1
   3   x + 1 2 ⋅ x  − x ⋅ x +1 2   x + 1 2 ⋅ 3x  −  x ⋅ x + 1 2 ⋅ 2 x 
d  3 1  = d  x  =  dx   dx  =    2 
h. x ⋅
dx 
( )  dx  2
( )  2 2
1 1
x +1 x +1
 x 2 +1 2
  x + 1 2 
( ) ( )  2 2
( ) ( )
1  −1 
 2 2 1 
4 2
1− 2 
4 2
3 x x + 1 2  −  x x + 1 2  3 x x + 1 2  −  x x + 1 2

=     =    
x2 + 1 x2 + 1

 3
(
d 5  5 d 3
) ( ) ( ) ( )
2  3 4  5 2 3 2
2 2 2 −1
   x + 1 3 ⋅ x  − x ⋅ x +1 3   x + 1 3 ⋅ 5 x  −  x ⋅ x + 1 3 ⋅ 3x 
d  x5  =  dx   dx  =    3 
i.
dx  3
( ) 
( ) ( )
2 4 4
3 3
 x + 1
3
 x +1 3 x +1 3
( )
2 x7 3
( ) ( ) ( )
 4 3 2  2 −3 
 4 3 2 
7 3 −1 
5 x x + 1 3  −  x +1 3  5 x x + 1 3  −  2 x x + 1 3

   3    
 
= =
(x + 1) ( )
4 4
3 3
x3 + 1 3
d 
(x − 1) 2 (x + 1) 3  = (x + 1)3 d (x − 1)2  + (x − 1)2 d (x + 1)3  = (x + 1)3 ⋅ 1 (x − 1)2 −1  + (x − 1)2 ⋅ 1 (x + 1)3 −1 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
j. 
dx    dx   dx   2   3 
1 1 1− 2  1 1 1− 3  1 1 1 1 1 2
=  (x + 1)3 ⋅ (x − 1) 2  +  (x − 1)2 ⋅ (x + 1) 3  =  ( x + 1)3 ( x − 1) − 2  +  ( x − 1) 2 ( x + 1) − 3 
2  3  2  3 
(  2
)  
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1  2 2  3 1 2 
 3 2 1  1 1 1 −1
k.
d 2 d x3 + x3 d x 2 + 1 2
x x +1  =  x + 1  =  x + 1 2 ⋅ 3x  +  x ⋅ x + 1 2 ⋅ 2 x 
2
 
dx    dx   dx     2 
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
 1  1− 2  1 −1
= 3 x 2 x 2 + 1 2  +  x 4 x 2 + 1 2  = 3 x 2 x 2 + 1 2 + x4 x2 + 1 2
   
l.
d  3 2
(
−1   2
x x + 1 3  =  x + 1 3
dx 
)
− 1 d 3  3 d
x  + x
dx   dx
−1 
(  −1
)  1 − 1 −1 
x 2 + 1 3  =  x 2 + 1 3 ⋅ 3x 2  +  x3 ⋅ − x 2 + 1 3 ⋅ 2 x 
3
( ) ( ) ( )
      
( − 1   2x4 2
) ( ) ( ) 2 x4 2
( )
 −1− 3  −1 −4
= 3 x 2 x 2 + 1 3  + − x + 1 3  = 3x2 x2 + 1 3 − x +1 3
   3  3
Section 2.7 Solutions - The Derivative of Radical Functions
1. Find the derivative of the following radical expressions. Do not simplify the answer to its lowest term.
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 −1
1 2 2/ x 2 x
a. Given y = x 2 + 1 = x 2 + 1 2 , then y′ = x + 1 2 ⋅ 2x = x +1 2 =
(x + 1)
1
2 2/ 2 2
b. Given y = x 3 + 3 x − 5 = (x + 3 x − 5) , then y′ = (x + 3 x − 5) ⋅ (3 x + 3) = (x + 3 x − 5) (3 x + 3) =
1 3
1
2 1 3
1 −1
2 2 3 −1
2 2 (
3 x2 + 1 )
( )
1
2 2
2 x3 + 3x − 5 2
1 1 1 1
c. Given y = x 2 + x − 1 = x 2 + (x − 1)2 , then y′ = 2 x 2 −1 + (x − 1) 2 −1 = 2 x + (x − 1) − 2 = 2 x + 1
( x − 1) 2
1 1 −1   1
x
 2 (x + 1)2 ⋅ x  − 1 ⋅ (x + 1)2 
1 1
x +1 (x + 1)
1 ( x + 1) − 2 − ( x + 1) 2
d. Given y = =
2
, then y′ =   = 2
x x x2 x2

( ) ( )
1 
2
1 −1
2 1 2
2 x ⋅ x − 1 2  −  x − 1 2 ⋅ 2/ x ⋅ x 
( ) ( )
1 −1
x 2
x 2
   2/  2x x2 − 1 2 − x3 x2 − 1 2
e. Given y = = , then y′ = =
(x − 1) x2 − 1 x2 − 1
1
x 2 −1 2 2
= (x ) + 3 x
1 3
3 32 − 1 3 3− 2 3 1
f. Given y = x3 + 3x 2 3 2 2
= x 2 + 3 x 2 , then y′ = x + (3 ⋅ 2 )x 2 −1 = x 2 + 6 x = x 2 + 6 x
2 2 2
( ) = 1  x −1
1 1 −1
x2 + 3 x2 + 3  x2 + 3  2  2
 , then y′ = 1  x + 3 
2 2 x ⋅ (x + 1) − 1 ⋅ x 2 + 3 2
+ 3  2
x2 + 2x − 3
g. Given y = = =  ⋅ ⋅
x +1 x +1  x +1 
  2  x + 1  (x + 1) 2 2  x + 1  ( x + 1) 2

( ) ( )
5
1 3 1 −1 1 
1 1 −1 1
( ) −3
( )
1
⋅ 3x 2 ⋅ x 2  −  x 2 ⋅ x3 − 1 4  3x 2 3 1 − 12 3
(x − 1)  x −1
1 4
4 3 x −1 4 − x x −1 4
x 3 −1 4 4 2
h. Given y = = 1
, then y′ =     = 4 2
x x x
x2
x3 x3/ =1 x −1 1− 1 1
1 12 − 1 1 1 −1 1 1− 2 1 −1
i. Given y = = 1
= 1
= x⋅x 2 = x 2 = x 2 , then y′ = x = x2 1 = x 2 = x 2
x2 x x 2/ ⋅ x 2 x2
2 2 2 2
d
2. Use the notation to find the derivative of the following radical expressions.
dx
a.
d  2 1 d  1 d d 1 (0 ⋅ x ) − (1 ⋅ 1) = 1 − 1
 x +  = x+  = x +   = 1+
dx  x dx  x dx dx  x  x2 x2

(x − 1) d x  −  x d (x − 1)
 = 1  x  2 ⋅ [1 ⋅ (x − 1) ] − [1 ⋅ x ]
1 1 −1 1 −1
d   x   d  x  2 1 x  2  dx   dx
b. =   =   ⋅
dx  x −1  dx  x − 1  2  x −1 (x − 1) 2 2  x −1 (x − 1) 2
1− 2 −1
1 x  2 x/ − 1 − x/ 1 x  2 1
=   ⋅ = −   ⋅
2  x −1 (x − 1)2 2  x −1 ( x − 1) 2
 1 d
3  3 d 1 (x + 1) 12 ⋅ 3 x3 −1  −  x3 ⋅ 1 (x + 1) 12 −1 
d  x 3  d  x3  (x + 1) 2 dx x  −  x dx (x + 1) 2     2 
c. =  =     =  
dx  x +1  dx  (x + 1)12  x +1 x +1
 
3
3(x + 1) 12 x 2  −  x (x + 1) 1−22   2 1   x3 −1

   2  3 x ( x + 1) 2  −  2 ( x + 1) 2 
  =  
=
x +1 x +1
 d 1  1 d   1 1 −1   1  x
 x (x + 5) 2  − (x + 5) 2 dx x   x ⋅ 2 (x + 5) 2  − (x + 5) 2 ⋅ 1
1 1
d  x + 5  d  (x + 5) 2
1 
 =  dx
( x + 5) − 2 − ( x + 5) 2
d. =    =   = 2
dx  x  dx  x  x2 x2 x2
 
 1 
d  3 x  d  3 x2  d  3 1  d  3 1 −1 
d  3 −1 d 3 d − 12
e. x + = x +  =  x + x 2 ⋅ x −1  = x + x2  = x + x 2  = x + x

dx  x   dx  x  
dx   
dx   
dx   dx dx
  
 
1 − 12 − 1 1 −1− 2 1 −3
= 3 x3 −1 − x = 3x 2 − x 2 = 3 x 2 − x 2
2 2 2
 1 
d 
1− 6 
d  2 x  
 = d 1 + 2 x
2  d  1  d  1 −3
d  −5
f. 1+  = 1 + 2 x 2 x −3  = 1 + 2 x 2  = 1 + 2 x 2  = 1 + 2 x 2 
dx  x3 
 dx  x 3
 dx  
 dx  
 dx  
 dx  

 
 −5  − 5 −1 −5 − 2 −7
=
d
(1) + d  2 x 2  = 0 − 5 x 2 ⋅ 2 = − 5 x 2 ⋅ 2/ = − 5 x 2
dx dx   2 2/
3. Find the derivative of the following radical expressions.
3− 2
 3 1  3 1 3 −1 1 −1 −1
a.
d  3  d
 x + y= (x ) ; d  x 2 + y 2  = 1 ; d x 2 + d y 2 = 1 ; 3 x 2 + 1 y 2 y′ = 1 ; 3 x 2 + 1 y 2 y′ = 1
dx   dx dx   dx dx 2 2 2 2
1 1
3 12 1 − 12 1 −1 3 1 y′ 3 12 3 1 1
; x + y y′ = 1 ; y 2 y′ = 1 − x 2 ; 1
= 1− x ; y′ = 2 y 2 1 − x 2  ; y′ = 2 y 2 − 3( xy ) 2
2 2 2 2 2  2 
2y 2
( )  1  1 1 −1 −1 −1
b.
d
x + y3 =
d
(2) ; d  x 2 + y3  = 0 ; d x 2 + d y 3 = 0 ; 1 x 2 + 3 y 2 y′ = 0 ; 1 x 2 + 3 y 2 y′ = 0 ; 3 y 2 y′ = − 1 x 2
dx dx dx   dx dx 2 2 2

1 1
; 3 y 2 y′ = − 1
; y′ = − 1
2x 2 6 x 2 y2
 
( x ) ; dxd (x y ) = dxd x
1
d d d d 12 1 1 −1 1 −1 1 1
c. (x y ) = d 2 ; y x+x y=

x ; y + x y′ = x 2 ; x y′ = x 2 − y ; y′ =  1 − y 
dx dx dx dx dx 2 2 x 2 
 2x 
d.
d
dx
( y + x3 = 0 ; ) d  12
dx 

 y + x3  = 0 ;

d 12 d 3
dx
y +
dx
x = 0 ;
1 12 − 1
2
y y ′ + 3 x 2
= 0 ;
1 − 12
2
y y′ = −3 x 2 ;
y′
1
= −3 x 2
 2y 2
y′ − 3x 2 1
; 1
= ; y′ = −6 x 2 y 2
1
2y 2
e.
d  4 2
 x +y =
dx 
d
 dx dx dx dx
( )
( x ) ; d x 2 + y 2 = 1 ; d x 2 + d y 2 = 1 ; 2 x + 2 y y′ = 1 ; 2 y y′ = 1 − 2 x ; y′ = 1 − 2 x
2y
f.
d
dx
( )
x +1 =
d 3
dx
y ;
d
( )
dx
(x + 1)2 = 3 y 2 d y ; 1 (x + 1) 2 − 1 = 3 y 2 y′ ; 1 (x + 1) − 2 = 3 y 2 y′ ;
1
dx 2
1
2
1 1
1
=
3 y 2 y′
1
2(x + 1) 2
1 1
; 6 y 2 y′(x + 1) 2 = 1 ; y′ = 1
6 y ( x + 1) 2
2
( 
)
1  1 −1 −1
g.
d
x y2 + x =
d
(2) ; d  x y 2 + x 2  = 0 ; y 2 d x + x d y 2 + 1 x 2 = 0 ; y 2 ⋅ 1 + x ⋅ 2 y y′ + 1 x 2 = 0
dx dx dx   dx dx 2 2
−1
1 −1 1  1 − 12  x 2 y2 1 y2 1 y
; 2 x y y′ = − x 2 − y 2 ; y′ =  − x − y 2  ; y′ = −
  − ; y ′ = − 1
− ; y′ = − 3 −
2 2x y  2  4 xy 2 xy 1 + 2 xy 2x
4x 2 y 4x 2 y
3 3 −1 1 1
h.
d  3 d
 x + (x y ) = 0 ; d x 2 + d (x y ) = 0 ; 3 x 2 +  y d x + x d y  = 0 ; 3 x 2 + ( y + x y′) = 0 ; x y′ = − 3 x 2 − y
dx   dx dx dx 2  dx dx  2 2
1
1  3 12  3x 2 y 3 y 3 y 3 y
; y′ =  − x − y  ; y′ = − − ; y′ = − − ; y′ = − − ; y′ = − 1 −

x 2  2 x x − 1
x 1 − 1
x x
 2x ⋅ x 2 2x 2 2x 2
( )  1  1 1 −1 −1 −1
i.
d
x + 3y =
d
( y ) ; d  x 2 + 3 y  = y′ ; d x 2 + d 3 y = y′ ; 1 x 2 + 3 y′ = y′ ; 1 x 2 + 3 y′ − y′ = 0 ; 1 x 2 + 2 y′ = 0
dx dx dx   dx dx 2 2 2
1 −1 1 1
; 2 y′ = − x 2 ; 2 y′ = − 1 ; y′ = − 1
2
2x 2 4x 2
4. Evaluate the derivative of the following radical expressions for the specified value of x .
3 3
( )
1 1 3 1
3 3 −1 3 2 3−2 2 3 2 12
a. Given y = 3 x + x = 3 2
3x3 2 +x = 2
32 x2 2
+ x , then y′ = 32 ⋅ x 2 + 2 x 2 −1 = x + 2x = x + 2x
2 2 2
3 3
3 2 12 32 5.196
at x = 1 y′ = ⋅ 1 + (2 ⋅ 1) = +2 = + 2 = 4.598
2 2 2
( ) ( ) 5 52 − 1 1 12 − 1 5 5 − 2 1 1− 2
1 2+ 1 1 4 +1 1 5 1
b. Given y = x 2 + 1 x = x2 + 1 x 2 = x 2 + x2 = x 2 + x 2 = x 2 + x 2 , then y′ = x + x = x 2 + x 2
2 2 2 2
5 23 1 − 12 5 3 1 5 32 1 1
= x + x = x2 + 1 at x = 0 y′ = ⋅0 + 1
= 0+ is undefined due to division by zero
2 2 2 2 0
2x 2 2⋅ 02
c. Given y =
x2 − 1
=
x2 − 1
, then y′ =
[2 x ⋅ 2 x] − 2 ⋅ x 2 − 1 [ ( )] =
4x2 − 2x2 + 2
=
2x2 + 2
=
(
2 x2 + 1 )= x2 + 1
4x2 2x (2 x )2 4x2 4x2 4x2 2x2

22 + 1 4 +1 5
at x = 2 y′ = = = = 0.625
2 ⋅ 22 2⋅4 8
d. Given y =
x  x 2
=  2
1 x  2
 , then y′ =  2 
1 1 −1
⋅
[1 ⋅ (x + 1)]− [2x ⋅ x] = 1  x  ⋅ − x + 1
2 −1
2 2
2
x +1  x +1 2  x + 1  (x + 1)
2 2 2  x + 1  (x + 1)
2 2 2
−1 −1 −1
1 1  2 − 12 + 1 11 2 −1+1 11 2
at x = 1 y′ =  2  ⋅ =   ⋅ =   ⋅0 = 0
2 1 +1 (1 + 1) 2 2 2 22 2 22
= (x + 1) + 4 x , then y′ = (x + 1) ( )
1 1 1 −1
3x 2 3 −1
e. Given y = x3 + 1 + 4 x3 3 2 3 3 2 ⋅ 3x 2 + (4 ⋅ 3)x3 − 1 = x +1 2 + 12 x 2
2 2
at x = 0 y′ =
3 ⋅ 02 3
(
⋅ 0 +1 ) −1
2 + 12 ⋅ 02 =
3 ⋅ 02
⋅
1
+ 12 ⋅ 02 = 0 ⋅
1
+0 = 0+0 = 0
(0 + 1)
1 1
2 2 3 2 12

( )
3  
3 3 −1 2
( )
5
2 x ⋅ x 2  −  x 2 ⋅ x + 1  3 1
2 2 2 2 2x 2 − x 2 x2 + 1
x +1 x +1 x +1     2
f. Given y = = = , then y′ = =
( ) 3
x3
1 3
x3 3 2
x x
x 2
( )
5
3 12 2
2 ⋅ 32 − ⋅3 3 +1
at x = 3 y′ = 2 =
(2 ⋅ 15.58) − (1.5 ⋅ 1.732 ⋅ 10) = 31.18 − 25.98 = 0.193
33 27 27
Section 2.8 Solutions - Higher Order Derivatives
1. Find the second derivative of the following functions.
a. Given y = x3 + 3 x 2 + 5 x − 1 , then y ′ = 3 x 3−1 + (3 ⋅ 2 )x 2 −1 + 5 x1−1 − 0 = 3 x 2 + 6 x + 5 x 0 = 3 x 2 + 6 x + 5 and
y ′′ = (3 ⋅ 2 )x 2 −1 + 6 x1−1 + 0 = 6 x + 6 x 0 = 6 x + 6
b. Given y = x 2 (x + 1)2 , then y ′ = 2 x ⋅ (x + 1)2 + 2(x + 1)2 −1 ⋅ x 2 = 2 x (x + 1)2 + 2 x 2 (x + 1) = 2 x (x + 1)2 + 2 x3 + 2 x 2 and
y ′′ = [2 ⋅(x + 1) + 2(x + 1)
2 2 −1
]
⋅ 2 x + (2 ⋅ 3)x3 −1 + (2 ⋅ 2 )x 2 −1 = 2 (x + 1)2 + 4 x(x + 1) + 6 x 2 + 4 x = 2 x 2 + 2 x + 1 + 4 x 2 + 4 xx ( )
+ 6 x 2 + 4 x = 2 x 2 + 4 x + 2 + 10 x 2 + 8 x = 12 x 2 + 12 x + 2 = 2 6 x 2 + 6 x + 1 ( )
c. Given y = 3 x 3 + 50 x , then y′ = (3 ⋅ 3)x3−1 + 50 x1−1 = 9 x 2 + 50 and y ′′ = (9 ⋅ 2 )x 2 −1 + 0 = 18 x
1
d. Given y = x5 + = x5 + x −2 , then y′ = 5 x5−1 − 2 x −2 −1 = 5 x 4 − 2 x −3 and y ′′ = (5 ⋅ 4 )x 4 −1 + (− 2 ⋅ −3)x −3−1 = 20 x 3 + 6 x −4
x2
e. Given y =
x3
− 5 x 2 , then y′ =
3 x 2 ⋅ (x + 1) − 1 ⋅ x3 [ ] [ ] − (5 ⋅ 2)x 2 −1
=
3x 3 + 3x 2 − x 3
− 10 x =
2 x 3 + 3x 2
− 10 x and
x +1 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2
y ′′ =
[(6x 2
) ][
+ 6 x ⋅ (x + 1) 2 − 2(x + 1) ⋅ 2 x3 + 3 x 2 ( )] − 10 x1 − 1 =
[6x(x + 1)(x + 1) ]− [2(x + 1)(2x
2 3
+ 3x 2 )] − 10
(x + 1) 4 (x + 1) 4
(x/ + 1/ )[6 x(x + 1) 2 − 2(2 x3 + 3x 2 ) ] 6 x ( x + 1) 2 − 2 x 2 (2 x + 3 )
= − 10 = − 10
(x + 1) 4/ =3 ( x + 1) 3
( )
f. Given y = x 3 x 2 − 1 = x5 − x3 , then y′ = 5 x5−1 − 3 x3−1 = 5 x 4 − 3 x 2 and y ′′ = (5 ⋅ 4 )x 4 −1 − (3 ⋅ 2 )x 2 −1 = 20 x 3 − 6 x
g. Given y = x 4 +
x 8 − 7 x 5 + 5x
10
, then y′ = 4 x 4−1 +
1
10
8 x 8−1 + (− 7 ⋅ 5)x 5−1 + 5 x 1−1 = 4 x 3 + (1
10
8 x 7 − 35 x 4 + 5 and ) ( )
y ′′ = (4 ⋅ 3)x3−1 +
1
10
[ ]
(8 ⋅ 7 )x7 −1 + (− 35 ⋅ 4)x 4−1 + 0 = 12 x 2 + 1 56 x6 − 140 x3 = 5.6 x 6 − 14 x 3 + 12 x 2
10
( )
1
h. Given y = x 2 − = x 2 − (x + 1)−1 , then y′ = 2 x 2−1 + (x + 1)−1−1 = 2 x + (x + 1)−2 and y ′′ = 2 x1−1 − 2(x + 1) − 2 −1
x +1
2
= 2 x 0 − 2(x + 1)−3 = 2 − 2(x + 1)−3 = 2 −
( x + 1)3
1
i. Given y = 2 − 3 x = x −2 − 3 x , then y′ = − 2 x −2−1 − 3 x 1−1 = − 2 x −3 − 3 and y ′′ = (− 2 ⋅ −3)x −3−1 − 0 = 6 x −4
x
2. Find y′′′ for the following functions.
a. Given y = x5 + 6 x3 + 10 , then y ′ = 5 x 5−1 + (6 ⋅ 3)x 3−1 + 0 = 5 x 4 + 18 x 2 , y ′′ = (5 ⋅ 4 )x 4−1 + (18 ⋅ 2 )x 2−1 = 20 x 3 + 36 x ,
and y ′′′ = (20 ⋅ 3)x 3−1 + 36 x 1−1 = 60 x 2 + 36

1
b. Given y = x 2 + = x 2 + x −1 , then y ′ = 2 x 2−1 − x −1−1 = 2 x − x −2 , y ′′ = 2 x1−1 + 2 x −2 −1 = 2 + 2 x −3 , and y ′′′ = − 6 x −4
x
c. Given y = 4 x3 (x − 1)2 , then y′ = [(4 ⋅ 3)x 3−1

][ ]
⋅ (x − 1)2 + 2(x − 1)2 −1 ⋅ 4 x3 = 12 x 2 (x − 1)2 + 8 x 3 (x − 1) = 12 x 2 x 2 − 2 x + 1 ( )
+ 8 x 4 − 8 x3 = 12 x 4 − 24 x 3 + 12 x 2 + 8 x 4 − 8 x 3 = 20 x 4 − 32 x 3 + 12 x 2 y ′′ = (20 ⋅ 4 )x 4−1 − (32 ⋅ 3)x 3−1 + (12 ⋅ 2 )x 2−1
= 80 x 3 − 96 x 2 + 24 x and y ′′′ = (80 ⋅ 3)x 3−1 − (96 ⋅ 2 )x 2−1 + 24 x 1−1 = 240 x 2 − 192 x + 24 x 0 = 240 x 2 − 192 x + 24
d. Given y =
x
, then y ′ =
[1 ⋅ (x + 1) ] − [1 ⋅ x] = x + 1 − x = 1 = (x + 1)−2 , y ′′ = − 2(x + 1)−2−1 = − 2(x + 1) − 3 and
x +1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)2
6
y ′′′ = (− 2 ⋅ −3)(x + 1) − 3 −1 = 6 (x + 1) − 4 =
( x + 1)4
e. Given y = x8 − 10 x5 + 5 x − 10 , then y ′ = 8 x8−1 + (− 10 ⋅ 5)x5−1 + 5 x1−1 − 0 = 8 x 7 − 50 x 4 + 5 x 0 = 8 x 7 − 50 x 4 + 5 ,
y ′′ = (8 ⋅ 7 )x 7 −1 − (50 ⋅ 4 )x 4 −1 + 0 = 56 x 6 − 200 x3 and y ′′′ = (56 ⋅ 6 )x 6 −1 − (200 ⋅ 3)x3−1 = 336 x 5 − 600 x 2
f. Given y =
x −1
+ 5 x 3 , then y ′ =
[1 ⋅ x ]− [2 x ⋅ (x − 1) ] + (5 ⋅ 3)x
2
3−1
=
x2 − 2x2 + 2x
+ 15 x 2 =
− x2 + 2x
+ 15 x 2
4
x 2 x 4
x x4
=
x/ (− x + 2 )
+ 15 x 2
=
−x + 2
+ 15 x 2
, y ′′ =
[
− 1 ⋅ x3 − 3 x 2 ⋅ (− x + 2 ) ][ ] + (15 ⋅ 2)x 2 −1
=
− x3 + 3x3 − 6 x 2
+ 30 x
x 4/ =3 x3 x6 x6
=
2 x3 − 6 x 2
+ 30 x =
x 2/ (2 x − 6 )
+ 30 x =
2x − 6
+ 30 x and y ′′′ =
[2 ⋅ x ]− [4x
4 3
⋅ (2 x − 6 ) ] + 30x 1 −1
=
2 x 4 − 8 x 4 + 24 x3
+ 30
6 6/ = 4 4
x x x x 8
x8
− 6 x 4 + 24 x3 − 6 x3/ (x − 4 ) 6( x − 4 )
= 8
+ 30 = 8/ =5
+ 30 = − + 30
x x x5
3. Find f ′′(0 ) and f ′′(1) for the following functions.
a. Given f (x ) = 6 x5 + 3 x3 + 5 , then f ′(x ) = (6 ⋅ 5)x5−1 + (3 ⋅ 3)x3−1 + 0 = 30 x 4 + 9 x 2 and f ′′(x ) = (30 ⋅ 4 )x 4 −1 + (9 ⋅ 2 )x 2 −1
= 120 x3 + 18 x . Therefore, f ′′(0 ) = 120 ⋅ 03 + 18 ⋅ 0 = 0 and f ′′(1) = 120 ⋅ 13 + 18 ⋅ 1 = 120 + 18 = 138
b. Given f (x ) = x3 (x + 1)2 , then f ′(x ) = [3x 3−1

][ ]
⋅ (x + 1)2 + 2(x + 1)2 −1 ⋅ x3 = 3 x 2 (x + 1)2 + 2 x3 (x + 1) = 3 x 2 x 2 + 2 x + 1 ( )
+ 2 x 4 + 2 x3 = 3 x 4 + 6 x3 + 3 x 2 + 2 x 4 + 2 x3 = 5 x 4 + 8 x3 + 3 x 2 and f ′′(x ) = (5 ⋅ 4 )x 4 −1 + (8 ⋅ 3)x3−1 + (3 ⋅ 2 )x 2 −1
( ) ( )
= 20 x3 + 24 x 2 + 6 x . Therefore, f ′′(0 ) = 20 ⋅ 03 + 24 ⋅ 02 + (6 ⋅ 0 ) = 0 and f ′′(1) = 20 ⋅ 13 + 24 ⋅ 12 + (6 ⋅ 1) = 50 ( ) ( )

c. Given f (x ) = x + (x − 1) 2 , then f ′(x ) = 1 + 2(x − 1) 2 −1 = 1 + 2(x − 1) = 1 + 2 x − 2 = 2 x − 1 and f ′′(x ) = 2 x1−1 − 0 = 2 .
Therefore, f ′′(0 ) = 2 and f ′′(1) = 2
12
d. Given f (x ) = (x − 1) − 3 , then f ′(x ) = − 3(x − 1) − 3 −1 = − 3(x − 1) − 4 and f ′′(x ) = (− 3 ⋅ −4 )(x − 1) − 4 −1 = 12 (x − 1) − 5 =
(x − 1) 5
12 12 12 12
Therefore, f ′′(0 ) = = = −12 and f ′′(1) = = which is undefined due to division by zero.
(0 − 1) 5 −1 (1 − 1)5 0
( )
e. Given f (x ) = (x − 1) x 2 + 1 , then f ′(x ) = [1 ⋅ (x + 1)]+ [2 x ⋅ (x − 1) ] = x
2 2
+ 1 + 2 x 2 − 2 x = 3 x 2 − 2 x + 1 and
f ′′(x ) = (3 ⋅ 2 )x 2 −1 − 2 x1−1 + 0 = 6 x − 2 . Therefore, f ′′(0 ) = (6 ⋅ 0 ) − 2 = 0 − 2 = −2 and f ′′(1) = (6 ⋅ 1) − 2 = 6 − 2 = 4
(
f. Given f (x ) = x3 − 1 ) 2
+ 2 x = x3 − 1 ( ) 2 1
(
+ (2 x ) 2 , then f ′(x ) = 2 x3 − 1) 2 −1
⋅ 3x 2 +
1
2
1
( ) 1
(2 x ) 2 − 1 ⋅ 2 = 6 x 2 x3 − 1 + (2 x ) − 2
[ ( )
and f ′′(x ) = 12 x ⋅ x3 − 1 + 3 x 2 ⋅ 6 x 2 −
1
2/
] 1 3 3
(2 x ) − 2 − 1 ⋅ 2/ = 12 x 4 − 12 x + 18 x 4 − (2 x ) − 2 = 30 x 4 − 12 x − (2 x ) − 2 . Thus, f ′′(0)
1 1 1
= 30 ⋅ 04 − 12 ⋅ 0 − 3
= − which is undefined, and f ′′(1) = 30 ⋅ 14 − 12 ⋅ 1 − 3
= 30 − 12 − 0.35 = 17.65
(2 ⋅ 0) 2 0 (2 ⋅ 1) 2

Section 3.1 Practice Problems – Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions

dy d
a. Given y = sin (3 x + 1) , then = [ sin (3x + 1) ] = cos (3x + 1) ⋅ d (3x + 1) = cos (3x + 1) ⋅ 3 = 3 cos (3 x + 1)
dx dx dx
dy d d 3
b. Given y = 5 cos x 3 , then = 5 cos x3 = − 5 sin x3 ⋅ x = − 5 sin x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = − 15 x 2 sin x 3
dx dx dx
c. Given y = x 3 cos x 2 , then

dy
dx
=
d 3
dx
( d
) d d
x cos x 2 = cos x 2 ⋅ x3 + x3 ⋅ cos x 2 = cos x 2 ⋅ 3 x 2 + x3 ⋅ − sin x 2 ⋅ x 2
dx dx dx
= cos x 2 ⋅ 3 x 2 − x3 ⋅ sin x 2 ⋅ 2 x = 3 x 2 cos x 2 − 2 x 4 sin x 2
dy d
d. Given y = sin 5 x ⋅ tan 3 x , then = ( sin 5 x ⋅ tan 3x ) = tan 3x ⋅ d sin 5 x + sin 5 x ⋅ d tan 3x = tan 3x ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ d 5 x
dx dx dx dx dx
d
+ sin 5 x ⋅ sec2 3 x ⋅ 3 x = tan 3 x ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5 + sin 5 x ⋅ sec2 3 x ⋅ 3 = 5 tan 3 x cos 5 x + 3 sin 5 x sec 2 3 x
dx
e. Given y = tan 2 x3 = tan x3 ( ) 2

, then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
tan x3 ) 2
= 2 tan x3 ⋅
d
dx
d
tan x3 = 2 tan x3 ⋅ sec2 x3 ⋅ x3 = 2 tan x3 ⋅ sec2 x3 ⋅ 3 x 2
dx
= 6 x 2 tan x 3 sec 2 x 3
f. Given y = cot (x + 3) 3 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ ] d d
cot (x + 3) 3 = − csc2 (x + 3) 3⋅ (x + 3) 3 = − csc2 (x + 3) 3⋅ 3 (x + 3) 2⋅ (x + 3)
dx dx
= − csc2 (x + 3) 3⋅ 3 (x + 3) 2⋅ 1 = − 3 csc 2 ( x + 3 ) 3 ( x + 3 ) 2
g. Given y = x 5 cos x 7 , then

dy
dx
=
d 5
dx
( d
) d d
x cos x 7 = cos x 7 ⋅ x5 + x5 ⋅ cos x 7 = cos x 7 ⋅ 5 x 4 + x5 ⋅ − sin x 7 ⋅ x 7
dx dx dx
= cos x 7 ⋅ 5 x 4 − x5 ⋅ sin x 7 ⋅ 7 x 6 = 5 x 4 cos x 7 − 7 x11 sin x 7
4 4 3
3  3
dy d  3  3
d  3 3 3
h. Given y = sec4 x3 = sec4 x 2 =  sec x 2  , then =  sec x 2  = 4  sec x 2  ⋅  sec x 2  = 4 sec3 x 2 ⋅ sec x 2
     
  dx dx     dx  
3 1 3 3 3
d 32 3 3 3
3 3 −1
× tan x 2 ⋅ x = 4 sec3 x 2 ⋅ sec x 2 tan x 2 ⋅ x 2 = 6 x 2 sec 3 x 2 sec x 2 tan x 2
dx 2
i. Given y = sec 3 x 2 + x3 , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sec 3 x 2 + x3 =
d
dx
sec 3 x 2 +
d 3
dx
)
x = sec 3 x 2 ⋅ tan 3 x 2 ⋅
d
dx
3x 2 + 3x 2 ( )
= sec 3 x 2 ⋅ tan 3 x 2 ⋅ 6 x + 3 x 2 = 6 x sec 3 x 2 tan 3 x 2 + 3 x 2
j. Given y = tan x 5 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
tan x5 = sec2 x5 ⋅
dx
)
d 5
( )
x = sec2 x5 ⋅ 5 x 4 = 5 x 4 sec2 x 5
k. Given y = tan 5 x , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
tan 5 x =
d
dx
)
(tan x ) 5 = 5 tan 4 x ⋅ d tan x = 5 tan 4 x ⋅ sec2 x ⋅ d x = 5 tan4 x sec2 x
dx dx
(
l. Given y = csc x 3 + 1 , then) dy
dx
=
d
dx
( )
csc x3 + 1 = − csc x3 + 1 cot x3 + 1 ⋅ (
d 3
dx
) ( ) ( )
x + 1 = − 3 x 2 csc x 3 + 1 cot x 3 + 1 ( ) ( )
tan x dy d  tan x ( csc x ⋅ dxd tan x ) − ( tan x ⋅ dxd csc x ) ( csc x ⋅ sec x)− ( tan x ⋅ − csc x cot x )
2
a. Given y = , then =   = =
csc x dx dx  csc x  csc2 x csc2 x

=
(
csc x sec2 x + tan x cot x ) =
sec 2 x + tan x cot x
2 csc x
csc x
b. Given y =
(
sin x3 + 1 ) , then
dy
=
3
d sin x + 1 ( ) = [x 2
⋅ dx ( )] [ (
d sin x 3 + 1 − sin x 3 + 1 ⋅ d x 2
dx
) ] [x
=
2
(
⋅ cos x3 + 1 ⋅ dx) (
d x3 + 1 )]
x2 dx dx x2 x4 x4
−
[sin (x + 1)⋅ 2 x] = [ x
3 2
( ) ][ (
⋅ cos x3 + 1 ⋅ 3 x 2 − sin x3 + 1 ⋅ 2 x ) ] =
( )
3 x 4 cos x3 + 1 − 2 x sin x3 + 1 ( ) = 3x 3
( )
cos x 3 + 1 − 2 sin x 3 + 1 ( )
4 4 4 3
x x x x
sec x dy d  sec x 
( csc x 3
⋅ dx )(
d sec x − sec x ⋅ d csc x 3
dx
) ( csc x 3
⋅ sec x tan x )
c. Given y = , then = = =
csc x 3 dx dx  csc x3  csc x 2 3
csc x 2 3
−
( sec x ⋅ − csc x cot x 3 3
⋅ 3x 2 ) =
( csc x 3
) (
sec x tan x + 3 x 2 sec x csc x 3 cot x 3 )
2 3 2 3
csc x csc x
5
d. Given y = x tan x , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
5 3 3 d d
( ) d
x tan x = tan x3 ⋅ x5 + x5 ⋅ tan x3 = tan x3 ⋅ 5 x 4 + x5 ⋅ sec2 x3 ⋅ x3
dx dx dx
= tan x3 ⋅ 5 x 4 + x5 ⋅ sec2 x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = 5 x 4 tan x3 + 3 x 7 sec2 x3 = x 4 5 tan x 3 + 3 x 3 sec 2 x 3 ( )

e. Given y = x 5 sin x 2 , then
dy
dx
=
d 5
dx
( d d
) d
x sin x 2 = sin x 2 ⋅ x5 + x5 ⋅ sin x 2 = sin x 2 ⋅ 5 x 4 + x5 ⋅ cos x 2 ⋅ x 2
dx dx dx
= sin x 2 ⋅ 5 x 4 + x5 ⋅ cos x 2 ⋅ 2 x = 5 x 4 sin x 2 + 2 x 6 cos x 2 = x 4 5 sin x 2 + 2 x 2 cos x 2 ( )

f. Given y = (x + 5) 2cos x , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ dx
]
(x + 5) 2cos x = cos x ⋅ d (x + 5) 2+ (x + 5) 2⋅ d cos x
dx
d
= cos x ⋅ 2(x + 5) ⋅ (x + 5) + (x + 5) 2⋅ − sin x = cos x ⋅ 2(x + 5) ⋅ 1 − (x + 5) 2⋅ sin x = 2( x + 5 ) cos x − ( x + 5 ) 2sin x
dx
g. Given y = x 2 tan 3 x5 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
( d
)
d d
x 2 tan 3 x5 = tan 3 x5 ⋅ x 2 + x 2 ⋅ tan 3 x5 = tan 3 x5 ⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ 3 tan 2 x5 ⋅ tan x5
dx dx dx
d 5
= tan 3 x5 ⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ 3 tan 2 x5 ⋅ sec2 x5 ⋅ x = 2 x tan 3 x5 + x 2 ⋅ 3 tan 2 x5 ⋅ sec2 x5 ⋅ 5 x 4 = 2 x tan 3 x 5 + 15 x 6 tan 2 x 5 sec2 x 5
dx
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1
dy d  3 d 1 d
h. Given y = x + sin x 3 , then =  x + sin x  = x + sin x3 2 = x + sin x3 2 ⋅ x + sin x3
dx dx   dx 2 dx
=
1
(
x + sin x3 ) −1
2⋅ 

d d 
x + sin x3  =
1
x + sin x3 ( ) ⋅ (1 + 3x
−1
2 2
cos x3 = ) 1 + 3 x 2 cos x3
=
1 + 3 x 2 cos x 3
( )
1
2  dx dx  2
2 x + sin x3 2
2 x + sin x 3
i. Given y = sin 1 + x5 , then( ) dy

dx
=
d
dx
(
sin 1 + x5 = cos 1 + x5 ⋅
d
dx
) ( ) (
1 + x5 = cos 1 + x5 ⋅ 5 x 4 = 5 x 4 cos 1 + x 5 ) ( ) ( )
j. Given y = cot 2 x 3 , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
cot 2 x3 =
d
dx
(cot x3 ) ( ) 2
= 2 cot x3 ⋅
d
dx
d
cot x3 = 2 cot x3 ⋅ − csc2 x3 ⋅ x3
dx
= 2 cot x3 ⋅ − csc2 x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = − 6 x 2 cot x 3 csc 2 x 3
dy d
k. Given y = sin 3 ( 1 + 5 x ) , then = [ sin (1 + 5 x ) ] 3 = 3[ sin (1 + 5 x ) ] 2⋅ d sin (1 + 5 x ) = 3[ sin (1 + 5 x ) ] 2⋅ cos (1 + 5 x )
dx dx dx
d
× (1 + 5 x ) = 3[ sin (1 + 5 x ) ] 2⋅ cos (1 + 5 x ) ⋅ 5 = 15 sin 2 (1 + 5 x ) cos (1 + 5 x )
dx
l. Given y = x 5 csc x 3 , then
dy
dx
=
d 5
dx
(
d d
) d
x csc x3 = csc x3 ⋅ x5 + x5 ⋅ csc x3 = csc x3 ⋅ 5 x 4 + x5 ⋅ − csc x3 cot x3 ⋅ x3
dx dx dx
= csc x3 ⋅ 5 x 4 − x5 ⋅ csc x3 cot x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = 5 x 4 csc x 3 − 3 x 7 csc x 3 cot x 3


dy d
a. Given y = sin 7 x , then = (sin 7 x ) = cos 7 x ⋅ d (7 x ) = cos 7 x ⋅ 7 = 7 cos 7 x
dx dx dx
dy d d 3
b. Given y = cos x 3 , then = cos x3 = − sin x3 ⋅ x = − sin x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = − 3 x 2 sin x 3
dx dx dx
c. Given y = cot x 3 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cot x3 = − csc2 x3 ⋅
dx
)
d 3
( )
x = − csc2 x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = − 3 x 2 csc 2 x 3
d. Given y = x 3 tan x 2 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
( d
) d d
x3 tan x 2 = tan x 2 ⋅ x3 + x3 ⋅ tan x 2 = tan x 2 ⋅ 3 x 2 + x3 ⋅ sec2 x 2 ⋅ x 2
dx dx dx
= tan x 2 ⋅ 3 x 2 + x3 ⋅ sec2 x 2 ⋅ 2 x = 3 x 2 tan x 2 + 2 x 4 sec2 x 2 = x 2 3 tan x 2 + 2 x 2 sec 2 x 2 ( )
dy d
e. Given y = cot (x + 9 ) , then = [ cot (x + 9) ] = − csc2 (x + 9) ⋅ d (x + 9) = − csc2 (x + 9) ⋅ 1 = − csc2 ( x + 9)
dx dx dx
(
f. Given y = sin 2 x3 + 5 x + 2 , then ) dy
dx
=
d
dx
sin 2 x3 + 5 x + 2 = (
d
dx
sin x3 + 5 x + 2 ) ( ) 2
(
= 2 sin x3 + 5 x + 2 ⋅ ) dxd sin (x 3
+ 5x + 2 )
( ) (
= 2 sin x3 + 5 x + 2 ⋅ cos x3 + 5 x + 2 ⋅ ) dxd (x 3
) ( ) (
+ 5 x + 2 = 2 3 x 2 + 5 sin x 3 + 5 x + 2 cos x 3 + 5 x + 2 ) ( )
1 1 −1 d −1
dy d 1 1
g. Given y = sin x + 3 = sin (x + 3) 2 , then = sin (x + 3) 2 = sin (x + 3) 2 ⋅ sin (x + 3) = sin (x + 3) 2
dx dx 2 dx 2
(x + 3) = 1 sin (x + 3) 2 ⋅ cos (x + 3) ⋅ 1 = 1 cos (x + 3)1 = cos ( x + 3 )

d −1
× cos (x + 3) ⋅
dx 2 2 2 sin ( x + 3 )
sin (x + 3) 2
h. Given y = sin x 2 + cos x 3 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sin x 2 + cos x3 =
d
dx
d
) d d
sin x 2 + cos x3 = cos x 2 ⋅ x 2 − sin x3 ⋅ x3
dx dx dx
= cos x 2 ⋅ 2 x − sin x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = 2 x cos x 2 − 3 x 2 sin x 3
i. Given y = x 2 sin x 3 , then

dy
dx
=
d 2
dx
(
x sin x3 = sin x3 ⋅
d 2
dx
) d d
x + x 2 ⋅ sin x3 = sin x3 ⋅ 2 x + x 2 ⋅ cos x3 ⋅ x3
dx dx
= 2 x sin x3 + x 2 ⋅ cos x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = 2 x sin x 3 + 3 x 4 cos x 3
Section 3.2 Practice Problems – Differentiation of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

dy d 1 d 3
a. Given y = sin −1 3 x , then = arc sin 3 x = ⋅ 3x =
dx dx dx
1 − ( 3 x )2 1 − 9x2
b. Given y = x 3 + arc cos 5 x , then

dy
dx
=
d 3
dx
(
x + arc cos 5 x = 3 x 2 − ) 1
⋅
d
dx
5x = 3 x 2 −
5
1 − (5 x )2 1 − 25 x 2
c. Given y = x 5 arc tan x 4 , then

dy
dx
=
d 5
dx
( d
) d
x arc tan x 4 = arc tan x 4 ⋅ x5 + x5 ⋅ arc tan x 4 = arc tan x 4 ⋅ 5 x 4
dx dx
1 d 4 1 4 x8
+ x5 ⋅ 8
⋅ x = 5 x 4 arc tan x 4 + x5 ⋅ 8
⋅ 4 x3 = 5 x 4arc tan x 4 +
1+ x dx 1+ x 1 + x8
d. Given y = arc sin x 3 + 2 , then ( ) dy

dx
=
d
dx
[
arc sin x3 + 2 ( )] = 1
⋅
d 3
dx
(
x +2 = ) 3x2
(
1 − x3 + 2 ) 2
(
1 − x3 + 2 ) 2
1 dy d 1 1 d 1 1 −3 3
e. Given y = arc cot , then = arc cot 3 = − 2
⋅ = − ⋅ =
x3 dx dx x dx x3 1 + 16 x 4 4 1 
1 +  1 
 x x 1 +
x6

 x3   

arc sin 3 x dy d  arc sin 3 x 

(x 2
⋅ dx )(
d arc sin 3 x − arc sin 3 x ⋅ d x 2
dx
)
f. Given y = , then =   =
x2 dx dx  x2  x4
x2
x2 ⋅ 1 − ( arc sin 3 x ⋅ 2 x ) − 2 x arc sin 3 x
1−9 x 2 1−9 x 2 x 2 − 2 x arc sin 3 x 1 − 9x2 x − 2arc sin 3 x 1 − 9x2
= = = =
x4 x4
x4 1 − 9x2 x3 1 − 9x2
tan −1 x dy d  tan −1 x 
(x ⋅ d
dx
)(
tan −1 x − tan −1 x ⋅ dx
d x ) 
1 x

 x ⋅ 1 2  − tan −1 x ⋅ 1 ( ) x
1+ x 2
− tan −1 x
=  
+
g. Given y = , then = = =
x dx dx  x  x2 x2 x2
( )
=
x − 1+ x 2 tan −1 x
1+ x 2
=
( )
x − 1 + x 2 tan −1 x
x 2
(
x2 1 + x2 )
x3 dy d  x3  [ d x3 ⋅
dx
(x + 5) ]− [ x3 ⋅ dxd (x + 5) ] 1
h. Given y = − arc sin x , then = − arc sin x = −
x+5 dx dx  x + 5 
 (x + 5) 2 1 − x2
=
[3 x 2
][ ]−
⋅ (x + 5) − x 3 ⋅ 1 1
=
3 x3 + 15 x 2 − x3
−
1
=
2 x 3 + 15 x 2
−
1
(x + 5) 2
1 − x2
(x + 5) 2
1 − x2
(x + 5) 2 1 − x2
i. Given y = x + cos −1 x , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x + cos −1 x =
d
dx
d
)
x + cos −1 x = 1 −
dx
1
⋅
d
dx
x = 1−
1
1 − x2 1 − x2
2. Find the first and second derivative of the following inverse trigonometric functions:
a. Given y = x 2 + arc sin ax , then

dy
dx
=
d 2
dx
(
x + arc sin ax = 2 x + ) 1
⋅
d
dx
ax = 2 x +
a
1 − ( ax ) 2 1 − a2 x2
dy d 1 d 1 6
b. Given y = cos −1 6 x , then = cos −1 6 x = − ⋅ 6x = − ⋅6 = −
dx dx dx
1 − (6 x ) 2 1 − 36 x 2 1 − 36 x 2
c. Given y = x + arc sin x 3 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x + arc sin x3 = 1 + ) 1
⋅
d 3
dx
x = 1+
1
⋅ 3x 2 = 1 +
3x2
1 − x6 1 − x6 1 − x6
d. Given y = arc tan 2 x , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
arc tan 2 x =
d
dx
)
tan −1 x ( ) 2
= 2 tan −1 x ⋅
d
dx
tan −1 x = 2 tan −1 x ⋅
1
1+ x 2
=
2 tan −1 x
1+ x 2
e. Given y = x − arc tan x 2 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x − tan −1 x 2 =
d
dx
x+
d
dx
)
tan −1 x 2 = 1 +
1
1+ x
d
⋅ x2 = 1 +
4 dx
2x
1 + x4
f. Given y = x 2 − arc sin x , then

dy
dx
=
d 2
dx
(
x − arc sin x =
d 2 d
dx
x −
dx
)
arc sin x = 2 x −
1
⋅
d
dx
x = 2x −
1
1 − x2 1 − x2
dy d 1 d 3 1 3x2
g. Given y = tan −1 x 3 , then = tan −1 x3 = ⋅ x = ⋅ 3 x 2
=
dx dx 1 + x3 ( ) 2 dx 1 + x6 1 + x6
dy d 1 d 1 5
h. Given y = tan −1 5 x , then = tan −1 5 x = ⋅ 5x = ⋅5 =
dx dx 1 + ( 5 x ) 2 dx 1 + 25 x 2 1 + 25 x 2
i. Given y = arc sin 5 x 2 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
arc sin 5 x 2 = ) 1
⋅
d
dx
5x2 =
1
⋅ 10 x =
10 x
1 − 25 x 4 1 − 25 x 4 1 − 25 x 4

Section 3.3 Practice Problems – Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
1. Find the derivative of the following logarithmic functions:
a. Given y = ln10 x , then

dy
=
d
( ln10 x ) = 1 ⋅ d (10 x ) = 1 ⋅ 10 = 10 = 1
dx dx 10 x dx 10 x 10 x x
b. Given y = 10 ln 5 x3 , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
( 1 d
10 ln 5 x3 = 10 ⋅ 3 ⋅
5 x dx
)
5 x3 =
10
5x 3
⋅ 15 x 2 = ( )
150 x 2
5 x3
=
30
x
(
c. Given y = ln x 2 + 3 , then ) dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ (
ln x 2 + 3 = 2
1
⋅
d 2
x + 3 dx
)]
x +3 = 2
2x
x +3
( )
d. Given y = x3 ln x , then
dy
dx
=
d 3
dx
( 
x ln x =  ln x ⋅
 dx  
)
d 3  3 d
dx


1
x  +  x ⋅ ln x  = ln x ⋅ 3 x 2 + x3 ⋅ = 3 x 2 ln x + x 2 = x 2 (3 ln x + 1)
x
e. Given y = x ln x − 5 x 2 , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
x ln x − 5 x 2 =
d
dx
)
( x ln x ) − d 5 x 2 =  x ⋅ d ( ln x ) + ln x d (x ) − 10 x
dx  dx dx 
 1 d   x/ 
=  x ⋅ ⋅ (x ) + ln x ⋅ 1 − 10 x =  + ln x  − 10 x = 1 + ln x − 10 x = ln x − 10 x + 1
 x dx   x/ 
( )
f. Given y = x 3 + 2 ln x 2 , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[(
x3 + 2 ln x 2 =
d 3
dx
)
x ln x 2 + 2
d
dx
] (
ln x 2 = ln x 2 ⋅

d 3
dx
)
x + x3 ⋅
d
dx
( 
ln x 2 

) ( ) ( )
2 d 2  1  2 ⋅ 2x 4
+ ⋅ x = ln x 2 ⋅ 3 x 2 + x3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 x  + 2 = 3 x 2 ln x 2 + 2 x 2 +
x 2 dx  x  x x
(
g. Given y = sin ln x 2 , then ) dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ ( )] = cos (ln x )⋅ x1 ⋅ dxd x
sin ln x 2 2
2
2
(
= cos ln x 2 ⋅ ) x1 ⋅ 2 x =
2
2
x
(
cos ln x 2 )
h. Given y = ln csc x , then
d
( ln csc x ) = 1 ⋅ d csc x = 1 ⋅ − csc x ⋅ cot x = − csc x ⋅ cot x = − cot x
dx csc x dx csc x csc x
3
3
dy d 1 d 3 1 3 1 3 1 −3 3 1−3 3 3 1
i. Given y = ln x3 = ln x 2 , then = ln x 2 = 3 ⋅ x 2 = 3 ⋅ x 2 = x 2 ⋅ x 2 = x 2 2 = x − 1 = ⋅
dx dx dx 2 2 2 2 2 x
x2 x2
(
j. Given y = cos ln x 2 , then ) dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ (
cos ln x 2 )] = − sin (ln x )⋅ x1 ⋅ dxd x
2
2
2
(
= − sin ln x 2 ⋅) x1 ⋅ 2 x = − 2x sin (ln x )
2
2
x +1 dy d  x +1  x −1 d x +1 x − 1 (x − 1) − (x + 1) x −1 −2 2
k. Given y = ln , then =  ln  = ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ = −
x −1 dx dx  x −1  x + 1 dx x − 1 x +1 (x − 1) 2 x + 1 (x − 1)2 x2 − 1
l. Given y = x3 ln x + 5 x , then
dy
dx
=
d 3
dx
[
x ln x + 5 x =
d 3
dx
d
]
 d   d 
x ln x + 5 x =  ln x ⋅ x3  +  x3 ⋅ ln x  + 5
dx  dx   dx 
( )  1
= ln x ⋅ 3 x 2 +  x3 ⋅  + 5 = 3 x 2 ln x + x 2 + 5
 x
2. Find the derivative of the following exponential functions:
a. Given y = x 3 e 2 x , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
( d
) d d
x3e 2 x = e 2 x ⋅ x3 + x3 ⋅ e 2 x = e 2 x ⋅ 3 x 2 + x3 ⋅ e 2 x ⋅ 2 x = 3 x 2e 2 x + x3 ⋅ e 2 x ⋅ 2
dx dx dx
= 3 x 2e 2 x + 2 x3e 2 x = x 2e 2 x ( 3 + 2 x )
( )
b. Given y = x 2 + 3 e 3 x , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
[( 
) ]
x 2 + 3 e3 x = e3 x ⋅

d 2
dx
 
 
d
dx
( 
) ( ) d
x + 3  +  x 2 + 3 ⋅ e3 x  = e3 x ⋅ 2 x + x 2 + 3 ⋅ e3 x ⋅ 3 x
 dx
( )
( ) ( ) [
= e3 x ⋅ 2 x + x 2 + 3 ⋅ e3 x ⋅ 3 = 2 x e3 x + 3e3 x x 2 + 3 = e3 x 2 x + 3 x 2 + 3 = e 3 x 3 x 2 + 2 x + 9( )] ( )
c. Given y = e sin 3 x , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
( )d
esin 3 x = esin 3 x ⋅ (sin 3 x ) = esin 3 x ⋅ 3 cos 3 x = 3 cos 3 x e sin 3 x
dx

2 dy d ln x 2 2 1 d 2 1 2 x2
d. Given y = e ln x , then = e = eln x ⋅ 2 ⋅ x 2 = eln x ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 x = e ln
dx dx x dx x x
e. Given y = e 9 x sin 5 x , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
( 
e9 x sin 5 x = sin 5 x ⋅

d
dx
)
e9 x ( ) + e 9x
⋅
d
dx
(sin 5 x ) = sin 5 x ⋅ e9 x ⋅ d 9 x 
  dx 


d
dx

[ ][ ]
+ e9 x ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5 x  = sin 5 x ⋅ e9 x ⋅ 9 + e9 x ⋅ cos 5 x ⋅ 5 = e 9 x ( 9 sin 5 x + 5 cos 5 x )

f. Given y = e 2 x arc sin x , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
( 
e 2 x arc sin x = arc sin x ⋅

d 2x
dx
e ) ( ) + e 2x
⋅
d
dx
( arc sin x )

 
d 1 e2 x  1 
= arc sin x ⋅ e 2 x ⋅ 2 x + e2 x ⋅ = arc sin x ⋅ e 2 x ⋅ 2 + = e 2 x  2arc sin x + 
dx  
1 − x2 1 − x2  1 − x2 
g. Given y = (x − 5) e − x , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
( x − 5)e− x =  (x − 5) ⋅ d e− x  +  e− x ⋅ d (x − 5)  =
 dx   dx 
[ ( x − 5) ⋅ −e ] + [ e ⋅ 1 ]
−x −x
= − e − x (x − 5) + e − x = − xe− x + 5e − x + e − x = − xe− x + 6e − x = e − x (− x + 6 )
dy d ln ( x + 1) d 1 d e ln ( x + 1)
h. Given y = eln ( x + 1) , then = e = eln ( x + 1) ⋅ ln (x + 1) = eln ( x + 1) ⋅ ⋅ (x + 1) =
dx dx dx x + 1 dx x +1
ex dy d  e x  tan x ⋅ dx dx
[
d e x − e x ⋅ d ( tan x ) ( )] [ ] tan x ⋅ e x − e x ⋅ sec2 x (
e x tan x − sec2 x )
i. Given y = , then = = = =
tan x dx dx  tan x  tan 2 x 2
tan x tan x 2
dy d x x d d d d
j. Given y = 3 x ⋅ e x , then = 3 ⋅ e = e x ⋅ 3x + 3x ⋅ e x = e x ⋅ 3x ⋅ ln 3 ⋅ x + 3x ⋅ e x ⋅ x = e x ⋅ 3x ⋅ ln 3 ⋅ 1 + 3x ⋅ e x ⋅ 1
dx dx dx dx dx dx
= e x ⋅ 3x ⋅ ln 3 + 3x ⋅ e x = ( ln 3 + 1) 3 x e x
k. Given y = x3arc sin x , then

dy
dx
=
d 3
dx
(
x arc sin x = arc sin x ⋅
d 3
dx
) d
x + x3 ⋅ arc sin x = 3 x 2arc sin x +
dx
x3
1 − x2
l. Given y = e 5 x cos (5 x + 1) , then

dy
dx
=
d 5x
dx
[ 
e cos (5 x + 1) =  cos (5 x + 1) ⋅

d
dx
e5 x] ( ) + e 5x
⋅
d
dx

cos (5 x + 1)



d  
dx  
d
dx

[
=  cos (5 x + 1) ⋅ e5 x ⋅ 5 x  +  e5 x ⋅ − sin (5 x + 1) ⋅ (5 x + 1) = cos (5 x + 1) ⋅ e5 x ⋅ 5 + e5 x ⋅ − sin (5 x + 1) ⋅ 5

][ ]
= 5e 5 x [ cos (5 x + 1) − sin (5 x + 1) ]
Section 3.4 Practice Problems – Differentiation of Hyperbolic Functions
Find the derivative of the following hyperbolic functions:
(
a. Given y = cosh x3 + 5 , then ) dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
cosh x3 + 5 = sinh x3 + 5 ⋅
d
dx
) ( ) (
x3 + 5 = sinh x3 + 5 ⋅ 3 x 2 = 3 x 2 sinh x 3 + 5 ) ( ) ( )
b. Given y = x3 sinh x , then
dy
dx
=
d 3
dx
( d
)d
x sinh x = sinh x ⋅ x3 + x3 ⋅ sinh x = sinh x ⋅ 3 x 2 + x3 ⋅ cosh x = 3 x 2 sinh x + x 3 cosh x
dx dx
c. Given y = (x + 6 )sinh x3 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
[ dx
]
(x + 6)sinh x 2 = sinh x3 ⋅ d (x + 6) + (x + 6) ⋅ d sinh x3 = sinh x3 ⋅ 1
dx
d 3
+ (x + 6 ) ⋅ cosh x3 ⋅ x = sinh x3 + (x + 6 ) ⋅ cosh x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = sinh x 3 + 3 x 2 ( x + 6 ) cosh x 3
dx
d. Given y = ln (sinh x ) , then

dy
=
d
( ln sinh x ) = 1 ⋅ d ( sinh x ) = 1 ⋅ cosh x ⋅ d x = cosh x = coth x
dx dx sinh x dx sinh x dx sinh x

e. Given y = esinh x , then

dy
dx
=
d sinh x
dx
e ( d
dx
) d
= esinh x ⋅ ( sinh x ) = esinh x ⋅ cosh x ⋅ x = esinh x ⋅ cosh x ⋅ 1 = e sinh x cosh x
dx
f. Given y = cosh 3 x 5 , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
( d
)
cosh 3 x5 = sinh 3 x5 ⋅ 3 x5 = sinh 3 x5 ⋅ 15 x 4 = 15 x 4 sinh 3 x 5
dx
tanh 2 x dy d  tanh 2 x 
d tanh 2 x − tanh 2 x ⋅ d x
x ⋅ dx dx
[ ][ ] [ x ⋅ 2 tanh x ⋅ sec h x ]− [tanh 2 2
x ⋅1 ]
g. Given y = , then = = =
x dx 
dx  x   x 2
x 2
=
2 x tanh x sec h 2 x − tanh 2 x
=
(
tanh x 2 x sec h2 x − tanh x )
2 2
x x
1 dy d  1  1 d 1 1 −3 3 1
h. Given y = coth , then =  coth 3  = − csc h 2 3 ⋅ = − csc h 2 3 ⋅ 4 = csc h2 3
x 3 dx dx  x  x dx x 3
x x x 4
x
(
i. Given y = x 2 + 9 tanh x , then ) dy
dx
=
d
dx
[(
x 2 + 9 tanh x = tanh x ⋅
d 2
dx
) d
]
x + 9 + x 2 + 9 ⋅ tanh x = tanh x ⋅ 2 x
dx
( ) ( )
( )
+ x 2 + 9 ⋅ sec h 2 x = 2 x tanh x + x 2 + 9 sec h2 x ( )
j. Given y = sinh 3 x 2 , then
dy
dx
=
d
dx
(
sinh 3 x 2 =
d
dx
sinh x 2 ) ( ) 3
= 3 sinh 2 x 2 ⋅
d
dx
d
sinh x 2 = 3 sinh 2 x 2 ⋅ cosh x 2 ⋅ x 2
dx
= 3 sinh 2 x 2 ⋅ cosh x 2 ⋅ 2 x = 6 x sinh 2 x 2 cosh x 2
k. Given y = tanh 5 x , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
( d
)
tanh 5 x = 5 tanh 4 x ⋅ tanh x = 5 tanh 4 x sec h2 x
dx
l. Given y = x5 coth x3 + 1 , then ( ) dy

dx
=
d 5
dx
x coth x3 + 1 [ ( )] (
= coth x3 + 1 ⋅ ) dxd x 5
+ x5 ⋅
d
dx
( )
coth x3 + 1 = coth x3 + 1 ⋅ 5 x 4 ( )
+ x5 ⋅ − csc h 2 x3 + 1 ⋅ ( ) dxd ( x + 1 ) = coth ( x + 1 )⋅ 5x
3 3 4
( ) (
− x5 ⋅ csc h 2 x3 + 1 ⋅ 3 x 2 = 5 x 4 coth x 3 + 1 − 3 x 7 csc h2 x 3 + 1 ) ( )
Section 3.5 Practice Problems – Differentiation of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Find the derivative of the following inverse hyperbolic functions:
a. Given y = x sinh −1 3 x , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
( d d
)
x sinh −1 3 x = sinh −1 3 x ⋅ x + x ⋅ sinh −1 3 x = sinh −1 3 x ⋅1 + x ⋅
dx dx
1
⋅
d
dx
3x
1 + 9x2
1 3x
= sinh −1 3 x + x ⋅ ⋅ 3 = sinh −1 3 x +
1 + 9x2 1 + 9x2
dy d 1 d 1 1
b. Given y = cosh −1 (x + 5) , then = cosh −1 (x + 5) = ⋅ (x + 5) = ⋅1 =
dx dx dx
( x + 5) 2 − 1 ( x + 5) 2 − 1 ( x + 5) 2 − 1
c. Given y = tanh −1 x , then
dy
=
d
(
tanh −1 x =
1
) ⋅
d
x =
1
⋅
1
=
1
dx dx 1− x ( ) 2 dx 1− x x x (1 − x )
x3 ⋅ 1 − sinh −1 x ⋅ 3 x 2
sinh −1
x dy d  sinh −1 x  x3 ⋅ dx
d sinh −1 x − sinh −1 x ⋅ d x 3
dx
2
x +1
d. Given y = , then = = =
x3 dx dx  x3  x6 x6
x3 − 3 x 2 sinh −1 x
2
x +1 x3 − 3 x 2 x 2 + 1 sinh −1 x x − 3 x 2 + 1 sinh −1 x
= = =
x6
x6 x 2 + 1 x4 x2 + 1
cosh 3 x
d sinh −1 x − sinh −1 x ⋅ d cosh 3 x
− 3 sinh −1 x sinh 3 x
−1
sinh x dy d  sinh −1 x  cosh 3 x ⋅ dx dx x +12
e. Given y = , then = = =
cosh 3 x dx dx  cosh 3 x  cosh 2 3 x cosh 2 3 x

cosh 3 x − 3 x 2 + 1 sinh −1 x sinh 3 x

=
cosh 2 3 x x2 + 1
x5 ⋅ 1 − cosh −1 x ⋅ 5 x 4
cosh −1 x dy d  cosh −1 x  x5 ⋅ dx
d cosh −1 x − cosh −1 x ⋅ d x 5
dx
2
x −1
f. Given y = , then = = =
x5 dx dx  x5  x10 x10
x5 − 5 x 4 cosh −1 x
x 2 −1 x5 − 5 x 4 x 2 − 1 cosh −1 x x − 5 x 2 − 1 cosh −1 x
= = =
x10
x10 x 2 − 1 x6 x2 − 1
(
g. Given y = x 2 + 3 coth −1 x , then ) dy
dx
=
d 2
dx
( )
x + 3 coth −1 x = coth −1 x ⋅
d 2
dx
d
(
x + 3 + x 2 + 3 ⋅ coth −1 x = coth −1 x ⋅ 2 x
dx
) ( )
(
+ x2 + 3 ⋅ ) 1 −1x 2
= 2 x coth −1 x +
x2 + 3
1 − x2
h. Given y = e3 x cosh −1 x , then

dy
dx
=
d 3x
dx
( d
)
d d
e cosh −1 x = cosh −1 x ⋅ e3 x + e3 x ⋅ cosh −1 x = cosh −1 x ⋅ e3 x ⋅ 3 x
dx dx dx
 
e 3 x  3 x 2 − 1 cosh −1 x + 1 
3x 1 −1 3x e3 x 3x −1 e3 x  
+e ⋅ = cosh x⋅e ⋅3+ = 3e cosh x+ =
2 2 2
x −1 x −1 x −1 x2 − 1
i. Given y = x3 + tanh −1 x5 , then

dy
dx
=
d 3
dx
(
x + tanh −1 x5 =
d 3 d
dx
x +
dx
)
tanh −1 x5 = 3 x 2 +
1
1− x10
d
⋅ x5 = 3 x 2 +
dx
5 x4
1 − x 10
2 dy d  −1 x2  d d 2 1 d
j. Given y = sinh −1 7 x + ln e x , then =  sinh 7 x + ln e  = sinh −1 7 x + ln e x = ⋅ 7x
1 + (7 x ) 2
1 d x2 1 1 2 d 2 7 1 2 7
+ ⋅ e = ⋅7 + ⋅ ex ⋅ x = + ⋅ ex ⋅ 2x = + 2x
x2 dx x2 dx x2
e 1 + 49 x 2 e 1 + 49 x 2 e 1 + 49 x 2
k. Given y = tanh −1 e 2 x , then ( ) dy

dx
=
d
dx
tanh −1 e 2 x =
1
1− e 4 x
d
dx
( )
⋅ e2 x =
1
1− e 4 x
d
⋅ e2 x ⋅ 2 x =
dx
1
1− e 4 x
⋅ e2 x ⋅ 2 =
2e 2 x
1 − e4 x
l. Given y = coth −1 (3 x + 5) , then

dy
dx
=
d
dx
[
coth −1 (3 x + 5) =
1 d
]
⋅ (3 x + 5) =
1 − (3 x + 5) 2 dx
3
1 − (3 x + 5 ) 2
Section 3.6 Practice Problems - Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms Using L’Hopital’s Rule
Evaluate the limit for the following functions by applying the L’Hopital’s rule, if needed:
d ln x 1 d x
⋅ dx
ln x ln ∞ ∞ ln x dx x
a. lim x → ∞ 2
= 2
= Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → ∞ 2 = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞
∞ d x2 2x
x ∞ x dx
1 ⋅1 1
x x 1 1 1
= lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ = lim x → ∞ 2
= 2
= = 0
2x 2x 2x 2⋅∞ ∞
d sin x
sin x sin 0 0 0 sin x dx
b. lim x → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0 x = lim x → 0
ex − 1 e0 − 1 1−1 0 e −1 (
d ex − 1
dx
)
d sin x
dx cos x cos x cos 0 1
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = = 1
d ex − d 1
dx dx
ex − 0 ex e0 1
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 − cos 0 1−1 0 1 − cos x

c. lim x → 0 3
= lim x → 0 3
= 3
= = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0
x x 0 0 0 x3

d
dx
(1 − cos x ) d 1 − d cos
dx dx
x 0 + sin x sin x sin 0 0
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = Apply the L’Hopital’s
d x3 d x3
dx dx
3x 2 3x 2 3 ⋅ 02 0
d sin x
sin x dx cos x cos 0 1
rule again lim x → 0 2
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = = = ∞
d 3x 2 6x 6⋅0 0
3x dx
t−2 2−2 2−2 0

d. limt → 2 2
= 2
= = = 0
t + 2t − 1 2 + 2 ⋅ 2 −1 4 + 4 −1 7
cos x cos π2 0 cos x

d cos x
dx − sin x
e. lim π = lim = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim π = lim π = lim π
( )
π
x→
2 x − π2 x→ π − π
2
2 2
0 x→ x − π
2
2
x→
2 d x−π x→
2 1
dx 2
= − lim π sin x = − sin π2 = −1

x→
2
d t cos t
t cos t 0 ⋅ cos 0 0 ⋅1 0 t cos t
f. limt → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule limt → 0 = limt → 0 dt d
2 sin t 2 sin 0 2⋅0 0 2 sin t 2 ⋅ dx sin t
d t + t ⋅ d cos t
cos t ⋅ dt dt cos t ⋅ 1 + t ⋅ − sin t cos t − t sin t cos 0 − 0 ⋅ sin 0 1− 0⋅0 1
= limt → 0 d sin t
= limt → 0 = limt → 0 = = =
2 ⋅ dt 2 ⋅ cos t 2 cos t 2 cos 0 2 ⋅1 2
x −8 8−8 8−8 0 x −8
d
dx
( x − 8)
g. lim x → 8 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 8 2 = lim x →8
x 2 − 64 82 − 64 64 − 64 0 x − 64 d
dx
(x 2
− 64 )
d x− d 8
dx dx 1− 0 1 1 1
= lim x →8 = lim x →8 = lim x →8 = =
d x2 − d 64 2x − 0 2x 2⋅8 16
dx dx
d sin x
sin x sin 0 0 0 sin x dx
h. lim x → π = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → π = lim x → π
π −x π −π 0−0 0 π −x
dx
(
d π −x )
d sin x
dx cos x cos x
= lim x → π d π d
= lim x → π = lim x → π = − lim x → π cos x = − cos π = 1
− x 0 −1 −1
dx dx
d sin 8 x
sin 8 x sin (8 ⋅ 0 ) sin 0 0 sin 8 x dx
i. lim x → 0 = = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 d 3x
3x 3⋅ 0 0 0 3x
dx
d 8x
cos 8 x ⋅ dx cos 8 x ⋅ 8 8 cos 8 x 8 ⋅ cos (8 ⋅ 0 ) 8 ⋅ cos 0 8 ⋅1 8
= lim x → 0 d 3x
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = =
3 3 3 3 3 3
dx
8t + 3 ∞+3 ∞ 8t + 3
d
dt
( 8t + 3) d 8t
dt
+ d
dt
3
j. limt → ∞ = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule limt → ∞ = limt → ∞ = limt → ∞
4t − 2 ∞−2 ∞ 4t − 2 d
dt
( 4t − 2) d 4t
dt
− d
dt
2
8+0 8
= = = 2
4−0 4
cos x − 1 cos 0 − 1 1−1 0 cos x − 1

d
dx
( cos x − 1)
k. lim x → 0 2
= 2
= = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim x → 0 = lim x → 0
x 0 0 0 x2 d
dx
x2
d cos x − d 1
dx dx − sin x − 0 sin x sin 0 0
= lim x → 0 = lim x → 0 = − lim x → 0 = − = − Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again
d x2 2x 2x 2⋅0 0
dx
d sin x
sin x dx cos x cos 0 1
− lim x → 0 = − lim x → 0 d 2x
= − lim x → 0 = − = −
2x 2 2 2
dx

1 − sin x 1 − sin π2 1 − sin π2 1−1 0 1 − sin x

l. lim π = π
= = = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule lim π
x→ 1 + cos 2 x 1 + cos 2 ⋅ 2 1 + cos π 1−1 0 x → 1 + cos 2 x
2 2
dx
(
d 1 − sin x) d 1 − d sin x
dx dx 0 − cos x 1 cos x 1 cos 2
π
= lim π = lim π = lim π = lim π = ⋅
x→
2
dx
(
d 1 + cos 2 x ) x→
2
d 1 + d cos 2 x
dx dx
x→
2 0 − 2 sin 2 x 2 x →
2 sin 2 x 2 sin 2 ⋅ π
2
π d cos x
1 cos 2 1 0 0 1 cos x 1 dx
= ⋅ = ⋅ = Apply the L’Hopital’s rule again lim π = lim π d sin 2 x
2 sin π 2 0 0 2 x → sin 2 x 2 x→
2 2
dx
π π
1 − sin x 1 sin x 1 sin 2 1 sin 2 1 1 1
= lim x → π = − lim π = − ⋅ π
= − ⋅ = − ⋅ =
2 x → 4 cos π 4 −1 4
2 2 cos 2 x 4 2 cos 2 x 4 cos 2 ⋅
2

Section 4.1 Practice Problems – Integration Using the Basic Integration Formulas

3 0 +1
a. ∫ − 3 dx ∫
= − 3 dx = − 3 x 0 dx = − ∫ 0 +1
x + c = −3 x + c
Check: Let y = −3 x + c , then y ′ = − 3 x1−1 + 0 = − 3x 0 = −3 ⋅ 1 = −3

5k 0 +1
b. ∫ 5k dx = 5k ∫ dx ∫
= 5k x 0 dx =
0 +1
x + c = 5k x + c
Check: Let y = 5k x + c , then y ′ = 5k x1−1 + 0 = 5k x 0 = 5k ⋅ 1 = 5k

2 2 2 2 1 1+1 2 1 1
∫ 3 x dx = 3 ∫ x dx = 3 ∫ x dx = x + c = ⋅ x2 + c = x 2 + c
1
c. ⋅
3 1+1 3 2 3
1 2 1 2
Check: Let y = x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 2 x 2 −1 + 0 = x
3 3 3
1 5+1 1
∫ x dx = x + c = x6 + c
5
d.
5 +1 6
1 6 1
Check: Let y = x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 6 x 6 −1 + 0 = x5
6 6
1 a 8
∫ ax dx = a ∫ x dx = a ⋅ 7 + 1 x
7 7 7 +1
e. +c = x +c
8
a 8 1
Check: Let y = x + c , then y ′ = a ⋅ ⋅ 8 x8−1 + 0 = a x 7
8 8
∫(x ) 1 1 3+1 1 1
∫ x dx + ∫ x dx = 1 + 4 x x + c = x5 + x4 + c
4 1+ 4
f. + x3 dx = 4 3
+
3 +1 5 4
1 5 1 4 1 1
Check: Let y = x + x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 5 x5−1 + ⋅ 4 x 4 −1 + 0 = x 4 + x3
5 4 5 4
dx 1 1 1
∫ x4 = ∫ x x − 4 +1 + c = − x −3 + c = −
−4
g. dx = +c
− 4 +1 3 3x3
1 1 1
Check: Let y = − x −3 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ −3 x −3−1 + 0 = x −4 = 4
3 3 x
 1 1  1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∫  x4 − x2  dx = ∫ x4 dx − ∫ x2 d x = ∫ x ∫
−4
h. dx − x −2 dx = x − 4 +1 − x − 2 +1 = − x −3 + x −1 + c = − 3
+ +c
− 4 +1 − 2 +1 3 3x x
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = − x −3 + x −1 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ −3 x −3−1 − x −1−1 + 0 = x −4 − x −2 = 4 − 2
3 3 x x
6
3 1 1 3
∫ ∫ ∫ x dx = 1 + 2 x
2 2 +1
i. x 6 dx = x 3 dx = +c = x +c
3
1 3 1
Check: Let y = x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3 x3−1 + 0 = x 2
3 3
3 
2
1 2 +1
1 1+1 1 2+3
1 2 3 5 1
a. ∫  x 2 + x  dx =
 ∫x 3
∫
dx + x dx = 2
1+ 3
x3 +
1+1
x +c = 3+ 2
3
x 3 +
2
x + c = x 3 + x2 + c
5 2

3 53 1 2 3 5 5 −1 1 5−3 2
3
Check: Let y = x + x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x 3 + ⋅ 2 x 2 −1 + 0 = x 3 + x = x 3 + x = x2 + x
5 2 5 3 2
1 1 1 1 − 12 1 1 1 − 12 1 1 22−1 1 1
b. ∫ −
2 t
dt = −
2 ∫ 1
dt = −
2 ∫
t dt = − ⋅
2 1− 1
t + c = − ⋅
2 2 −1
t + c = −
2
⋅ 2t 2 +c = − t +c
t2 2 2
1 1 −1 1− 2 −1
1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = −t 2 + c , then y ′ = − t2 +0 = − t 2 = − t 2 = − 1
= −
2 2 2 2 t
2 t2
1 1 −2 1 1 − 72 1 7−2
7 75 77 5
c. ∫ 7 x2 dx = ∫ 2
dx = ∫x 7 dx =
1 − 72
x +c = 7−2
x 7 +c =
5
x +c =
5
x +c
x7 7
7 75 7 5 5 −1 5− 7 −2 1 1
Check: Let y = x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x 7 + 0 = x 7 = x 7 = 2 =
5 5 7 7
x2
x7
∫( )
1 1 1 1+ 1
d. ∫ (1 + x ) x dx = x + x x dx = ∫ ∫
x dx + x x dx = ∫x 2
∫
dx + x x 2 dx = ∫x 2 dx + x ∫ 2 dx
1 3
1 1 +1
1 3 +1
1 1+ 2 1 3+ 2 2 3 2 5 2 3 2 5
= ∫x 2
∫
dx + x 2 dx = 1
1+ 2
x2 + 3
1+ 2
x 2 + c = 2 +1 x 2 + 2 + 3 x 2 + c = x 2 + x 2 + c =
2 2
3 5 3
x +
5
x +c
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= x ⋅x + x ⋅ x ⋅ x + c = x x + x2 x + c
3 5 3 5
2 32 2 52 2 3 3 −1 2 5 5 −1 3− 2 5− 2 1 3
Check: Let y = x + x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x 2 + ⋅ x 2 + 0 = x 2 + x 2 = x 2 + x 2
3 5 3 2 5 2
∫ (2x )
+ 1 (x − 1) dx = ∫ (2 x ) ∫ 2 x dx − ∫ 2 x dx + ∫ x dx − ∫ dx = 2∫ x dx − 2∫ x dx + ∫ x dx − ∫ x dx
2 3
e. − 2 x 2 + x − 1 dx = 3 2 3 2 0
1 3+1 1 2 +1 1 1+1 1 0 +1 1 2 1
= 2⋅ x − 2⋅ x + x − x + c = x4 − x3 + x2 − x + c
1+ 3 1+ 2 1+1 1+ 0 2 3 2
1 4 2 3 1 2 1 2 1
Check: Let y = x − x + x − x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 x 4 −1 − ⋅ 3 x3−1 + ⋅ 2 x 2 −1 − 1 + 0 = 2 x3 − 2 x 2 + x − 1
2 3 2 2 3 2
∫ x ( 3x − 1 ) dx = ∫ x (9 x ) ∫ (9 x ) 9 6 2 +1
∫ 9 x dx − ∫ 6 x dx + ∫ x dx = 3 + 1 x
2 2 3
f. − 6 x + 1 dx = − 6 x 2 + x dx = 3 2 3+1
− x
2 +1
1 1+1 9 6 1 9 1
+ x + c = x 4 − x3 + x 2 + c = x 4 − 2 x 3 + x 2 + c
1+1 4 3 2 4 2
9 4 1 9 1
Check: Let y = x − 2 x3 + x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 x 4 −1 − 2 ⋅ 3 x3−1 + ⋅ 2 x 2 −1 + 0 = 9 x3 − 6 x 2 + x
4 2 4 2
∫ ( 2 + x ) dx = ∫ ( 2 ) ∫(x ) ∫ x dx + ∫ 6 x dx + ∫12 x dx + ∫ 8 dx
3 3
g. + x3 + 3 ⋅ 22 x + 3 ⋅ 2 x 2 dx = 3
+ 6 x 2 + 12 x + 8 dx = 3 2
1 3+1 6 2 +1 12 1+1 8 0 +1 1
= x + x + x + x + c = x4 + 2 x3 + 6 x2 + 8 x + c
3 +1 2 +1 1+1 0 +1 4
1 4 1
Check: Let y = x + 2 x3 + 6 x 2 + 8 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 x 4 −1 + 2 ⋅ 3 x3−1 + 6 ⋅ 2 x 2 −1 + 8 x1−1 + 0 = x3 + 6 x 2 + 12 x + 8 x 0
4 4
= x3 + 6 x 2 + 12 x + 8 = (2 + x ) 3
∫ ( 2 − x ) dx = ∫ ( 2 ) ∫ (− x ) ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
3 3
h. − x3 + 3 ⋅ 22 x − 3 ⋅ 2 x 2 dx = 3
− 6 x 2 + 12 x + 8 dx = − x3dx − 6 x 2 dx + 12 x dx + 8 dx
1 3+1 6 2 +1 12 1+1 8 0 +1 1
= − x − x + x + x + c = − x4 − 2 x3 + 6 x2 + 8 x + c
3 +1 2 +1 1+1 0 +1 4
1 1
Check: Let y = − x 4 − 2 x3 + 6 x 2 + 8 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 4 x 4 −1 − 2 ⋅ 3 x3−1 + 6 ⋅ 2 x 2 −1 + 8 x1−1 + 0 = − x3 − 6 x 2 + 12 x
4 4
+ 8x 0 = − x3 − 6 x 2 + 12 x + 8 = (2 − x ) 3

∫(y )
y5 + 4 y 2  y5 4 y 2  1 3+1 4 0 +1 1
∫ ∫  y 2 + ∫ y dy + ∫ 4 dy = y + c = y4 + 4 y + c
3 3
i. dy = dy = + 4 dy = y +
y 2
y 2  3 +1 0 +1 4
1 4 1
Check: Let w = y + 4 y + c , then w ′ = ⋅ 4 y 4 −1 + 4 ⋅ 1 y1−1 + 0 = y 3 + 4 y 0 = y 3 + 4
4 4
Section 4.2 Practice Problems – Integration Using the Substitution Method
a. Given ∫ t (1 + t ) dt
2 3
let u = 1 + t 3 , then
du
dt
=
d
dt
( ) du
1 + t 3 = 3t 2 which implies that du = 3t 2 dt and dt = 2 .
3t
Substituting the u and dx values back into the original integral we obtain
∫ t (1 + t ) dt = ∫ t ⋅ u ⋅ 3t 2
2 3 2 du
=
1
3 ∫
1 1 1+1
u du = ⋅
3 1+1
1 1
u + c = ⋅ u2 + c =
3 2
1
6
1 + t3 ( ) 2
+c
Check: Let y =
1
6
(
1 + t3 )
2
+ c , then y ′ =
1
6
(
⋅ 2 1 + t3 ) 2 −1
⋅ 3t 2 + 0 =
1
3
( )
1 + t 3 ⋅ 3t 2 = t 2 1 + t 3 ( )
b. Given ∫ 18x
2
6 x 3 − 5 dx let u = 6 x3 − 5 , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
( )
6 x3 − 5 = 18x 2 which implies that du = 18 x 2 dx and
du
dx = . Substituting the u and dx values back into the original integral we obtain
18x 2
( )
3
du 1
1 1 +1
2 3 2 3 2
∫ 18x 6 x 3 − 5 dx = 18 x 2 ⋅ u ⋅ ∫ ∫u 6x3 − 5
2
2
= 2 du = 1
u2 +c = u2 +c = u2 +c = 2 +c
18 x +1 3 3 3
2
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 −1 1
2 2 3
Check: Let y = 6 x3 − 5 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 6 x3 − 5 2 ⋅ 18 x 2 + 0 = 6 x3 − 5 2 ⋅ 18 x 2 = 18 x 2 6 x3 − 5
3 3 2
5 du d
c. Given ∫ dx let u = x + 5 , then = ( x + 5) = 1 which implies that du = dx . Substituting the u and dx
x+5 dx dx
values back into the original integral we obtain
5 5 −1 1 1 − 12 1 2 −1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ ⋅ du = 5 u ∫ 2 du = 5⋅ 1
u + c = 5 ⋅ 2 −1 u 2 + c = 10 u 2 + c = 10 ( x + 5 ) 2 + c
x+5 u 1− 2 2
1 1 1 1 5 5
Check: Let y = 10 (x + 5) 2 + c , then y ′ = 10 ⋅ ( x + 5) 2 −1 + 0 = 5 ( x + 5) − 2 = 1
=
2 ( x + 5) 2 x+5
∫ x(x ) ( )
1
du d 2 du
d. Given 2
−2 5 dx let u = x 2 − 2 , then = x − 2 = 2 x which implies that du = 2 x dx and dx = .
dx dx 2x
∫ x(x ) ( )
6
1 1
du 1 15 1 1 1 +1
1 5 6 5
∫ x ⋅u ∫ x2 − 2
2
−2 5 dx = 5 ⋅ = u du = ⋅ 1 u5 + c = ⋅ u5 + c = 5 +c
2x 2 2 + 1 2 6 12
5
( ) ( ) ( )
6 6 −1 1
5 2 5 6 2
Check: Let x −2 5 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x −2 5 ⋅ 2x + 0 = x x2 − 2 5
12 12 5
e. Given ∫
3x
du
dx
=
d 2
dx
( )
x + 3 = 2 x which implies that du = 2 x dx and dx =
du
2x
.
x2 + 3
( )
1
3x 3x du 3 − 12 3 1 1− 12 3 1 2 −1 3 1 1
∫ 2
dx = ∫ u
⋅
2x
=
2
u du = ⋅
2 1− 1
u ∫
+ c = ⋅ 2 −1 u 2 + c = ⋅ 2 u 2 + c = 3u 2 + c = 3 x 2 + 3
2 2
2 +c
x +3 2 2

( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 −1
3 2 3 2 3x 3x
Check: Let y = 3 x 2 + 3 2 + c , then y ′ = x +3 2 ⋅ 2x +0 = x +3 2 ⋅ 2x = =
( x + 3)
1
2 2 2 2
x2 + 3
f. Given ∫2
t
1 − t 2 dt let u = 1 − t 2 , then
du
dt
=
d
dt
( )
1 − t 2 = −2t which implies that du = −2t dt and dt =
du
− 2t
.
Substituting the u and dt values back into the original integral we obtain
( )
3
t t du 1 12 1 1 1 +1
1 2 3 1 3 1
∫ 2
1 − t 2 dt = ∫ 2
⋅ u⋅
− 2t
= −
4
u du = − ⋅ 1
4
2
+1 ∫
u 2 + c = − ⋅ u 2 + c = − u 2 + c = − 1 − t2
4 3 6 6
2 +c
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 −1 1
1 1 3 1 t
Check: Let y = − 1− t2 2 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 1− t2 2 ⋅ −2t +0 = ⋅ t 1− t2 2 = 1− t2
6 6 2 2 2
∫ x (1 − x ) dx let u = 1 − x , then ( )
2 3 2 3 du d du
g. Given = 1 − x3 = − 3x 2 which implies that du = −3 x 2 dx and dx = .
dx dx − 3x 2
∫ x (1 − x ) dx = ∫ x ⋅ u ⋅ − 3x2
2 3 2 2 2 du
= −
1 2
3 ∫
1 1 2 +1
u du = − ⋅
3 2 +1
u
1 1 1
+ c = − ⋅ u3 + c = − 1 − x 3
3 3 9
( )
3
+c
Check: Let y = −
1
9
(
1 − x3 ) 3
+ c , then y ′ = −
1
9
(
⋅ 3 1 − x3 ) 3−1
⋅ −3 x 2 + 0 =
3
3
(
1 − x3 ) 3−1
⋅ x 2 = x 2 1 − x3 ( ) 2
h. Given ∫
x3
du
dx
=
d 4
dx
( ) du
x + 3 = 4x3 which implies that du = 4 x3dx and dx = 3 .
4x
4
x +3
x3 x3
( )
1
du 1 − 12 1 1 1 − 12 1 1
1 1 1 4
∫ 4
dx = ∫ u
⋅
4x 3
=
4∫u du = ⋅
4 1− 1
u +c = ⋅2 u2 +c = u2 +c =
4 2 2
2
x +3 2 +c
x +3
( ) ( ) ( ) x3 x3
1 1 −1 −1
1 4 1 4 1 4
Check: Let y = x +3 2 + c , then y ′ = x +3 2 ⋅ 4 x3 +0 = x +3 2 ⋅ 4 x3 = =
(x + 3)
1
2 4 4 4 2
x4 + 3
∫ x (2x ) ( )
8 9 2 du d du
i. Given + 1 dx let u = 2 x9 + 1 , then = 2 x9 + 1 = 18x8 which implies that du = 18 x8dx and dx = .
dx dx 18x8
∫ x (2x
8 9
)
+ 1 dx =
2
∫x
8
⋅ u2 ⋅
18x
du
8
=
1
18 ∫
u 2 du =
1
⋅
1 2 +1
18 2 + 1
u +c =
1 3
54
u +c =
1
54
2 x9 + 1 ( ) 3
+c
Check: Let y =
1
54
( 3
2 x9 + 1 + c , then y ′ =
1
)
54
⋅ 3 2 x9 + 1 ( ) 3−1
(
⋅ 18 x8 + 0 = 2 x9 + 1 ⋅ x8 = x8 2 x9 + 1 ) 2
( ) 2
a. Given ∫ 6 x (2 x − 1)dx let u = 2 x − 1 , then

2 3 3 du
dx
=
d
dx
( ) du
2 x3 − 1 = 6x 2 which implies that du = 6 x 2 dx and dx = 2 .
6x
∫ 6 x (2 x − 1)dx = ∫ 6 x ⋅ u ⋅ 6 x2 = ∫ u du = 1 + 1 u + c
2 3 2 du 1 1+1
=
1 2
2
u +c =
1
2
2x3 − 1( ) 2
+c
Check: Let y =
1
2
(
2 x3 − 1 ) 2
+ c , then y ′ =
1
2
(
⋅ 2 2 x3 − 1 ) 2 −1
(
⋅ 6 x 2 + 0 = 6 x 2 2 x3 − 1 )
b. Given ∫x 1 + x 2 dx let u = 1 + x 2 , then
du
dx
=
d
dx
( )
1 + x 2 = 2 x which implies that du = 2 x dx and dx =
du
2x
.

( )
3
du 1 12 1 1 1 +1
1 2 3 1 3 1
∫x 1 + x 2 dx = ∫x⋅ u⋅
2x
=
2
u du = ⋅ 1
2
2
∫+ 1
u2 +c = ⋅ u2 +c = u2 +c =
2 3 3 3
1 + x2 2 +c
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 −1 1
1 1 3 1
Check: Let y = 1 + x2 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 1 + x2 2 ⋅ 2x +0 = ⋅ 2x 1 + x2 2 = x 1 + x2
3 3 2 2
du d du
c. Given ∫
5
7 x + 1 dx let u = 7 x + 1 , then = (7 x + 1) = 7 which implies that du = 7 dx and dx = . Substituting
dx d 7
the u and dx values back into the original integral we obtain
du 1 15 1 1 1 +1
1 5 6 5 65 5 6
∫
5
7 x + 1 dx = ∫
5
u⋅ = u du = ⋅ 1 ∫
u5 + c = ⋅ u5 + c = u +c = ( 7 x + 1) 5 + c
7 7 7 +1 7 6 42 42
5
6 −1 1 1
5
( 7 x + 1) 5 + c , then y ′ = 5 ⋅ 6 ( 7 x + 1) 5 ⋅ 7 + 0 = 1 ( 7 x + 1) 5 ⋅ 7 = ( 7 x + 1) 5 =
6
5
Check: Let y = 7x + 1
42 42 5 7
d. Given ∫x
3
3 x 2 − 1 dx let u = 3 x 2 − 1 then
du
dx
=
d
dx
( )
3 x 2 − 1 = 6 x which implies that du = 6 x dx and dx =
du
6x
.
( )
4
3 du 1 13 1 1 13 +1 1 3 4 1 4 1
∫ x 3 x 2 − 1 dx = ∫ x⋅3 u ⋅
6x
=
6
u du = ⋅ 1
6
3
∫+ 1
u +c = ⋅ u3 +c = u3 +c =
6 4 8 8
3x2 − 1 3 +c
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 4 −1 1 1
1 1 4 1 3
Check: Let y = 3x 2 − 1 3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3x 2 − 1 3 ⋅ 6x +0 = 3x 2 − 1 3 ⋅ 6 x = x 3x 2 − 1 3 = x 3x 2 − 1
8 8 3 6
e. Given ∫
x
du
dx
=
d 2
dx
( )
x + 1 = 2 x which implies that du = 2 x dx and dx =
du
2x
.
2
x +1
( )
1
x x du 1 − 12 1 1 1 − 12 1 1 22−1 1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ u
⋅
2x
=
2
u du = ⋅
2 1−∫1
u + c =
2
⋅ 2 −1
u + c =
2
⋅ 2u 2 + c = u 2 + c = x2 + 1 2 +c
x2 + 1 2 2
( ) ( ) (x + 1)
1 1 −1 −1
1 2 x x
Check: Let y = x 2 + 1 2 + c , then y ′ = x +1 2 ⋅ 2x +0 = 2 2 ⋅ 2x = =
(x + 1)
1
2 2 2 2
x +1
∫ x (1 − x ) dx let u = 1 − x , then ( )
2 2 2 du d du
f. Given = 1 − x 2 = −2 x which implies that du = −2 x dx and dx = .
dx dx − 2x
∫ x (1 − x ) dx = ∫ x ⋅ u ⋅ − 2 x
2 2 2 du
= −
1 2
2∫
1 1 2 +1
u du = − ⋅
2 2 +1
u
1 1
+ c = − u3 + c = − 1 − x 2
6 6
( ) 3
+c
Check: Let y = −
1
6
1 − x2( ) 3
+ c , then y ′ = −
1
6
(
⋅ 3 1 − x2 ) 3 −1
⋅ −2 x + 0 =
6
6
(
1 − x2 ) 2
(
⋅ x = x 1 − x2 ) 2
g. Given ∫
x5
du
dx
=
d 6
dx
( ) du
x + 3 = 6x5 which implies that du = 6 x5dx and dx = 5 .
6x
6
x +3
x5 x5
( )
1
du 1 1 1 − 12 1 1 1 − 12 1 1 1 6
∫ 6
dx = ∫ u
⋅
6x 5
=
6 ∫ u
⋅ du =
6 ∫
u du = ⋅
6 1− 1
u +c = u2 +c =
3 3
x +3 2 +c
x +3 2

( ) ( ) ( ) x5
1 1 −1
1 6 1 1 6 −1
Check: Let y = x +3 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ x +3 2 ⋅ 6 x5 + 0 = x5 x 6 + 3 2 =
3 3 2
x6 + 3
h. Given ∫
3x
du
dx
=
d 2
dx
( )
x − 1 = 2 x which implies that du = 2 x dx and dx =
du
2x
.
x2 − 1
( )
1
3x 3x du 3 − 12 3 1 1 − 12 3 1 22−1 1
∫ dx = ∫ u
⋅
2x
=
2
u du = ⋅
2 1− 1 ∫
u + c = ⋅
2 2 −1
u + c = 3u 2 + c = 3 x2 − 1 2 +c
x2 − 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 −1 −1
3 2 3x 3x
Check: Let y = 3 x 2 − 1 2 + c , then y ′ = x −1 2 ⋅ 2x + 0 = 3x x 2 − 1 2 = =
(x − 1)
1
2 2 2
x2 − 1
i. Given ∫
5x4 + 6x
dx let u = x5 + 3 x 2 + 1 , then
du
dx
=
d 5
dx
( )
x + 3 x 2 + 1 = 5 x 4 + 6 x which implies that
x5 + 3x 2 + 1
(
du = 5 x 4 + 6 x dx and dx = ) 5x4 + 6x
du
. Substituting the u and dx values back into the original integral we obtain
5x4 + 6x 5x4 + 6x du du −1 1 1 − 12 1 22−1 1
∫ dx = ∫ u
⋅ 4
5x + 6x
= ∫ u
= ∫ u 2 du = 1
1− 2
u +c =
2 −1
u + c = 2u 2 + c
x5 + 3x 2 + 1 2
( )
1
= 2 x5 + 3x 2 + 1 2 + c = 2 x5 + 3 x2 + 1 + c
( ) ( ) (5x ) ( ) (5x )
1 1 −1 −1
1 5
Check: Let y = 2 x5 + 3 x 2 + 1 2 + c , then y ′ = 2 ⋅ x + 3x 2 + 1 2 4
+ 6 x + 0 = x5 + 3 x 2 + 1 2 4
+ 6x
2
5x4 + 6x 5x4 + 6x
= =
(x )
1
5
+ 3x 2 + 1 2
x5 + 3x 2 + 1
Section 4.3 Solutions – Integration of Trigonometric Functions
1. Evaluate the following integrals.

3x 3x du d 3x 3 5
a. Given ∫ sin 5
dx let u =
5
, then =
dx dx 5
=
5
which implies dx = du . Therefore,
3
3x 5 5 5 5 3x
∫ sin 5
dx = ∫ sin u ⋅ 3 du = 3 ∫ sin u du = − 3 cos u + c = − 3 cos 5
+c
5 3x 5 d 3x d 5 3x d 3x 5 3x 3 3x
Check: Let y = − cos + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ cos + c = − ⋅ − sin ⋅ + 0 = − ⋅ − sin ⋅ = sin
3 5 3 dx 5 dx 3 5 dx 5 3 5 5 5
du d du
b. Given ∫ 3 cos 2 x dx let u = 2 x , then =
dx dx
2 x = 2 which implies dx =
2
. Therefore,
du 3 3 3
∫ 3 cos 2 x dx = 3∫ cos u ⋅ 2
=
2 2 ∫
cos u du = sin u + c = sin 2 x + c
2
3 3 d d 3 d 3 6
Check: Let y = sin 2 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ sin 2 x + c = ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ 2 x + 0 = ⋅ cos 2 x ⋅ 2 = ⋅ cos 2 x = 3 cos 2 x
2 2 dx dx 2 dx 2 2
c. Given ∫ (sin 5x − cos 7 x ) dx = ∫ sin 5x dx −∫ cos 7 x dx let:

du d du du
dx dx dx 5

dv d dv dv
b. v = 7 x , then = 7x ; = 7 ; dv = 7 dx ; dx = .
dx dx dx 7
du dv 1 1 1 1
Therefore, ∫ sin 5x dx −∫ cos 7 x dx = ∫ sin u ⋅ 5 ∫
− cos v ⋅
7
=
5 ∫
sin u du −
7 ∫
cos v dv = − cos u + c1 − sin v + c2
5 7
1 1 1 1
= − cos 5 x − sin 7 x + c1 + c2 = − cos 5 x − sin 7 x + c
5 7 5 7
1 1 1 d 1 d d 1 d
Check: Let y = − cos 5 x − sin 7 x + c then y ′ = − ⋅ cos 5 x − ⋅ sin 7 x + c = ⋅ sin 5 x ⋅ 5x
5 7 5 dx 7 dx dx 5 dx
1 d 5 7
− ⋅ cos 7 x ⋅ 7 x + 0 = ⋅ sin 5 x − ⋅ cos 7 x = sin 5 x − cos 7 x
7 dx 5 7
du d du du
∫ 2 csc
2
d. Given 3 x dx let u = 3 x , then = 3x ; = 3 ; du = 3dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3
du 2 2 2
∫ 2 csc ∫ ∫
2
3 x dx = 2 csc2 u ⋅ = csc2 u du = − cot u + c = − cot 3 x + c
3 3 3 3
2 2 d d 2 d 2
Check: Let y = − cot 3 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ cot 3 x + c = − ⋅ − csc2 3 x ⋅ 3 x + 0 = ⋅ csc2 3 x ⋅ 3 = 2 csc2 3 x
3 3 dx dx 3 dx 3
du d 2 du du
∫ x sec
2
e. Given x 2 dx let u = x 2 , then = x ; = 2 x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2x
du 1 1 1
∫ x sec ∫ x sec ∫
sec2 u du = tan u + c = tan x 2 + c
2 2
x 2 dx = u⋅ =
2x 2 2 2
1 1 d d 1 d 2 1
Check: Let y = tan x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ tan x 2 + c = ⋅ sec2 x 2 ⋅ x + 0 = ⋅ sec2 x 2 ⋅ 2 x = x sec2 x 2
2 2 dx dx 2 dx 2
du d du du
f. Given ∫ 8 sec 5x dx let u = 5x , then =
dx dx
5x ;
dx
= 5 ; du = 5 dx ; dx =
5
. Therefore,
du 8 8 8
∫ 8 sec 5x dx = 8∫ sec u ⋅ 5
=
5 ∫
sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c = ln sec 5 x + tan 5 x + c
5 5
8 8 1
Check: Let y = ln sec 5 x + tan 5 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ 5 sec 5 x tan 5 x + 5 sec2 5 x + 0
5 5 sec 5 x + tan 5 x
8 5 sec 5 x (sec 5 x + tan 5 x )
= ⋅ = 8 sec 5 x
5 sec 5 x + tan 5 x
du d du du
∫ sin
3
g. Given x cos x dx let u = sin x , then = sin x ; = cos x ; du = cos x ⋅ dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx cos x
du 1 4 1
∫ sin ∫u ∫ u du = u + c = sin 4 x + c
3 3 3
x cos x dx = cos x ⋅ =
cos x 4 4
1 4 1
Check: Let y = sin x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 sin 3 x ⋅ cos x + 0 = sin 3 x cos x
4 4
du d du du
∫ cos
3
h. Given x sin x dx let u = cos x , then = cos x ; = − sin x ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx − sin x
du 1 1
∫ cos ∫u ∫
= − u 3du = − u 4 + c = − cos4 x + c
3 3
x sin x dx = sin x ⋅
− sin x 4 4
1 1 4
Check: Let y = − cos 4 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 4 cos3 x ⋅ − sin x + 0 = cos3 x sin x = cos3 x sin x
4 4 4
x du d 2 du du
∫ 2 cos x
2
i. Given dx let u = x 2 , then = x ; = 2 x ; du = 2 x ⋅ dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2x
x x du 1 1 1
∫ 2 cos x ∫ 2 cos u ⋅ 2 x ∫
cos u du = ⋅ sin u + c = sin x 2 + c
2
dx = =
4 4 4

1 1 2 x
Check: Let y = sin x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ cos x 2 ⋅ 2 x + c = x cos x 2 + 0 = cos x 2
4 4 4 2
du d 3 x du du
∫e sec e 3 x dx let u = e3 x , then = 3e3 x ; du = 3e3 x ⋅ dx ; dx = 3 x . Therefore,
3x
a. Given = e ;
dx dx dx 3e
du 1 1 1
∫e ∫e ∫
sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c = ln sec e 3 x + tan e 3 x + c
3x 3x
sec e 3 x dx = sec u ⋅ 3x
=
3e 3 3 3
1 1 1
Check: Let y = ln sec e3 x + tan e3 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ 3e3 x sec e3 x tan e3 x + 3e3 x sec2 e3 x + 0
3 3 sec e + tan e3 x
3 x
= ⋅
(
1 3e3 x sec e3 x sec e3 x + tan e3 x
= e3 x sec e3 x
)
3 sec e3 x + tan e3 x
du d du du
∫ tan = sec 2 x ; du = sec 2 x dx ; dx =
9
b. x sec 2 x dx let u = tan x , then = tan x ; . Therefore,
dx dx dx sec 2 x
du 1 9 +1 1 10 1
∫ tan ∫u ∫ u du tan10 x + c
9
9
x sec 2 x dx = ⋅ sec2 x ⋅ = 9
= u +c = u +c =
sec2 x 9 +1 10 10
1 1
Check: Let y = tan10 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 10 (tan x )10 −1 ⋅ sec2 x + 0 = (tan x )9 sec2 x = tan 9 x sec2 x
10 10
du d du du
∫ cot = − csc 2 x c ; du = − csc 2 x dx ; dx = −
5
c. Given x csc 2 x dx let u = cot x , then = cot x ; . Thus,
dx dx dx csc 2 x
− du −1 5+1 1 1
∫ cot ∫u ∫ u + c = − u 6 + c = − cot 6 x + c
5
5
x csc 2 x dx = ⋅ csc2 x ⋅ 2
= − u 5du =
csc x 5 +1 6 6
1 1
Check: Let y = − cot 6 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 6 (cot x ) 6 −1 ⋅ − csc2 x + 0 = cot 5 x csc2 x
6 6
du d du du
d. Given ∫ sec 2 x tan 2 x dx let u = 2 x , then =
dx dx
2x ;
dx
= 2 ; du = 2dx ; dx =
2
. Therefore,
du 1 1 1
∫ sec 2 x tan 2 x dx = ∫ sec u ⋅ tan u ⋅ 2
=
2 ∫
sec u tan u du = sec u + c = sec 2 x + c
2 2
1 1 2
Check: Let y = sec 2 x + c then y ′ = ⋅ sec 2 x tan 2 x ⋅ 2 + 0 = ⋅ sec 2 x tan 2 x = sec 2 x tan 2 x
2 2 2
du d 2 du du
∫ x cot x
2
e. Given dx let u = x 2 , then = x ; = 2 x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2x
du 1 1 1
∫ x cot x ∫ x ⋅ cot u ⋅ 2 x ∫
cot u ⋅ du = ln sin u + c = ln sin x 2 + c
2
dx = =
2 2 2
1 1 1 2 x cos x 2
Check: Let y = ln sin x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ cos x 2
⋅ 2 x + 0 = ⋅ = x cot x 2
2 2 sin x 2 2 sin x 2
1 du d 3 du du
∫3x
2
f. Given csc x 3 dx let u = x 3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
1 1 2 du 1 1 1
∫3x ∫ ∫
csc u ⋅ du = ln csc u − cot u + c = ln csc x 3 − cot x 3 + c
2
csc x 3 dx = x ⋅ csc u ⋅ 2 =
3 3x 9 9 9
Check: Let y =
1
ln csc x3 − cot x3 + c , then y ′ =
− csc x3 cot x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 + csc2 x3 ⋅ 3 x 2
+0 =
3 x 2 csc x3 csc x3 − cot x3 ( )
9 9 csc x3 − cot x3 ( )
9 csc x3 − cot x3 ( )
2 3 2
3 x csc x x 1
= = ⋅ csc x3 = x 2 csc x3
9 3 3

1 sin 5 x
g. ∫ (sin 5x csc 5x ) dx = ∫ sin 5x ⋅ sin 5x dx = ∫ sin 5x dx = ∫ dx = x+c
Check: Let y = x + c , then y ′ = x1−1 + 0 = x 0 = 1
∫ ( cos 5t sec 5t + 3t ) 1 1 2
∫ cos 5t ⋅ cos 5t dt + 3∫ t dt + ∫ t dt = ∫ dt + 3∫ t dt + ∫ t dt = t3 +
2 2 2
h. + t dt = t +t+c
2
1 2 1
Check: Let y = t 3 + t + t + c , then y ′ = 3 t 3−1 + ⋅ 2t 2 −1 + 1 + 0 = 3 t 2 + t + 1
2 2
du d du du
∫e = − csc2 x ; du = − csc2 x dx ; dx = −
cot x
i. Given csc2 x dx let u = cot x , then = cot x ; . Therefore,
dx dx dx csc2 x
− du
∫e ∫e csc2 x ⋅ ∫
= − eu du = − eu + c = − e cot
cot x
csc2 x dx = u x
+c
csc2 x
Check: Let y = −ecot x + c , then y ′ = − ecot x ⋅ − csc2 x ⋅ 1 + 0 = ecot x csc2 x
1 1 1
a. ∫ sin 3x cos 5x dx = ∫ 2 [ sin (3 − 5)x + sin (3 + 5)x ] dx = ∫ 2 [ sin (− 2 x ) + sin (8x ) ] dx = 2 ∫ (sin 8x − sin 2 x ) dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=
2 ∫
sin 8 x dx −
2 2 8∫
sin 2 x dx = ⋅ − cos 8 x + ⋅ cos 2 x + c = − cos 8 x + cos 2 x + c
2 2 16 4
1 1 1 1 8 2
Check: Let y = − cos 8 x + cos 2 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ −8 sin 8 x + ⋅ −2 sin 2 x + 0 = sin 8 x − sin 2 x
16 4 16 4 16 4
1 1 1 1 1 1
= sin 8 x − sin 2 x = sin 8 x + sin (− 2 x ) = sin (3 + 5)x + sin (3 − 5)x = sin 3 x cos 5 x
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
b. ∫ cos 6 x cos 4 x dx = ∫ 2 [ cos (6 − 4)x + cos (6 + 4)x ] dx = ∫ 2 (cos 2 x + cos10 x ) dx = 2 ∫ cos 2 x dx + 2 ∫ cos10 x dx
1 1 1 1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ sin 2 x + ⋅ sin 10 x + c = sin 2 x + sin 10 x + c
2 2 2 10 4 20
1 1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = sin 2 x + sin 10 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 2 cos 2 x + ⋅ 10 cos 10 x + 0 = cos 2 x + cos 10 x
4 20 4 20 2 2
1 1 1 1
= cos 2 x + cos 10 x = cos (6 − 4 )x + cos (6 + 4 )x = cos 6 x cos 4 x
2 2 2 2
∫ (sin 3x ) sin 3x dx = ∫ (1 − cos 3x ) sin 3x dx . Let u = cos 3x , then

2 2
∫ sin ∫ sin
5 4 2 2
c. 3 x dx = 3 x sin 3 x dx =
du d du du
= cos 3 x ; = −3 sin 3 x ; du = −3 sin 3 x dx ; dx = − . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3 sin 3 x
∫ (1 − cos 3x ) sin 3x dx = ∫ (1 − u ) sin 3x dx = ∫ (u − 2u + 1)sin 3x ⋅ − 3sin 3x ∫ (u )

2 2 2 du 1
∫ sin
2 4 2 4
5
3 x dx = = − − 2u 2 + 1 du
3
1 4 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1
= −
3 ∫
u du +
3
u du −
3 ∫
3 5 3 3 3 ∫
du = − ⋅ u 5 + ⋅ u 3 − u + c = − cos5 3 x + cos 3 3 x − cos 3 x + c
15 9 3
1 2 1 1 2 1
Check: Let y = − cos5 3 x + cos3 3 x − cos 3 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 15 cos 4 3 x ⋅ − sin 3 x + ⋅ 9 cos 2 3 x ⋅ − sin 3 x + ⋅ 3 sin 3 x
15 9 3 15 9 3
( )
= sin 3 x cos 4 3 x − 2 sin 3 x cos 2 3 x + sin 3 x = sin 3 x cos 4 3 x − 2 cos 2 3 x + 1 = sin 3 x 1 − cos 2 3 x ( ) 2
(
= sin 3 x sin 2 3 x ) 2
= sin 3 x sin 4 3 x = sin 5 3 x
d. ∫ tan
4
2 x dx = ∫ tan
2
2 x tan 2 2 x dx = ∫ tan
2
( )
2 x sec2 2 x − 1 dx = ∫ tan
2
∫
2 x sec2 2 x dx − tan 2 2x dx

∫ tan ∫ (sec ) ∫ tan ∫ ∫

2
= 2 x sec2 2 x dx − 2
2 x − 1 dx = 2
2 x sec2 2 x dx − sec2 2 x dx + dx . To solve the first integral let
du d du du
u = tan 2 x , then = tan 2 x ; = 2 sec2 2 x ; du = 2 sec2 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2 sec2 2 x
du 1 2 1 1 1 1
∫ tan ∫u ∫
u du = ⋅ u 3 = u 3 = tan 3 2 x . Grouping the terms we obtain
2
2
2 x sec2 2 x dx = sec2 2 x ⋅ 2
=
2 sec 2 x 2 2 3 6 6
1 1 1
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
tan 3 2 x − sec2 2 x dx + dx = tan 3 2 x − tan 2 x + x + c
4 2
2 x dx = 2 x sec2 2 x dx − sec2 2 x dx + dx =
6 6 2
1 1 6 2
Check: Let y = tan 3 2 x − tan 2 x + x + c , then y ′ = tan 2 2 x ⋅ sec2 2 x − sec2 2 x + 1 + 0 = tan 2 2 x ⋅ sec2 2 x − sec2 2 x + 1
6 2 6 2
( ) ( )( )
= sec2 2 x tan 2 2 x − 1 + 1 = tan 2 2 x + 1 tan 2 2 x − 1 + 1 = tan 4 2 x − tan 2 2 x + tan 2 2 x − 1 + 1 = tan 4 2 x
∫ (1 − sin ax )dx = ∫ dx − ∫ sin ax dx = ∫ dx − ∫ (1 − cos 2ax )dx = x − ∫ dx + ∫ cos 2ax dx

1 1 1
∫ cos
2 2 2
e. ax dx =
2 2 2
x 1 1  1 1 x sin 2ax
= x− + ⋅ sin 2ax + c = x1 −  + sin 2ax + c = + +c
2 2 2a  2  4a 2 4a
x sin 2ax 1 1 1 2a 1 1
Check: Let y = + + c , then y ′ = + ⋅ cos 2ax ⋅ 2a + 0 = + ⋅ cos 2ax = + cos 2ax
2 4a 2 4a 2 4a 2 2
 1 1 1 1  1
= 1 −  + cos 2ax = 1 −  − cos 2ax  = 1 − (1 − cos 2ax ) = 1 − sin 2 ax = cos 2 ax
 2 2 2 2  2
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ (sec ) ∫ sec ∫

3 2 2 2
f. 5 x dx = 5 x tan 5 x dx = 5 x − 1 tan 5 x dx = 5 x tan 5 x dx − tan 5 x dx . To solve the first
du d du du
integral let u = tan 5 x , then = tan 5 x ; = 5 sec2 5 x ; du = 5 sec2 5 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx 5 sec2 5 x
du 1 1 1 1 2 1
∫ sec ∫ sec ∫
2
2
5 x tan 5 x dx = 5x ⋅ u ⋅ 2
= u du = ⋅ u 2 = u = tan 2 5 x . Combining the term we obtain
5 sec 5 x 5 5 2 10 10
∫ tan ∫ tan ∫ (sec ) ∫ (sec ) ∫ sec

3 2 2 2 2
5 x dx = 5 x tan 5 x dx = 5 x − 1 tan 5 x dx = 5 x tan 5 x − tan 5 x dx = 5 x tan 5 x dx
1 1 1
∫
− tan 5 x dx =
10
tan 2 5 x − tan 5 x dx = ∫
10
tan 2 5 x − ln sec 5 x + c
5
1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = tan 2 5 x − ln sec 5 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 10 tan 5 x ⋅ sec2 5 x − ⋅ ⋅ 5 sec 5 x tan 5 x + 0
10 5 10 5 sec 5 x
= tan 5 x sec2 5 x −
sec 5 x tan 5 x
sec 5 x
= tan 5 x sec2 5 x − tan 5 x = tan 5 x sec2 5 x − 1 = tan 5 x tan 2 5 x = tan 3 5 x( )
∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ cot 3x (csc 3x − 1) dx = ∫ cot 3x csc 3x dx − ∫ cot 3x dx
4 2
g. 3 x dx = 3 x cot 2 3 x dx = 2 2 2 2 2
= ∫ cot 2 3 x csc2 3 x dx − ∫ ( csc2 3 x − 1) dx = ∫ cot 2 3 x csc2 3 x dx − ∫ csc2 3 x dx + ∫ dx . To solve the first integral let
du d du du
u = cot 3 x , then = cot 3 x ; = −3 csc2 3 x ; du = −3 csc2 3 x dx ; dx = − . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3 csc2 3 x
du 1 2 1 1
∫ cot ∫u ∫
u du = − u 3 = − cot 3 3 x . Grouping the terms we obtain
2
2
3 x csc2 3 x dx = csc2 3 x ⋅ − = −
3 csc2 3 x 3 9 9
1 1 1
∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ ∫
3 x csc2 3 x dx − csc2 3 x dx + dx = − cot 3 3 x − csc2 3 x dx + dx = − cot 3 3 x + cot 3 x + x + c ∫ ∫
4 2
3 x dx =
9 9 3
1 1 9 3
Check: Let y = − cot 3 3 x + cot 3 x + x + c , then y ′ = − cot 2 3 x ⋅ − csc2 3 x − csc2 3 x + 1 = cot 2 3 x csc2 3 x − csc2 3 x + 1
9 3 9 3
( ) ( )( )
= csc2 3 x cot 2 3 x − 1 + 1 = cot 2 3 x + 1 cot 2 3 x − 1 + 1 = cot 4 3 x − cot 2 3 x + cot 2 3 x − 1 + 1 = cot 4 3 x

∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ (csc ) ∫ csc ∫

3 2 2 2
h. 2 x dx = 2 x cot 2 x dx = 2 x − 1 cot 2 x dx = 2 x cot 2 x dx − cot 2 x dx . To solve the first
du d du du
integral let u = cot 2 x , then = cot 2 x ; = −2 csc2 2 x ; du = −2 csc2 2 x dx ; dx = − . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2 csc2 2 x
du 1 1 1
∫ csc ∫ csc ∫
u du = − u 2 = − cot 2 2 x . Combining the term we obtain
2 2
2 x cot 2 x dx = 2x ⋅ u ⋅ − 2
= −
2 csc 2 x 2 4 4
∫ cot ∫ cot ∫ (csc ) ∫ (csc ) ∫ csc

3 2 2 2 2
2 x dx = 2 x cot 2 x dx = 2 x − 1 cot 2 x dx = 2 x ⋅ cot 2 x − cot 2 x dx = 2 x cot 2 x dx
1 1 1
∫
− cot 2 x dx = −
4 ∫
cot 2 2 x − cot 2 x dx = − cot 2 2 x − ln sin 2 x + c
4 2
1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = − cot 2 2 x − ln sin 2 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ 4 cot 2 x ⋅ − csc2 2 x − ⋅ ⋅ 2 cos 2 x + 0
4 2 4 2 sin 2 x
= cot 2 x csc2 2 x −
cos 2 x
sin 2 x
(
= cot 2 x csc2 2 x − cot 2 x = cot 2 x csc2 2 x − 1 = cot 2 x cot 2 2 x = cot 3 2 x )
i. ∫ cot
6
3 x dx = ∫ cot
4
3 x cot 2 3 x dx = ∫ cot
4
(
3 x csc2 3 x − 1 dx = ) ∫ (cot
4
3 x csc2 3 x − cot 4 3 x dx = ) ∫ cot
4
3 x csc2 3 x dx
1 1
∫
− cot 4 3x dx . From the problem g above we know that ∫ cot 3x dx = − cot 3 3 x + cot 3 x + x + c . Therefore,
4
9 3
∫ cot
6
3 x dx = ∫ cot
4
3 x cot 2 3 x dx = ∫ cot
4
(
3x csc2 3x − 1 dx = ) ∫ cot
4
∫
3 x csc2 3 x dx − cot 4 3x dx
 1 1  1 1 1
∫ cot 3 x csc2 3 x dx −  − cot 3 3 x + cot 3 x + x + c  = − cot 5 3 x + cot 3 3 x − cot 3 x − x + c
4
=
 9 3  15 9 3
1 1 1 15 ⋅ cot 4 3 x ⋅ − csc2 3 x 9 ⋅ cot 2 3 x ⋅ − csc2 3 x

Check: Let y = − cot 5 3 x + cot 3 3 x − cot 3 x − x + c , then y ′ = − +
15 9 3 15 9
+
3 csc2 3 x
3
− 1 = cot 4 3 x ⋅ csc2 3 x − cot 2 3 x ⋅ csc2 3 x + csc2 3 x − 1 = csc2 3 x cot 4 3 x − cot 2 3 x + 1 − 1 ( )
( )( )
= 1 + cot 2 3 x cot 4 3 x − cot 2 3 x + 1 − 1 = cot 4 3 x − cot 2 3 x + 1 + cot 6 3 x − cot 4 3 x + cot 2 3 x − 1 = cot 6 3 x
Section 4.4 Solutions – Integration of Expressions Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

dx x dx dx
a. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ = arc sin
a
+ c , i.e., ∫ = ∫
a2 − x2 25 − 9 x 2 52 − (3 x ) 2
du d du
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = 3 x , then = 3 x = 3 x which implies du = 3 x dx ; dx = .
dx dx 3
dx 1 du 1 du 1 u
Therefore, ∫ = ⋅
3
= ∫
3
= arc sin
3 5 ∫
25 − 9 x 2 52 − u 2 52 − u 2
1 u 1 3x
3 5 3 5
1 3x
3 5
1 1 d 3x 1 1 3 3 1 1 5 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
3 dx 5 3 5 15 5
1 − 3x
2
(5 ) 1 − 925
x 2
25 −9 x
25
2
25 − 9 x 2
25 − 9 x 2
dx x dx dx
b. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ = arc sin
a
+ c , i.e., ∫ = ∫
a2 − x2 4 − x2 22 − x 2

du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x , then = x = 1 which implies du = dx . Therefore,
dx dx
dx du u
∫ = ∫ = arc sin
2
+c
4 − x2 22 − u 2
u x
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x . arc sin + c = arc sin + c
2 2
x
2
1 d x 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
dx 2 2 2 2
1− x
2
(2 ) 1− x
2
4− x 2
4− x 2
4
4 − x2
4
dx x x 2 dx x 2 dx
c. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ = arc sin
a
+ c , i.e., ∫ = ∫
a2 − x2 25 − x 6 ( )
52 − x 3
2
du d 3 du
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x3 , then = x = 3x 2 which implies du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = 2 . Thus,
dx dx 3x
x 2 dx x 2 dx x2 du 1 du 1 u
∫ = ∫ = ∫ ⋅ 2
=
3 ∫ =
3
arc sin + c
5
25 − x 6 52 − x 3 ( ) 2
52 − u 2
3x
52 − u 2
1 u 1 x3
3 5 3 5
1 x3
3 5
1 1 d x3 1 1 3x 2 1 x2 1 5x2 x2
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = = =
3 dx 5 3 5 5 5
2
1− x6 25 − x 6 25 − x 6 25 − x 6
1 −  x5 
3
25 25
 
dx 1 x dx dx
d. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 9 x 2 + 16
= ∫ 16 + 9 x2
dx 1 dx 1 dx
= ∫ 9 (16 + x2 ) =
9 ∫ 16 +x 2
=
9 ∫ (4 ) 2 + x 2
9 9 3
du d
dx dx
1 dx 1 dx 1 1 u 1 3 3u 1 3u
9 ∫ (4 ) 2 + x 2 =
9 ∫ (4 ) 2 + u 2 = ⋅ 4 arc tan 4 + c = ⋅ arc tan
9
3
9 4
3
4
+c =
12
arc tan
4
+c
3 3
1 3u 1 3x
12 4 12 4
1 3x
12 4
1 1 d 3x 1 1 3 3 1 1 16 1
y′ = ⋅ ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ =
12 1 + 3 x (4 ) 2 dx 4 12 1 + 9 x 2 4 48 16 + 9 x 2
16
16 16 + 9 x 2 16 + 9 x 2
16
Note that another way of solving this class of problems is by rewriting the integral in the following way:
dx dx dx du d du
∫ 2
9 x + 16
= ∫ 16 + 9 x2 = ∫ 4 + (3 x )
2 2
. Now, let u = 3 x , then =
dx dx
3
.
dx 1 du 1 du 1 1 u 1 u 1 3x
Thus, ∫ 42 + (3 x )2
= ∫ 42 + u 2
⋅
3
=
3 ∫ 42 + u 2
= ⋅ arc tan + c =
3 4 4 12
arc tan + c =
4 12
arc tan
4
+c

dx 1 x x 2 dx x 2 dx
e. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 7 + 9x 6
= ∫ 9 (7 + x 6 )
9
1 x 2 dx 1 x 2 dx
= ∫ = ∫
( )
9 7 6 9 2
9
+x  7  + x3 2
 3 
 
du d 3 du
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x3 , then = x = 3x 2 which implies du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = 2 .
dx dx 3x
1 x 2 dx 1 x2 du 1 du 1 1 u
Therefore, ∫ = ∫ ⋅ = ∫ = ⋅ arc tan +c
( )
2 2
 + x9  7 3 2 9   + u2
7 3x 2 27  7
2
 + u2 27 7 7
  3  
3  3  3 3
     
1 3 3u 1 3u
= ⋅ arc tan +c = arc tan +c
27 7 7 9 7 7
1 3u 1 3x3
Third - Write the answer in terms of the x variable, i.e., arc tan +c = arc tan +c
9 7 7 9 7 7
1 3x3
9 7 7
1 1 d 3x3 1 1 9x2 1 x2 1 7 x2 x2
y′ = ⋅ 2
⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ 6
=
7 + 9 x6
6 6
dx 7 9 7 1 + 9 7x 7 7 +9 x 7 7 + 9x
1 +  3 x 
3
9 7 7 7
 7
x 2 dx x 2 dx du d 3 du
∫ ∫ ( 7 )2 + (3x3 )2 . Now, let u = 3x
3
6
= , then = 3 x = 9 x 2 which implies du = 9 x 2 dx ; dx = 2 .
7 + 9x dx dx 9x
x 2 dx x2 du 1 du 1 1 u 1 3x3
Therefore, ∫ ( 7 )2 + (3x3 )2 ∫ ( 7 )2 + u 2 = ⋅
9x2
=
9 ∫ ( 7 )2 + u 2 = ⋅
9 7
arc tan
7
+c =
9 7
arc tan
7
+c
dx 1 x dx dx
f. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ =
a
arc sec + c , i.e.,
a ∫ = ∫
x x2 − a2 x x 4 − 25 x (x )
2 2
− 52
du d 2 du
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x 2 , then = x = 2 x which implies du = 2 x dx ; dx = .
dx dx 2x
dx 1 du 1 du 1 du 1 u
Therefore, ∫ = ∫ ⋅
2x
=
2 ∫ =
2
=∫ 10
arc sec + c
5
x (x )
2 2
− 52 x u −5 2 2
x 2 u 2 − 52 2
u u −5 2
1 u 1 x2
10 5 10 5
1 x2
10 5
1 1 d x2 1 1 2x 2 x 1 25 x 1
y′ = ⋅ ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ =
10 2 dx 5 10 5 50 25
 x2  − 1
x2
x2 x4 −1 x2 x 4 − 25 x 2 x 4 − 25 x x 4 − 25
 5 5
5 25 5 25
 
dx 1 x dx dx
a. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ =
a
arc sec + c , i.e.,
a ∫ = ∫
x x2 − a2 x x 2 −16 x x 2 − 42
du d
dx dx

dx du 1 u
∫ = ∫ =
4
arc sec + c
4
x x 2 − 42 u u 2 − 42
1 u 1 x
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x . arc sec + c = arc sec + c
4 4 4 4
1 x
4 4
1 1 d x 1 1 1 1 4 1 16 1
y′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = = =
4 dx 4 4 4 16 16
x x
4
2
−1 (4 ) x 2
x −1 2
x x −16
2
x x − 16
4
2
x x − 16
16 16
dx 1 x dx dx
b. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ =
a
arc sec + c , i.e.,
a ∫ = ∫
x x2 − a2 x 7 x2 − 4 7 x x2 − 4
7
dx 1 dx
= ∫ 2
=
7
∫ 2
   
7 x x 2 −  2 
 x x 2 −  2 

 7   7 
du d
dx dx
1 dx 1 du 1 1 u 1 7u
7
∫ 2
=
7
∫ 2
=
7
⋅ 2
arc sec 2
+c =
2
arc sec
2
+c
    7 7
x x 2 −  2 
 u u 2 −  2 

 7   7 
1 7u 1 7x
2 2 2 2
1 7x
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc sec + c then y ′
2 2
1 1 d 7x 1 1 7 7 1 7 4 1
= ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ =
2 2 dx 2 2 2 4 4
7 x 7 x2 − 4 x 7 x2 − 4
7x 7x 7 x 7 x −4 2 2
7x  7x  −1 −1
2  2  2 4 2 4
 
dx dx du d du
∫ = ∫ . Now, let u = 7 x , then =
dx dx
7 x = 7 which implies du = 7 dx ; dx = .
x 7 x2 − 4 x ( 7 x) 2
− 22
7
dx 1 du 1 7 du du
Therefore, ∫ = ∫ ⋅ = ∫ = ∫
x ( 7 x) 2
− 22
u
7
u 2 − 22 7 7 u u 2 − 22 u u 2 − 22
1 u 1 7x
2 2 2 2
dx 1 x ex ex
c. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 4 e2 x + 9 dx = ∫ 9 + 4 e2 x dx
e x dx 1 e x dx 1 e x dx
= ∫ 4 (9 + e 2 x ) =
4 ∫ 9 + e2 x =
4 ∫ (3 ) 2 + ( e x ) 2
4 4 2
du d x du
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = e x , then = e = e x which implies du = e x dx ; dx = x .
dx dx e
1 e x dx 1 ex du 1 du 1 1 u 1 2u
Therefore,
4 ∫ (3 ) 2 + ( e x ) 2 =
4 ∫ (3 ) 2 + u 2 ⋅ e x =
4 ∫ (3 ) 2 + u 2 = ⋅ arc tan 3 + c = arc tan
4 3
2
6
2
3
+c
2 2 2

1 2u 1 2e x
Third - Write the answer in terms of the original variable, i.e., x . arc tan + c = arc tan +c
6 3 6 3
1 2e x
6 3
1 1 d 2e x 1 1 2e x 2 ex 1 9e x ex ex
y′ = ⋅ 2
⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ 2 x
= 2 x
= 2
4e x + 9
2x 2x
6 dx 3 6 1 + 4e 3
9 + 4e 18 9 9 + 4e 9 + 4e
1 +  2e x 
3 
9 9

ex e x dx du d du
∫ 9 + 4 e2 x ∫ 32 + ( 2e x )2 . Now, let u = 2e
x
dx = , then = 2e x = 2e x which implies du = 2e x dx ; dx = x .
dx dx 2e
e x dx ex du 1 du 1 1 u 1 u 1 2e x
Thus, ∫ 32 + ( 2e x )2 ∫ 32 + u 2
= ⋅
2e x
= ∫
2 32 + u 2
= ⋅
2 3
arc tan
3
+ c =
6
arc tan
3
+ c =
6
arc tan
3
+c
dx dx x
d. Write the given integral ∫ in its standard form ∫ = arc sin
a
+ c by letting u = x − 3 . Thus,
25 − (x − 3) 2 a2 − x2
dx dx u x−3
∫ = ∫ = arc sin
5
+ c = arc sin
5
+c
25 − (x − 3) 2 52 − u 2
x−3 1 d x−3 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = arc sin + c then y ′ = ⋅ +0 = ⋅ =
5 dx 5 5 5
1− ( x5−3 ) 2 1−
( x −3)2
25
25 − ( x −3)2
25
1 5 1
= =
5
25 − (x − 3) 2 25 − (x − 3) 2
dx 1 x dx
e. First - Write the given integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ 25 + (x + 4)2
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x + 4 , then = (x + 4) = 1 which implies du = dx . Therefore,
dx dx
dx du 1 u
∫ 25 + (x + 4)2 = ∫ 52 + u 2 =
5
arc tan + c
5
1 u 1 x+4
5 5 5 5
1 x+4
5 5
1 1 d  x+4 1 1 1 1 25 1
y′ = ⋅ ⋅  +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ =
(5)
5 1 + x + 4 2 dx  5  5 1 + ( x + 4 )2 5 25 25 + (x + 4 )2 25 + (x + 4 )2
25
dx 1 x dx dx
f. First - Write the integral in its standard form ∫ a 2 + x2 = a arc tan a + c , i.e., ∫ x2 − 10 x + 26 = ∫ (x2 − 10 x + 25)+ 1
dx dx
= ∫ (x − 5) 2 + 1 = ∫ 1 + (x − 5) 2
du d
Second - Use substitution method by letting u = x − 5 , then = (x − 5) = 1 which implies du = dx . Therefore,
dx dx
dx du
∫ 1 + (x − 5) 2 = ∫ 1 + u 2 = arc tan u + c
Third - Write the answer in terms of the x variable, i.e., arc tan u + c = arc tan ( x − 5 ) + c
Fourth - Check the answer by differentiating the solution, i.e., let y = arc tan (x − 5) + c then

1 d 1 1
y′ = ⋅ (x − 5) + 0 = ⋅1 =
1 + (x − 5) 2 dx 1 + (x − 5) 2 1 + (x − 5) 2
Section 4.5 Solutions – Integration of Expressions Resulting in Exponential or Logarithmic Functions

dx du d
a. Given ∫ 2x + 1 let u = 2 x + 1 , then = (2 x + 1) ; du = 2 ; du = 2 dx ; dx = du . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2
dx 1 du 1 1 1 1
∫ 2x + 1 = ∫ u ⋅ 2
=
2 u 2 ∫
du = ln u + c = ln 2 x + 1 + c
2
1 1 1 2 1 1
Check: Let y = ln 2 x + 1 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅2+0 = ⋅ =
2 2 2x + 1 2 2x + 1 2x + 1
b. Given
x
∫ x 2 − a dx let u = x
2
− a , then
du
=
dx dx
d 2
x −a ;(du
dx
)
= 2 x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx =
du
2x
. Therefore,
x x du 1 1 1 1
∫ x2 − a dx = ∫ u ⋅ 2 x =
2 ∫ u du =
2
ln u + c = ln x 2 − a + c
2
1 1 1 2 x x
Check: Let y = ln x 2 − a + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2x + 0 = ⋅ 2 = 2
2 2 x −a 2 x −a x −a
c. Given
x3
∫ x 4 − 1 dx let u = x
4
− 1 , then
du
=
d 4
x −1 ;(du
)
= x 4 − 1 ; du = 4 x 3 dx ; dx =
du
. Therefore,
dx dx dx 4x 3
x3 x3 du 1 1 1 1
∫ x 4 − 1 dx = ∫ u ⋅ 4x3 =
4 u ∫
du = ln u + c = ln x 4 − 1 + c
4 4
1 1 1 x3
Check: Let y = ln x 4 − 1 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 x3 + 0 = 4
4 4 x −1 x −1
 1 3  1 3
d. Given ∫  x + 3 + x − 5  dx = ∫ x + 3 dx + ∫ x − 5 dx let u1 = x + 3 and u2 = x − 5 respectively. Therefore,
1 3 1 1
∫ x + 3 dx + ∫ x − 5 dx = ∫ u1 du1 + 3∫ u2 du2 = ln u1 + 3 ln u2 + c = ln x + 3 + 3 ln x − 5 + c
1 3 1 3
Check: Let y = ln x + 3 + 3 ln x − 5 + c , then y ′ = + +0 = +
x+3 x−5 x+3 x−5
3x2 du d 2 du du
e. Given ∫ xe dx let u = 3x 2 , then =
dx dx
3x ;
dx
= 6 x ; du = 6 x dx ; dx =
6x
. Therefore,
3x2 du 1 u 1 1 2
∫ xe ∫ xe ∫
e du = eu + c = e 3 x + c
u
dx = ⋅ =
6x 6 6 6
1 3x2 1 2 6 2 2
Check: Let y = e + c , then y ′ = ⋅ e3 x ⋅ 6 x + 0 = ⋅ x e3 x = x e3x
6 6 6
f. Given
e 5x
∫ 1 − e 5x dx let u = 1 − e5 x , then
du
=
dx dx
d
(
1 − e5 x ;
du
dx
) du
= −5e5 x ; du = −5e5 x dx ; dx = − 5 x . Therefore,
5e
e 5x e5 x du 1 1 1 1
∫ 1 − e 5x dx = ∫ 1 − e5 x ⋅ − 5e5 x = − ∫
5 u
du = − ln u + c = − ln 1 − e 5 x + c
5 5
1 1 1 e5 x
Check: Let y = − ln 1 − e5 x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ ⋅ −5e 5x
+ 0 =
5 5 1 − e5 x 1 − e5 x
du d
g. Given ∫ 3e
− ax
dx let u = − ax , then = (− ax ) ; du = −a ; du = −a dx ; dx = − du . Therefore,
dx dx dx a

du 3 u 3 3
∫ 3e dx = 3 eu ⋅ − ∫ ∫
e du = − eu + c = − e − ax + c
− ax
= −
a a a a
3 3 3a − ax
Check: Let y = − e − ax + c , then y ′ = − e − ax ⋅ − a + 0 = e = 3e − ax
a a a
∫(x ) 1 4 1 2 x 1 −5 x 1 1 1
∫ x dx + ∫ e ∫ + c = x 4 + e 2 x + e −5 x + c
3
h. + e 2 x − e −5 x dx = 3 2x
dx − e −5 x dx = x + e − e
4 2 −5 4 2 5
1 4 1 2 x 1 −5 x 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x + e + e + c then y ′ = ⋅ 4 x3 + ⋅ e 2 x ⋅ 2 + ⋅ e −5 x ⋅ −5 + 0 = x3 + e 2 x − e −5 x
4 2 5 4 2 5
1
3
ex 1 du d 1 du 3 x4
i. ∫ 5x4 dx let u = x3 , then =
dx dx x 3
;
dx
= − 4 ; x 4 du = −3dx ; dx = − du . Therefore,
x 3
1
3 1
ex eu x4 1 u 1 1 3
∫ 5x4 dx = ∫ 5x4 ⋅−
3
du = −
15 15 15∫
e du = − eu + c = − e x + c
1
1 1 1 3
1 3 1 3 3 3 x3 1 ex
Check: Let y = − e x + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ e x ⋅ − 4 + 0 = ⋅e ⋅ 4 =
15 15 x 15 x 5x4
a. Given ∫ (3e
5x
)
+ 5 e5 x dx let u = 3e5 x + 5 , then
du
=
dx dx
d
(
3e5 x + 5 ;
du
dx
)
= 15e5 x ; du = 15e5 x dx ; dx =
du
15e5 x
. Thus,
∫ (3e
5x
)
+ 5 e5 x dx = ∫u ⋅ e
5x
⋅
15e
du
5x
=
1
15 ∫
u du =
1 1 2
⋅ u +c =
15 2
1
30
3e 5 x + 5 ( ) 2
+c
Check: Let y =
1
30
(
3e5 x + 5 ) 2
+ c , then y ′ =
1
30
( )
⋅ 2 3e5 x + 5 ⋅ 15e5 x + 0 =
30 5 x
30
(
3e + 5 e5 x = 3e5 x + 5 e5 x ) ( )
∫ (e ) ( )
x
5 du d x du du
b. Given − 1 e x dx let u = e x − 1 , then = e −1 ; = e x ; du = e x dx ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx ex
∫ (e
x
) 5
− 1 e x dx = ∫u
5
⋅ ex ⋅
du
e x
= ∫ u du =
5 1 6
6
u +c =
1 x
6
e −1 ( ) 6
+c
Check: Let y =
1 x
6
( 6
) 1 5
e − 1 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 6 e x − 1 ⋅ e x + 0 =
6
6 x
6
5
( 5
e −1 ex = ex −1 ex ) ( ) ( )
c. Given
x2
∫ 1 + x3 dx let u = 1 + x
3
, then
du
=
dx dx
d
(
1 + x3 ;
du
dx
) du
= 3x 2 ; dx = 2 . Therefore,
3x
x2 x 2 du 1 1 1 1
∫ 1 + x3 dx = ∫ ⋅
u 3x 2
=
3 u 3 3 ∫
du = ln u + c = ln 1 + x 3 + c
1 1 1 3 x2 x2
Check: Let y = ln 1 + x3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ 3 x 2
+ 0 = ⋅ =
3 3 1 + x3 3 1 + x3 1 + x3
d. Given
x4
∫ 1 + x5 dx let u = 1 + x
5
, then
du
=
dx dx
d
(
1 + x5 ;
du
dx
) du
= 5x 4 ; dx = 4 . Therefore,
5x
x4 x 4 du 1 1 1 1
∫ 1 + x5 dx = ∫ ⋅
u 5x 4
=
5 u 5 5 ∫
du = ln u + c = ln 1 + x 5 + c
1 1 1 5 x4 x4
Check: Let y = ln 1 + x5 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ 5 x 4
+ 0 = ⋅ =
5 5 1 + x5 5 1 + x5 1 + x5
x+7 (x + 6) + 1 dx x+6 1 1
e. ∫ x + 6 dx = ∫ x+6

1 1 x + 6 +1 x+7
Check: Let y = x + ln x + 6 + c , then y ′ = 1 + ⋅1 + 0 = 1 + = =
x+6 x+6 x+6 x+6
x+9 (x + 5) + 4 dx x+5 4 4
f. ∫ x + 5 dx = ∫ x+5
4 4 x+5+4 x+9
Check: Let y = x + 4 ln x + 5 + c , then y ′ = 1 + ⋅1 + 0 = 1 + = =
x+5 x+5 x+5 x+5
g. Given ∫a
x2 +k
x dx let u = x 2 + k , then
du
=
dx dx
d 2
x +k ;
du
dx
( )
= 2 x ; du = 2 x dx ; dx =
du
2x
. Therefore,
2
2 du 1 1 au 1 a x +k
∫ ax ∫ au ⋅ x ⋅ a u du = ∫
+k
x dx = = +c = +c
2x 2 2 ln a 2 ln a
2
1 a x +k 1 2 2 ln a x 2 + k 2
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = ⋅ a x + k ln a ⋅ 2 x + 0 = ⋅a ⋅ x = a x +k x
h. Given ∫3a
2 x3 +5 2
x dx let u = x3 + 5 , then
du
=
d 3
x +5 ;
du
( )
= 3x 2 ; du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx =
du
. Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x 2
3
2 x3 +5 2 2 u 2 du 2 u 2 au 2 a x +5
∫ 3
a x dx =
3
a ⋅x ⋅ 2 =
3x 9
a du = ⋅
9 ln a ∫
+c = ⋅
9 ln a
+c ∫
3
2 a x +5 2 1 3 6 ln a x 3 + 5 2 2 3
Check: Let y = ⋅ + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ a x + 5 ln a ⋅ 3 x 2 + 0 = ⋅ ⋅a ⋅ x = a x +5 x 2
9 ln a 9 ln a 9 ln a 3
∫ (e ) ( )
2x 3 du d 2x du du
i. Given + 3 e 2 x dx let u = e 2 x + 3 , then = e +3 ; = 2e 2 x ; du = 2e 2 x dx ; dx = 2 x . Therefore,
dx dx dx 2e
∫ (e
2x
) 3
+ 3 e 2 x dx = ∫u
3
⋅ e2 x ⋅
du
2e 2x
=
1 3
2 ∫
1 1 1
u du = ⋅ u 4 + c = u 4 + c =
2 4 8
1 2x
8
e +3 ( ) 4
+c
Check: Let y =
1 2x
8
e +3 ( ) 4
+ c , then y ′ =
1
8
( 3
)
⋅ 4 e 2 x + 3 ⋅ 2e 2 x + 0 =
8 2x
8
3
( 3
e + 3 e2 x = e2 x + 3 e2 x ) ( )
1 1 1 (x + 1) − 5 1 x−4
j. ∫ (x + 1) 2 − 25 dx = ∫ (x + 1) 2 − 52 dx = 2⋅5
ln
(x + 1) + 5
+c =
10
ln
x+6
+c
1 x−4 1 1 1 ⋅ (x + 6 ) − 1 ⋅ (x − 4 ) 1 x+6 x+6− x+4

Check: Let y = ln + c then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅
10 x+6 10 x − 4
x+6 (x + 6 ) 2 10 x−4 (x + 6 ) 2
1 1 10 1 1 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ = = 2 = 2 =
10 x − 4 x + 6 (x − 4)(x + 6) x + 6 x − 4 x − 24 x + 2 x − 24 (x + 1) 2− 25
1 1 1 1 (x + 3) − 1 1 x+2
k. ∫ x2 + 6 x + 8 dx = ∫ (x2 + 6 x + 9)− 1 dx = ∫ (x + 3) 2 − 1 dx = 2 ⋅1
ln
(x + 3) + 1
+c =
2
ln
x+4
+c
1 x+2 1 1 1 ⋅ (x + 4 ) − 1 ⋅ (x + 2 ) 1 x+4 x+4− x−2 1 1 2

Check: Let y = ln + c then y ′ = ⋅ x + 2 ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅
2 x+4 2
x+4 (x + 4 ) 2 2 x + 2 (x + 4 ) 2 2 x + 2 x + 4
1 1 1
= = =
(x + 2)(x + 4) x2 + 4x + 2x + 8 x2 + 6x + 8
1 1 1 3 + (x − 1) 1 3 + x −1 1 2+ x
l. ∫ 9 − (x − 1) 2 dx = ∫ 32 − (x − 1) 2 dx = 2⋅3
ln
3 − (x − 1)
+ c = ln
6 3 − x +1
+ c = ln
6 4− x
+c
1 2+ x 1 1 1 ⋅ (4 − x ) + 1 ⋅ (2 + x ) 1 4−x 4−x+2+ x 1 1 6
Check: Let y = ln + c then y ′ = ⋅ 2 + x ⋅ +0 = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅
6 4− x 6 (4 − x ) 2 6 2 + x (4 − x )2
4− x
6 2 + x 4 − x
1 1 1 1
= = = =
(2 + x )(4 − x ) 8 − 2x + 4x − x 2
8 + 2x − x 2
9 − (x − 1)2

Section 5.1 Practice Problems – Integration by Parts

1 4x
∫ xe dx let u = x and dv = e 4 x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e
4x 4x
a. Given dx which implies v = e . Using the integration
4
by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain

1 4x 1 4x 1 1 1  1
∫ xe ∫
e dx = xe4 x − e 4 x + c = e 4 x  x −  + c
4x
dx = xe −
4 4 4 16 4  4
1 4x  1 4e 4 x  1 1  1 1 e4 x e4 x
Check: Let y = e  x −  + c , then y ′ = ⋅  x −  + 1 ⋅ e 4 x + 0 = e 4 x ⋅  x −  + e 4 x = xe4 x − + = xe4 x
4  4 4  4 4  4 4 4 4
x
b. Given ∫ 2 cos x dx let u = x and dv = cos x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos x dx which implies v = sin x . Using the
integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
x 1 1 1 1
∫ 2 cos x dx =
2
x ⋅ sin x −
2 ∫
sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + c
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x sin x + cos x + c , then y ′ = (1 ⋅ sin x + cos x ⋅ x ) − sin x + 0 = sin x + x cos x − sin x = x cos x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
e5x
∫ ( 5 − x )e ∫ dv = ∫ e
5x
c. Given dx let u = 5 − x and dv = e5 x dx then du = − dx and 5x
dx which implies v = . Using
5
the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain

e5 x e5 x 1 1 5x
∫ ( 5 − x )e
5x
dx = (5 − x ) +∫ dx = e 5 x − xe 5 x + e +c
5 5 5 25
Check: Let y = e5 x −
1 5x 1 5x
5
xe +
25
1
(
e + c , then y ′ = 5e5 x − e5 x + 5 xe5 x +
5
5 5x
25
) 1 1
⋅ e + 0 = 5e5 x − e5 x − xe5 x + e5 x
5 5
= 5e5 x − xe5 x = (5 − x )e5 x
1
d. Given ∫ x sin 5x dx let u = x and dv = sin 5 x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin 5x dx which implies v = − 5 cos 5x .
1 1 1 1
∫ x sin 5x dx = x ⋅ − cos 5 x +
5 5 ∫
cos 5 x dx = − x cos 5 x + sin 5 x + c
5 5
1 1 1 1 1 5
Check: Let y = − x cos 5 x + sin 5 x + c , then y ′ = − (1 ⋅ cos 5 x − sin 5 x ⋅ 5 ⋅ x ) + cos 5 x + 0 = − cos 5 x + x sin 5 x
5 5 5 5 5 5
1 5
+ cos 5 x = x sin 5 x = x sin 5 x
5 5
2 3
e. Given ∫x 3 − x dx let u = x and dv = 3 − x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ 3 − x dx which implies v = − (3 − x )2 .
3

2
(3 − x ) 2 + 2 (3 − x ) 2 dx = − 2 x (3 − x ) 2 − 2 ⋅ 1 3 (3 − x ) 2 +1 + c = − 2 x (3 − x ) 2 − 2 ⋅ 2 (3 − x ) 2 + c
3 3 3 3 3 5
∫x 3 − x dx = x ⋅ −
3 3 ∫ 3 3 1+
2
3 3 5
2 4 3 5
= − x (3 − x ) − (3 − x ) + c
2 2
3 15
2 3 4 5 2 3 2 3 1 4 5 3
Check: Let y = − x (3 − x ) 2 − (3 − x ) 2 + c , then y ′ = − (3 − x ) 2 + ⋅ x(3 − x ) 2 + ⋅ (3 − x ) 2 + 0
3 15 3 3 2 15 2
2
(3 − x ) 2 + x(3 − x ) 2 + 2 (3 − x ) 2 = x(3 − x ) 2 = x 3 − x
3 1 3 1
= −
3 3
1 3x
∫x e ∫ dv = ∫ e
3 3x
f. Given dx let u = x3 and dv = e 3 x dx then du = 3 x 2 dx and 3x
dx which implies v = e . Using the
3

1 1 3x x3e3 x
∫x e dx = x3 ⋅ e3 x − ∫
e ⋅ 3 x 2 dx = − x 2e3 x dx ∫
3 3x
3 3 3
1 2 3x 2 3x 2 3x
∫x
2 3x
In example 5.1-1, problem letter b, we showed that e dx = x e − xe + e + c . Therefore,
3 9 27
x3e3 x  1 2 3 x 2 3 x 2 3 x  x 3e 3 x 1 2 3 x 2 3 x 2 3x
∫ x 3 e 3 x dx =
3
−  x e − xe +
 3 9 27
e +c =
 3
− x e + xe −
3 9 27
e +c
Check: Let y =
x3e3 x 1 2 3 x 2 3 x 2 3 x
3
− x e + xe −
3 9 27
e + c , then y ′ =
1
3
( 1
3
) (
3 x 2 ⋅ e3 x + 3e3 x ⋅ x3 − 2 x ⋅ e3 x + 3e3 x ⋅ x 2 )
+
2
9
(1 ⋅ e3 x + 3e3 x ⋅ x −) 2
27
2 2 2 2
⋅ 3e3 x + 0 = x 2e3 x + x3e3 x − xe3 x − x 2e3 x + e3 x + xe3 x − e3 x = x3e3 x
3 9 3 9
− sin ( ln x )
g. Given ∫ cos ( ln x ) dx let u = cos ( ln x ) and dv = dx then du =
x
dx and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies v = x .
sin ( ln x )
∫ cos ( ln x ) dx = cos ( ln x ) ⋅ x + x ⋅ ∫ dx = x cos ( ln x ) + sin ( ln x ) dx
∫ (1 )
x
To integrate ∫ sin ( ln x ) dx use the integration by parts formula again, i.e., let u = sin ( ln x ) and dv = dx then
cos ( ln x )
du =
x
dx and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies v = x . Therefore,
cos ( ln x )
∫ sin ( ln x ) dx = sin ( ln x ) ⋅ x − ∫ x ⋅ x
dx = x sin ( ln x ) − cos ( ln x ) dx
∫ (2 )
∫ cos ( ln x ) dx = x cos ( ln x ) − sin ( ln x ) dx = x cos ( ln x ) + x sin ( ln x ) − cos ( ln x ) dx

∫ ∫
Taking the integral − cos ( ln x ) dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand side
∫
we obtain ∫ cos ( ln x ) dx + ∫ cos ( ln x ) dx = x cos ( ln x ) + x sin ( ln x ) Therefore,
x x
2 cos ( ln x ) dx = x cos ( ln x ) + x sin ( ln x ) + c and thus
∫ ∫ cos ( ln x ) dx = cos ( ln x ) + sin ( ln x ) + c
2 2
x x cos ( ln x ) x sin ( ln x ) sin ( ln x ) x cos ( ln x )
Check: Let y = cos ( ln x ) + sin ( ln x ) + c , then y ′ = − + + +0
2 2 2 2x 2 2x
cos ( ln x ) sin ( ln x ) sin ( ln x ) cos ( ln x ) cos ( ln x ) cos ( ln x )
= − + + = + = cos ( ln x )
2 2 2 2 2 2

x x 1 x 1
∫ 3 tan ∫ dv = ∫ 3 dx which implies v = 6 x
−1
h. Given x dx let u = tan −1 x and dv = dx then du = dx and 2
.
3 1+ x 2

x x 2 1 2 dx 1 1 x2 1 1  1 
∫ 3 tan ∫ ∫ ∫ 1 − 1 + x2  dx
−1
2 x dx = tan −1 x ⋅ − x ⋅ 2
= x 2 tan −1 x − dx = x 2 tan −1 x −
6 6 1+ x 6 6 1 + x2 6 6
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
=
6
x tan −1 x −
6
dx +
6 1+ x 2 ∫6 ∫
dx = x 2 tan −1 x − x + tan −1 x + c
6 6
1 2 1 1 1 1 x2 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x tan −1 x − x + tan −1 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 2 x ⋅ tan −1 x + 2
− + ⋅ +0
6 6 6 6 6 1+ x 6 6 1 + x2
1 1 x2 1 1 1 1 1 x2 + 1 1 1 1 1 1
⋅ x tan −1 x + ⋅ 2
+ ⋅ 2
− = x tan −1
x + ⋅ 2
− = x tan −1 x + − = x tan −1 x
3 6 1+ x 6 1+ x 6 3 6 1+ x 6 3 6 6 3
1 5
∫ ln x dx let u = ln x ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies v = x . Using the
5
i. Given 5
and dv = dx then du = ⋅ 5 x 4 dx = dx and
x5 x

5
∫ ln x dx = ln x ∫ ∫
⋅ x − x ⋅ dx = x ln x5 − 5 dx = x ln x 5 − 5 x + c
5 5
x
 1  5 x5
Check: Let y = x ln x5 − 5 x + c , then y ′ = 1 ⋅ ln x5 + 5 ⋅ 5 x 4 ⋅ x  − 5 + 0 = ln x5 + 5 − 5 = ln x5 + 5 − 5 = ln x5
 x  x
1
∫x e dx let u = x and dv = e − ax dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e dx which implies v = − e − ax . Using the
− ax − ax
j. Given
a
1 1 − ax 1 1 − ax 1 1
∫x e dx = x ⋅ − e − ax + e dx = − x e − ax + ∫ ∫
e dx = − x e − ax − 2 e − ax + c
− ax
a a a a a a
Check: Let y = −
1 − ax 1 − ax
a
xe − 2e
a
1
a
( a
1 1
a
)
+ c , then y ′ = − 1 ⋅ e − ax − ae − ax ⋅ x − 2 ⋅ −2e − ax + 0 = − e − ax +
axe− ax
a
a 1 − ax 1
+ 2
⋅ e − ax = − e + xe− ax + e − ax = xe− ax
a a a
cos 3 x
∫e sin 3 x dx let u = e x and dv = sin 3 x dx then du = e x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin 3x dx which implies v = −
x
k. Given .
3
cos 3x cos 3 x x 1 1 x
∫e
x
sin 3 x dx = e x ⋅ − − − ∫
⋅ e dx = − e x cos 3 x + e cos 3 x dx ∫ (1 )
3 3 3 3
∫e cos 3 x dx let u = e x and dv = cos 3 x dx then du = e x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos 3x dx which implies

x
To integrate
sin 3 x sin 3 x sin 3 x x 1 1 x

v= . Thus, ∫e
x
cos 3 x dx = e x ⋅ −∫ ⋅ e dx = e x sin 3 x − e sin 3 x dx∫ (2)
3 3 3 3 3
Combining equations (1 ) and ( 2 ) together we obtain:
1 1 x 1 1 1 x
∫e sin 3 x dx = − e x cos 3 x + ∫
e cos 3 x dx = − e x cos 3 x + e x sin 3 x − ∫
x
e sin 3 x dx
3 3 3 9 9
1 x
Taking the −
9∫e sin 3 x dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand side we obtain

1 x 1 1 10 x 1 1
∫e ∫ ∫
x
sin 3x dx + e sin 3 x dx = − e x cos 3 x + e x sin 3 x which implies e sin 3 x dx = − e x cos 3 x + e x sin 3 x
9 3 9 9 3 9
9 1 x 1  3 1 x
∫e  − e cos 3 x + e x sin 3 x  = − e x cos 3 x +
x
and sin 3 x dx = e sin 3 x
10  3 9  10 10
3 x 1 3 3 1 1
Check: Let y = − e cos 3 x + e x sin 3 x , then y ′ = − e x ⋅ cos 3 x + sin 3 x ⋅ 3 ⋅ e x + e x ⋅ sin 3 x + cos 3 x ⋅ 3 ⋅ e x
10 10 10 10 10 10
3 x 9 1 3 9 x 1 10 x
= − e cos 3 x + e x sin 3 x + e x sin 3 x + e x cos 3 x = e sin 3 x + e x sin 3 x = e sin 3 x = e x sin 3 x
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
1
∫e cos 5 x dx let u = e x and dv = cos 5 x dx then du = e x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos 5x dx which implies v = 5 sin 5x .
x
l. Given
1 1 e x sin 5 x 1 x
∫ e x cos 5 x dx = e x ⋅ sin 5 x − ∫
sin 5 x ⋅ e x dx = − e sin 5 x dx ∫ (1 )
5 5 5 5
1
∫e sin 5 x dx let u = e x and dv = sin 5 x dx then du = e x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin 5x dx which implies v = − 5 cos 5x .
x
To integrate
1 1 e x cos 5 x 1
Thus, ∫ e x sin 5 x dx = e x ⋅ − cos 5 x + ∫
cos 5 x ⋅ e x dx = − + ∫
cos 5 x ⋅ e x dx (2)
5 5 5 5
e x sin 5 x 1 x e x sin 5 x 1  e x cos 5 x 1 x  e x sin 5 x e x cos 5 x

∫ e x cos 5 x dx =
5
−
5 ∫
e sin 5 x dx =
5
− −
5  5
+
5 ∫
e cos 5 x dx  =

 5
+
25
1 1
−
25 ∫
e x cos 5 x dx . Taking the −
25 ∫
e x cos 5 x dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand side we obtain
1 e x sin 5 x e x cos 5 x 26 x e x sin 5 x e x cos 5 x

∫e ∫ ∫
x
cos 5 x dx + e x cos 5 x dx = + which implies e cos 5 x dx = + and
25 5 25 25 5 25
25  e x sin 5 x e x cos 5 x  5 x 1 x
∫e
x
cos 5 x dx = + = e sin 5 x + e cos 5 x
26  5 25 
 26 26
5 x 1 x 5 x 5 1 x 1
Check: Let y = e sin 5 x + e cos 5 x , then y ′ = e ⋅ sin 5 x + cos 5 x ⋅ 5 ⋅ e x + e ⋅ cos 5 x − sin 5 x ⋅ 5 ⋅ e x + 0
26 26 26 26 26 26
5 x 25 x 1 x 5 x 25 x 1 x 26 x
= e sin 5 x + e cos 5 x + e cos 5 x − e sin 5 x = e cos 5 x + e cos 5 x = e cos 5 x = e x cos 5 x
26 26 26 26 26 26 26
∫ x sec x dx let u = x and dv = sec2 x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sec

2 2
a. Given x dx which implies v = tan x . Using
∫ x sec ∫
2
x dx = x ⋅ tan x − tan x dx = x tan x − ln sec x + c
(
Check: Let y = x tan x − ln sec x + c , then y ′ = 1 ⋅ tan x + sec2 x ⋅ x − ) sec x tan x
sec x
+ 0 = tan x + x sec2 x − tan x = x sec2 x
3dy
b. Given ∫ arc sin 3 y dy let u = arc sin 3 y and dv = dy then du = and ∫ dv = ∫ dy which implies v = y . Using
1 − 9 y2

3dy y dy
∫ arc sin 3 y dy = arc sin 3 y ⋅ y − y ⋅ ∫ = y arc sin 3 y − 3 ∫ (1 )
2 2
1− 9y 1− 9y
3 y dy dw dw
To integrate ∫ use the substitution method by letting w = 1 − 9 y 2 then
dy
= −18 y and dy = −
18 y
. Therefore,
1 − 9 y2
3 y dy 3y dw 1 dw 1 −1 1 1 1− 1 1 1 2 −1 1 2 1
∫ = ∫ w
⋅
− 18 y
= −
6 ∫ w
= −
6∫w 2 dw = − ⋅
6 1− 1
w 2 = − ⋅ 2 −1 w 2 = − ⋅ w 2
6 6 1
1 − 9 y2 2 2
( )
1
1 1 1
= − w 2 = − 1 − 9 y2 2 (2 )
3 3
( )
1
3 y dy 1
∫ arc sin 3 y dy = y arc sin 3 y − ∫ = y arc sin 3 y +
3
1 − 9 y2 2 +c
1 − 9 y2
( )
1
1 3y 1 1 18 y
Check: Let w = y arc sin 3 y + 1 − 9 y2 2 + c , then w ′ = arc sin 3 y + − ⋅ ⋅ + 0 = arc sin 3 y
3 2 3 2 2
1− 9y 1− 9y
3y 1 18 y 3y 3y
+ − ⋅ = arc sin 3 y + − = arc sin 3 y
6
1 − 9 y2 1 − 9 y2 1 − 9 y2 1 − 9 y2
dx
c. Given ∫ arc tan x dx let u = arc tan x and dv = dx then du =
1 + x2
and ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies v = x . Using the
dx x dx
∫ arc tan x dx = arc tan x ⋅ x − x ⋅ ∫ = x arc tan x − ∫ 1 + x2 (1 )
1 + x2
x dx dw dw
To integrate ∫ 1 + x2 use the substitution method by letting w = 1 + x 2 then
dx
= 2 x And dx =
2x
. Therefore,
x dx x dw 1 dw 1 1
∫ 1 + x2 = ∫ w ⋅ 2x = ∫
= ln w = ln 1 + x 2 (2)
2 w 2 2
x dx 1
∫ arc tan x dx = x arc tan x − ∫ 1 + x2 = x arc tan x −
2
ln 1 + x 2 + c
1 x 1 2x x x
Check: Let y = x arc tan x − ln 1 + x 2 + c , then y ′ = arc tan x + − + 0 arc tan x + − = arc tan x
2 1 + x2 2 1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
∫ sin 5x dx = ∫ sin 5 x ⋅ sin 5 x dx let u = sin 2 5 x and dv = sin 5 x dx then du = 10 sin 5 x cos 5 x dx and
3 2
d. Given
1
∫ dv = ∫ sin 5x dx ∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx which implies v = − 5 cos 5x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du
cos 5 x 1 1
we obtain ∫ sin 5x dx = sin
3 2
5x ⋅ − + ∫
cos 5 x ⋅ 10 sin 5 x cos 5 x dx = − sin 2 5 x cos 5 x + 2 cos 2 5 x sin 5 x dx ∫ (1 )
5 5 5
∫ cos 5 x sin 5 x dx use the integration by parts method again, i.e., let u = cos 2 5 x and dv = sin 5 x then
2
To integrate
1
du = −10 sin 5 x cos 5 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ sin 5x dx which implies v = − 5 cos 5x . Therefore,
1 1 1
∫ cos 5 x sin 5 x dx = cos 2 5 x ⋅ − cos 5 x − ∫
cos 5 x ⋅ 10 sin 5 x cos 5 x dx = − cos3 5 x − 2 cos 2 5 x sin 5 x dx . Taking the ∫
2
5 5 5

∫
integral − 2 cos 2 5 x sin 5 x dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left side we obtain
1 1
∫ cos
2
∫
5 x sin 5 x dx + 2 cos 2 5 x sin 5 x dx = − cos3 5 x . Therefore, ∫ cos
2
5 x sin 5 x dx = − cos3 5 x (2)
5 15
Combining equations (1 ) and ( 2 ) together we have
1 1 1 sin 2 5 x cos 5 x 2
∫ sin 5x dx = − 5 sin ∫
3 2
5 x cos 5 x + 2 cos 2 5 x sin 5 x dx = − sin 2 5 x cos 5 x + 2 ⋅ − cos3 5 x = − − cos3 5 x
5 15 5 15
−
1
5
( )2 1 1 2 
1 − cos 2 5 x cos 5 x − cos3 5 x + c = − cos 5 x +  cos3 5 x − cos3 5 x  + c =
15 5  5 15 
1
15
1
cos 3 5 x − cos 5 x + c
5
Note that another method of solving the above problem is in the following way:
∫ (1 − cos 5x )⋅ sin 5x dx let u = cos 5x , then

du du
∫ sin 5x dx = ∫ sin
3 2 2
5 x ⋅ sin 5 x dx = = −5 sin 5 x and dx = − .
dx 5 sin 5 x
∫ (1 − cos 5x )⋅ sin 5x dx = ∫ (1 − u )⋅ sin 5x ⋅ − 5 sin 5x

du
∫ sin 5x dx = ∫ sin
3 2 2 2
Therefore, 5 x ⋅ sin 5 x dx =
∫ (1 − u ) du = ∫  5 u − 5  du
1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 1
= − 2
= u − u+c = cos 3 5 x − cos 5 x + c
5 15 5 15 5
1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = cos3 5 x − cos 5 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 3 cos 2 5 x ⋅ − sin 5 x ⋅ 5 + ⋅ 5 sin 5 x + 0 = − cos 2 5 x ⋅ sin 5 x + sin 5 x
15 5 15 5
( )
= sin 5 x 1 − cos 2 5 x = sin 5 x sin 2 5 x = sin 3 5 x
∫x cos x dx let u = x 2 and dv = cos x dx then du = 2 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ cos x dx which implies v = sin x . Using
2
e. Given
∫x
2
∫
cos x dx = x 2 ⋅ sin x − sin x ⋅ 2 x dx = x 2 sin x − 2 x sin x dx ∫ (1 )
To integrate ∫ x sin x dx use the integration by parts formula again, i.e., let u = x and dv = sin x dx then du = dx and
∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx which implies v = − cos x . Using the integration by parts formula ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
∫ x sin x dx = x ⋅ − cos x + ∫ cos x ⋅ dx = − x cos x + sin x (2)
∫x
2
cos x dx = x 2 sin x − 2 x sin x dx = x 2 sin x − 2(− x cos x + sin x ) = x 2 sin x + 2 x cos x − 2 sin x
∫
(
Check: Let y = x 2 sin x + 2 x cos x − 2 sin x , then y ′ = 2 x sin x + x 2 cos x + 2(cos x − x sin x ) − 2 cos x )
2 x sin x + x 2 cos x + 2 cos x − 2 x sin x − 2 cos x = x 2 cos x
∫e cos 3 x dx let u = cos 3 x and dv = e −2 x dx then du = −3 sin 3 x dx and ∫ dv = ∫ e

−2 x −2 x
f. Given dx which implies
1
v = − e − 2 x . Using the integration by parts formula
2 ∫ u dv = u v − ∫ v du we obtain
1 3 −2 x 1 3 −2 x
∫e
−2 x
cos 3 x dx = cos 3x ⋅ − e − 2 x − e ∫
⋅ sin 3 x dx = − e − 2 x cos 3 x − e sin 3 x dx ∫ (1 )
2 2 2 2
∫e sin 3 x dx use the integration by parts formula again, i.e., let u = sin 3 x and dv = e −2 x dx then
−2 x
To integrate
1
∫ dv = ∫ e
−2 x
du = 3 cos 3 x dx and dx which implies v = − e − 2 x . Therefore,
2

1 1 −2 x 1 3 −2 x
∫e
−2 x
sin 3 x dx = sin 3 x ⋅ − e − 2 x + e ∫
⋅ 3 cos 3 x dx = − e − 2 x sin 3 x + e cos 3 x dx ∫ (2)
2 2 2 2
1 −2 x 3 −2 x 1 3 9 −2 x
∫e ∫
e sin 3 x dx = − e − 2 x cos 3 x + e − 2 x sin 3 x − ∫
−2 x
cos 3 x dx = − e cos 3 x − e cos 3 x dx
2 2 2 4 4
∫e
−2 x
Taking the integral cos 3 x dx from the right hand side of the equation to the left hand side
9 −2 x 1 3
∫e ∫
−2 x
we obtain cos 3 x dx + e cos 3 x dx = − e − 2 x cos 3 x + e − 2 x sin 3 x . Therefore,
4 2 4
13 − 2 x 1 3 2 −2 x 3 −2 x
∫ cos 3 x dx = − e − 2 x cos 3 x + e − 2 x sin 3 x and thus ∫e
−2 x
e cos 3 x dx = − e cos 3 x + e sin 3 x + c
4 2 4 13 13
Check: Let y = −
2e −2 x cos 3 x 3e −2 x sin 3 x
13
+
13
+ c , then y ′ = −
2
13
(
− 2e − 2 x cos 3 x − 3e − 2 x sin 3 x +
3
13
− 2e − 2 x sin 3 x + 3e − 2 x cos 3 x ) ( )
4 −2 x 6 6 9 4 −2 x 9
= e cos 3 x + e − 2 x sin 3 x − e − 2 x sin 3 x + e − 2 x cos 3 x = e cos 3 x + e − 2 x cos 3 x = e −2 x cos 3 x
13 13 13 13 13 13
3 1
∫ x ( 5x − 1) dx let u = x and dv = (5x − 1) ∫ dv = ∫ (5x − 1) (5 x − 1)4 .
3 3
g. Given dx then du = dx and dx which implies v =
20
3 (5 x − 1) 4 − 1 x (5 x − 1) 4 1 1 x (5 x − 1) 4 1
∫ x ( 5 x − 1) dx = x ⋅ ∫ (5x − 1) dx
4
= − ⋅ (5 x − 1) 4 +1 + c = − (5 x − 1) 5 + c
20 20 20 20 25 20 500
Check: Let y =
x (5 x − 1) 4
20
−
1
500 20
[
(5 x − 1) 5 + c , then y ′ = 1 (5 x − 1) 4 + 20 x (5 x − 1) 3 − 25 (5 x − 1) 4 + 0
500
]
1
= (5 x − 1) 4 + x (5 x − 1) 3 − 1 (5 x − 1) 4 = x (5 x − 1) 3
20 20
∫ x csc x dx let u = x and dv = csc2 x dx then du = dx and ∫ dv = ∫ csc

2 2
h. Given x dx which implies v = − cot x . Using
∫ x csc ∫
2
x dx = x ⋅ − cot x + cot x dx = − x cot x + ln sin x + c
Check: Let y = − x cot x + ln sin x + c , then y ′ = − cot x − x csc2 x + ( ) cos x

sin x
+ 0 = − cot x + x csc2 x + cot x = x csc2 x
2 5
∫ 3 cos ∫ dv = ∫ dx which implies v = x .
−1
i. Given 5 x dx let u = cos −1 5 x and dv = dx then du = − dx and
2
1 − 25 x
2 2 2 5 dx 2 2 5x
∫ 3 cos ∫ ∫
−1
5 x dx = cos −1 5 x ⋅ x + x⋅ = x cos −1 5 x + dx
3 3 3 3
1 − 25 x 2 1 − 25 x 2
5x dw dw
To integrate ∫ dx use the substitution method by letting w = 1 − 25 x 2 then
dx
= −50 x which implies dx = −
50 x
.
1 − 25 x 2
5x 5x dw 1 dw 1 1 1 −1 1 1 1 − 25 x 2
Thus, ∫ dx = ∫ w
⋅−
50 x
= −
10 ∫ w
= −
10 ∫ 1
dw = −
10 ∫
w 2 dw = − ⋅ 2 w 2 = −
10 5
1 − 25 x 2 w2

2 2 2 5x 2 2 1 − 25 x 2
and ∫ 3
cos −15 x dx = x cos −1 5 x +
3 3 ∫ dx =
3
x cos −1 5 x −
15
+c
1 − 25 x 2
2 2 1 − 25 x 2 2 2 5x 2 −50 x
Check: Let y = x cos −1 5 x − + c , then y ′ = cos −1 5 x − ⋅ − ⋅ +0
3 15 3 3 15
1 − 25 x 2 2 1 − 25 x 2
2 10 x 10 x 2
= cos −1 5 x − + = cos −1 5 x
3 3
3 1 − 25 x 2 3 1 − 25 x 2
1
∫ sinh x dx let u = sinh −1 x and dv = dx then du = ∫ dv = ∫ x dx which implies v = x . Using
−1
j. Given dx and
1 + x2
dx x dx
∫ sinh
−1
x dx = sinh −1 x ⋅ x − x ⋅ ∫ = x sinh −1 x − ∫ (1 )
1 + x2 1 + x2
x dx
To get the integral of ∫ 2
use the substitution method by letting w = 1 + x 2 then dw = 2 x dx which implies
1+ x
dw x dx x dw 1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 1 1− 1 2 12
dx =
2x
. Therefore, ∫ = ∫ w
⋅
2x
=
2 ∫ w
dw =
2 ∫ 1
dw =
2∫w 2 dw = ⋅
2 1− 1
w 2 =
2
w
1 + x2 w2 2
( )
1 1
= w 2 = 1 + x2 2 = 1 + x2 (2)
( )
1
x dx
∫ sinh x dx = x sinh −1 x − ∫ = x sinh −1 x − 1 + x 2
−1 2 +c
1 + x2
( )
1
x 2x
Check: Let y = x sinh −1 x − 1 + x 2 2 + c , then y ′ = sinh −1 x + − + 0 = sinh −1 x
2 2
1+ x 2 1+ x
tan 10 x
∫ x sec 10 x dx let u = x and dv = sec 10 x dx then du = dx ∫ dv = ∫ sec 10 x dx which implies v =
2 2 2
k. Given and .
10

tan 10 x 1 1 1
∫ x sec 10 x dx = x ⋅ ∫
2
− tan 10 x dx = x tan 10 x − ln sec 10 x + c
10 10 10 100
1 1 1 1 sec 10 x tan 10 x ⋅ 10
Check: Let y = x tan 10 x − ln sec 10 x + c , then y ′ = tan 10 x + x sec2 10 x − +0
10 100 10 100 sec 10 x
1 1
= tan 10 x + x sec2 10 x − tan 10 x = x sec2 10 x
10 10
x x dx 1
l. Given ∫ 5 sinh 7 x dx let u = 5 and dv = sinh 7 x dx then du =
5
and ∫ dv = ∫ sinh 7 x dx which implies v = 7 cosh 7 x dx .

x x 1 1 dx 1 1 1 1
∫ 5 sinh 7 x dx = ⋅ cosh 7 x −
5 7 7
cosh 7 x ⋅
5
= ∫
35
x cosh 7 x −
35
cosh 7 x ⋅ dx =
35
x cosh 7 x −
245 ∫
sinh 7 x + c
1 1 1 1 1 1
Check: Let y = x cosh 7 x − sinh 7 x + c , then y ′ = cosh 7 x + ⋅ 7 x sinh 7 x − ⋅ 7 cosh 7 x + 0 = cosh 7 x
35 245 35 35 245 35
1 1 1
+ x sinh 7 x − cosh 7 x = x sinh 7 x
5 35 5
Section 5.2 Solutions – Integration Using Trigonometric Substitution
Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
a. Given ∫
dx
let x = 4 sin t , then dx = 4 cos t dt and 16 − x 2 = 16 − 16 sin 2 t = (
16 1 − sin 2 t )
2 2
x 16 − x
dx 4 cos t dt 4 cos t 1 1 1
∫ = ∫ (4 sin t ) 2 ⋅ 4 cos t = ∫ 16 sin 2 t ⋅ 4 cos t dt = ∫ 16 sin 2 t dt =
16 ∫
csc2 t dt = − cot t + c
16
x 2 16 − x 2
16 − x 2
1 cos t 1 4 1 4 ⋅ 16 − x 2 16 − x 2
= − +c = − x
+c = − ⋅ +c = − +c
16 sin t 16 16 4⋅ x 16 x
4
−2 x2 16 − x 2 − x 2 − 16 − x 2 ⋅ 16 − x 2
−2 x ⋅ x − 1 ⋅ 16 − x 2 − 1
2
16 − x 2 16 − x 2 2 16 − x 2 16 − x 2
Check: Let y = − + c , then y ′ = − 2
+0 = − 2
= − 2
16 x 16 x 16 x 16 x
(
− x 2 − 16 − x 2 )
16 − x 2 − x 2 − 16 + x 2 16 1
= − 2
= − = =
16 x
16 x 2 16 − x 2 16 x 2 16 − x 2 x 2 16 − x 2
b. Given ∫
x2
dx let x = 3 sin t , then dx = 3 cos t dt and 9 − x2 = 9 − 9 sin 2 t = (
9 1 − sin 2 t ) = 9 cos 2 t
9 − x2
= 3 cos t . Substituting these values back into the original integral we obtain:
x2 9 sin 2 t ⋅ 3 cos t dt 1 − cos 2t 9 9 1 

∫ ∫ ∫ 9 sin ∫ ∫ (1 − cos 2t ) dt
2
dx = = t dt = 9 dt = =  t − sin 2t  + c
2 3 cos t 2 2 2 2 
9− x
9 9 9 x 9 x 9 − x2 9 x x
= t − sin t cos t + c = ⋅ sin −1 − ⋅ ⋅ + c = sin −1 − 9 − x2 + c
2 2 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 2
 
9 −1 x x 9 1 1 1 − 2x x
Check: Let y = sin − 9 − x 2 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ − 9 − x2 + ⋅ 
2 3 2 2 3 2 2
1− x2  2 9 − x2 
9
=
9 3
⋅

1  9 − x2
− −
x2


 =
9

−

 2 9 − x2 − 2x2 
 =
(9

−
)
 18 − 4 x 2



2 3  2   4 9 − x2   4 9 − x2 
9 − x2  2 9 − x2  2 9 − x2   2 9 − x2  
=
9
−
(
2 9 − 2 x2 )= 9
−
9 − 2x2
=
9 − 9 + 2x2
=
2 x2
=
x2
2 9 − x2 4 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 2 9 − x2 9 − x2
c. Given ∫
dx
let x =
3
2
3
tan t , then dx = sec2 t dt and
2
9 + 4x2 = 9+4 (32 tan t ) 2 = 9 + 4 ⋅ 94 tan 2 t
2
x 9 + 4x

= 9 + 9 tan 2 t = (
9 1 + tan 2 t ) = 9 sec2 t = 3 sec t . Therefore,
3 sec 2 t
dx 1 sec2 t 1 sec t 1 1 1 cos t 1
∫ = ∫ 32 tan t ⋅ 3sec t
2 dt = ∫
3 tan t ⋅ 3 sec t
dt =
3 tan t
dt =
3 tan t ∫
⋅ sec t dt = ⋅
3 sin t cos t
dt ∫ ∫
x 9 + 4x2
1 1 1 1 1 9 + 4x2 3 1 9 + 4x2 − 3
= ∫
3 sin t
dt =
3 3 ∫
csc t dt = ln csc t − cot t + c = ln
3 2x
−
2x
+ c = ln
3 2x
+c
 
2x ⋅ 1 ⋅ 8x − 2 ⋅  9 + 4 x2 − 3
1 9 + 4x − 3 2
1 2x 2 9+ 4 x 2  
Check: Let y = ln + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅
3 2x 3 4x2
9 + 4x2 − 3
8x2  
− 2 ⋅  9 + 4 x2 − 3  
  8x2 − 2 ⋅  9 + 4 x2 − 3 9 + 4 x2
1 2x 9+ 4 x 2
1 2x  
= ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅
3 2 4x2 3
9 + 4x −3 9 + 4x2 − 3 4x2 9 + 4x2
=
1
⋅
2x
⋅
(
8x2 − 2 ⋅ 9 + 4x2 + 6 9 + 4x2 ) =
1
⋅
2x
⋅
8 x 2 − 18 + 8 x 2 + 6 9 + 4 x 2
3 3
9 + 4x2 − 3 4x2 9 + 4x2 9 + 4x2 − 3 4x2 9 + 4x2
 
6  9 + 4 x2 − 3
1 2x   = 1 ⋅ 2x ⋅ 6 12 x 1
= ⋅ ⋅ = =
3 3 1
9 + 4x2 − 3 4x2 9 + 4x2 4x2 9 + 4x2 12 x 2 9 + 4 x 2 x 9 + 4x2
d. Given
1
∫ (49 + x2 )2 dx let x = 7 tan t , then dx = 7 sec
2
t dt and 49 + x 2 = 49 + (7 tan t ) 2 = 49 + 49 tan 2 t = 49 1 + tan 2 t ( )
= 49 sec2 t . Substituting these values back into the original integral we obtain
1 7 sec2 t dt 7 sec2 t dt 7 dt 1 1 1
∫ (49 + x2 )2 dx = ∫ ( 49 sec2 t )2 = ∫ 2401sec2 t sec2 t = ∫
2401 sec2 t
=
343
cos 2 t dt = ⋅
343 2 ∫ ∫ (1 + cos 2t ) dt
 
1  7x 
=
1  1 
 t + sin 2t  + c =
1
(t + sin t cos t ) + c = 1  tan −1 x + x
⋅
7 
+c =
x
 tan −1 +  + c
686  2  686 686  7  686  7 49 + x 2 
 49 + x 2 49 + x 2 
Check: Let y =
1  −1 x
 tan +
7x 
 + c then y ′ =
1
⋅
1
+
1 7 49 + x 2 − 2 x ⋅ 7 x
⋅ =
1
⋅
49 ( )
686  2
7 49 + x  686 71 + x  686


2
49 
49 + x 2 2 686 7 49 + x 2 ( ) ( )
+
1 343 + 7 x 2 − 14 x 2
⋅ =
1
⋅
7
+
1 343 − 7 x 2
⋅ =
1 ( )
+
7 49 − x 2
=
1
686 49 + x 2
( 2
)
686 49 + x 2 ( ) 686 49 + x 2
(
2
98 49 + x 2) ( ) 686( 49 + x ) 2 2
(
98 49 + x 2 )
+
(49 − x ) 2
=
49 + x 2 + 49 − x 2
=
98
=
1
98( 49 + x ) 2 2
(
98 49 + x )
2 2
(
98 49 + x )
2 2
( 49 + x ) 2 2
 x2  x2
e. ∫  x2 − 1
+ 5 x  dx =


∫ 2
∫
dx + 5 x dx . In Example 5.2-1, problem letter e, the solution to the first integral was:
x −1
x2 1 1
∫ dx =
2
x x2 − 1 +
2
ln x + x 2 − 1 + c . Therefore, combining the two integrals we have
x2 − 1

x2 1 1 5 2
∫ 2
∫
dx + 5 x dx =
2
x x2 − 1 +
2
ln x + x2 − 1 +
2
x +c
x −1
 
1 1 5 1 2x2  1 1
Check: Let y = x x2 − 1 + ln x + x 2 − 1 + x 2 + c , then y ′ =  x 2 − 1 + +
2 2 2 2  2 x + x2 − 1
 2 x2 − 1 
 


× 1 +
2x

 5
 + ⋅ 2x =
(
1 2 x2 − 1 + 2x2 1
+
)
1
2  x + x2 − 1 

 2
 + 5x = 1  4x − 2 +

1


 + 5x
 2 x2 − 1  2 2
2 x2 − 1
2
x + x2 − 1 2 x2 − 1
2 2
x 2 − 1 
   2 x −1
1 4x2 − 2 + 2 4x2 x2
= + 5x = + 5x = + 5x
2
2 x2 − 1 4 x2 − 1 x2 − 1
f. Given ∫ x 2 − 25 dx let x = 5 sec t , then dx = 5 sec t tan t dt and x 2 − 25 = 25 sec2 t − 25 = 25 tan 2 t = 5 tan t . Thus,
∫ x 2 − 25 dx = ∫ 5 tan t ⋅ 5 sec t tan t dt = ∫ 25 sec t tan

2
∫ ( )
t dt = 25 sec t sec2 t − 1 dt = 25 sec3 t dt − 25 sec t dt ∫ ∫
25 25
=
2
(
tan t sec t + ln sec t + tan t ) − 25 ln sec t + tan t + c =
2
(
tan t sec t − ln sec t + tan t )+ c
 
25  x x 2 − 25 x x 2 − 25  x 2 25 x + x 2 − 25 x 2 25
=  ⋅ − ln +  +c = x − 25 − ln +c = x − 25 − ln x + x 2 − 25
2 5 5 5 5  2 2 5 2 2
 
25 x 25 25
+ ln 5 + c = x 2 − 25 − ln x + x 2 − 25 + c Note: ln 5 is a constant which can be included in the constant c .
2 2 2 2
 
x 2 25 1 2x2  25 1
Check: Let y = x − 25 − ln x + x 2 − 25 + c , then y ′ =  x 2 − 25 + − ⋅
2 2 2  2
 2 x 2 − 25  x + x 2 − 25
  2 2
x + x 2 − 25 x 2 − 25 + x 2 25 2 x 2 − 50
× 1 + 2x  + 0 = x − 25 + x − 25 ⋅ 1
⋅ = − =
  2
 2 x 2 − 25  2 x 2 − 25 x + x 2 − 25 x 2 − 25 2 x 2 − 25 2 x 2 − 25 2 x 2 − 25
=
(
2 x 2 − 25 ) =
x 2 − 25
=
x 2 − 25
×
x 2 − 25
=
(x 2
− 25 ) x 2 − 25
= x 2 − 25
2
2 x − 25 2
x − 25 2
x − 25 2
x − 25 (x 2
− 25 )
g. Given ∫ 36 − x 2 dx let x = 6 sin t , then dx = 6 cos t dt and 36 − x 2 = 36 − 36 sin 2 t = 36 cos 2 t = 6 cos t . Thus,
36 36  1  36
∫ ∫ 6 cos t ⋅ 6 cos t dt = ∫ 36 cos ∫ (1 + cos 2t ) dt = ( t + sin t cos t ) + c
2
36 − x 2 dx = t dt =  t + sin 2t  + c =
2 2  2  2
  36 −1 x x 36 − x 2
36  −1 x x 36 − x 2  36 −1 x 36 x 36 − x 2
=  sin + ⋅  + c = 2 sin 6 + +c = sin + +c
2  6 6 6 2 ⋅ 36 2 6 2
 
36 −1 x x 36 − x 2 36 1 1 1 − 2 x2 36 6
Check: Let y = sin + + c , then y ′ = ⋅ + 36 − x 2 + = ⋅
2 6 2 2 6 2 2
1− ( 6x ) 2 2 36 − x 2 6 36 − x 2
+
36 − x 2 − x 2
=
36
+
36 − 2 x 2
=
72 − 2 x 2
=
(
2 36 − x 2 ) =
36 − x 2
=
36 − x 2
⋅
36 − x 2
2 36 − x 2 2 36 − x 2 2 36 − x 2 2 36 − x 2 2 36 − x 2 36 − x 2 36 − x 2 36 − x 2
=
(36 − x ) 2
36 − x 2
= 36 − x 2
36 − x 2

2
dx dx 3 1 1 1 
h. Given ∫ = ∫ let x = tan t = tan t , then dx = sec2 t dt and 9 + 36 x 2 = 9 + 36 ⋅  tan t 
( ) ( )
3 3
6 2 2 2 
9 + 36 x 2 2 9
36
+ x2 2
1
= 9 + 36 ⋅ tan 2 t = 9 + 9 tan 2 t = 9 1 + tan 2 t = 9 sec2 t . Therefore,
4
( )
1 sec 2 dt 1 sec 2 dt 1 sec 2 dt
dx 1 dt 1 dt 1 dt 1
∫ = ∫ 2 = ∫ 2 = ∫2 2 = ∫ 2 729 sec t = ∫ = = cos t dt ∫ ∫
( ) ( )
3 3 3 2× 3 2 2 27 sec t 54 sec t 54
9 + 36 x 2 2 9 sec2 2 9 2 sec 2 t 93 sec3 t
1 1 6x x
= sin t + c = +c = +c
54 54
9 + 36 x 2 9 9 + 36 x 2
1 ⋅ 9 9 + 36 x 2 − 9 ⋅ 72 x ⋅x
( )
9 9 + 36 x 2 −324 x 2 81+ 324 x 2 −324 x 2
x 2 9 + 36 x 2 9 + 36 x 2 9 + 36 x 2
Check: Let y = + c , then y ′ = = =
9 9 + 36 x 2 (
81 9 + 36 x 2 ) (
81 9 + 36 x 2 ) (
81 9 + 36 x 2 )
81 1 1 1
= = = =
( ) (9 + 36 x )⋅ ( ) (9 + 36 x ) (9 + 36 x )
1 1 3
2 2 1+ 2
81 9 + 36 x 2 ⋅ 9 + 36 x 2 9 + 36 x 2 2 2 2
9 − 4x2
i. Given ∫ x
dx let x =
3
2
3
sin t , then dx = cos t dt and
2
9 − 4x2 = 9−4 (32 sin t ) 2 = 9 − 4 ⋅ 94 sin 2 t
= 9 − 9 sin 2 t = (
9 1 − sin 2 t ) = 9 cos 2 t = 3 cos t . Therefore,
9 − 4x2 3 cos t 3 6 3 cos 2 t 1 − sin 2 t 1 sin 2 t 1

∫ x
dx = ∫ 32 sin t ⋅ 2 cos t dt = ⋅
3 2 sin t ∫
dt = 3
sin t
dt = 3 ∫
sin t
dt − 3
sin t
dt = 3
sin t
dt ∫ ∫ ∫
3 9 − 4x2 9 − 4x2
∫ ∫ ∫
− 3 sin t dt = 3 csc t dt − 3 sin t dt = 3 ln csc t − cot t + 3 cos t + c = 3 ln
2x
−
2x
+ 3⋅
3
+c
3− 9 − 4x2
= 3 ln + 9 − 4x2 + c
2x
 
8x ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2x − 2 ⋅  3 − 9 − 4x2 
3− 9 − 4x2 2x 2 9− 4 x 2  
Check: Let y = 3 ln + 9 − 4 x 2 + c , then y ′ = 3 ⋅ ⋅
2x 2 4x2
3− 9 − 4x
 
8x2 − 2 ⋅  3 − 9 − 4x2  ⋅ 9 − 4x2
8x 6x   4x 6x
− = ⋅ − =
2 9 − 4x2 3− 9 − 4x2 4x2 9 − 4x 2
9 − 4x2 3− 9 − 4x2
 
×
8x2 − 6 9 − 4x2 + 2 9 − 4x2 ( )− 4x
=
6 x  8 x 2 − 6 9 − 4 x 2 + 18 − 8 x 2 
 − 4x
2 2 2 2 2 2
4x 9 − 4x 9 − 4x 3 − 9 − 4x ⋅ 4x 9 − 4x 9 − 4x2
   
3  − 6 9 − 4 x 2 + 18  18  3 − 9 − 4 x 2 
  4x   4x 9
= − = − =
3− 9 − 4x2 ⋅ 2x 9 − 4x2 9 − 4x2  2 2 9 − 4x2 x 9 − 4x2
 3 − 9 − 4x  ⋅ 2x 9 − 4x
 
−
4x
=
9 − 4x2
=
9 − 4 x2
×
9 − 4 x2
=
(9 − 4 x ) 9 − 4 x
2 2
=
9 − 4x2
9 − 4x2 x 9 − 4x2 x 9 − 4 x2 9 − 4 x2 x (9 − 4 x ) 2 x

Section 5.3 Solutions – Integration by Partial Fractions
dx
a. Evaluate the integral ∫ x2 + 5x + 6 .
First - Check to see if the integrand is a proper or an improper rational fraction. If the integrand is an improper rational
fraction use synthetic division (long division) to reduce the rational fraction to the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational
fraction.
Second - Factor the denominator x 2 + 5 x + 6 into (x + 2 ) (x + 3) .
Third - Write the linear factors in partial fraction form. Since each linear factor in the denominator is occurring only once,
the integrand can be represented in the following way:
1 1 A B
= = +
2
x + 5x + 6 (x + 2) (x + 3) x+2 x+3
1 A (x + 3) + B (x + 2 )
=
2
x + 5x + 6 (x + 2) (x + 3)
1 = A (x + 3) + B (x + 2 ) = Ax + 3 A + Bx + 2 B
1 = ( A + B ) x + (3 A + 2 B ) therefore,
A+ B = 0 3 A + 2B = 1
Fifth - Rewrite the integral in its equivalent partial fraction form by substituting the constants with their specific values.
dx A B 1 1
∫ x2 + 5x + 6 = ∫ x + 2 dx + ∫ x + 3 dx = ∫ x + 2 dx − ∫ x + 3 dx
1 1
∫ x + 2 dx − ∫ x + 3 dx = ln x + 2 − ln x + 3 + c
Let y = ln x + 2 − ln x + 3 + c , then y ′ =
1
⋅1 −
1
⋅1 + 0 =
( x + 3) − ( x + 2 ) = x + 3 − x − 2 = 1
x+2 x+3 ( x + 2 ) ( x + 3) x 2 + 3 x + 2 x + 6 x 2 + 5 x + 6
x 2 +1
b. Evaluate the integral ∫ x 3 − 4 x dx .
fraction.
( )
Second - Factor the denominator x3 − 4 x into x x 2 − 4 = x(x − 2 ) (x + 2 ) .
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 A B C
= = + +
x3 − 4 x x (x − 2 ) (x + 2 ) x x−2 x+2
x2 + 1 A (x − 2 ) (x + 2 ) + Bx (x + 2 ) + Cx (x − 2 )
=
3
x − 4x x (x − 2 ) (x + 2 )
( ) ( ) ( )
x + 1 = A x 2 + 2 x − 2 x − 4 + B x 2 + 2 x + C x 2 − 2 x = Ax 2 − 4 A + Bx 2 + 2 Bx + Cx 2 − 2Cx
2
x 2 + 1 = ( A + B + C )x 2 + (2 B − 2C )x − 4 A therefore,
A+ B+C =1 2 B − 2C = 0 −4 A = 1

1 5 5
which result in having A = − , B = , and C =
4 8 8
x 2 +1 A B C 1 1 5 1 5 1
∫ x 3 − 4 x dx = ∫ x dx + ∫ x − 2 dx + ∫ x + 2 dx = −
4 x ∫
dx +
8 x−2
dx + ∫
8 x+2
dx ∫
1 1 5 1 5 1 1 5 5
− ∫
4 x
dx +
8 x−2∫dx +
8 x+2 4 ∫
dx = − ln x + ln x − 2 + ln x + 2 + c
8 8
1 5 5 1 5 5 −2(x − 2 )(x + 2 ) + 5 x(x + 2 ) + 5 x(x − 2 )
Let y = − ln x + ln x − 2 + ln x + 2 + c , then y ′ = − + + =
4 8 8 4 x 8(x − 2 ) 8(x + 2 ) 8 x(x − 2 )(x + 2 )
=
− 2 x 2 + 8 + 5 x 2 + 10 x + 5 x 2 − 10 x
=
8x2 + 8
=
( )
8 x2 + 1
=
x2 + 1
(
8x x2 − 4 ) (
8x x2 − 4 ) 8 x (x − 4 )
2 x3 − 4 x
1
c. Evaluate the integral ∫ 36 − x 2 dx .
fraction.
Second - Factor the denominator 36 − x 2 into (6 − x )(6 + x ) .
1 1 A B
= = +
36 − x 2 (6 − x ) (6 + x ) 6−x 6+ x
1 A (6 + x ) + B (6 − x )
=
36 − x 2 (6 − x ) (6 + x )
1 = A (6 + x ) + B (6 − x ) = 6 A + Ax + 6 B − Bx
1 = ( A − B ) x + (6 A + 6 B ) therefore,
6 A + 6B = 1 A− B = 0
1 1
which result in having A = , and B =
12 12
1 A B 1 1 1 1
∫ 36 − x2 dx = ∫ 6 − x dx + ∫ 6 + x dx = 12 ∫ 6 − x dx + 12 ∫ 6 + x dx
1 1 1 1 1 1
∫
12 6 − x
dx +
12 6 + x ∫
dx =
12
ln 6 − x +
12
ln 6 + x + c
1 1 1 1 1 1 6+ x+6− x 1
Let y = ln 6 − x + ln 6 + x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ + ⋅ +0 = =
12 12 12 6 − x 12 6 + x 12(6 − x ) (6 + x ) 36 − x 2
x+5
d. Evaluate the integral ∫ x3 + 2 x2 + x dx .
fraction.

Second - Factor the denominator x3 + 2 x 2 + x into x x 2 + 2 x + 1 = x(x + 1)2 . ( )

Third - Write the linear factors in partial fraction form. Since one of the factors in the denominator is repeated, the integrand
can be represented in the following way:
x+5 x+5 x+5 A B C
= = = + +
x3 + 2 x 2 + x ( 2
x x + 2x + 1 ) x(x + 1)2 x x + 1 (x + 1)2
x+5 A (x + 1)2 + Bx (x + 1) + Cx
=
x3 + 2 x 2 + x x(x + 1)(x + 1)2
( ) ( )
x + 5 = A x 2 + 2 x + 1 + B x 2 + x + Cx = Ax 2 + 2 Ax + A + Bx 2 + Bx + Cx
x + 5 = ( A + B )x 2 + (2 A + B + C )x + A therefore,
A+ B = 0 2A + B + C = 1 A=5
which result in having A = 5 , B = −5 , and C = −4
x+5 A B C 1 1 1
∫ x3 + 2 x2 + x dx = ∫ x dx + ∫ x + 1 dx + ∫ (x + 1) 2 dx = 5∫ x dx − 5∫ x + 1 dx − 4∫ (x + 1) 2 dx
1 1 1 4
5 ∫ x dx − 5∫ x + 1 dx − 4∫ (x + 1) 2 dx = 5 ln x − 5 ln x + 1 +
x +1
+c
4 1 1 4 5(x + 1) 2 − 5 x (x + 1) − 4 x
Let y = 5 ln x − 5 ln x + 1 + + c , then y ′ = 5 ⋅ − 5 ⋅ − +0 =
x +1 x x + 1 (x + 1) 2
x (x + 1)2
5 x 2 + 10 x + 5 − 5 x 2 − 5 x − 4 x x+5
= 3 2
=
x + 2x + x x + 2x2 + x
3
1
e. Evaluate the integral ∫ x3 − 2 x2 + x dx .
fraction.
Second – Factor the denominator x3 − 2 x 2 + x into x(x − 1)2 .
1 A B C
= + +
x(x − 1)2 x x − 1 (x − 1)2
1 A (x − 1)2 + Bx (x − 1) + Cx
=
3
x − 2x + x 2
x(x − 1)2
( ) ( )
1 = A x 2 − 2 x + 1 + B x 2 − x + Cx = Ax 2 − 2 Ax + A + Bx 2 − Bx + Cx
1 = ( A + B )x 2 + (− 2 A − B + C )x + A therefore,
A+ B = 0 −2 A − B + C = 0 A =1

dx A B C 1 1 1
∫ x3 − 2 x2 + x = ∫ x dx + ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ (x − 1)2 dx = ∫ x dx − ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ (x − 1) 2 dx
1 1 1 1
∫ x dx − ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ (x − 1) 2 dx = ln x − ln x − 1 −
x −1
+c
Let y = ln x − ln x − 1 −
1 1
+ c , then y ′ = −
1
+
1
+0 =
(x − 1)2 − x (x − 1) + x = x 2 − 2 x + 1 − x 2 + x + x
x −1 x x − 1 (x − 1) 2
x(x − 1)2 x3 − 2 x 2 + x
x2 − x2 − 2x + 2x + 1 1
= 3 2
=
x − 2x + x x − 2x2 + x
3
x2 + 3
f. Evaluate the integral ∫ x2 − 1 dx .
x2 + 3 (x − 1)+ 4 dx =
2  x2 − 1 4   4 
First – Rewrite the integral in the following form: ∫ x2 − 1 dx = ∫ 2
x −1 ∫  x2 − 1 + x2 − 1  dx = ∫ 1 + x 2 − 1  dx .
Then, check to see if the integrand of the second integral is a proper or an improper rational fraction. If the integrand is an
improper rational fraction use synthetic division (long division) to reduce the rational fraction to the sum of a polynomial and
a proper rational fraction.
Second - Factor the denominator x 2 − 1 into (x − 1) (x + 1) .
4 4 A B
= = +
x −12 (x − 1) (x + 1) x −1 x +1
4 A (x + 1) + B (x − 1)
=
2
x −1 (x − 1) (x + 1)
4 = A (x + 1) + B (x − 1) = Ax + A + Bx − B
4 = ( A + B )x + ( A − B ) therefore,
A+ B = 0 A− B = 4
x2 + 3  4  4 A B 1 1
∫ x2 − 1 dx = ∫ 1 + x2 − 1  dx = ∫ dx + ∫ x2 − 1 dx = ∫ dx + ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ x + 1 dx = ∫ dx + 2∫ x − 1 dx − 2∫ x + 1 dx
1 1
∫ dx + 2∫ x − 1 dx − 2∫ x + 1 dx = x + 2 ln x − 1 − 2 ln x + 1 + c
Let y = x + 2 ln x − 1 − 2 ln x + 1 + c , then y ′ = 1 + 2 ⋅
1
− 2⋅
1
+0 =
(x − 1) (x + 1) + 2(x + 1) − 2(x − 1)
x −1 x +1 (x − 1) (x + 1)
=
(x 2
)
+ x − x − 1 + 2x + 2 − 2x + 2
=
x2 − 1 + 4
=
x2 + 3
(x 2
+ x − x −1 ) 2
x −1 x2 − 1
1
g. Evaluate the integral ∫ x3 − 1 dx .

fraction.
Second - Factor the denominator x3 − 8 into (x − 1) x 2 + x + 1 . ( )
Third - Write the factors in partial fraction form. Since one of the factors in the denominator is in quadratic form, the
integrand can be represented in the following way:
1 1 A Bx + C
= = +
x3 − 1 (x − 1) (x 2
+ x +1 ) x − 1 x2 + x + 1
Fourth - Solve for the constants A , B and C by equating coefficients of the like powers.
1
=
( )
A x 2 + x + 1 + (Bx + C ) (x − 1)
(x − 1) (x )
3
x −1 2
+ x +1
( )
1 = A x 2 + x + 1 + (Bx + C ) (x − 1) = Ax 2 + Ax + A + Bx 2 − Bx + Cx − C
1 = ( A + B ) x 2 + ( A − B + C )x + ( A − C ) therefore,
A+ B = 0 A− B+C = 0 A−C =1
1 1 2
3 3 3
1 A Bx + C 1 1 − 13 x − 2
1 1 1 x+2
∫ x3 − 1 dx = ∫ x −1
dx + ∫ x2 + x + 1 dx = ∫
3 x −1
dx + ∫ x2 + x + 1 dx = 3 ∫ x − 1 dx − 3 ∫ x2 + x + 1 dx
3
du du
sections. To solve the second integral let u = x 2 + x + 1 , then = 2 x + 1 and dx = . Also, x + 2 can be rewritten as
dx 2x + 1
1
x+2 = (2 x + 1) + 3 . Therefore,
2 2
1 1 1 x+2 1 1 1
1 (2 x + 1) + 32 1 1 1 2x + 1 1
3
∫
3 x −1
dx −
3 x2 + x + 1∫dx =
3 x −1
dx −
3 ∫ ∫ 2
x2 + x + 1
dx = ∫
3 x −1
dx −
6 ∫ x2 + x + 1 dx − ∫ 2
3 x2 + x + 1
dx
1 1 1 2x + 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 x + 1 du 1 1
= ∫
3 x −1
dx −
6 ∫ x2 + x + 1 dx − 2 ∫ x2 + x + 1 dx = 3 ∫ x − 1 dx − 6 ∫ u
⋅ −
2x + 1 2 ∫ (x + 1 ) 2 + 3 dx
2 4
2 x +1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2(2 x + 1)
= ln x − 1 − ln u − ⋅ tan −1 2 +c = ln x − 1 − ln x 2 + x + 1 − ⋅ tan −1 +c
3 6 2 3 3 3 6 2 3 2 3
2 2
1 1 1 2x + 1 1 1 3 2x + 1
= ln x − 1 − ln x 2 + x + 1 − tan −1 + c = ln x − 1 − ln x 2 + x + 1 − tan −1 +c
3 6 3 3 3 6 3 3
1 1 3 2x + 1
Let y = ln x − 1 − ln x 2 + x + 1 − tan −1 + c , then
3 6 3 3
y′ =
1 1
⋅
1
− ⋅
1
⋅ (2 x + 1) −
3
⋅
1
⋅
( 2 ⋅ 3 )− 0 ⋅ (2 x + 1) + 0 = 1 − 2 x + 1
3 x − 1 6 x2 + x + 1 3
1 +  2 x +1 
2
( 3) 2 3(x − 1) 6(x + x + 1) 2
 3 
3 3 2 3 1 2x + 1 2 6 x 2 + 6 x + 6 − (2 x + 1) ⋅ (3 x − 3) 2
− ⋅ ⋅ = − − = −
3 3 + (2 x + 1)2 3 3(x − 1) 6 x 2 + x + 1 (
3 + (2 x + 1) 2
)
18(x − 1) x + x + 1
2 2
3 + 4x + 4x + 1 ( )

6 x 2 + 6 x + 6 − 6 x 2 + 6 x − 3x + 3 2 9x + 9 1 x +1 1
= − = − = −
) (
18 x − 13 4x2 + 4x + 4 (
18 x − 1 3
) (
4 x + x +1 2
) (
2 x −1 3
) ( 2
2 x + x +1 )
=
(x + 1) (x + x + 1) − (x − 1) =
2 3
x3 + x 2 + x + x 2 + x + 1 − x3 + 1
=
2x2 + 2x + 2
=
1
2(x − 1)(x + x + 1)
3 2
(x − 1)(2 x
3 2
+ 2x + 2 ) (x − 1)(2 x
3 2
+ 2x + 2 ) x3 − 1
1
h. Evaluate the integral ∫ x4 − 1 dx .
fraction.
(
Second - Factor the denominator x 4 − 1 into x 2 − 1 x 2 + 1 = (x − 1) (x + 1) x 2 + 1 . )( ) ( )
1 1 A B Cx + D
= = + +
(x − 1) (x + 1) (x )
4 x − 1 x + 1 x2 + 1
x −1 2
+1
Fourth - Solve for the constants A , B , C and D by equating coefficients of the like powers.
1
=
( ) (
A(x + 1) x 2 + 1 + B (x − 1) x 2 + 1 + (x − 1) (x + 1) (Cx + D ) )
(x − 1) (x + 1) (x 2 + 1)
4
x −1
( ) (
1 = A(x + 1) x 2 + 1 + B(x − 1) x 2 + 1 + (x − 1)(x + 1)(Cx + D ) )
1 = Ax3 + Ax 2 + Ax + A + Bx3 − Bx 2 + Bx − B + Cx3 + Dx 2 − Cx − D
1 = ( A + B + C )x3 + ( A − B + D )x 2 + ( A + B − C )x + ( A − B − D ) therefore,
A+ B+C = 0 A− B+ D = 0 A+ B−C = 0 A− B− D =1
1 1 1
which result in having A = , B = − , C = 0 , and D = −
4 4 2
1 A B Cx + D 1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ x4 − 1 dx = ∫ x − 1 dx + ∫ x + 1 dx + ∫ 2
x +1
dx =
4 ∫ x − 1 dx − 4 ∫ x + 1 dx − 2 ∫ x2 + 1 dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 ∫ x − 1 dx − 4 ∫ x + 1 dx − 2 ∫ x2 + 1 dx = 4
ln x − 1 − ln x + 1 − tan −1 x + c
4 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Let y = ln x − 1 − ln x + 1 − tan −1 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅1 − ⋅ ⋅1 − ⋅ 2 ⋅1 + 0
4 4 2 4 x −1 4 x +1 2 x +1
=
1
−
1
−
1
=
(x + 1) (x 2 + 1) − (x − 1) (x 2 + 1) − 2(x − 1) (x + 1) =
x3 + x + x 2 + 1 − x3 − x + x 2 + 1
4(x − 1) 4(x + 1) 2 x 2 + 1 ( ) 4(x − 1) (x + 1) (x 2 + 1) ( )(
4 x2 − 1 4 + x2 )
2
− 2x − 2x + 2x + 2 4 1
= =
( )(
4 x2 − 1 4 + x2 ) (
4 x4 − 1 ) 4
x −1
1
i. Evaluate the integral ∫ x3 + 64 dx .
First - Check to see if the integrand is a proper or an improper rational fraction. If the integrand is a rational fraction use
synthetic division (long division) to reduce the rational fraction to the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational fraction.
Second - Factor the denominator x3 + 64 into (x + 4 ) x 2 − 4 x + 16 . ( )

1 1 A Bx + C
= = +
x3 + 64 (x + 4) (x 2
− 4 x + 16 ) x + 4 x 2 − 4 x + 16
1
=
( )
A x 2 − 4 x + 16 + (Bx + C ) (x + 4 )
(x + 4) (x 2 − 4 x + 16)
3
x + 64
( )
1 = A x 2 − 4 x + 16 + (Bx + C )(x + 4 ) = Ax 2 − 4 Ax + 16 A + Bx 2 + 4 Bx + Cx + 4C
1 = ( A + B )x 2 + (− 4 A + 4 B + C )x + (16 A + 4C ) therefore,
A+ B = 0 −4 A + 4 B + C = 0 16 A + 4C = 1
1 1 1
48 48 6
− 1 x+ 1
1 A Bx + C 1 1 1 1 1 x −8
∫ x3 + 64 dx = ∫ x+4
dx + ∫ x2 − 4 x + 16 dx = ∫
48 x + 4
dx + ∫ x2 − 4 x + 16 dx =
48 6
∫
48 x + 4
dx − ∫
48 x 2 − 4 x + 16
dx
du du
sections. To solve the second integral let u = x 2 − 4 x + 16 , then = 2 x − 4 and dx = . Also, x − 8 can be
dx 2x − 4
1
rewritten as x − 8 = (x − 2 ) − 6 = (2 x − 4) − 6 . Therefore,
2
1 1 1 x −8 1 1 1 (x − 2) − 6 dx = 1 1 dx − 1 1 (2 x − 4) − 6
∫
48 x + 4
dx − ∫
48 x 2 − 4 x + 16
dx =
48 x + 4
dx −
48 x 2 − 4 x + 16 ∫48 x + 4 48 ∫ ∫ ∫ x2 − 4 x + 16 dx
2
1 1 1 2x − 4 1 6 1 1 1 2 x − 4 du 6 1
= ∫
48 x + 4
dx −
96 ∫ x2 − 4 x + 16 dx + 48 ∫ x2 − 4 x + 16 dx = ∫
48 x + 4
dx −
96 u
⋅ ∫ +
2 x − 4 48 ∫ (x − 2)2 + 12 dx
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x−2
= ∫
48 x + 4
dx −
96 u
du +
8 ∫ ∫ (x − 2)2 + 12 dx = 48
ln x + 4 − ln u +
96 8 12
tan −1
12
+c
1 1 12 x−2 1 1 12 x−2
= ln x + 4 − ln x 2 − 4 x + 16 + tan −1 +c = ln x + 4 − ln x 2 − 4 x + 16 − tan −1 +c
48 96 8 ⋅ 12 12 48 96 96 12
1 1 12 x−2
Let y = ln x + 4 − ln x 2 − 4 x + 16 + tan −1 + c , then
48 96 96 12
y′ =
1
⋅
1
−
1
⋅
1
⋅ (2 x − 4 ) +
12
⋅
1
⋅
(1 ⋅ 12 )− 0 ⋅ (x − 2) + 0 = 1 − x−2
48 x + 4 96 x 2 − 4 x + 16 96 2
( 12 ) 2 48(x + 4 ) 48(x 2
)
1 +  x − 2  − 4 x + 16
 12 
12 12 12 1 x−2 6 1 −x + 2 + 6
+ ⋅ ⋅ = − + = +
96 12 + (x − 2 )2 12 48(x + 4 ) 48 x − 4 x + 16
2 2
48 x − 4 x + 16 ( ) ( ) (
48(x + 4 ) 48 x 2 + 4 x + 16 )
=
1
+
−x + 8
=
(x 2
)
− 4 x + 16 + (− x + 8)(x + 4 )
=
x 2 − 4 x + 16 − x 2 − 4 x + 8 x + 32
(
48(x + 4 ) 48 x − 4 x + 16
2
) 48(x + 4 ) (x 2
− 4 x + 16 ) (
48(x + 4 ) x 2 − 4 x + 16 )
16 + 32 48 1 1
= = = =
(
48(x + 4 ) x − 4 x + 16
2
) (
48(x + 4 ) x − 4 x + 16
2
) x3 − 4 x 2 + 16 x + 4 x 2 − 16 x + 64 x3 + 64

Section 5.4 Practice Problems – Integration of Hyperbolic Functions

du d du
a. Given ∫ cosh 3x dx let u = 3x , then =
dx dx
3 x = 3 which implies dx =
3
. Therefore,
du 1 1 1
∫ cosh 3x dx = ∫ cosh u ⋅ 3
=
3 ∫
cosh u du = sinh u + c = sinh 3 x + c
3 3
1 1 d d 1 d 1
Check: Let y = sinh 3 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ sinh 3 x + c = ⋅ cosh 3 x ⋅ 3 x + 0 = ⋅ cosh 3 x ⋅ 3 = cosh 3 x
3 3 dx dx 3 dx 3
∫ (sinh 2 x − e ) dx = ∫ sinh 2 x dx + ∫ e dx
3x 3x
b. Given let:
du d du du
dx dx dx 2
dv d dv dv
b. v = 3 x , then = 3x ; = 3 ; dv = 3dx ; dx = .
dx dx dx 3
du dv 1 1 v 1 1
∫ sinh 2 x dx + ∫ e ∫ sinh u ⋅ ∫
+ e3 x ⋅ ∫ ∫
3x
Therefore, dx = = sinh u du + e dv = cosh u + c1 + ev + c2
2 3 2 3 2 3
1 1 1 1
= cosh 2 x + e3 x + c1 + c2 = cosh 2 x + e 3 x + c
2 3 2 3
1 1 1 d 1 d d 1 d 1 d
Check: Let y = cosh 2 x + e3 x + c then y ′ = ⋅ cosh 2 x + ⋅ e3 x + c = ⋅ sinh 2 x ⋅ 2 x + ⋅ e3 x ⋅ 3 x + 0
2 3 2 dx 3 dx dx 2 dx 3 dx
1 1 2 3
= ⋅ sinh 2 x ⋅ 2 + ⋅ e3 x ⋅ 3 = ⋅ sinh 2 x + ⋅ e3 x = sinh 2 x + e3 x
2 3 2 3
du d du
c. Given ∫ csc h 5x dx let u = 5x , then =
dx dx
5
. Therefore,
du 1 1 u 1 5x
∫ csc h 5x dx = ∫ csc h u ⋅ 5
=
5 ∫
csc h u du = ln tanh
5 2
+ c = ln tanh
5 2
+c
1 5x 1 d 5x d 1 1 d  5x 
Check: Let y = ln tanh + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ln tanh + c = ⋅ 5x
⋅  tanh +0
5 2 5 dx 2 dx 5 tanh dx  2 
2
sinh 2 5 x
2
1−
1 1  5x 5  1 5 sec h 2 52x 1 sec h 2 52x 1 1 − tanh 2 52x 1 cosh 2 5 x
= ⋅ 5x
⋅  sec h 2 ⋅ +0 = ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ 2
5 tanh
2  2 2  10 tanh 52x 2 tanh 52x 2 tanh 52x 2 sinh 5 x
2
cosh 5 x
2
cosh 2 5 x − sinh 2 5 x
2 2 1
cosh 2 5x
cosh 2 5 x cosh 2 5 x 1 1 1 1
2 2
= = = ⋅ 2
= = = = csc h5 x
sinh 5 x
2
sinh 5 x
2
2 cosh 5 x ⋅ sinh 5 x 2 cosh 52x ⋅ sinh 52x sinh 2 ⋅ 52x sinh 5 x
2⋅ 2⋅ 2 2
cosh 5 x cosh 5 x
2 2
du d 3 du du
∫x
2
d. Given sec h 2 x3dx let u = x3 , then = x ; = 3x 2 ; du = 3 x 2 dx ; dx = 2 . Therefore,
dx dx dx 3x
du 1 1 1
∫x ∫x ∫sec h 2u du = tanh u + c = tanh x 3 + c
2
2
sec h 2 x3dx = sec h 2u ⋅ 2
=
3x 3 3 3
1 1 d d 1 d 3 1
Check: Let y = tanh x3 + c , then y ′ = ⋅ tanh x3 + c = ⋅ sec h 2 x3 ⋅ x + 0 = ⋅ sec h 2 x3 ⋅ 3 x 2 = x 2 sec h 2 x3
3 3 dx dx 3 dx 3
e. Given ∫3x
2 3
( )
csc h 2 x 4 + 1 dx let u = x 4 + 1 , then
du
=
dx dx
d 4
x +1 ; (
du
dx
) du
= 4x3 ; du = 4 x3dx ; dx = 3 . Therefore,
4x

∫3x
2 3
(
csc h 2 x 4 + 1 dx = ) 2 3
3 ∫
du
x csc h 2u ⋅ 3 =
4x
1
6
1
6 ∫
1
csc h 2u du = − coth u + c = − coth x 4 + 1 + c
6
( )
1
6
1 d
6 dx
( d
dx
)
1
Check: Let y = − coth x 4 + 1 + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ coth x 4 + 1 + c = − ⋅ − csc h 2 x 4 + 1 ⋅
6
d 4
dx
x +1 + 0 ( ) ( ) ( )
=
1
6
(
⋅ csc h 2 x 4 + 1 ⋅ 4 x3 =
4 x3
6
) 2
⋅ csc h 2 x 4 + 1 = x3 csc h 2 x 4 + 1
3
( ) ( )
f. Given ∫x
3
( )
csc h 2 x 4 + 5 dx let u = 2 x 4 + 5 , then
du
=
dx dx
d
(
2x4 + 5 ;
du
dx
) ( du
)
= 2 x 4 + 5 ; du = 8 x3dx ; dx = 3 . Therefore,
8x
∫ (
x3 csc h 2 x 4 + 5 dx = ) ∫ x3 csc h u ⋅
du
8 x3
=
1
8 ∫ csc h u du =
1
8
ln tanh
u
2
1
+ c = ln tanh
8
2 x4 + 5
2
+c
1 2x4 + 5 1 d 2x4 + 5 d 1 1 d 2x4 + 5

Check: Let y = ln tanh + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ln tanh + c = ⋅ 4
⋅ tanh +0
8 2 8 dx 2 dx 8 tanh 2 x + 5 dx 2
2
4
sinh 2 2 x + 5
2
1−
sec h 2 2 x 4 +5 2 2 x +5 4 4
1 2x4 + 5 d 2x4 + 5 8 x3 x3 1 − tanh x3 cosh 2 2 x + 5
= ⋅ sec h 2 ⋅ +0 = 2 ⋅ = ⋅ 2 = ⋅ 2
8 tanh 2 x 4 +5 2 dx 2 8 tanh 2 x 4 +5 2 2 4
tanh 2 x 2 + 5 2 4
sinh 2 x + 5
2 2 2
4
cosh 2 x + 5
2
4 4
cosh 2 2 x + 5 − sinh 2 2 x + 5
2 2 1
4 4
2 2 x 4 +5 cosh 2 x 2 + 5
x3 cosh
2 x3 cosh 2 2 x + 5
2 x3 x3
= ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ =
2 sinh 2 x 4 +5 2 sinh 2 x 4 +5 2 cosh 2 2 x 4 + 5 ⋅ sinh 2 x 4 + 5 4 4
2 cosh 2 x 2 + 5 ⋅ sinh 2 x 2 + 5
2 2 2 2
4 4
cosh 2 x + 5 cosh 2 x + 5
2 2
( )
3 3
x x
= = = x3 csc h 2 x 4 + 5
sinh 2 ⋅ 2 x 4 +5
2 (
sinh 2 x + 5 4
)
du d du du
g. Given ∫ cosh
7
( x + 1) sinh ( x + 1)dx let u = cosh (x + 1) , then = cosh (x + 1) ; = sinh (x + 1) ; dx = . Thus,
dx dx dx sinh (x + 1)
du 1 8 1
∫ cosh
7
( x + 1) sinh ( x + 1)dx = ∫u
7
sinh (x + 1) ⋅ = ∫ u du
7
= u + c = cosh 8 ( x + 1) + c
sinh (x + 1) 8 8
1 1
Check: Let y = cosh8 (x + 1) + c , then y ′ = ⋅ 8 cosh 7 (x + 1) ⋅ sinh (x + 1) + 0 = cosh 7 (x + 1) sinh (x + 1)
8 8
du d
h. Given ∫ csc h (5x + 3) coth (5x + 3) dx let u = 5x + 3 , then = ( 5 x + 3) ; du = 5 ; du = 5dx ; dx = du . Therefore,
dx dx dx 5
du 1 1 1
∫ csc h (5x + 3) coth (5x + 3) dx = ∫ csc h u coth u = csc h u coth u du = − csc h u + c = − csc h (5 x + 3 ) + c
∫
5 5 5 5
1 1 d csc h (5 x + 3) coth (5 x + 3)
Check: Let y = − csc h (5 x + 3) + c , then y ′ = − ⋅ − csc h (5 x + 3) coth (5 x + 3) ⋅ (5 x + 3) + 0 = ⋅5
5 5 dx 5
5
= csc h (5 x + 3) coth (5 x + 3) = csc h (5 x + 3) coth (5 x + 3)
5
x +1 sec h e x +1 dx let u = e x +1 , then du = d e x +1 ; du = e x +1 ; du = e x +1 ⋅ dx ; dx = du . Therefore,
i. Given ∫e dx dx dx e x +1
∫e
x +1 sec h e x +1 dx =
∫e
x +1
sec h u ⋅
e
du
x +1
= ∫ sec h u du = sin
−1
(tanh u ) + c (
= sin −1 tanh e x +1 + c)
(
Check: Let y = sin −1 tanh e x +1 + c , then y ′ = ) 1
⋅
d
dx
tanh e x +1 + 0 =
sec h 2e x +1
⋅
d x +1
dx
e
1 − tanh 2 e x +1 sec h 2e x +1

sec h 2e x +1
= ⋅ e x +1 = e x +1 sec h e x +1
sec h e x +1

du d du du
∫ tanh = sec h 2 x ; du = sec h 2 x dx ; dx =
5
a. x sec h 2 x dx let u = tanh x , then = tanh x ; . Thus,
dx dx dx sec h 2 x
du 1 5+1 1 1
∫ tanh ∫u ∫ u du = u + c = u 6 + c = tanh 6 x + c
5
5
x sec h 2 x dx = ⋅ sec h 2 x ⋅ 2
= 5
sec h x 5 +1 6 6
1 1
Check: Let y = tanh 6 x + c then y ′ = ⋅ 6 (tanh x ) 6 −1 ⋅ sec h 2 x + 0 = (tanh x ) 5 sec h 2 x = tanh 5 x sec h 2 x
6 6
du d du
b. Given ∫ coth
6
(x + 1) csc h 2 ( x + 1) dx let u = coth (x + 1) , then = coth (x + 1) ; = − csc h 2 (x + 1) c
dx dx dx
du − du
; du = − csc h 2 (x + 1) dx ; dx = − . Thus, ∫ coth
6
(x + 1) csc h 2 ( x + 1) dx = ∫u
6
⋅ csc h 2 (x + 1) ⋅
csc h 2 (x + 1) csc h 2 (x + 1)
1 1
= − u 6 du = − u 7 + c = − coth7 ( x + 1) + c
∫ 7 7
1 1
Check: Let y = − coth 7 (x + 1) + c then y ′ = − ⋅ 7[ coth (x + 1) ] 7 −1 ⋅ − csc h 2 (x + 1) + 0 = coth 6 (x + 1) csc h 2 (x + 1)
7 7
du d 3 x du du
∫e tanh e3 x dx let u = e3 x , then = 3e3 x ; du = 3e3 x dx ; dx = 3 x . Therefore,
3x
c. Given = e ;
dx dx dx 3e
du 1 1 1
∫e ∫e ∫
tanh u du = ln cosh u + c = ln cosh e 3 x + c
3x 3x
tanh e3 x dx = tanh u ⋅ =
3e3 x 3 3 3
1 1 1 3
Check: Let y = ln cosh e3 x + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ⋅ sinh e3 x ⋅ 3e3 x + 0 = e3 x tanh e3 x = e3 x tanh e3 x
3 3 cosh e3 x 3
d. Given ∫x
3
( )
sec h x 4 + 1 dx let u = x 4 + 1 , then ( ) du
=
dx dx
d 4
x +1 ; (
du
dx
) du
= 4x3 ; du = 4 x3dx ; dx = 3 . Thus,
4x
∫x
3
(
sec h x 4 + 1 dx = ) ∫x
3
⋅ sec h u ⋅
du
4 x3
=
1
4 ∫
1
4
1
sec h u ⋅ du = sin −1 (tanh u ) + c = sin −1 tanh x 4 + 1 + c
4
)] [ (
sec h (x + 1) 2 4
Check: Let y =
1 −1
[ (
sin tanh x 4 + 1 + c then y ′ = )] 1
⋅ tanh (x + 1) + 0 =
d 4
1 − tanh (x + 1)
4 dx
4 sec h (x + 1)
2 4
4 2 4
×
d 4
(
x +1 =
sec h 2 x 4 + 1
) ⋅ 4 x3 =
4 x3 ( )
⋅ sec h x 4 + 1 = x3 sec h x 4 + 1 ( ) ( )
dx 4
4 sec h x + 1 4 ( )
du d
e. Given ∫ sec h ( 3x + 2) dx let u = 3x + 2 , then = ( 3x + 2) ; du = 3 ; du = 3dx ; dx = du . Thus,
dx dx dx 3
du 1 1 1
∫ sec h ( 3x + 2) dx = ∫ sec h u ⋅ = sec h u du = sin −1 (tanh u ) + c = sin −1 [ tanh (3 x + 2 ) ] + c
∫
3 3 3 3
1 −1 1 d sec h 2 (3 x + 2 )
Check: Let y = sin [ tanh (3 x + 2 ) ] + c , then y ′ = ⋅ tanh (3 x + 2 ) + 0 =
3 dx
3 1 − tanh 2 (3 x + 2 ) 3 sec h 2 (3 x + 2 )
(3x + 2) = sec h (3x + 2) ⋅ 3 = 3 ⋅ sec h (3x + 2) = sec h (3x + 2)

2 2
d
×
dx 3 sec h (3 x + 2 ) 3 sec h (3 x + 2 )
cosh (3 x + 5 ) du d du d
f. Given ∫e sinh (3 x + 5) dx let u = cosh (3 x + 5) , then = cosh (3 x + 5) ; = sinh (3 x + 5) ⋅ (3 x + 5)
dx dx dx dx

du du
; = sinh (3 x + 5) ⋅ 3 ; dx = . Therefore,
dx 3 sinh (3 x + 5)
du 1 u 1 1
∫e
cosh (3 x + 5 )
sinh (3 x + 5) dx = ∫e
u
sinh (3 x + 5) ⋅ = ∫e du = eu + c = e cosh (3 x +5 ) + c
3 sinh (3 x + 5) 3 3 3
1 cosh (3 x +5 ) 1 d 3
Check: Let y = e + c , then y ′ = ⋅ ecosh (3 x + 5 ) ⋅ sinh (3 x + 5) ⋅ (3 x + 5) + 0 = ⋅ ecosh (3 x + 5 ) ⋅ sinh (3 x + 5)
3 3 dx 3
= ecosh (3 x + 5 ) sinh (3 x + 5)
∫ tanh ∫ tanh ∫ tanh x (1 − sec h x )dx = − ∫ tanh x sec h x dx + ∫ tanh x dx . To solve the first
5 3
g. x dx = x tanh 2 x dx = 3 2 3 2 3
du d du du
integral let u = tanh x , then = tanh x ; = sec h 2 x ; du = sec h 2 x dx ; dx = . Therefore,
dx dx dx sec h 2 x
du 1 1
∫
− tanh 3 x sec h 2 x dx = − u 3 sec h 2 x ⋅ ∫ sec h 2 x ∫
= − u 3du = − u 4 + c = − tanh 4 x + c . In Example 5.4-6, problem
4 4
1
∫ tanh
3
letter d, we found that x dx = − tanh 2 x + ln cosh x + c . Therefore,
2
∫ tanh ∫ tanh ∫ tanh x (1 − sec h x ) dx = − ∫ tanh x sec h x dx + ∫ tanh x dx

5 3
x dx = x tanh 2 x dx = 3 2 3 2 3
1 1  1  1 1
= −
4 ∫
tanh 4 x + tanh 3 x dx = − tanh 4 x +  − tanh 2 x + ln cosh x + c  = − tanh 4 x − tanh 2 x + ln cosh x + c
4  2  4 2
1 1 4 2 sinh x
Check: Let y = − tanh 4 x − tanh 2 x + ln cosh x + c , then y ′ = − tanh 3 x ⋅ sec h 2 x − tanh x ⋅ sec h 2 x + +0
4 2 4 2 cosh x
( ) (
= − tanh 3 x sec h 2 x − tanh x sec h 2 x + tanh x = − sec h 2 x tanh 3 x + tanh x + tanh x = − 1 − tanh 2 x tanh 3 x + tanh x )( )
( )
+ tanh x = − tanh 3 x + tanh x − tanh 5 x − tanh 3 + tanh x = − tanh 3 x − tanh x + tanh 5 x + tanh 3 + tanh x = tanh 5 x
∫ coth ∫ coth ∫ coth x (1 + csc h x ) dx = ∫ coth x csc h x dx + ∫ coth x dx . To solve the first
5 3
h. x dx = x coth 2 x dx = 3 2 3 2 3
du d du du
integral let u = coth x , then = coth x ; = − csc h 2 x ; du = − csc h 2 x dx ; dx = − . Thus,
dx dx dx csc h 2 x
3 x csc h 2 x dx = du 1 1
∫ coth ∫u ∫
= − u 3du = − u 4 + c = − coth 4 x + c . In example 5.4-6, problem
3
csc h 2 x ⋅ −
csc h 2 x 4 4
1
∫ coth coth 2 x + ln sinh x + c . Grouping the terms together we have
3
letter g, we found that x dx = −
2
∫ coth x (1 + csc h x )dx = ∫ coth x csc h x dx + ∫ coth x dx = − 4 coth x + ∫ coth x dx

1
∫ coth ∫ coth
5 3 4 3
x dx = x coth 2 x dx = 3 2 3 2 3
1  1  1 1
= − coth 4 x +  − cot 2 x + ln sinh x + c  = − coth4 x − coth 2 x + ln sinh x + c
4  2  4 2
1 1 − 4 ⋅ coth 3 x ⋅ − csc h 2 x 2 ⋅ coth x ⋅ − csc h 2 x cosh x
Check: Let y = − coth 4 x − coth 2 x + ln sinh x + c , then y ′ = − + +0
4 2 4 2 sinh x
( ) ( )(
= coth 3 x csc h 2 x + coth x csc h 2 x + coth x = csc h 2 x coth 3 x + coth x + coth x = coth 2 x − 1 coth 3 x + coth x + coth x )
= coth 5 x + coth 3 x − coth 3 x − coth x + coth x = coth 5 x
∫ coth ∫ coth ∫ coth x (1 + csc h x ) dx = ∫ ( coth x csc h x + coth x ) dx = ∫ coth x csc h x dx .

6 4
i. x dx = x coth 2 x dx = 4 2 4 2 4 4 2
1
∫ ∫ coth x dx = − 3 coth
4 3
+ coth x dx . In example 5.4-6, problem letter e, we found that x − coth x + x + c . Therefore,

∫ coth ∫ coth ∫ coth x (1 + csc h x ) dx = ∫ coth x csc h x dx + ∫ coth x dx = ∫ coth x csc h x dx

6 4
x dx = x coth 2 x dx = 4 2 4 2 4 4 2
 1  1 1
+  − coth 3 x − coth x + x + c  = − coth5 x − coth 3 x − coth x + x + c
 3  5 3
1 1 5 ⋅ coth 4 x ⋅ − csc h 2 x 3 ⋅ coth 2 x ⋅ − csc h 2 x
Check: Let y = − coth 5 x − coth 3 x − coth x + x + c , then y ′ = − −
5 3 5 3
( )
+ csc h 2 x + 1 + 0 = coth 4 x ⋅ csc h 2 x + coth 2 x ⋅ csc h 2 x + csc h 2 x + 1 = csc h 2 x coth 4 x + coth 2 x + 1 + 1
( )( )
= coth 2 x − 1 coth 4 x + coth 2 x + 1 + 1 = coth 6 x + coth 4 x + coth 2 x − coth 4 x − coth 2 x − 1 + 1 = coth 6 x

Index
Diverge, 31
A
Adjacent, 308
E
Antiderivative, 213 Even functions, 233
Arithmetic sequence, 13-16 Even power, 244, 365
Arithmetic series, 16-19
F
B
Factorial notation, 42-52
Binomial coefficient, 45 Finite sequence function, 2
Binomial expansion, 47-52 Formulas,
addition, 232,350
C double angle, 232,350
Chain rule, 82-96 half angle, 232,350
Common difference, 13 unit, 232,350
Common multiplier, 20
Common ratio, 20
G
Constant function, 59 General term of a sequence, 2
Constant of integration, 213 Geometric sequence, 20-25
Converge, 31 Geometric series, 25-29
Cosecant, 233
Cosecant hyperbolic, 351 H
Cosine, 233 Hyperbolic functions
Cosine hyperbolic, 351 addition formulas for, 350
Cotangent, 233 double angle formulas for, 350
Cotangent hyperbolic, 351 half angle formulas for, 350
unit formulas for, 350
D
Hypotenuse, 308
Derivative
higher order, 124-138 I
of fractions with fractional exponents, 102-108 Identity function, 59
of radical functions, 109-123 Implicit differentiation, 97-101
Difference quotient, 54-58 Indefinite integral, 213
Differentiation Indeterminate forms, 140, 193, 207, 209
of hyperbolic functions, 181-186 Index of summation, 7
of indeterminate forms using L’Hopital’s Infinite sequence function, 2
rule, 193-211 Integral sign, 213
of inverse hyperbolic functions, 187-192 Integrand, 213
of inverse trigonometric functions, 158-165 Integration
of logarithmic and exponential functions, by partial fractions, 320-349
166-180 by parts, 287-307
of trigonometric functions, 140-157 of hyperbolic functions, 350-378
Differentiation rules of trigonometric functions, 232-258
using dxd notation, 71-81 resulting in exponential or logarithmic
using prime notation, 59-70 functions, 273-285

Calculus I Index
resulting in inverse trigonometric functions, R

259-272
using the basic integration formulas, 213- Radical expressions, 308
221 Range of summation, 7
using the substitution method, 222-231 Rational fraction
using trigonometric substitution, 308-319 improper, 320
Inverse trigonometric functions, 259 proper, 320
Reference
L to chapter 1 problems, 1
to chapter 2 problems, 53
L’Hopital’s rule, 193-211
Limits
of sequences, 31-36 to chapter 5 problems, 286
of series, 36-38 Repeating decimals, 38-41
Linear factors Right angle, 308
distinct, 320 Rule
repeated, 327 product, 60, 71
Long division, 320 scalar, 60, 71
M summation, 60, 71
Method S
difference quotient, 54-58 Scalar rule, 60, 71
implicit differentiation, 97-101 Secant, 233
the chain rule, 82-96 Secant hyperbolic, 351
the L’Hopital’s rule, 193-211 Sequences, 2-6
Series, 7-12
O Sigma notation, 7
Odd functions, 233 Sine, 233
Odd power, 244, 365 Sine hyperbolic, 351
Opposite, 308 Solutions
to chapter 1, 379-400
P to chapter 2, 401-425
Partial Fractions method, 320-349 to chapter 3, 426-435
Denominator with distinct linear factors, to chapter 4, 436-453
320-326 to chapter 5, 454-477
Denominator with distinct quadratic factors, Summation
334-343 index of, 7
Denominator with repeated linear factors, range of, 7
327-333 rule, 60,71
Denominator with repeated quadratic Symbol
factors, 344-349 approximate ≈ , 48
Polynomial, 320 d
differentiation , 71
Product rule, 60, 71 dx
Pythagorean theorem, 308 exponent e , 273
factorial ! , 42
Q
Quadratic factor
integration ∫ , 213
logarithm ln = log e , 273
distinct, 334
repeated, 344

Calculus I Index
not equal to ≠ , 25
summation ∑ ,7
Synthetic division, 320
T
Table
of basic integration formulas, 378
of differentiation formulas for
hyperbolic functions, 181, 351
of differentiation formulas for inverse
hyperbolic functions, 187
of differentiation formulas for inverse
trigonometric functions, 158
of differentiation formulas for trigonometric
functions, 140, 233
of hyperbolic formulas, 181
of integration formulas for hyperbolic
functions, 350
of integration formulas for trigonometric
functions, 232
of inverse hyperbolic functions, 187
Tangent, 233
Tangent hyperbolic, 351
Terms of a sequence, 2
Trigonometric functions
addition formulas for, 232
double angle formulas for, 232
half angle formulas for, 232
unit circle formulas for, 232

About the Author
Dan Hamilton received his B.S. degree in Electrical Engineering from Oklahoma State
University and Master's degree, also in Electrical Engineering from the University of Texas at
Austin. He has taught a number of math and engineering courses as a visiting lecturer at the
University of Oklahoma, Department of Mathematics, and as a faculty member at Rose State
College, Department of Engineering Technology, at Midwest City, Oklahoma. He is currently
working in the field of aerospace technology and has published several books and numerous
technical papers.

Calculus 1 - Differentiation and Integration-Sanet - ST PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Calculus 1 - Differentiation and Integration-Sanet - ST PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Calculus 1 - Differentiation and Integration-Sanet - ST PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Calculus I

Differentiation and Integration

Author: Dan Hamilton

Editor: Linda Hamilton

Cover design by: Kathleen Myers

First published in the year 2002

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 20022-81883

eBook and paperback versions available in the Amazon Kindle Store

eManual versions available in the Amazon Kindle Store

eManual versions available in the Amazon Kindle Store

Chapter 1 Sequences and Series

Chapter 2 Differentiation (Part I)

2.4 The Chain Rule .................................................................................................. 82

Chapter 3 Differentiation (Part II)

Chapter 4 Integration (Part I)

Hamilton Education Guides i

Chapter 5 Integration (Part II)

Appendix Exercise Solutions

Hamilton Education Guides ii

With best wishes,

Hamilton Education Guides iii

1.2 Series ........................................................................................................................... 7

1.3 Arithmetic Sequences and Arithmetic Series .......................................................... 13

1.4 Geometric Sequences and Geometric Series............................................................ 20

1.5 Limits of Sequences and Series ................................................................................. 31

1.6 The Factorial Notation .............................................................................................. 42

Hamilton Education Guides 1

s (1) =s1 =1 − 2 =−1 s ( 2 ) = s2 = 2 − 2 = 0 s ( 3) = s3 = 3 − 2 = 1

where the first six terms of the sequence are ( s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 , s6 ) = ( −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4) .

Hamilton Education Guides 2

a. Write the third and sixth terms of sn =

b. a10 = (10 − 1) 3 ⋅ 210−4 = 9 3 ⋅ 2 6 = 729 ⋅ 64 = 4.6656 × 10 4

Hamilton Education Guides 3

d. a7 = (0.2) 7 −1 = (0.2) 6 = 0.000064 = 6.4 × 10 −5

e. a3 = (− 3) 3 = − 33 = −27 a12 = (− 12 ) 3 = − 12 3 = −1728

f. s11 = (− 1) 11−1 ⋅ 211+1 = (− 1) 10 ⋅ 212 = 1⋅ 212 = 4096

Example 1.1-3 Write s5 , s6 , s7 , and s15 for the following sequences.

c. s5 = 2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ (5 − 1) (5 − 2) = 10 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 = 120 s6 = 2 ⋅ 6 ⋅ (6 − 1)(6 − 2 ) = 12 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 4 = 240

s7 = 2 ⋅ 7 ⋅ (7 − 1) (7 − 2) = 14 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 = 420 s15 = 2 ⋅15 ⋅ (15 − 1)(15 − 2 ) = 30 ⋅14 ⋅13 = 5460

Example 1.1-4 Find the twelfth term of the following sequences:

Hamilton Education Guides 4

212 ⋅ (12 + 1) 212 ⋅13 4096 ⋅13

of the sequence, i.e., s ( k + 1) = sk +1 = ( k + 1) ( k + 1) − 2  + 5 = ( k + 1) k + 1 − 2 + 5 = ( k + 1)( k − 1) + 5

Hamilton Education Guides 5

Section 1.1 Practice Problems - Sequences

2. Write s3 , s4 , s5 , and s8 for the following sequences.

3. Write the first five terms of the following sequences.

4. Given n ! read as “n factorial” which is defined as n ! = n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3)  5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 , find

Hamilton Education Guides 6

Hamilton Education Guides 7

Example 1.2-2 Solve the following series:

+ (17 ⋅ 16 ) + ( 26 ⋅ −32 ) + ( 37 ⋅ 64 ) + ( 50 ⋅ −128 ) = −4 + 20 − 80 + 272 − 832 + 2368 − 6400 = −4656

Hamilton Education Guides 8

= ( −1 + 0 )2 + ( 0 + 1)2 + ( 3 + 2 )2 + (8 + 3)2 + (15 + 4 )2 + ( 24 + 5)2 = 1 + 1 + 25 + 121 + 361 + 841 = 1350

Example 1.2-3 Solve the following series.

+2.33 + 2.25 + 2.2 = 12.28

Hamilton Education Guides 9

23 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8

+20.25 − 204.8 = −186.72