HP Ii 2-2

Research Review Article
Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 87 (6): 711–26, June 2017/Article
Diagnosis and management of soil fertility constraints in coconut

(Cocos nucifera) : A review
S K MALHOTRA1, H P MAHESWARAPPA2, V SELVAMANI3 and P CHOWDAPPA4
ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala 671 124
Received: 3 December 2016; Accepted: 5 March 2017
ABSTRACT
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is an important perennial plantation crop and to improve the productivity, the innate
soil constraints should be ameliorated. The red, lateritic and sandy coconut soils are suffering with soil acidity, low
CEC and poor nutrient reserve. A study on nutrient removal by coconut provides guidelines for the fertilizer input
required. The effect of soil nutrient imbalance on the availability of nutrients emphasize the need based balanced
fertilizer supply to coconut soils. The built up of soil available P in acidic red soils under continuous phosphatic
fertilizer application strengthens the need to realize the soil test based fertilizer application. The potassium supply in
the acid soils is poor, coconut being a huge feeder of potassium needs constant supply of potassium. Secondary and
micronutrient deficiencies are emerging as potential yield limiting nutrients for coconut. Biomass recycling studies
under coconut based cropping systems shows promising results in achieving the nutrient supply with the available
biomass recycling through vermicompost. Minimizing the biomass exported out of farm especially coconut husk
may improve potassium supply to palms through organic farming. Microbial studies showed that biomass recycling
improved the beneficial microorganism in the rhizosphere and thereby enhances the nutrient availability. Fertigation
technique showed higher nutrient use efficiency, soil and water conservation measures improved the yield of coconut
in sandy soil and checks the losses through run-off and erosion in sloppy soils. Site specific soil management strategies
can improve the coconut yield in an eco-friendly way.
Key words: Biomass, Coconut, Fertigation, Nutrient management, Soil health, Vermicompost
The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) globally friendly way. Implementing these soil management strategies
cultivated in around 93 countries and in India, it is grown will be a way foreward in ensuring sustained higher coconut
in 2.1 million ha (2015-16, 3rd estimates) with a production productivity and livelihood of coconut farmers.
of 14 075 million nuts and an average productivity of 6
702 nuts/ha/year (CDB 2016). Coconut farming and allied Soil requirement
activities provide livelihood security to millions of people in Red and lateritic and sandy soil types are the major
India. Hence, achieving and sustaining higher productivity soils in which the coconut is being cultivated. These are the
and profitability from coconut farming is a paramount goal soil types having naturally poor soil fertility status. On the
in serving this farming community. The price fluctuation, other hand, coconut being a perennial crop with a lifespan of
declining fertilizer response owing to the deteriorating soil around 60 years and having simultaneously both vegetative
health, increasing cost of fertilizers and lack of availability of and reproductive growth throughout the year, extracts more
organic manures are few of the major factors challenging to nutrients from the limited soil volume. Thereby, the soils
meet this goal. Understanding the nutrient removal, biomass which are having naturally poor nutrient reserve, loss their
availability, fertilizer/manure requirement, appropriate soil productivity potential very soon leading to the decline from
and moisture conservation measures, efficient methods of the initial productivity of the plantations over the years if
fertilizer application to improve nutrient use efficiency will not properly manured. The ideal coconut growing soils are
enable to formulate soil nutrient management strategies well drained and aerated with a minimum depth of 80 to 100
towards improving and sustaining soil health in an eco- cm, pH range between 5 to near neutral, adequate nutrient
availability and water holding capacity (Fremond 1964).
1 Agriculture and Horticulture Commissioner (e mail: The depth of the soil is one of the important soil physical
[email protected]), Ministry of Agriculture, Krishi
criteria for the sustained productivity. Around 73% of roots
Bhavan, New Delhi, 2Project Coordinator (Palms) (e mail: of coconut are found within 2 m radius and most of them
[email protected]), AICRP on Palms, 3Senior Scientist were confined to 31-120 cm depth (Kushwah et al. 1973).
(Soil Science) (e mail: [email protected]), 4Director (e mail: In middle aged palm, 96% of the roots present in 0-120 cm
[email protected]). depth (Maheshwarappa et al. 2000). More number of main
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712 MALHOTRA ET AL. [Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 87 (6)
roots was found in layer of 31-60 cm depth and decreases and low organic carbon content, this soil type is subject to
in the deeper layers (61-90 and 91-120 cm) (Dhanapal et high leaching loses of applied nutrients during monsoon
al. 2000). Hence, a minimum depth of one meter soil is and severe moisture stress during summer. Improvement
a pre-requisite for planting coconut which gives a good of the soil organic matter content is a pre-requisite for the
physical support and better anchorage against gusts of winds successful management of coconuts on such soils. Hence,
(Ganarajah 1953). A minimum depth of 80 to 100 cm was sustainable crop production could be achieved in this soil
observed as ideal by Fremond (1964). The soil physical type through adoption of cropping systems approach along
constrains like hard soil pan, bed rock or permanent water with soil moisture conservation methods. Fodder grass can be
table within one metre depth are unsuitable for coconut. successfully grown as an intercrop in coconut gardens under
Coconut palm adapts to a wide range of soil acidity. coastal sandy soils by adopting appropriate soil moisture
The ideal soil pH for coconut growing soils ranges between conservation measures. Incorporation of one layer of dried
5 to near neutral (Fremond 1964). The pH of representative coconut husk in trenches and/or applying 5 cm thickness of
Indian soils is reported to be in the range of 5.2 to 8.0 coir pith in the planting zone significantly increases green
(Menon and Nair 1952). Coconut can be cultivated in the and dry fodder yield due to higher soil moisture, nutrient
soil pH range of 5 to 8 (Manciot et al.1979). Coconut being availability especially potassium and enhanced biological
a semi-halophytic plant can tolerate soil salinity up to 0.6% activities in the rhizosphere when soil moisture conservation
which is beyond tolerable limits to many other crops. Hence, measures were implemented (Subramanian et al. 2007).
the total soluble salts in the soil are not a serious problem Effect of soil compaction on the growth and activity of
for coconut cultivation (Sankaranarayanan et al. 1958). coconut roots in two soil series, namely, Andigama series
Coconut responds very well to judicious fertilizer (gravelly soil) and Madampe series (sandy loam soil) was
application and irrigation. Therefore with appropriate studied by Vidhana Arachchi et al. (1999). The root activity
management, coconut can be grown even on the poorest in the Madampe series, with respect to moisture absorption
soils with good soil drainage and aeration in sub-soil. was higher than that of the Andigama series due to low
Since, coconut is grown in the tropical condition most of compaction of the former. Soil compaction higher than 250
the soils are deficient in the organic matter except the soils N/cm2 restricted the activity of coconut roots in the gravelly
of the humid tropics like lateritic soil of the hilly region soil. They also reported that high moisture extraction by
and the alluvial soils. Manciot et al. (1979) suggested a coconut roots was confined to a depth ranging from 20 to 120
threshold value of 1.0% organic carbon for coconut soils. cm and of 20 to 250 cm in soils of Andigama and Madampe
The soil nitrogen supply is directly related to the soil series, respectively, due to differences in soil compaction
organic fractions whereas, soil phosphorus level does not levels. Soil compaction limits the water absorption ability
pose a serious problem to coconut cultivation and adequate of coconut roots vertically from the base of the tree, rather
potassium supply must be ensured for higher coconut than coconut root growth and penetration. Intercropping with
productivity. Among the secondary and micronutrients, Gliricidia sepium under coconut showed the possibility of
supply of magnesium, sulphur, boron and zinc are very improving degraded soil conditions of gravelly Andigama
important since they are generally in short supply in many series which is having poor physical characters restricting
of the coconut growing tropical soils. palm growth and yield in intermediate zone of Sri Lanka.
Coconut root growth also increased in A, AB and B horizons.
SOIL CONSTRAINTS AND MANAGEMENT These studies strongly suggested that Gliricidia sepium plays
STRATEGIES a major role in improving physical characters of infertile
In India, coconut is mainly grown in laterite and lateritic, gravelly soils (Arachchi and Liyanage 1996).
coastal sand, red sandy loam, coral and alluvial soils. These
soils come mainly under four soil orders viz., Alfisols, Soil acidity and salinity related constraints
Entisols, Ultisols and Inceptisols. These are mainly acidic Soil acidity: Almost all red and lateritic soils under
in nature with low fertility status and suffer from varying coconut, which are formed under humid tropical conditions,
degree of nutrient/moisture stress. have A13+ as the dominant cation, and hence, their pH is
very low (4.2-5.8). The high Al and Fe revert the soluble
Physical constraints phosphates into insoluble ones. The soil acidity can be
Coconut grown under coastal sandy soil without managed by applying liming material based on the lime
manuring results in lower yield due to poor physicochemical requirement of the soil. For acid sulphate soils, suppression
characters viz., high bulk density, poor aggregate stability, of aluminium could be achieved only by using magnesium
poor water holding capacity, high soil temperature and poor silicate. This facilitates inactivation of Al as aluminum
soil fertility status (Srinivasa Reddy and Upadhyay 2002). silicate and the magnesium sulphate thus formed can be
Even regular application of chemical fertilizers failed in leached out of the system. According to Nambiar et al.
building up of soil nutrient status in littoral sandy soil mainly (1975), the application of seaweed as manure reduce the
due to low nutrient retention capacity of the soil (Srinivasa acidity to a certain extent.
Reddy et al. 1999). The very low clay content leads to high Soil salinity: In low lying areas where the soils are
infiltration and percolation rate coupled with low CEC frequently inundated by sea water or submerged with
4
June 2017] SOIL FERTILITY CONSTRAINTS IN COCONUT 713
brackish water during certain seasons of the year, the ha/year. The amounts of micronutrients lost were 1.14 kg
resulted excess salinity may create some production Fe, 0.63 kg Mn, 0.13 kg Cu, 0.44 kg Zn and 0.26 kg B /
problems. Drainage facilities and check bunds can reduce ha/year (Somasiri et al. 2003). Potash was found to be
the inundation. Coconut cultivated in non-traditional removed most, followed by nitrogen, calcium, magnesium
saline/alkaline areas face considerable limitation due to and phosphorus. The quantity of nutrients removed varies
the dominance of sodium, carbonates and bicarbonates. with the soil type and yield. Palms growing on coastal
Application of more organic matter in the planting pits along alluvium removed 70 kg K2O/ha but the average removal
with soil-sand mixture in equal amounts also observed to from red sandy loam and laterite was around 53 kg K2O/ha
reduce the salt problems. (Ramanandan and George 1982). Variation in the capacity of
nutrient removal pattern depending upon targeted yield has
Soil fertility constraints been documented in horticultural crops including plantation
Generally, the sandy soils contain very low amount crops. Removal of K from soil was observed to be 3-4
of soil nitrogen and leaching loss of nitrate is very high times higher in perennial crops than N and P compared to
in sandy soil followed by sandy loam and red soils. The annual crops. Hence, nutrient removal patterns uphold two
available phosphorus status of 15 soil series and four soil cardinal points, one in many crops magnitude of removal
orders (Ultisol, Entisol, Alfisol and Oxisol) in the major of K is higher than N or P and two that highlight towards
coconut-growing regions of Sri Lanka were found to be necessity of tailoring fertilizer requirement as per crop. In
very low in almost all soils except some of the sandy a study made in India, considering the nutrient removal rate
soils (Entisols) which had marginal to moderate P content projections, in the year of 2016-17, the fertilizer requirement
(Loganathan et al.1984). Liming and calcium containing for horticulture crops will be 7.56 million tonnes (Malhotra
phosphatic fertilizers can meet the calcium requirement in and Srivastava 2015).
highly acidic soil. The availability of Ca in coral soils is
very high and often antogonise the uptake of K, Mg and Nutrient management
Na by coconut. In India, both magnesium and sulphur are Long-term studies have indicated that cultural practices
either deficient or tending towards deficiency in most of the alone are superior to no cultivation and no manuring.
soils in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and North Eastern Cultural practices alone, like cultivation of interspaces twice
States of India. The deficiency of sulphur was reported from a year and weed control using herbicides produced poor
Papua and New Guinea (Southern 1969) and some of the yields ranging from 10.7 to 32.3 nuts/palm/year as compared
East African and South East Asian countries (Ollagnier and to fertilizer treatments coupled with cultural practices which
Ochs 1972). The concentrations of copper and zinc are low produced yields ranging from 83-107.9 nuts/palm/year,
in black and coral soils. Boron deficiency is emerging in indicating that cultural practices alone could not sustain
most of the laterite, red, alluvial and coastal sandy soils in higher productivity. Soil and leaf analysis of palms under
the humid tropics. different cultural and fertilizer treatments strongly suggests
that for satisfactory growth and productivity of palms in the
SOIL HEALTH MANAGEMENT red sandy loam soil mere cultural treatments alone cannot
improve the nutritional status of palms and supplementing
Nutrient requirement the nutrition with inorganic fertilizer and organic manures
Quantification of nutrient exhaust usually provides is necessary to sustain productivity (Khan et al. 1996).
useful guidelines for optimizing the quantity of the individual Fertilizer management technologies have been developed
nutrients and their proportion in which they have to be for different horticulture crops in the different countries
applied to sustain the soil fertility and coconut productivity. and provinces based on scientific principles (Srivastava
The nutrient exhaust, studies showed that the proportionate and Malhotra 2014, Meena et al. 2006, Aishwath and
requirement of NPK of the palm in terms of N, P2O5, Malhotra 2013). Optimum requirement of fertilizers for
K2O is 02:1:3. The quantitative order of requirement of different fruits and vegetable crops have been worked out
major nutrients for adult bearing palm is K>N>Ca>Mg>P. by different workers and described in the review (Malhotra
Potassium dominates the nutrient requirement of the palm and Srivastava 2015). Inorganic and organic fertilizer can
while P requirement is found to be the least (Pillai and be found in different types of products like compound,
Davis 1963, Ramadasan and Lal 1966). straight, controlled released, blended, granulated, water
The annual exhaust computed from one hectare of 173 soluble and liquid fertilizer (Malhotra 2016, Srivastava
palms in sandy loam soil is 65.6, 29.7, 84.5, 47.4 and 20.3 et al. 2014, 2015). The liquid fertilizers, as special class
kg of N, P2O5, CaO and MgO, respectively, taking into of fertilizers provide an enormous possibility of tailoring
account the nuts, fallen leaves spathes and the stem growth nutrient use across critical growth stages, a pre-requisite
(Pillai and Davis 1963). The amounts of macronutrients for better nutrient-use-efficiency. Customized fertilization/
lost through the removal of plant components from the fertigation is another potential reality, besides its suitability
field of Typica × Typica coconut palms yielding an average in site specific nutrient managements. In this background,
of 17, 38 nuts/ha/year in Sri Lanka, were 116.79 kg N, these issues have been addressed in the review (Malhotra,
14.02 kg P, 245.43 kg K, 40.47 kg Ca, and 33.66 kg Mg/ 2016).
5
Primary nutrients: The soil nitrogen supply is respectively (Wahid et al. 1988). Potassium adsorption
directly related to the soil organic fractions, however, studies in a red sandy loam soil (Arenic Paleustult) under
it varies with soil type. Soil phosphorus content varies various fertilizer regimes in coconut under coconut based
with the geomorphology and parent material of the soil. cropping system at Kasaragod revealed that the optimum
The phosphorus status of laterite, lateritic, and red soils K application to maximize the soil solution K for optimum
is medium but the supplying power would be fairly high. plant nutrition ranged from 662 ppm (full dose) to 692 ppm
The soils of semi-arid regions contain dominantly the Ca- (no fertilizer) (Upadhyay et al. 2005). The potassium supply
P. In the case of sandy soil, the total as well as available can be regulated in sandy soil by suitable management
soil phosphorus is very low whereas it is high in the case practices. Higher build up of available potassium in littoral
of alluvial black and swampy soils. In the case of alluvial beach sandy soil was observed when inorganic fertilizers
and swampy soil, the organically bound phosphorus is were applied with different organics. Maximum build up was
higher than that of inorganic fractions. Organic phosphorus obtained when potassium was applied along with coconut
content is increased under mixed farming and multiple pith (Nambiar et al. 1983).
cropping in coconut gardens. A general build up of available Bopaiah et al. (1998) studied the effect of slow release
soil phosphorus was observed irrespective of sources of N and P fertilizers (different combinations of urea, urea
phosphorus fertilizer applied to a typical laterite soil of formaldehyde, neem coated urea, lac coated urea mixed
Malabar area of Kerala (Khan et al. 1985). The build up along with coir dust, tar, single super phosphate, mussorie
of soil available P content was observed with increased rock phosphate and muriate of potash) Among the slow
applied P levels. The increase was of 363 mg/kg of available release N fertilizers ureaform, neem cake coated urea and
P in the plot received fertilizer application of 437g and it coir dust mixed with urea have been found to remain for a
was 253 Mg/kg when 218 g of P/palm/year was applied. long period in the sandy soil, thus facilitating availability
Whereas, the soil available P content in the unfertilized plot of N in the more permeable soil. Mussorie phosphate is
was only 36 Mg/kg (Srinivasa Reddy et al. 2001). The soil equally efficient as super phosphate in sandy soil.
potassium content depends on the nature and composition of A long-term experiment conducted Kasaragod in littoral
the parent material from which the soil is formed (Graham sandy soil indicated that annual application of fertilizers
and Fox 1971). It is found to be low to medium in coconut for a period of 32 years to coconut resulted in a marked
growing soils of humid tropics, but it is high in alluvial increase in the available phosphorus and potassium status
soils and those formed under semi-arid conditions such in soil, but a marginal change in soil available nitrogen
as black soils. The quantity-intensity relationship and the status. The yield of coconut increased with the higher levels
potential buffering capacity of soil potassium regulate the of nutrient application, and the highest yield was recorded
potassium availability to coconut. Potassium adsorption is in the treatment of 1000:437:1667g of N, P, K/palm/yr
comparatively more and uniform in laterite soils than in red (Srinivasa Reddy et al. 2001).
sandy loam, river alluvium and coastal sands cultivated to The Mitscherlich-Bray model is popularly used in most
coconut. The magnitude of the constants K and 1/n and the of the field crops. This principle was employed to evaluate
difference in the values of Freundlich adsorption isotherm the nutrient requirement of three high yielding genotoypes
was attributed to the contents and nature of clay minerals of coconut by Khan et al. (1986). They indicated that the
in these soils. Desorption of applied K showed a constant nutrient requirement of D × T hybrid was relatively lower
release (Khan et al. 1982). These soils are dominated by than that of Talls to produce the same quantity of yield.
kaolinite clay minerals, which have no interlattice binding Tall × Dwarf hybrid behaved intermediate between D x
sites for K, and hence cannot hold any non-exchangeable T and WCT. They further evaluated the efficiency of soil
K (Patil et al. 1976). The influence of clay minerals in K and fertilizer nutrients with respect to productivity. It is
supply to the nutrient pool was also indicated by Ramanathan also possible to forecast coconut productivity for a given
and Krishnamoorthy (1976). quantity of nutrient inputs.
In situ N-mineralization in the coconut based cropping The application of fertilizers through drip fertigation
system with clove, banana and pineapple as component resulted in a marked increase in available nitrogen,
crops where the wastes produced were vermicomposted phosphorus and potassium status in soil. Coconut yield
and applied to all crops was studied by Palaniswami et al. was significantly higher in 100% NPK fertigation (131
(2010). The results showed that the rate of N- mineralization nuts/palm/year) which was on par with 75 and 50% NPK
was higher in coconut basin area (2.2 mg/kg –N/day) upto applied through drip irrigation. Hence, through fertigation
1/3rd of recommended fertiliser dose. However, in lower 50% saving of chemical fertilizers is possible which
dose of fertilizer, clove soil had higher N- mineralisation ensures the higher efficiency of nutrients in crop production
rate (3.43 ppm–N/day). (Subramanian et al. 2012). A study on the effect of fertigation
In a long term fertilizer experiment in red loam soil, on the productivity of coconut was conducted at Horticulture
early bearing and significantly higher nut yield was recorded Research Station, Arsikere (Karnataka). The mean nut and
with increased levels of potassium application. The yield was copra yield per palm over five years was significantly higher
7, 68 and 77 nuts/palm/year in the 21st year after planting with the application of 100% NPK through drip irrigation
under no fertilizer, 450 g K2O and 900 g K2O/palm/year, which was on par with 75% NPK compared and application
6
of 25 and 50% NPK through drip irrigation, net returns nutrient status in the soil. A critical evaluation of nutritional
and benefit-cost ratio in 75% NPK through drip irrigation factors involved in coconut productivity was carried out by
were on par with the application of 100% NPK through Mathewkutty et al. (1997) in West Coast Tall palms aged 25
drip irrigation, but significantly higher than 100% NPK to 35 years. The relationships of individual nutrient contents
through soil application. Hence, indicated the possibility in respect of 10 elements were worked out. It was observed
of saving 25% of the recommended fertilizers by adopting that continuous use of conventional fertilizers have lead to a
fertigation which ensures higher productivity in coconut stage of negative response for them owing to the deficiency
(Basavaraju et al. 2014). of non recommended/applied elements like Mg and S and
Under the soil water deficit conditions, maintenance excess of Ca, Fe and Mn limits coconut yield. This points
of sufficient levels of N and K contribute to the growth of importance of balanced nutrition for problem management
the coconut seedling through improved gaseous exchange, and better productivity in coconut. The effect of nutrient
CO2 assimilation and better partitioning of assimilated management in high density multispecies cropping system
carbon into shoot and roots. Potassium and Cl are important involving 18 crops under different fertilizer application
for maintenance of water status of coconut seedlings by rates over a period of three years, showed build up of
improved stomatal regulation, water uptake and osmotic phosphorus. Similar trend was also observed in mixed
adjustment of tissues under water deficit conditions farming and coconut-cocoa mixed cropping systems at
(Jayasekara et al. 1993). CPCRI, Kasaragod (Bavappa et al. 1986).
Secondary nutrients: Among the secondary nutrients, Similarly, the studies of Khan et al. (1990) showed that
magnesium and sulphur are very important as far as coconut the available soil phosphorus (0-30 cm) had been increased
productivity and production problems are concerned. Due from 84 to 121 ppm when annual fertilization of P was
to leaching losses these nutrients are generally in short done at the rate of 320 g P2O5/palm for 14 years. But in plots
supply in many of the coconut growing humid tropical where P was not applied, it had been decreased from 84 to 21
soils. Soils very low in organic matter and continuously ppm during the same period which emphasise P application
cropped without sulphur containing fertilization are likely should be regulated constant monitoring on built up through
to suffer S-deficiency. Sulphur management can be achieved soil testing. They suggested that the P application should be
by using sulphur containing fertilizers like super phosphate, skipped at the level of 20 ppm of soil available P.
ammonium sulphate, diammonium phosphate, magnesium Application of muriate of potash increased the leaf
sulphate etc. while formulating the fertilizer schedule for K and Cl contents, but decreased the Mg and Ca contents
coconut. Organic matter is one of the potential sources of under Srilankan conditions (Loganathan and Arputharajah
sulphur on decomposition. Sulphur treatments increased 1986). The magnesium budget and balance in coconut based
the total yield of fruits and weight of copra, but decreased high density multispecies cropping system declines very
the weight of kernel per nut (De Silva et al. 1985). Major fast to the extent of 50% over a period of 3 years. Further
fraction of sulphur is held in the organic form, therefore, the systems involving coconut–grass and coconut–cocoa
the sulphur management in the soil can be best achieved also showed a similar pattern of decline with respect to Mg
through proper organic farming technology. (Bavappa and Jacob 1982). The interaction between plant
Micronutrients: In the tropical acid soils, iron, available potassium and magnesium in highly leached red
manganese, copper and zinc are easily soluble and readily yellow podzolic soils with laterite in Southern coastal area
available under acid conditions. The availability of iron and of Sri Lanka and its effect on coconut palm was studied by
manganese are generally high in acid laterite and red soils, Somasiri (1997), the results showed that the application of
moderate in alluvial, volcanic, peat and clay soils, low in potassium decreased the quantity of both exchangeable and
coastal sandy soils and very low in coral soils. In acid laterite water extractable magnesium and application of magnesium
and red soils, their contents may often reach to toxic levels, fertilizer decreased the quantity of exchangeable potassium
particularly under anaerobic conditions. The high calcium in soils which is attributed to low cation exchange capacity
carbonate content of the coral soils blocks the assimilation and base saturation of the soils. Due to heavy input of K+
of Fe and Mn by the palm. The concentrations of copper and and NH4+ fertilizers, displacement of Mg from its exchange
zinc are moderate in acid laterite and red soils, high in the site occurs and resulting in leaching loss of Mg (Ochs and
case of alluvial soils and low in black and coral soils. The Ollangnier 1977).
requirement of molybdenum for coconut is very small and The uptake of cations by the palm was found to
its problem has not been felt in coconut farming anywhere be governed by their ratios in soil. Highly significant
in the world. Boron deficiency is widespread in most of the correlations were obtained between K/Na, K/(Ca +Mg) and
acid laterite, red, alluvial and coastal sandy soils. K/Mg in soil and their corresponding ratios in their leaf. The
Balanced nutrition: Growth and yielding potential leaf potassium level was affected by the combined level of
of palms is related to the availability of the most limiting Na, Ca and Mg (Wahid et al. 1974). A threshold level of
nutrient. The plant nutrient limitation may occur through 0.2-0.5 m.e/100 g of exchangeable Mg out of 1.0 m.e/100
the low nutrient content in soil or the antagonisitc effect of g of total exchangeable cations is suggested (Mancot et al.
the high content of other nutrients. Therefore, to ensure the 1979 a). The suggested ratio for the exchangeable Mg/K for
sufficient supply of all the nutrients depends on the balanced ideal coconut soils is 2.5 and a minimum Ex. Mg/K ratio
7
of 2.0 for the satisfactory supply of Mg to the palm (Cecil third leaf is 8-10 ppm and the deficiency could be corrected
1981). The critical limit for hot water soluble boron was by soil application of sodium tetraborate (Jayasekara and
0.1 ppm (Pillai et al. 1983). Loganathan 1988).
In the state of Asom and West Bengal the available
Deficiency and management boron content is below the critical limit (Chakrabarthy et
Based on long-term observations, 70-80 ppm of al. 1970). In Kerala 12% of coconut soils are reported to be
mineralizable nitrogen in the main fertilizing zone of coconut deficient in boron (Cecil and Pillai 1978). In West Bengal
basin (1.8 m radius from bole) is found to be adequate for where the pH ranged from 4.9 to 5.0, highly deficient
optimum nutrition with reference to N. Soil P level of 10 gardens showing symptoms of crown choking recorded
ppm (Bray-1) can sustain sufficient level of P in palm and 0.19 ppm B and in healthy gardens the boron level was
50-68 ppm of soil available K was observed as critical 0.22 ppm (Baranwal et al. 1989). Studies carried out in
limit (Khan et al. 1986). It has been recommended that CPCRI (RS) Kayangulam showed that boron deficiency
when the available soil P (Bray-I) in the 0-90 cm soil is causes reduction in coconut productivity and the deficiency
less than 10 ppm the full recommended dose of 320g P2O5, could be cured by the application of 300 and 500g borax
and if it is between 10 and 20 ppm, a maintenance dose per palm per year in two split doses for seedlings and adult
of 160g P2O5/ppm/year may be applied. If it is more than palms, respectively. The deficiency symptoms associated
20 ppm, P application can be skipped. A foliar content of with B were completely recovered by borax application
0.11-0.12% P (frond 14) can be regarded as critical for (Kamalakshi amma et al. 2002). In Asom also deficiency of
coconut under Indian conditions (Khan et al. 1990). A B symptoms were recovered by the application of borax in
nutrient spray to the foliage will provide the needed nutrients the farmers field (Indrajit Barman et al. 2008). Micronutrient
immediately, allowing the plants to begin growth. Under deficiency (Cu and Zn) was observed in Coconut Rapid
certain conditions, foliar application is considered better than Decline (CRD) disorder affected palms. Two years after
conventional soil application (Malhotra 2016) like; acute micronutrient or common salt treatment, number of total
shortage of nutrient supply, nutrient imbalances, nutrient fronds and functional green fronds in the canopy were
either absent or immobilized and nutrient imbalances. increased. The stomatal diffusive resistance of these palms
Regarding the critical limits of leaf nutrient status, was also reduced after two years showing an improvement
Cecil (1984) suggested 0.3% Ca in frond 14 as critical level in palm water status (Wijebandara and Ranasinghe 2004).
for regulating the Ca requirement of the palm under West The optimum nutrient requirement for individual nutrients
Coast conditions of India. Cecil (1981, 1988) suggested that can vary over a considerable range, depending upon factors
a critical level of 1.8-2.0% N, 0.12% P, 0.8-1.0% K, 0.3% such as the age of the palms, soil moisture regime, ratio
Ca, 0.2% Mg and 0.15% S (frond 14) may be adopted as to other nutrient concentrations type of planting material
a diagnostic aid for regulating nutrition of the palm under etc., (Fairhurst 2003). Hence, the optimum leaf nutrient
West Coast condition of India. Pillai et al. (1975) reported concentration must be determined for each agro-ecological
mean values of 6.5 – 7.7 ppm Cu and 8.8 – 11.9 ppm Zn. environment taking local soil and climate conditions into
The critical limit of leaf N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S was estimated considerations.
for the coastal sandy soil track of Odisha by Acharya and
Dash (2006). They reported that the critical limits were 1.52 Biomass recycling and INM
to 1.54, 0.134 to 0.135, 1.20 to 1.23, 0.36, 0.24 to 0.25 and Recyclable biomass in the form of leaves, spathe,
0.116 to 0.118% respectively for leaf N, P, K, Ca, Mg and bunch waste, husk of nuts are available in coconut garden.
S. Similarly the critical limits for the micronutrients were Along with this, biomass from other annuals and perennials
310 to 315, 310 to 315, 7.2 to 7.3 and 18.7 to 19.0 ppm grown as inter/mixed crops in the coconut gardens can also
for Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, respectively. be recycled. When animal components are included in the
Leaf analysis enables us to directly measure the coconut mixed farming system, more biomass with varying
nutritional status of the palms then nutrient supply can be nutrient status are available. The natural decomposition
adjusted to bring the levels of nutrients in the tissues back of organic by-products resulting from coconut cultivation
to within the determined limits. It is difficult to define and the nutrient release is very slow due to the presence
standard nutrient contents with wide application because of of lignin and polyphenols in it. At CPCRI, scientists have
variations due to climate, soil condition, crop management identified a local strain of earthworm related to African Night
etc., hence it is appropriate to define the optimum nutrient Crawler (Eudrilus sp.) which is quite efficient in converting
level for a particular cultivar in a closely defined condition. coconut leaves into granular vermicompost (Prabhu et al.
The critical limits worked out by the IRHO for the West 1998). Hence, biomass recycling through vermicomposting
African Tall palms using the 14th leaf were 1.8 – 2.0% N, is an efficient method of coconut waste recycling. Coconut
0.12% P, 0.8–1.0% K, 0.50% Ca, 0.30% Mg, 50 ppm Fe leaves vermicompost has C: N ratio of 9.95, 1.8% N, 0.21%
and 60 ppm Mn (Thampan 1982). The sulphur content in P and 0.16% K and organic carbon content of 17.84. The
the sixth leaf from the apex of coconut palms was found clear brown coloured liquid collected after the passage
to be the most sensitive index to sulphur (De Silva et al. of water through a column of actively vermicomposting
1985). The critical nutrient concentration range for B in the substrate with earthworms is the vermiwash. Coconut leaf
8
vermiwash is alkaline and contains N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn along with 50% of recommended NPK has resulted in higher
in appreciable quantities. It also has sugars, amino acids, and nut yield (Maheswarappa et al. 2011).
phenols along with the plant growth promoting hormones Coconut based cropping systems (CBCS): The most
viz. indole acetic acid, gibberellic acid and humic acid. important challenges in soil health management are the
Fresh vermiwash harbours a large number of fluorescent availability of the organic manure in situ. The high cost of
pseudomonad bacteria that help in plant growth promotion external organic manure input considerably increases the cost
and protection (Gopal et al. 2007). of production of the produce which hinders the interest of
Mimosa invisa and Calopogonium mucunoides grown as the farmer to apply organic manure as per the recommended
cover crop in 1.8 m radius basin area surrounding the palm soil health management practices to improve the soil health.
can produce 20.5 and 12.8 kg of above-ground wet biomass In this context, CBCS which involves cultivating compatible
and 134.8 g N and 70.0 g N per basin, respectively, when crops in the interspaces of coconut offers a plenty of biomass
harvested after 140 days growth for incorporation. Higher available in situ to meet the organic matter requirement to
N2-fixation efficiency is shown by M. invisa as evidenced maintain the soil health in a very economically profitable
by nodule biomass and acetylene reduction activity of the manner. Hence, this system offers a very practical solution
nodulated root system (George V. Thomas et al. 2001). to the challenges of the soil health management.
Growing Cowpea as low cost green manure crop in the (i) Effect on soil moisture: Water requirement of any
basins of coconut and its nutrient contribution and organic crop is very much influenced by the evaporative demand of
matter has been studied in coconut basins in root (wilt) the climate. When other crops are introduced under coconuts
affected garden and in HDMSCS garden (Maheswarappa there will be a perceptible change in the microclimate of
et al. 2003). Their study reported that, cowpea has added the area favouring a reduced rate of evapotranspiration.
24.6 kg of fresh biomass in the coconut basin which in Consequently, the overall water use efficiency increases
turn contributed 134, 12.3 and 113.7 g NPK per basin in a multi-cropping system and under certain situation, the
area. Application of Glyricidia as green manure increased combined water requirement of all the crops in the system
available soil nitrogen which is higher than the application may remain almost the same to that of coconut alone in
of inorganic manure alone but did not show any significant the same area (Thampan 1981). In a mixed cropping trial
effect on available soil phosphorus and potassium. The conducted at the CPCRI, Kasaragod, India, involving a crop
highest yield was observed where 50% N was substituted combination of coconut, cocoa, pepper and pineapple, the
through Glyricidia along with 50% of N, full dose of P and observation over a period of seven years revealed that there
K through chemical fertilizers (Subramanian et al. 2005). was considerable reduction in the irrigation requirement
Application of recommended dose of chemical once the crop-mix got established. Crop growth and
fertilizers with 20 kg of organics resulted in 60% increased productivity were not affected when irrigation was given
nut yield over control (Srinivasa Reddy and Upadhyay 2002). at wider intervals as compared to the frequency adopted
Application of 50% of N as composted coir pith along with during the initial years of the trial (Nelliat 1978). Beneficial
50% of recommended dose of chemical fertilizers recorded changes in ecoclimatic parameters have been reported in
higher nut yield. Application of 100% composted coir pith/ coconut+cocoa combination compared to monocrop (Nair
palm/year on N basis or application of 50% composted coir and Balakrishnan 1977). The crop mixes recorded lower
pith + 50% of recommended dose N, P205 chemical fertilizers mean maximum temperature, higher relative humidity and
was optimum for getting maximum nut yield (Venkitasamy reduced evaporative demand. Varghese et al. (1978) have
and Khan 2002). Field experiment on studying the effect reported that soil temperature at 30 and 60 cm depths was
of application of composted coir pith (CCP) alone and in 3° to 6°C lower and the variation in the mean monthly soil
combination with NPK (50%) resulted in the increase in temperature was the least in the mixed cropping system of
organic carbon of the soil and higher K content of coconut coconut+cocoa compared to the monoculture of coconut.
leaf. The nut yield produced with the application of CCP (ii) Effect on soil fertility: The importance of intensive
+NPK was significantly higher compared to other treatments cropping lies in the nutrient economy as the extensive
(Upadhyay et al. 2009). cover in the plantation floor increases the plant recycling
The effect of integrated nutrient management on COD × fraction of nutrients (Khanna and Nair 1977). Therefore,
WCT hybrid coconut with different combinations and three the nutrient requirement of the crops should be met with an
levels each of N (0, 500, 1 000 g/palm/year, where 50% N appropriate INM practice tailor made based on the nutrient
was substituted by vermicompost on N equal nutrient basis supply from the soil and through biomass recycling in the
was studied. The highest average nut yield of 111nuts/palm/ system. Hence, it is necessary that the dose of inorganic
year and benefit cost ratio of 2.02 were recorded in the fertilizers recommended for each crop should be adjusted
treatment N1P2K2 (500 g N wherein 50% N substituted by within the INM practice in order to maintain the soil fertility
vermicompost, 500 g P2O5 and 2 000 g K2O/palm/year). and productivity of the crops in the system. The amount of
The integrated nutrient treatments improved the soil pH, shed leaves collected in one year period is 818 kg and 1,785
organic carbon content, available N, P and K content of the kg/ha/year (oven dry), respectively, under single and double
soil and the leaf NPK status (Nath et al. 2012). Influence hedge systems of cocoa. The recycling of the biomass in
of 25 or 50% of N equivalent in the form of vermicompost the system improved the organic carbon content and the
9
soil fertility considerably under the mixed crop and was incorporation of local variety of green manure cowpea (Vigna
reflected in the enhanced yield of coconut. Based on the unguiculata L. Walp.) raised in the palm basin. The results
nutrient composition of the cocoa leaves, under the double showed an increase of 17% in yield in palms receiving both
hedge system, about 50 kg N, 11 kg P2O5 and 35 kg K2O/ fertilizers and organic manures compared to 7% increase
ha/year were returned to the soil through leaf fall (Varghese in palms receiving only fertilizers (Krishnakumar and
et al. 1978). In coconut based HDMSCS (Coconut based Maheswarappa 2010). The HDMSCS in root (wilt) affected
high density multispecies cropping system), the recyclable region having various component crops such as elephant
biomass available is the highest under INM practices foot yam, pineapple, banana, black pepper and nutmeg
comprising 2/3rd of recommended fertiliser and biomass were raised as component crops with coconut. The overall
recycling treatment in different crops compared to the coconut yield under the system improved by around 17 %
other fertilizer treatments (Subramanian et al. 2005). Under during the fourth year of experiment when compared to the
coconut root (wilt) affected garden also Maheswarappa initial yield of 53 nuts/palm due to the management practices
(2008) reported considerable biomass from the cropping including recycling of organic biomass produced through
system including weed biomass, which can be recycled in vermicomposting and basin raising and incorporation of
the form of vermicompost. green manure crop (Maheswarappa 2008 and Krishnakumar
Research findings have indicated that under coconut et al. 2011).
based HDMSCS and mixed farming systems, pepper Coconut based integrated farming system: In addition
variety Panniyur 1, clove and pineapple performed better to inorganic inputs, the components of the system, viz.
under 2/3rd recommended fertilizer dose (CPCRI 2004, the animal activities viz., the animal activities contribute
Palaniswami et al. 2007, Reddy et al. 2002). Yield of considerable quantities of animal biomass in the form of
coconut (Laccadive Ordinary) was the highest when INM cow dung, poultry manure and urine and cowshed washings.
comprising 50% through organic waste recycling and 50% Cowdung alone accounts for 14 tonnes, contributing to 98
of recommended dose through fertilizers were applied kg nitrogen, 70 kg phosphorus and 105 kg potash. Similarly
compared to only inorganic or organic sources were poultry droppings recycled in to the system. Vermicompost
used (Maheswarappa et al. 2001). Similarly when Bajra with 1.8 % N, 0.3% P and 0.6 % K can be produced with
Napier hybrid CO 3 grown as intercrop in coconut garden 70% recovery from 2.1 tonnes of coconut leaflets produced
under red sandy loam soil resulted in significantly higher in the system. This can supply 155.1 kg nitrogen, 76.7
fodder yield with the application of 50% NPK through kg phosphorus and 141 kg potash. The requirement of
vermicompost and farmyard manure + 50% NPK through inorganic inputs for one ha of coconut, fodder grass unit
chemical fertilizer and was comparable with fully organic viz., 210 kg N, 38.5 kg P and 173.8 kg K, respectively, can
treatments and significantly differed from only chemical be supplemented to the extent of 74.29, 100 and 81.78 % of
fertilizers application (Subramanian et al. 2014). N. P, and K through recycling of animal and plant wastes
The Hybrid Napier grass NB 21 and Guinea grass in one hectare of coconut garden. The coir pith bedding
(Panicum maximum)is most productive under coconut, material enriched with poultry droppings in the poultry sheds
can add 50 tonnes of green fodder to the system per had 1.85 % N, 2.04 % P and 1.87% K and was recycled in
ha per year and also it can withstand prolonged cloudy the sytem. By recycling on farm wastes, chemical fertilizer
weather prevailing in Malabar region during the rainy requirement is drastically reduced. In addition to this the soil
season (Maheswarappa et al. 2001). In coastal sandy soil health can be improved and productivity can be sustained
when hybrid bajra napier grown as intercrop with moisture (Khan et al. 2002, Maheswarappa et al. 1998 and 1999).
conservation measures resulted in the green fodder yield Apart from improving the soil nutrient status, biomass
of 92 t/ha/year (Subramanian et al. 2009). Investigation recycling in the mixed farming system generally improves
was carried out to study the impact of inorganic fertilizer soil physical properties besides improving the productivity
substitutions by vermicompost on productivity of coconut of coconut. Improvement in soil physical properties was
under laterite soil. Among different combinations, application observed by adopting mixed farming system. There was
of vermicompost in combination with inorganic fertilizer build up of organic carbon, N, P, K and Fe status in soil
either at 25 % Vermicompost (VC) + 75 % NPK (65 nuts) whereas there was decrease in the available Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu
or 50 % VC + 50 % NPK resulted in significantly higher and zinc. The leaf nutrient status and yield was observed to
nut yield (Maheswarappa et al. 2011). Nutrient management be improved (Maheswarappa et al. 1998 and Subramanian
for intercropping Heliconia stricta in the coconut garden et al. 2014). Studies conducted at CPCRI kasaragod under
was studied. Out of five treatment combinations it was coconut grass system where recycling of organic wastes was
found that application of vermicompost @ 200 g/plant + carried out and the results revealed that there was enrichment
neem cake @100 g/plant is the best treatment for Heliconia of organic carbon, nitrogen, manganese and copper in the
stricta cv. Iris (Nihad et al. 2013). surface soil, whereas potassium, calcium, phosphorus and
On root (wilt) disease affected coconut palms of West magnesium were on net loss over control (Biddappa et al.
Coast Tall variety the effect of applying full dose of fertilizers 1993). Increase in maximum water holding capacity
(500:300:1000 g NPK/palm/year) was compared with 50 of soil (24.0 to 33.6%), improvement in porosity of
% fertilizers + organic manures as vermicompost and soil (38.2 and 39%, 44.5 and 46.0%) and reduction in
10
bulk density of soil (1.54 g/cc to 1.40 g/cc) both in solubilizing bacteria were more in the mixed farming system
coconut manuring circles (basins) and grass cultured plot as compared to coconut monocropping system. Addition of
was noticed under mixed farming treatments compared to dairy and poultry wastes resulted in higher organic carbon
monocropping of coconut (Palaniswami et al. 2008). (%) content of the soil in the mixed farming system which
favours beneficial microbial. Urease, dehydrogenase and
Soil rhizosphere management phosphatase enzyme found to be greater in the rhizosphere
Addition of organic manures like vermicompost, coir soil than in the root zone soil which indicates that the soil
pith compost, farmyard manure, neem cake, green manures biological activity is good under mixed farming system.
etc., favours the growth of beneficial microorganisms Increase in microbial population under integrated farming
like nitrogen fixers, phosphate solubilizing bacteria in the system has been reported by Subramanian et al. (2014).
rhizosphere as well as VA-mycorrhizal colonization in the Even under coconut root (wilt) affected condition,
coconut rhizosphere and these organic manures can be compared to monocrop, coconut intercropped with fodder
applied along with biofertilizers. Coir-pith compost and hybrid enhanced phosphate solubilizing bacteria in root
other coconut wastes enriched with nitrogen-fixing bacteria region of the palm (Potty and Jayasankar 1976, Potty et
like Beijerinckia indica and also phosphate-solubilizing al.1977). Increase in the beneficial microflora was observed
bacteria, improves the microbial activity in coconut basins. in the root (wilt) affected area while adopting mixed farming
The recommended dose of biofertilizers for coconut is 100g practice. The highest number of soil bacteria was observed in
of carrier based inoculant per palm. Biofertilizers should be Stylosanthes gracilis plots. But the nitrogen fixing organisms
applied in the coconut basin, twice in a year (pre- and post- were maximum in the hybrid napier + Centrocema pubescens
monsoon), by mixing with top soil followed by application plots. With low level of denitrifiers and comparatively high
of organic amendments such as vermicompost @20 kg/palm proliferation of nitrifiers observed in the hybrid napier +
(Alka Gupta et al. 2010). Zaidi et al. (2009) reported that S. gracilis combination proved to be the best among other
among the heterogeneous and naturally abundant microbes combinations (Sahasranaman et al. 1983). Higher microbial
inhabiting the rhizosphere, the phosphate solubilizing biomass carbon and dehydrogenase activity observed in the
microorganisms (PSM) including bacteria have potential root zone of coconut/ Napier grass in the mixed farming
to meet the P demands of plants in sustainable agriculture. than in coconut in the monocropping system. The microbial
Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms were found to be distribution in the coconut basin and the interspaces in
widely distributed in coconut growing soils (Thomas et al. the coconut garden showed that all the three microbial
1991) and the predominant bacteria solubilizing phosphate population bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes were found
in coconut soils were Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. to be very high in the mixed farming with 100% organic
(Nair and Subba Rao 1977). farming treatment followed by the 50% organic substituted
Associative N2 fixing Azospirillum spp. was found treatment and the population was low in inorganic fertilizer
colonising the roots of coconut and black pepper in alone applied treatments (Palaniswami et al. 2008).
varying intensities under different cropping systems such A study conducted to isolate and identify spore associated
as HDMSCS, multi-storeyed cropping and mixed farming bacteria (SAB) and evaluate their functional role in AMF-
(Ghai and Thomas 1989). They exhibited significant level of host interactions with respect to germination of spores in
nitrogenase activity therby contributes substantial amounts coconut based cropping systems under organic management
of nitrogen to the cropping system by way of biological practices in farmer’s field in Kasaragod district, Kerala and
nitrogen fixation. The isolates from coconut roots were high density multi-species cropping system (HDMSCS),
identified as Azospirillum brasilense and those from black CPCRI farm. The results revealed that AMF spore load of
pepper as Azospirillum lipoferum. A species of Beijerinckia a particular cropping system increase with the number of
was found to be the dominant N-fixing bacterium in the intercrops. Spore associated bacteria (SAB) were isolated
rhizospheres of coconut and cocoa as well as on the root from the cytoplasm of surface sterilized spores of Glomus
surface. A Pseudomonas sp. and Aspergillus niger isolated and Gigaspora spp. Identification based on BIOLOG and
from coconut rhizosphere have the ability to solubilise 16S rRNA sequencing revealed the presence of bacteria -
tricalcium phosphate. An isolate of Escherichia sp. was Citrobacter amalonaticus, Staphylococcus arlettae, Bacillus
found closely associated with the root surface. Two isolates, subtilis, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, in association with
Aspergillus flavus and A. fumigatus, produced Gibberellin spores of Glomus spp. In vitro studies to determine the
like substances (GLS) (Nair and Rao 1977a and b). germination potential in spores showed the maximum results
Bopaiah and Shetty (1991) found that bacterial counts with Bacillus cereus GiPHD1 and Citrobacter amalonaticus
were higher in the roots of coconut and Napier grass of mixed GLNCB1 with 40% increase over control (Ambili et al. 2012).
farming than in coconut monocropping. The microcroflora Maheswarappa et al. (2014) have reported higher population
and enzyme activities decrease with increasing depth. The of fungi and phosphate solubilizers in the vermicompost
bacteria and fungi counts were more in the root region of treated rhizosphere of coconut basin. In the rhizosphere of
grass-cultured plots compared but the actinomycetes count vanilla grown as intercrop in coconut under different organic
did not show much variation between mixed farming and manure application, no significant difference for either
monocropping system. The nitrogen fixer and phosphate bacterial or actinomycetes population was noticed among the
11
treatments. The fungal population differed significantly among management strategy. Identifying spatial variability in soil
the treatments and the highest population level was found with fertility is important to rationalize nutrient use and optimize
application of biogas slurry (62.1×103 cfu/g soil), which was productivity especially in the case of existing perennial
on par with application of cow dung slurry (59×103 cfu/g plantations like coconut.
soil). The highest population of P-solubilizers (98×103 cfu/g A survey to assess and map the soil fertility status
soil) was recorded in the biogas slurry treatment, and it was was carried out in the coconut plantations of Coimbatore
the lowest in control and vermiwash application treatments and Tiruppur districts of Tamil Nadu state, India. The
(Maheswarappa et al. 2016). developed maps showed that 62 and 30 % of soils of
coconut land cover found to be in moderately alkaline and
Organic farming strategies alkaline conditions respectively. Around 96% area was
Organic farming has been driven mainly by the growing in non-saline condition. Organic carbon status was low
consumer demand for organic produces and also the growing in 65% of the coconut land cover. Available N, P, and K
interest in the soil health management to improve and were low in 65, 0.8 and 0.02% area, respectively, and S
sustain the productivity of the soil. The fundamental target was deficient in 0.05% area. Fe deficiency was recorded
on the organic farming is to produce crop with minimal in 7% of the area and there was no Mn deficiency in the
or no synthetic chemical inputs. The basic concept in study area. Available Zn, Cu and B were deficient in 89,
nutrient management under organic farming is to efficiently 62 and 5% area, respectively. Leaf nutrient testing will
manage the natural resources available in the farm through be a promising tool to identify the existing crop nutrition
biomass and animal waste recycling and soil nutrient release related constraints in the perennial plantations like coconut
through biological agents, addition of nutrients through and site-specific nutrient management options to improve
biological nutrient fixers etc. Among the different sources the crop productivity. The nutrient deficiency maps were
of organic manures studied on the performance of vanilla developed for macro and micronutrient management.
crop grown as intercrop in coconut the results revealed Thematic maps showed that N status was deficient in
that, application of cow dung slurry (6 tonnes/ha) resulted 95.99%, P in 86.19%, K in 1.42% and Mg in 0.81% area
with significantly higher mean vanilla fresh yield of bean of the coconut land cover area. Ca and S were observed to
followed by the application of vermicompost (5 kg/plant) be sufficient. Fe was found to be deficient in 0.64%, Mn
+ biofertilizers (Bacillus and Azospirillum) and vermiwash in 0.84, Zn in 0.54%, Cu status in 2.62% and B in 10.72%
which were on par (Maheswarappa et al. 2016). Effect of of the coconut land cover area (Selvamani 2014a and b).
different nutrient management strategies were studied in Micronutrients play a significant role in nutrition of
the HDMSCS model comprising coconut, black pepper, coconut plants. There are reported incidents of Copper
pineapple, banana, clove, annual crops like, turmeric, ginger (Cu) and Zinc (Zn) deficiency in the coconut triangle in
and vegetable crops (brinjal, pumpkin, and elephant foot Sri Lanka. A study was conducted to determine the Cu
yam), sweet corn and baby corn which were grown in the and Zn contents in soil and coconut leaves in the coconut
space available during different seasons. Three treatments, triangle. The results revealed that, 72.27 and 37.96% soil
viz. T1: 2/3rd of recommended NPK fertilizer + recycling samples were below the critical Cu level of 0.4 mg/kg and
biomass (vermicompost), T2: 1/3rd of recommended NPK Zn level of 0.5 mg/kg, respectively. Moreover, 68% and
fertilizer + recycling biomass (vermicompost) + biofertilizer 84% leaf samples were below the critical Cu level of 5
+ green manuring +vermiwash and T3: Fully organic with mg/kg and Zn level of 30 mg/kg, respectively. There was
recycling biomass (vermicompost) + biofertilizer + green a significant positive correlation (p<0.05) between soil
manuring + vermiwash+ husk burial + mulching coconut pH and Zn content in top and sub-soils. Cu content in top
basin were tested. coconut yield indicated non significant soil showed a significant positive correlation with organic
difference among the treatments. Hence, fully organic carbon content (P<0.05). Therefore, Cu and Zn levels in
nutrient management could produce comparably similar some of the areas in the coconut triangle, are deficient and
yield of inorganic fertilized plots and the highest economic the availability of these nutrients depend on pH and organic
return (Maheswarappa et al. 2013). Application of nutrients carbon of the soil (Jayasinghe et al. 2014).
through organic sources in coconut based integrated SOIL QUALITY MANAGEMENT FOR THE
farming resulted in increase in the microbial population ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
(Subramanian et al. 2014). The coconut based farming systems serves as a buffer
against drastic changes in ecoclimate which will have
Site-specific nutrient management considerable effect on the various biological processes
In agriculture, the present goal of sustainable high occurring in the rhizosphere of crops (Nair and Balakrishnan
productive agriculture needs scientific management of 1977, Varghese et al. 1978). The direct percolation loss
the soil resources for the agricultural growth to ensure of 113.8 kg K/ha in a pure stand of coconut is reduced to
food security for now and in future. Factors affecting crop 54.5 kg/ha in the case of crop combinations. The better
yield and quality are site specific (Reetz and Fixen 2000). exploration of the soil volume by roots in crop combination
Spatially and temporally dynamic soil management practices may possibly reduce the loss of nutrients through percolating
are two important factors in a successful site-specific water (Khanna and Nair 1977).
12
Erosion Khan 1985). Deposition of heavy metals was observed in

An experiment conducted at CPCRI Research Centre, root (wilt) diseased palms in the studies using scanning
Kidu at an elevation of 219 m above MSL and has a slope of electron x-ray microprobe analyzer (Biddappa and Cecil
12-16 %. The average rainfall received at the experimental 1984 and Biddappa 1985). High deposition of AI, Mn, Cu,
location was around 4 000 mm to study the effectiveness and Co in the roots and Cr, Ti, Pb, Bl and Ga in the cabbage
of various soil and water conservation measures like half tissues of diseased palms was also found in comparison
moon type with pineapple border, Catch pit with pineapple with the identical tissues of healthy palms. Valiathan et
border, trench filled with coconut husk with 2 lines of al. (1992) reported lower level of magnesium and higher
pineapple+border, drip irrigation daily @ 66% of EO concentrations of cerium in the leaves of root (wilt) diseased
for coconut with grass in the interspace, cover crop with coconut palms. The possibility of Cd and Sr toxicity was
vegetables and irrigation as per farmers practice with grass ruled out in the disease complex (Verghese et al. 1957, 1959).
in the inter-space. Runoff is one of the ways the nutrients Studies involving the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence
are lost from the plantations. In coconut plantations it was technique in the non-nutrient elemental composition of
observed that trench filled with coconut husk with 2 lines soil (0-30 cm) and plant tissues of healthy and root (wilt)
of pineapple border recorded the lowest soil erosion (0.20 diseased palms from a few selected locations indicated that
t/ha) and runoff (18.45 mm). The runoff ranged from 18.45 Ni and Sr were present at a higher concentration in the root
mm in trench filled with coconut husk with two lines of of diseased palms compared to healthy (Wahid et al. 1983).
pineapple border to 237.49 mm in absolute control treatment. Foliar levels of rare earth elements Gadolinium (Gd) was
The runoff water analysis observed that mean content of significantly less in palms of root (wilt) disease affected
NPK were ranged from 1.57 – 3.81, 0.11 –5.27 and 5- 12 tract than in those of healthy tract (Wahid et al. 1998).
ppm NPK, respectively. The sediment yield varied from 300
ppm to 2 986 ppm. The nutrient loss ranged from 0.36 kg/ Carbon sequestration
ha to 7.98 kg/ha N, 0 .04 kg/ha to 12.52 kg/ha P and 1.11 Climate change will affect coconut through higher
kg/ha to 28.50 kg/ha K. The least soil loss was observed in temperatures, elevated CO2 concentration, precipitation
the treatment, husk filled in trench with pineapple border. changes, increased weeds, pest, and disease pressure, and
The highest runoff was observed under the control treatment increased vulnerability of organic carbon pools. But, yields
where no conservation measures were taken up (7.23 t/ha) are projected to go up in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
followed by the vegetable intercrop. The soil loss observed Maharashtra (Das et al. 2016, Malhotra 2017). Apart from
under grass plots was in the medium range compared to this, coconut plantations especially under coconut based
different treatments, which may be attributed to the soil cropping system are a prominent system to sequester the
disturbance for fertilizer/ manure application to the grass. carbon in the above ground standing biomass as well as in
Among the different treatments, husk filled in trench with the belowground. Carbon sequestration in the soil organic
pineapple border was observed to be the best in soil and carbon pool is appreciable in the coconut based cropping
water conservation measure. The cultural operation where system. Increased sequestration of C in agricultural soils has
soil is disturbed increases the soil loss during the monsoon a potential role to reduce the climate change caused by the
season (Dhanapal et al. 2002). rising atmospheric carbon level. Evaluating the best crop
management practices that can enhance soil organic carbon
Pollution (SOC) sequestration will improve the amount of carbon
Toxic levels of non essential trace elements like Al, fixed as SOC. Moreover, increased SOC improves soil
Ba, Cd, Cr and Pb would interfere with the plant nutrition structure, fertility, and water-holding capacity and thereby
through competition for uptake, inactivation of enzyme, enhances and sustains the soil health and crop productivity.
displacement of essential elements from functional sites In the integrated nutrient management experiment, after
(Epstein 1969). Heavy metals interact with micronutrients organic recycling, builtup of soil carbon in coconut basin
at the solution phase and root surface or at the translocation was observed (Palaniswami et al. 2010).
phase from roots to leaf. The influence of root feeding of Investigation was conducted at Horticulture Research
Cd, Al, Cr, Ba, Bi and Pb on the micronutrient concentration Station, Arasikere, Karnataka, during kharif and summer
in coconut crown was studied by Biddappa et al. (1988). seasons of 2012-14 to study the performance of different
They observed that in general, the concentration of Fe, cropping sequences with vegetable crops and integrated
Mn, Zn and Cu increased due to heavy metal root feeding. nutrient management practices on soil carbon sequestration
Significant higher concentration of Fe in coconut leaf was and above ground carbon sequestration under coconut based
observed under Cr root feeding. Similarly increase in leaf cropping system (CBCS). The study revealed that carbon
Mn due to Bi, leaf Zn due to Ba and leaf Cu due to Pb root sequestration by coconut palm (above ground) was the
feedings were also recorded. highest under CBCS when compared to monocropping.
The heavy metal status of coconut growing soils Soil carbon sequestration recorded at 0-15 cm depth was
of Kerala showed significantly higher content of DTPA significantly the highest under S4 treatment (Organic
extractable Ba, Cr, Cd, Pb, Sr and V in soils under coconut alone-5 tonnes FYM+50% N by vermicompost+50%N
root (wilt) disease compared to healthy area (Biddappa and by CCP+vermiwash spray + Azotobacter) (10.30 Mg C/
13
ha, and 10.74 Mg C/ha during 2012-13 and 2-13-14) and Plantation Crops 17(2): 114–20.
M2S4 interactions (green manure-cucumber and organic Basavaraju T B, Bhagya H P, Prashanth M, Arulraj S and
alone) (11.56 Mg C/ha) when compared to other treatments Maheswarappa H P. 2014. Effect of fertigation on the
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Research Review Article

Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 87 (6): 711–26, June 2017/Article

Diagnosis and management of soil fertility constraints in coconut

ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala 671 124

Received: 3 December 2016; Accepted: 5 March 2017

Erosion Khan 1985). Deposition of heavy metals was observed in

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