OMD551 Basics of Biomedical Instrumentation Department of ECE/EEE 2019-2020

Unit 3 : SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Need for bio-amplifier - differential bio-amplifier, Impedance matching circuit, isolation

amplifiers, Power line interference, Right leg driven ECG amplifier, Band pass filtering

Bio signals are recorded as potentials, voltages, and electrical field strengths
generated by nerves and muscles. The measurements involve voltages at very low levels,
typically ranging between 1 μV and 100 mV, with high source impedances and
superimposed high level interference signals and noise. The signals need to be amplified
to make them compatible with devices such as displays, recorders, or A/D converters for
computerized equipment. Amplifiers adequate to measure these signals have to satisfy
very specific requirements. They have to provide amplification selective to the
physiological signal, reject superimposed noise and interference signals, and guarantee
protection from damages through voltage and current surges for both patient and
electronic equipment. Amplifiers featuring these specifications are known as biopotential
amplifiers
.
Why is Bio Amplifier Required?

Generally, biological/bioelectric signals have low amplitude and low frequency.

Therefore, to increase the amplitude level of biosignals amplifiers are designed. The
outputs from these amplifiers are used for further analysis and they appear as ECG,
EMG, or any bioelectric waveforms. Such amplifiers are defined as Bio Amplifiers or
Biomedical Amplifiers.

Types of Bio Amplifiers

1. Differential Amplifier
2. Operational Amplifier
3. Instrumentation Amplifier
4. Chopper Amplifier
5. Isolation Amplifier

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OMD551 Basics of Biomedical Instrumentation Department of ECE/EEE 2019-2020

Basic Requirements for Biological Amplifiers

1. The biological amplifier should have a high input impedance value. The range of
value lies between 2 MΩ and 10 MΩ depending on the applications. Higher
impedance value reduces distortion of the signal.
2. When electrodes pick up biopotentials from the human body, the input circuit
should be protected. Every bio-amplifier should consist of isolation and protection
circuits, to prevent the patients from electrical shocks.
3. Since the output of a bioelectric signal is in millivolts or microvolt range,
the voltage gain value of the amplifier should be higher than 100dB.
4. Throughout the entire bandwidth range, a constant gain should be maintained.
5. A bio-amplifier should have a small output impedance.
6. A good bio-amplifier should be free from drift and noise.
7. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) value of amplifier should be greater than
80dB to reduce the interference from common mode signal.
8. The gain of the bio-amplifier should be calibrated for each measurement.

Differential Amplifier

Differential Amplifier is a device which is used to amplify the difference between the
voltages applied at its inputs. Such circuits can be of two types viz.,
1. Differential amplifiers built using transistors, either Bipolar Junction
Transistors(BJTs) or Field Effect Transistors (FETs)
2. Differential amplifiers built using Op-Amps.
Figure 1 shows such a circuit made of two BJTs (Q1 and Q2) and two power supplies of
opposite polarity viz., VCC and –VEE which uses three resistors among which two are the
collector resistors, RC1 and RC2 (one for each transistor) while one is the emitter resistor
RE common to both transistors.
Here the input signals (V1 and V2) are applied to the base of the transistors while the
output is collected across their collector terminals (Vo1 and Vo2).

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OMD551 Basics of Biomedical Instrumentation Department of ECE/EEE 2019-2020

In this case, if the V1 at Q1 is sinusoidal, then as V1 goes on increasing, the

transistor starts to conduct and this results in a heavy collector current IC1 increasing the
voltage drop across RC1, causing a decrease in Vo1. Due to the same effect, even IE1
increases which increases the common emitter current, IE resulting in an increase of
voltage drop across RE. This means that the emitters of both transistors are driven
towards positive which in turn implies that the base of Q2 would start to become more
and more negative. This result in a decrease of collector current, IC2 which inturn
decreases the voltage drop across the collector resistor RC2, resulting in an increase in
the output voltage Vo2.

Fig. 1 : Differential Bio Amplifier

This indicates that the changes in the sinusoidal signal observed at the input of transistor
Q1 is reflected as such across the collector terminal of Q2 and appear with a phase
difference of 180o across the collector terminal of Q1. The differential amplification can
be driven by considering the output in-between the collector terminals of the transistors,
Q1 and Q2.

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On the other hand, an Op-Amp operating in differential mode can readily act as a
differential amplifier as it results in an output voltage given by

Where V1 and V2 represent the voltages applied at its inverting and non-inverting
input terminals (can be taken in any order) and Ad refers to its differential gain. As per
this equation, the output of the OpAmp must be zero when the voltages applied at its
terminals are equal to each other. However practically it will not be so as the gain will not
be same for both of the inputs. Thus, in real scenario, the mathematical expression for the
output of the differential amplifier can be given as

Where AC is called the common mode gain of the amplifier. Thus, functionally-good
difference amplifiers are expected to exhibit a high common mode rejection ratio
(CMRR) and high impedance. However, it is to be noted that an Op-Amp can be suitably
configured to result in a much practical differential amplifier, as shown by Figure 2. If
closely observed, one can note that this circuit is just a combination of inverting and non-
inverting amplifier. Hence its output voltage will be equal to the sum of the output
voltages produced by the Op-Amp circuit operating as an inverting amplifier and the Op-
Amp circuit operating as a non-inverting amplifier. Thus, one gets,

Now, if R1 = R2 and R3 = Rf, then

This implies that the gain of the differential

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OMD551 Basics of Biomedical Instrumentation Department of ECE/EEE 2019-2020

In addition, it is to be noted that the basic circuit shown by Figure 2 can be modified in
many ways resulting in various circuit designs including Wheatstone bridge differential
amplifier, light activated differential amplifier and instrumentation amplifier. These
devices are used as motor and/or servo controllers, signal amplifiers, analog multipliers,
switches, volume controllers, automatic gain controllers, amplitude modulators, etc. and
cover a wide range of applications including those in instrumentation systems,
microphones, analog to digital converters and myriad applications.
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Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): The ratio between the amplitude of a
common mode signal and the amplitude of a differential signal that would produce the
same output amplitude or as the ratio of the differential gain over the common-mode
gain: CMRR = Ad/Ac. Expressed in decibels, the common mode rejection is 20 log10
CMRR. The common mode rejection is a function of frequency and source-impedance
unbalance.
Isolation Mode Rejection Ratio (IMRR): The ratio between the isolation voltage, VISO,
and the amplitude of the isolation signal appearing at the output of the isolation amplifier,
or as isolation voltage divided by output voltage VOUT in the absence of differential and

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common mode signal: IMRR = VISO /VOUT .

Operational Amplifier (op-amp): A very high gain dc-coupled differential amplifier with
single-ended output, high voltage gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance.
Due to its high open loop gain, the characteristics of an op-amp circuit only depend on its
feedback network. Therefore, the integrated circuit op-amp is an extremely convenient
tool for the realization of linear amplifier circuits.

Importance of Impedance Matching:

Impedance is the opposition by a system to the flow of energy from a source. For
constant signals, this impedance can also be constant. For varying signals, it usually
changes with frequency. The energy involved can
be electrical, mechanical, acoustic, magnetic, or thermal. The concept of electrical
impedance is perhaps the most commonly known. Electrical impedance, like electrical
resistance, is measured in ohms. In general, impedance has a complex value; this means
that loads generally have a resistance component which forms the real part of Z and
a reactance component which forms the imaginary part of Z.

Impedance matching to minimize reflections is achieved by making the load

impedance equal to the source impedance. If the source impedance, load impedance and
signal transmission characteristic impedance are purely resistive, then reflection-less
matching is the same as maximum power transfer matching. If the source has a reactive
component, but the load is purely resistive, then matching can be achieved by adding a
reactance of the same magnitude but opposite sign to the load. This simple matching
network, consisting of a single element, will usually achieve a perfect match at only a
single frequency. This is because the added element will either be a capacitor or an
inductor, whose impedance in both cases is frequency dependent, and will not, in general,
follow the frequency dependence of the source impedance. For
wide bandwidth applications, a more complex network must be designed.

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―Whenever a source of power with a fixed output impedance such as

an electric signal source, a radio transmitter or a mechanical sound (e.g., a loudspeaker)
operates into a load, the maximum possible power is delivered to the load when the
impedance of the load (load impedance or input impedance) is equal to the complex
conjugate of the impedance of the source‖. For two impedances to be complex conjugates
their resistances must be equal, and their reactances must be equal in magnitude but of
opposite signs. In low-frequency or DC systems (or systems with purely resistive sources
and loads) the reactances are zero, or small enough to be ignored. In this case, maximum
power transfer occurs when the resistance of the load is equal to the resistance of the
source. Impedance matching is not always necessary. For example, if a source with a low
impedance is connected to a load with a high impedance the power that can pass through
the connection is limited by the higher impedance. This maximum-voltage connection is
a common configuration called impedance bridging or voltage bridging, and is widely
used in signal processing. In such applications, delivering a high voltage (to minimize
signal degradation during transmission or to consume less power by reducing currents) is
often more important than maximum power transfer.

Bio electrodes use active amplification and filtering and can use voltage-bridging
connections for greatest accuracy. Strictly speaking, impedance matching only applies
when both source and load devices are linear; however, matching may be obtained
between nonlinear devices within certain operating ranges.

Impedance-matching devices
Adjusting the source impedance or the load impedance, in general, is called "impedance
matching". There are three ways to improve an impedance mismatch, all of which are
called "impedance matching":

 Devices intended to present an apparent load to the source of Zload = Zsource*

(complex conjugate matching). Given a source with a fixed voltage and fixed
source impedance, the maximum power theorem says this is the only way to
extract the maximum power from the source.

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 Devices intended to present an apparent load of Zload = Zline (complex impedance

matching), to avoid echoes. Given a transmission line source with a fixed source
impedance, this "reflectionless impedance matching" at the end of the
transmission line is the only way to avoid reflecting echoes back to the
transmission line.
 Devices intended to present an apparent source resistance as close to zero as
possible, or presenting an apparent source voltage as high as possible. This is the
only way to maximize energy efficiency, and so it is used at the beginning of
electrical power lines. Such an impedance bridging connection also
minimizes distortion and electromagnetic interference; it is also used in modern
audio amplifiers and signal-processing devices.
There are a variety of devices used between a source of energy and a load that
perform "impedance matching". To match electrical impedances, engineers use
combinations of transformers, resistors, inductors, capacitors and transmission lines..
Transformers
Transformers are sometimes used to match the impedances of circuits. A transformer
converts alternating current at one voltage to the same waveform at another voltage.
The power input to the transformer and output from the transformer is the same
(except for conversion losses). The side with the lower voltage is at low impedance
Resistive network
Resistive impedance matches are easiest to design and can be achieved with a
simple L pad consisting of two resistors. Power loss is an unavoidable consequence of
using resistive networks, and they are only (usually) used to transfer line level signals.
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Isolation Amplifier
Isolation amplifiers can be used to break ground loops, eliminate source ground
connections, and provide isolation protection to patient and electronic equipment. In a
biopotential amplifier, the main purpose of the isolation amplifier is the protection of the
patient by eliminating the hazard of electric shock resulting from the interaction among
patient, amplifier, and other electric devices in the patient’s environment, specifically
defibrillators and electrosurgical equipment. It also adds to the prevention of line
frequency interferences.

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Isolation amplifiers are realized in three different technologies: transformer

isolation, capacitor isolation, and opto-isolation. An isolation barrier provides a complete
galvanic separation of the input side, i.e., patient and preamplifier, from all equipment on
the output side. Ideally, there will be no flow of electric current across the barrier.

Figure 3: Isolation Amplifier

The isolation-mode voltage is the voltage which appears across the isolation
barrier, i.e., between the input common and the output common, the amplifier has to
withstand the largest expected isolation voltages without damage.
Two isolation voltages are specified for commercial isolation amplifiers:
(1) The continuous rating and (2) the test voltage.
To eliminate the need for longtime testing, the device is tested at about two times
the rated continuous voltage. Thus, for a continuous rating of 2000 V, the device has to be
tested at 4000 to 5000 V for a reasonable period of time. Since there is always some
leakage across the isolation barrier, the isolation mode rejection ratio (IMRR) is not
infinite. For a circuit as shown in Fig., the output voltage is

Where G is the amplifier gain, VD, VCM, and VISO are differential, common mode, and
isolation voltages, respectively, and CMRR is the common mode rejection ratio for the
amplifier. Typical values of IMRR for a gain of 10 are 140 dB at DC, and 120 dB at 60
Hz with a source unbalance of 5000 Ω. The isolation impedance is approximately 1.8 pF

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|| 1012 Ω
Transformer coupled isolation amplifiers perform on the basis of inductive
transmission of a carrier signal that is amplitude modulated by the biosignal. A
synchronous demodulator on the output port reconstructs the signal before it is fed
through a Bessel response low-pass filter to an output buffer. A power transformer,
generally driven by a 400 to 900 kHz square wave, supplies isolated power to the
amplifier. Optically coupled isolation amplifiers can principally be realized using only a
single LED and photodiode combination. While useful for a wide range of digital
applications, this design has fundamental limitations as to its linearity and stability as a
function of time and temperature. A matched photodiode design, as used in the Burr-
Brown 3650/3652 isolation amplifier, overcomes these difficulties. Operation of the
amplifier requires an isolated power supply to drive the input stages.
Transformer coupled low leakage current isolated DC/DC converters are
commonly used for this purpose. In some particular applications, especially in cases
where the signal is transmitted over a longer distance by fiber optics, e.g., ECG
amplifiers used for gated magnetic resonance imaging, batteries are used to power the
amplifier. Fiber optic coupling in isolation amplifiers is another option that offers the
advantage of higher flexibility in the placement of parts on the amplifier board.
Biopotential amplifiers have to provide sufficient protection from electrical shock to both
user and patient. Electrical-safety codes and standards specify the minimum safety
requirements for the equipment, especially the maximum leakage currents for chassis and
patient leads, and the power distribution system. Special attention to patient safety is
required in situations where biopotential amplifiers are connected to personal computers
which are more and more often used to process and store physiological signals and data.
Due to the design of the power supplies used in standard PCs permitting high leakage
currents—an inadequate situation for a medical environment—there is a potential risk
involved even when the patient is isolated from the PC through an isolation amplifier
stage or optical signal transmission from the amplifier to the computer. This holds
especially in those cases where, due to the proximity of the PC to the patient, an operator

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might touch patient and computer at the same time, or the patient might touch the
computer. It is required that a special power supply with sufficient limitation of leakage
currents is used in the computer, or that an additional, medical grade isolation transformer
is used to provide the necessary isolation between power outlet and PC.
Power Line Interference:
The power line interference of 50/60 Hz is the source of interference and it corrupt the
recordings of Electrocardiogram (ECG) which are extremely important for the diagnosis
of patients. The interference is caused by:
a. Electromagnetic interference by power line
b. electromagnetic field (EMF) by the machinery which is placed nearby. The signal
component holds harmonics with different amplitude and frequency. The harmonics
frequency is integral multiple of fundamental frequency such as 50Hz.
c. Stray effect of the alternating current fields due to loops in the cables
d. Improper grounding of ECG machine or the patient.
e. Electrical equipment such as air conditioner, elevators and X-ray units draw heavy
power line current, which induce 50 Hz signals in the input circuits of the ECG machine.

Figure 4: Power line Interference

The noise from electric power system is a major source of noise during the
recording or monitoring of ECG. Different noises have different frequencies. The noise
with low frequency is being problem with ECG signal as well as some time high
frequency noises also interfere ECG like mobile phone. If the physical or mathematical
variable changes rapidly then it can be high frequency and if it changes slowly then it
would be low frequency. If the variable does not change at all then it is said that it has

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zero frequency. Most of the electronic devices such as ECG, transmitter, receiver,
computer etc. get power from power line. The 50 Hz alternative current (AC) is reduced
in voltage, rectified and then filter to obtain low voltage direct current (DC). This is used
to give power to those electronic devices.
Right Leg Driven ECG
Common-mode rejection, or CMR, is one of the most important performance
parameters for ECG system applications. International standards set by organizations
such as the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI), the
International Electro technical Commission (IEC), and various medical authorities of
different countries specify the test methodology that must be followed in order to use
most ECG systems. In an ECG system, a large amount of electromagnetic interference
(EMI) is coupled to the patient’s body through the skin. EMI can also couple to the ECG
system through coupling capacitors C2 and CT as shown in Figure 5. Furthermore, It can
be coupled to the system through a power coupling capacitor, CC, and in some cases
through the long ECG signal measuring cables and protection circuitry that are usually
located in front of the ECG system. There can also be coupling from the ac power
supplies through coupling capacitor CCB to the cable. Capacitance CB is coupled
between ac ground and the ground of the ECG subsystem. The value of the entire system
CMR depends on the capacitance value of CB. By comparison, in the case of a perfectly
isolated system where there is no coupling between the grounds, the system would
exhibit very high CMRR.

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Figure 5 : Right Leg driven ECG

Band pass Filtering:
The Active Band Pass Filter is a frequency selective filter used in electronic systems to
separate a signal at one particular frequency, or a range of signals that lie within a certain ―band‖
of frequencies from signals at all other frequencies. This band or range of frequencies is set
between two cut-off or corner frequency points labeled the ―lower frequency‖ ( ƒL ) and the
―higher frequency‖ ( ƒH ) while attenuating any signals outside of these two points.
A simple Active Band Pass Filter can be easily made by cascading together a single Low pass
Filter with a single High pass Filter as shown below.

The cut-off frequency of the LPF is higher than the cut-off frequency of the HPF and the
difference between the frequencies at the -3dB point will determine the ―bandwidth‖ of the band
pass filter .For example, suppose we have a band pass filter whose -3dB cut-off points are set at
200Hz and 600Hz. Then the bandwidth of the filter would be given as: Bandwidth (BW) = 600 –
200 = 400Hz.One way of making a very simple Active Band Pass Filter is to connect the basic
passive high and low pass filters to an amplifying op-amp circuit as below

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This cascading together of a low and a high pass passive filters produces a low ―Q-factor‖ type
filter circuit which has a wide pass band. The first stage of the filter will be the high pass stage
that uses the capacitor to block any DC biasing from the source. This design has the advantage of
producing a relatively flat asymmetrical pass band frequency response with one half representing
the high pass response and the other half representing low pass response as shown below. The
higher cut off frequency ( ƒH ) as well as the lower cut off frequency ( ƒL ) are calculated the
same as before in the standard first-order low and high pass filter circuits. In this filter circuit, a
reasonable separation is required between the two cut-off points to prevent any interaction
between the low pass and high pass stages. The amplifier also provides isolation between the two
stages and defines the overall voltage gain of the circuit.

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The frequency response and phase shift for an active band pass filter will be shown below.

Resonant Frequency Point

An active band pass filter is a 2nd Order type filter since it has ―two‖ reactive
components (two capacitors) within its circuit design. Due to these two reactive components, the
filter will have a peak response or Resonant Frequency ( ƒr ) at its ―center frequency‖, ƒc. The
center frequency is generally calculated as being the geometric mean of the two -3dB frequencies
between the upper and the lower cut-off points and the resonant frequency is given as:

where fr = resonant or Center Frequency

ƒL is the lower -3dB cut-off frequency point
ƒH is the upper -3db cut-off frequency point
“Q” or Quality Factor
In a Band Pass Filter circuit, the overall width of the actual pass band between the upper
and lower -3dB corner points of the filter determines the Quality Factor or Q-point of the circuit.

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This Q Factor is a measure of how ―Selective‖ or ―Un-selective‖ the band pass filter is towards a
given spread of frequencies. The lower the value of the Q factor the wider is the bandwidth of the
filter and consequently the higher the Q factor the narrower and more ―selective‖ is the filter.
The Quality Factor, Q of the filter is also known as the alpha-peak frequency and given as:

The ―Q‖ of a band pass filter is the ratio of the Resonant Frequency, (ƒr) to the Bandwidth, (BW)
between the upper and lower -3dB frequencies and is given as:

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