Basic in Education PDF

Basics in Education
Basics in
Education
Textbook for B. Ed. Course
Textbook for B.Ed. Course
13108
NCERT
ISBN 978-93-5007-283-7
Basics in
Education
Textbook for B. Ed. Course
ISBN 978-93-5007-283-7
First Edition
June 2014 Jyaishtha 1936 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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Foreword
What is ‘Education’? What is its primary purpose, and what
is not? Which approaches support it, and at which levels of
cognition? So many basic questions that many of our ‘trained
teachers’, among others, ask. And very few fora to discuss the
limited responses they have found so far. Therefore, the need
for a book of this kind, on basic concepts and introductions
to various relevant theories, was felt.
The present textbook, ‘Basics in Education’, is related to
one of the core components of the two-year B. Ed. Programme,
introduced by NCERT recently. It aims to help the student-
teachers understand and analyse diverse concepts related
to education, their premises and contexts. It discusses
crucial concepts like the nature and goals of education, the
processes of education, different forms of knowledge and
the process of knowing, organisation of knowledge in school
curriculum, autonomy of the teachers and the learners, and
the role of education in inculcating values among children.
The textbook has been written in a self-instructional format,
which provides the student-teachers with considerable scope
for engaging in the processes of inquiry, critical analysis
and intellectual discourse. Each chapter, in addition to
the relevant content, carries Learning Checks, Activities,
Summary, Review Questions, and References/Further
Readings, providing opportunities to the student-teachers to
engage with those concepts. As you go through it, you will see
that the material reflects and propagates inclusiveness too.
The NCERT gratefully acknowledges the joint effort of all
the educationists involved in preparing this material, and
particularly Professor Bharati Baveja for reviewing it.
We hope that the book will be a meaningful resource
to student-teachers, teachers, teacher-educators and all
stakeholders in the schooling systems in our country.
We would appreciate receiving feedback from you to bring
further improvements in the book, which can be sent to
the Editor of the book, Professor A.K. Srivastava (e-mail:
[email protected]).
Parvin Sinclair
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
June 2014 Research and Training
iv
Textbook Development Team
Contributors
Chanchal Goel, Lecturer, District Institute of Education and
Training, Pitampura, New Delhi (e-mail:achanchalgupta@
rediffmail.com) – Chapter 7
Daya Pant, Professor and Head, Department of Educational
Psychology and Foundations, National Council of Educational
Research and Training, New Delhi (e-mail:head_depfe@
rediffmail.com) – Chapter 10
G.L. Arora, Professor and Head (Retd.), Department of
Teacher Education, National Council of Educational Research
and Training, New Delhi (e-mail:[email protected])
Chapter – 2
Girishwar Misra, Professor, Department of Psychology,
University of Delhi, Delhi (e-mail: misragirishwar@gmail.
com) Chapter – 11
Kiran Walia, Associate Professor, Department of Teacher
Education, National Council of Educational Research and
Training, New Delhi (e-mail:[email protected])
Chapter – 8
Manjula P. Rao, Professor, Regional Institute of Education,
Mysore. (e-mail: [email protected]) Chapter – 1
Naresh K. Gupta, Associate Professor, Division of Educational
Research, National Council of Educational Research and
Training, New Delhi. (e-mail: [email protected])
Chapter – 3
Poonam Agrawal, Professor, Division of Educational Research,
National Council of Educational Research and Training, New
Delhi (e-mail: [email protected]) Chapter – 9
Ramesh Babu B., Professor at Regional Institute of Education,
Bhopal (e-mail: [email protected]) Chapter – 4
Sunil Behari Mohanty, (Retd.) Professor of Education,
presently residing at Puducherry (e-mail: sunilmohanty@
gmail.com) Chapter – 6
Uma Vyas, Associate Professor and Head, Departmnet of
Teacher Education, Bareilly College, Bareily (e-mail:druvkv@
yahoo.co.in) Chapter – 5
Editor
Ashok K. Srivastava, Professor and Head, Division of
Educational Research, National Council of Educational
Research and Training, New Delhi (e-mail:ashokksrivastava@
yahoo.com)
Reviewer
Bharati Baveja, Professor, Department of Education,
University of Delhi, Delhi (e-mail:[email protected])
vi
Acknowledgement
A number of scholars contributed towards the development
of the textbook. The planning meeting was held in January
2010. The following scholars contributed towards the
planning of the book: Professor M. Sen Gupta, Gurgaon;
Professor M.D. Usha Devi, ISEC, Bangalore; Professor H.K.
Senapati, RIE Bhubaneswar; Professor G.L. Arora, Gurgaon;
Dr. Minal Narawane, Pune; Professor A.K. Mishra, NERIE,
Shillong; Professor A.K. Srivastava, NCERT; and Dr. N.K.
Gupta, NCERT.
During the period April 2010 to November 2012, the work
related to the development of textbook was coordinated by
Professor Poonam Agrawal, NCERT; and Dr. Sharad Sinha,
NCERT. A review meeting was held in February 2012 in
which the following scholars contributed: Dr. S.B. Mohanty,
Puducherry; Dr. Seema Joshi, Jaipur; Dr. Shivani Vij, Delhi;
and Professor D.K. Bhattacharjee, formerly with NCERT.
Professor G. Ravindra, Bangalore sent his comments by post.
The Director, NCERT assigned the task of finalising the
book to Professor A.K. Srivastava in November 2012. The
final editing of the chapters was done by him. Professor
Bharati Baveja, University of Delhi took the painstaking
task of reviewing the chapters and gave valuable insights.
The finalised versions of the chapters were looked into by
the respective authors and modifications were suggested
by them. The final manuscript was relooked by Professor
Anupam Ahuja, NCERT from the perspective of inclusion
(gender and disable friendly). The contributions of all the
scholars are thankfully acknowledged.
Contents
Foreword iii
1. Concept and Meaning of Education 1
2. Goals of Education 42
3. Processes and Modes of Education 71
4. Knowledge: Meaning and Facets 91
5. Process of Knowing 112
6. Organisation of Knowledge in Schools 135
7. Teacher Autonomy and Accountability 160
8. Learner Autonomy 185
9. Values: Concept and Context 202
10. Education and Values 225
11. Values in the Emerging Social Context 246

Chapter 1
Concept and Meaning

of Education
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• What is Education?
–– Etymological meaning
–– Narrow and Broader meaning
–– Education as process and product
–– Concept and meaning of education according to
Indian thinkers
–– Western views on education
–– Analytical concept of education
• Whether Education is Natural or Social Process?
• Whether Education is Intentional or Unintentional?
• What Does Education Comprise of?
• Does Education Occur only in Educational
Institutions?
Let Us Sum Up
Review Questions
References
Basics in Education
Introduction
The term ‘education’ is a very common and a popular word
that is uttered by many of us but understood by a very few
in its right perspective. It is in one way or the other appears
to be as old as the human race, though during the course of
time, its meaning and objectives have inevitably undergone
certain changes. As a student of education course, and, as
a future teacher, it is essential for you to understand the
meaning of education, its conceptual features and different
perspectives that have shaped its meaning from time to time.
Understanding the concept of education and its dynamic
features will help you to develop insights about the purpose
of becoming a teacher and help you while educating your
students.
This chapter analyzes different perspectives and views of
Indian and western thinkers on education. The contemporary
meaning of education is discussed here from analytical view
points. Education as a natural and a social process and
also education as an intentional activity are discussed with
suitable illustrations. The different processes of education
and understanding the role and the need of institutions
in educating the individuals are also examined by drawing
relevance to school context.
Objectives
After going through this chapter, you will be able to:
• Analyse various perspectives and views on the concept of
education.
• Explain the concept of education as an initiation process
in the western and eastern perspectives.
• Explain the concept of education as a worthwhile activity
in the context of school education.
• Differentiate between education as a natural process and
as a social process with suitable illustrations.
• Understand the dimensions of education and their
relevance.
• Understand the role and the need of institutions in
educating the individuals.
2
Concept and Meaning of Education
What Is Education?
You are, by now, familiar with the term ‘education’, ‘educated
person’ ‘educating’ and so on. You must have also used these
terms on several occasions in conversation with others. What
do we mean by education? Does ‘teaching’ or ‘instructing’
become education? Or is it learning in an institution? Does
developing the child into good human being known as
education? Is it possible to have one meaning of education?
There are many more such questions that come to our mind
when we attempt to understand the concept of education.
The term ‘education’ has been interpreted by different
people in different ways. Some people refer to it as formal
schooling or to lifelong learning. Some others refer to it as
acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Some say
that education is nothing, but training of people’s mind in a
particular direction to bring about desired changes. If you ask
a statesman, an artisan, a teacher, a parent, a philosopher
and a student about what education means to them, you
would be surprised to know the multiple interpretations and
views people have about education. This only shows that
education doesn’t have one precise universally accepted
definition. It has various meanings with various functions.
Analysis of these meanings would help us to understand
what education really is. To begin with, let us look into how
the term ‘education’ has evolved and some of the views of
great thinkers that exemplifies the concept and meaning of
education.
Etymological Meaning
Etymologically speaking, the word education is derived from
the Latin word ‘educare’ meaning ‘to raise’ and ‘to bring up’.
According to few others, the word ‘education’ has originated
from another Latin term ‘Educere’ which means ‘to lead forth’
or ‘to come out’. These meanings indicate that education
seeks to nourish the good qualities and draw out the best
in every individual. Education seeks to develop the innate or
the inner potentialities of humans. Some other educationists
believe that the word ‘education’ has been derived from the
Latin term ‘Educatum’, which means the act of teaching or
training. The meanings of these root words lead us to believe
3
Basics in Education
that education aims to provide a nourishing environment that

would facilitate or bring out and develop the potentialities in
an individual.
If you refer to Dictionary of Education (edited by C.V.
Good, 1973), you will find that education is defined as “the
aggregate of all the processes by which a person develops
abilities, attitudes and other forms of behaviour of practical
values in the society in which s/he lives; the social process
by which people are subjected to the influence of selected and
controlled environment (especially that of the school), so that
they may obtain social competence and optimum individual
development”. The concept of education has been used in a
variety of contexts with different meanings. To give a precise
definition of education, just as we define certain concepts in
science or other technical subjects, is difficult, as there is
no one meaning of education held in common by people. Let
us try to explore the different meanings and viewpoints on
education. Understanding these conceptions would help you
to analyze the kind of education that is in vogue now and to
what extent it is justified.
Narrow And Broader Meanings Of Education
Narrow Meaning of Education

You must have come across people who consider that
instruction imparted in schools and higher education
institutions is nothing but education. The aims of education
in these contexts are measured in terms of degrees or
certification or promotion. There is a deliberate effort
made with a definite purpose to develop certain amount of
knowledge, skills, attitudes and habits in these institutions.
This is a narrow concept of education, which is confined only
to a few specific, deliberate, and planned efforts that have a
bearing on the development of the individual. The educator,
in the narrow sense, aims at producing the literate or a
professional person such as an engineer, a doctor, a teacher,
a businessman and so on. Here, the individual is deliberately
‘taught to think’ as predetermined by the educators. Thus,
in a narrow sense, education is nothing, but a purposeful
activity, deliberately planned for the optimum development
of an individual’s potentials.
4
Education in the narrow sense does not include

self culture and the general influences of one’s
surroundings, but only those special influences which
are consciously and designedly brought to bear upon
the youngster by the adult persons of the community
whether through the family, the church or the state.
— Thomas Raymont (1906)
Broader Meaning of Education

In the broader or wider sense, education is not limited to a
classroom or a school only. It is considered to be a life long
process, where all the experiences, knowledge and wisdom
that an individual acquires at different stages of one’s life
through different channels (i.e., formally, informally and
incidentally) are termed as education. The broader view
considers education as an act or experience that has formative
or additive effect on the personality of an individual. It is
believed that education is not only an instrument of social
change, but also an investment in national development.
Such a view of education encompasses all life experiences,
as there is a shift in emphasis from individual development
to national development. It is considered that education is a
life long process that includes all experiences that the child
receives in the school or at home, in the community and
society through interactions of various sorts and activities.
The broader meaning of education implies the process
of development, wherein the individual gradually adapts
himself/herself to various ways to his/her physical, social
and spiritual environments.
Whatever broadens our horizon, deepens our insight,

refines our reactions, and stimulates our thoughts
and feelings educates us.
— Lodge
It is really life that educates us.

— Thomas Raymont (1906)
5
Basics in Education
Learning Check 1
1. Analyse the views of Raymont on education.
Education as Process and Product

There is always a controversy whether education is a process
or a product. Mostly, we consider education as a product, that
is, something that has been produced as a result of certain
inputs which in this case is instruction or experiences. In
this sense, it is the sum total of what is received through
learning — the knowledge, skills, values that are the
outcomes of learning. The concept of education as acquisition
of knowledge was prevalent since the beginning of history
of education. Many literature sources and the religious
doctrines have propounded that ‘knowledge is power’ and
‘knowledge is virtue’. Even now it is believed that knowledge
leads to wisdom. Education becomes a product only when
it assimilates the culture of any society, and is transmitted
from one generation to another. Education fosters values in
people, which are universally accepted as valuable at a given
point of time. Transmission of knowledge or skills which
takes place as a purposeful activity in a variety of ways could
be termed as the product of education.
Education can also be referred to as a process. In this sense,
education is referred to the act of developing the intellect,
critical thinking abilities, social and cultural understanding,
and understanding of one’s own self. Education is considered
as an active and a dynamic process which takes place
continuously during one’s life by way of various experiences
through either in a formal or in an informal manner. The
individual continuously learns. In this process, he or she
learns to utilise one’s experiences in learning new things and
also to reconstruct new things in the place of old ones. Thus
the learning takes place throughout life which is an active
and a dynamic process. This dynamic process is nothing but
education. So, it can be said that education is a product as
well as a process.
Besides the above, education is viewed in various other
ways by different philosophers and educationists. Some of
them are given here in Activity 1 for you to explore and find
out their meanings.
6
Activity 1
Discuss the following meanings of education by
referring to the books cited in the reference list at the
end of this chapter or by going to the library.
• Education as preparation for life
• Education as direction
• Education is a lifelong process.
Learning Check 2
1. Explain the etymological meanings of education.
2. Why is the broad meaning of education preferred
to the narrow meaning of education?
3. ‘Education is considered as a dynamic and an
active process’. Explain.
Concept And Meaning Of Education According

To Indian Thinkers
Besides knowing the narrow and the broad meanings of
education and various other interpretations, it may also be
desirable to explore into the educational thoughts of great
thinkers in order to get a deeper understanding of the concept
and the nature of education.
The great philosophers and thinkers, through different
periods of human civilisation, have attempted to define
education and, in doing so, have reflected their own
philosophical ideals and thoughts. Let us try to trace the
educational thoughts of some of the great Indian thinkers
whom you are familiar with. We shall also examine briefly
how education was conceived in ancient times in India.
Education in Ancient India
In India, there is a rich tradition of education dating back
to the dawn of human civilisation, where the Gurukulas
and Guru-Shishya parampara (teacher-disciple tradition)
developed thousands of years ago. Two prominent words in
Sanskrit stand out as equivalents of the term ‘education’.
These words are Shiksha and Vidya. The former has been
derived from the root word Shas meaning ‘to discipline’ or ‘to
control’, the latter, Vidya, is derived from the verbal root word
‘Wd’ meaning ‘to know’. These meanings had their relevance
7
Basics in Education
to the purpose and the nature of education imparted in the

ancient India. In ancient India, learning was pursued, not
for its own sake, but for the sake of and as a part of religion.
It was sought as a means for the ultimate end of life (i.e.,
salvation). The main aim of education was training of the
mind as an instrument of knowledge and the discharge of
one’s dharma (duty or moral-ethical value). Education was
also conceived as the means to develop the physical and the
subtle body, so that the inner spirit or the pure consciousness
can express itself without getting hampered by the illusions
of the world. In this context, it was felt that the purpose
of education was to train and exercise the five sheaths or
layers – physical (gross body), vital (subtle body), mental,
intellectual and spiritual – in such a way as to make them
the sound instruments for leading a good life (Kabir, 1961).
However, the meaning and aims of education underwent
a change according to the social, political and the cultural
conditions of different periods. For instance, education in
medieval India was confined to the ideals and goals of life.
The meaning of education has been visualised in different
ways in the post-independence period by the Indian thinkers
and educationists. Among the many great thinkers who have
contemplated on the meaning of education, a few of them
have been discussed here.
Mahatma Gandhi
As you all must have studied, during the pre-independence
period, the education system in India was governed by the
British. The goals of education during British period were
not akin to the Indian ways of thinking. The medium of
instruction was English which was foreign to many Indians.
Mahatma Gandhi’s interest in education was the outcome
of a revolt against the British system of education that had
many limitations and drawbacks. His educational thoughts
emerged out of his own experiments with truth and non-
violence. According to Mahatma Gandhi, education not only
moulds the new generation, but reflects society’s fundamental
assumptions about itself and the individuals who comprise
it. By education, he meant, an all-round development
drawing out of the best in the child’s body, mind and spirit.
He stated that literacy is not the end of education, and not
8
even the beginning. It is only the means by which men and

women can be educated.In his opinion, education should
aim at developing self-reliance, where people learn to earn
their livelihood. His aims of education also emphasised on
character formation and all round development (physical,
mental, social, moral, aesthetic, and religious). According
to him, education should make children ideal members of
the democratic society. He wanted a school to be a ‘doing
and thinking school’, rather than a listening school. He
emphasised on experiential learning through which the child
acquires knowledge and utilises it for the understanding and
control of his social environment. He aspired that education
should enable the child to relate what is learnt in the school
to the real life situations. His concept of buniyadi talim (basic
education) stresses on learning through craft, which favours
the child belonging to the lowest stratum of society. Education
through craft was felt desirable as it relieves the child from
the stress of purely academic and theoretical instruction. The
programme of basic education was conceptualised in such a
way that can bring about social transformation. Mahatma
Gandhi believed in integrated education. He believed that
the child has several innate potentialities which should be
facilitated through educational process. He also believed that
education should transmit the cultural heritage to enrich the
human lives. According to Mahatma Gandhi, education has
to be life itself and through life.
I hold that true education of the intellect can come only
through a proper exercise and training of the body,
hands, feet, eyes, ears, nose, etc. In other words, an
intelligent use of the bodily organs in a child provides
the best and quickest way of developing his intellect.
But unless the development of the body, and mind
goes hand in hand with a corresponding awakening
of the soul, the former alone would prove to be a poor
lop-sided affair.
— Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi was a strong advocate of providing

education to the girl child. According to him:
“The real difficulty is that people have no idea of what
education truly is. We assess the value of education in the
9
Basics in Education
Learning Check 3
1. What were the aims of education in ancient
India? Are they relevant to the present system of
education? Discuss in your groups.
2. How was education conceptualised by Mahatma
Gandhi?
same manner as we assess the value of land or of shares in

the stock-exchange market. We want to provide only such
education as would enable the student to earn more. We
hardly give any thought to the improvement of the character
of the educated. The girls, we say, do not have to earn; so why
should they be educated? As long as such ideas persist there
is no hope of our ever knowing the true value of education.”
(in Srivastava, 2003).
Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), a great thinker and
reformer of India, provides an insight into what education
ought to be. According to him, “Education is the manifestation
of the divine perfection, already existing in man”. The word
‘manifestation’ implies that something already exists and is
waiting to be expressed. The main focus in learning is to
make the hidden ability of a learner manifest.
Vivekananda believed that the system of education, which
existed at that time, did not enable a person to stand on his/
her own feet, nor did it teach him/her self-confidence and
self respect. To Swami Vivekananda, education was not only
collection of information, but something more meaningful.
He felt that education should be man-making, life-giving and
character-building. The aim of education, according to him,
is to manifest in our lives the perfection, which is the very
nature of our inner-self, which resides in everything and
everywhere, which is known as ‘satchitananda’ (existence,
consciousness and bliss). Hence, education, in Vivekananda’s
sense, enables one to comprehend one’s self within as the
self everywhere. The essential unity of the entire universe is
realised through education. Therefore, man-making relates
to the harmonious development of the body, mind and soul.
In his scheme of education, great emphasis is laid on the
10
physical health, because a sound mind resides in a sound

body. Along with this, he pays special attention to the culture
of the mind, power of concentration, and practice of ethical
purity. In his opinion, education is not a mere accumulation
of information, but a comprehensive training for life. To
quote him: “Education is not the amount of information that
is put into brain and runs riot there, undigested, all your
life.” Education, according to Swami Vivekananda, means
the process by which character is formed, strength of mind
is increased, and intellect is sharpened, as a result of which
one can stand on one’s own feet.
As regards education of girls, Vivekananda considered
men and women as two wings of a bird, and it is not possible
for a bird to fly on only one wing. So, according to him, there
is no chance for the welfare of the world unless the condition
of woman is improved.
Sri Aurobindo
Sri Aurobindo, a great philosopher and a nationalist, who
was born in 1872, contributed to education immensely. His
educational ideas can be obtained from two basic sources:
On Education (1990) and A System of National Education
(1907). According to Sri Aurobindo, education is meant to
bring out the best in man, to develop his potentialities to the
maximum, to integrate him with himself, his surroundings,
his society, his country and humanity to make him the
‘complete man’, the ‘integral man’. The purpose of education
cannot be merely to create a literate individual, or a highly
informed person crammed with information and facts, or to
create an individual to find a job. The more important aspects
of an individual are his character, his personality and his
values. According to him, the process of education must be
integral aiming at the total and complete development of the
individual: a strong, supple, well formed and healthy body; a
sensitive, unselfish and mature emotional nature; a positively
energetic vital, an enlightened mind, a wide ranging and
vibrant intelligence, a strong will, a balanced and pleasing
personality; and the subtler spiritual qualities that can
channelise, harmonise and direct all the different parts of an
individual into a life that is beneficial to the individual and to
his fellow men. In short, Sri Aurobindo says that education
should be integral, so that it develops the physical, mental,
11
Basics in Education
vital, psychic and spiritual aspects of the human personality.

According to him, each individual and each nation have to
develop according to their own individual characteristics,
swadharma. The desirable evolution of humanity is then
facilitated. Sri Aurobindo observed that the then existing
different education trends were inadequate for imparting
true or integral education that takes the student to higher
levels of consciousness. He proposed a method of education,
that is, integral education, for achieving higher level of
consciousness, which can radically and favourably change
the social, economic and political spheres of life.
Education which will offer the tools whereby one can
live for the divine, for the country, for oneself, and
for others and this must be the ideal of every school
which calls itself national.
— Sri Aurobindo
Rabindranath Tagore
Rabindranath Tagore was born in 1861 in Calcutta, and was
one of the early educationists of India whose ideas gleamed
through his various writings and educational experiments
at Shantiniketan. As an alternative to the existing forms of
education, he started a small school at Shantiniketan in 1901
that developed into a university and a rural reconstruction
centre, where he tried to develop an alternative model of
education that stemmed from his own learning experiences.
In general, he envisioned an education that was deeply
rooted in one’s immediate surroundings but connected to
the cultures of the wider world, predicated upon pleasurable
learning and individualised to the personality of the child.
He felt that a curriculum should revolve organically around
nature with classes held in the open air, under the trees,
to provide for a spontaneous atmosphere. In his opinion,
schools should not be factories, but should provide a free
atmosphere for the pupils to have close contact with the
nature and universe. To Tagore, “the highest education is
that which does not merely give us information but makes our
life in harmony with all existence. But we find that this type
of education is not only systematically ignored in schools,
but it is severely repressed. From our very childhood habits
are formed and knowledge is imparted in such a manner
12
that our life is weaned away from nature and our mind and
the world are set in opposition from the beginning of our
days”. Tagore saw education as a vehicle for appreciating the
richest aspects of other cultures, while maintaining one’s
own cultural specificity. Freedom, creative self expression
and active communication with nature and man are the three
cardinal principles of his educational philosophy. According
to him, education should aim at the development of the
active tendencies of the child. It should be for developing an
individual into ‘whole being’. Education should also promote
peace, love, kindness, and ideals and should aim at gaining a
sense of freedom and of sympathy with all humanity. Tagore
considered education as essential need of human life. In his
view, education is that social process by which man attains
physical progress and spiritual wholeness. True education,
according to him, consists in knowing the use of any useful
material that has been collected, to know its real nature and
to build along with life, a real shelter for life. Besides this,
Tagore considered that god pervades in every particle of the
nature, and felt that the ultimate aim of human life is to
experience this spiritual unity which is the supreme aim or
function of education.
Activity 2
Read the book On Education by Sri Aurobindo and
find out more about the integral education, its means
and implementation in the school started by him and
the mother. Make presentations in your class.
Find out about the kind of education practised in
Shantiniketan during Tagore’s times.
Jiddu Krishnamurthi
Jiddu Krishnamurthi, a philosopher and one of the 20th
century’s most influential teacher, devoted his life to the
awakening of ‘intelligence’ and transformation of society.
Krishnamurty’s interest in education was long standing and
always passionate. He addressed the nature of education in
majority of his books as well as in his speeches to the public
and students in India as well as abroad. Krishnamurthi’s
(1994) ideas on education, though radical, attempt to meet
13
Basics in Education
the challenges of living at a profound level, and they do so at a

time when such insights are desperately needed. According to
him, modern education is unable to prepare students for the
fundamental challenges of living. In his book titled Education
and the Significance of Life (1962), we see his concern for
education and his views on right kind of education. According
to Krishnamurthi, the education system that exists is quite
conventional. The educational system in practice now leads
to conformity where independent thinking is not possible. It
produces the kind of human beings whose primary interest is
to find security, to become somebody important, or to achieve
some degrees and jobs. While discussing about significance of
life, he propounds that as long as education does not cultivate
an integrated outlook on life, it has very little significance. In
his view, today’s education has very little significance as it
makes us subservient, mechanical and thoughtless, though
it awakens us intellectually; it leaves us incomplete inwardly,
stupefied and uncreative. The purpose of education is not
to produce mere scholars and professionals, but integrated
men and women who are free from fear, for only among such
human beings can there be enduring peace. To bring about
the right kind of education, Krishnamurthi emphasises upon
understanding the meaning of life as a whole. In order to
achieve this, one has to be able to think directly and truly,
but not consistently. He implies that a consistent thinker is
‘a person who conforms to a pattern, and repeats phrases
and slogans.’ With this analysis about the education system
and its narrowly determined goals, he views the function of
education as not merely acquiring knowledge, and gathering
and correlating facts, but to create human beings who are
integrated and, therefore, intelligent. In his view, “Intelligence
is the capacity to perceive the essential, the what is; and to
awaken this capacity, in oneself and others, is education”. In
his opinion, education should aim to help people to discover
lasting and true values which come with self-awareness and
unbiased self-investigation; to help to break down the national
and social barriers, as they breed antagonism and violence
among human beings and to awaken the capacity to be aware
of oneself and not merely indulge in gratifying self-expression.
A brief account of the educational ideas of a few Indian
thinkers reveals that education is viewed differently by
different people. The philosophical ideals of the thinkers
14
Activity 3
1. Read the book Why are you being educated? by J.
Krishnamurthi, which consists of six talks given
by him in the Indian Universities and at the Indian
Institutes of Technology between 1969 and 1984.
Make a list of questions that he asks students
about education and their future. Discuss his
views with reference to the existing educational
scenario in our country. Is it possible to bring
changes in our education system based on his
views? Analyse.
2. Find out about Rishi Valley school run by
Krishnamurthi Foundations of Education. What
are the educational practices followed in this
institution? How does it differ from the other
educational institutions? Explore the details and
make a presentation followed by discussion.
about life and the highest form of knowledge to be attainted

by human beings are reflected in their views on education.
We find that Indian thinkers were against the narrow aims/
vision of education and rigid pedagogical methods which
were teacher-centred. In general, we find that all the above
thinkers have viewed education as an integral process which
helps in the all round development of the individuals. What we
need to understand is that, these educational thoughts and
concerns influence the educational aims and the educational
practices in the society. The educational aims that are
determined by the philosophical, and the social perspectives,
as well as by the national concerns and priorities, in turn,
determine the nature of educational processes right from
curriculum construction to pedagogical practices.
Learning Check 4
1. Why was Mahatma Gandhi opposed to the education
system prevalent during the British rule? What
kind of education he proposed and why?
2. What is the right kind of education according to J.
Krishnamurti?
3. Explain Sri Aurobindo’s concept of education.
15
Basics in Education
Western Views On Education

Let us also trace some of the view points on education in
the West and try to find out how the present meaning of
education evolved over a period of time. The viewpoints and
the attempts to define education by several educational
thinkers and philosophers have been synthesised collectively
and discussed here under broad dimensions.
Classical Views
The various approaches to educational thought have been
classified as conservative versus liberalistic, traditional versus
modern, and so on. What we call as conservative position
in education finds its origin in the educational thinking of
Plato, a Greek philosopher, and his contemporaries. Many
traditional philosophers, who were also the educational
thinkers, believed that man is composed of body and soul or
mind, of which mind is the knowing aspect of man’s nature,
while the body is the sensing and feeling aspect of his / her
nature. This view asserts that only ‘academic subjects’ are
worthy of the name ‘education’; any activities involving the
body such as manual skills, crafts, and vocational preparation
are not education, but training. This classical view asserts
that only the activities of mind designed to develop the
rational part of the composed being are truly educative. The
classical educationists also believed that human nature is
everywhere and at all times essentially the same. Therefore,
they held a view that the main purpose of education should
be the same throughout the world, from which it follows
that the formal curriculum in schools should be essentially
the same, allowing some small variations to local needs and
differences. This belief accounts for the emphasis placed
upon developing the rational powers of man. According to
this contention, education – as a formal discipline – needs
to be imparted in the same manner to everyone. In such a
situation there is a very little scope of variation. The views of
some of the classical philosophers on education are given in
the box.
Liberalists’ Views on Education
Diametrically opposed to the classical views was the position
held by another group of philosophers in the seventeenth
16
Activity 4
Analyze and discuss the following views on education
in your groups:
Socrates: “Education means the bringing out of
the ideas of universal validity which are latent in
the mind of every man.”
Plato: “Education is the capacity to feel pleasure
and pain at the right moment. It develops in the
body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and
all the perfection which he is capable of.”
Aristotle: “Education is the creation of a sound
mind in a sound body. It develops man’s faculty,
especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy
the contemplation of supreme truth, goodness
and beauty of which perfect happiness essentially
consists of.”
and eighteenth centuries which was the beginning of

liberalism. Since the 17th century, the idea has grown that
education should be directed at individual development for
social living. Revolting against the mind-body dichotomy
of the conservative educationists, this group held the view
that true education is based upon the needs, interests,
and the natural desires of the child. The child is viewed
as an evolving organism constituted of the same elements
as nature around him and that the man is not everywhere
and at all times the same, but is in a state of continuous
change and development. Based on this, education was
viewed as a continuous process which results in emotional
development, social adjustment, physical well-being and
vocational competence. Some philosophers like Rousseau,
Pestalozzi, Froebel, Basedow and other contemporaries were
the prime movers of this view. It was felt that the school’s
purpose should be broadened to include all facets of human
development. They did not affirm that the schools should not
develop the intellectual powers of pupils, but they asserted
that all the activities of human life are the concerns of the
school.
17
Basics in Education
Activity 5
Analyze and discuss the following quotations in your
groups:
Rousseau: “Education of man commences at his
birth; before he can speak, before he can understand
he is already instructed. Experience is the forerunner
of the perfect.”
Spencer: “Education is complete living.”
Pestalozzi: “Education is natural, harmonious and
progressive development of man’s innate powers.”
Froebel: “Education is unfoldment of what is already
enfolded in the germ. It is the process through which
the child makes internal external.”
Progressivists’ Views
These views, propagated in the 17th and 18th centuries, grew
somewhat slowly and took a better shape in the 20th century.
Education reforms appeared in many guises in the opening
decades of the twentieth century. Progressive education
came into focus with the renowned and reform philosophers
like John Dewey, Francis W. Parker, and William Wirt who
were also known as progressivists. Progressive education
movement was influenced by the new scientific outlook and
the empirical discoveries which were at their peak during
that time. Thinkers like J.S. Mill, Spencer, John Dewey and
his followers reflected on the concept of education, influenced
by the social and economic conditions, which shifted from
the individual to group or collective freedom. It was felt that
man’s nature is social in origin and hence the educational
activities are of prime importance in making man of what he
is. The educational institutions were viewed as the agents
with the responsibility for not only making the social nature
of the pupils and also for the reconstruction of society itself.
It was also implied that what the child is, or will become,
depends upon society. Education is seen from the notion of
individual’s free choice. Extending further, it was also felt
that the education given by teachers who understand growth
and development will somehow predetermine the person to
make choices which are in harmony with nature.
18
According to John Dewey (1916), “Education is

reconstruction or reorganisation of experience which adds
to the meaning of experience and which increases the ability
to direct the course of subsequent experiences.” This view
implies that the child already has acquired some experiences
from his/her interaction with the environment. And
education plays a role in reconstructing these experiences
in the required direction in order to add meaning to those
experiences. Let us take an example from your childhood
experiences. Try to recall your idea about the earth and the
other celestial bodies when you were a child. Through your
everyday observations, you must have felt that earth was
flat, and you are on the flat surface of the earth, and the sun,
moon and stars move around the earth. But after you joined
the school and were exposed to the knowledge that ‘ the earth
is round, not flat; it is not the sun, moon and stars that go
round the earth, but it is the earth that goes round the sun’,
with proper scientific explanation by the teacher, supported
by visuals, you must have changed your idea about the
earth, its motion and your place on the earth. This is what
meant by John Dewey as ‘reconstruction of experience’ that
results in knowledge which further helps in understanding
subsequent knowledge through subsequent experiences.
Activity 6
Explain the following educational quotations given
by John Dewey. How are they relevant to the present
educational system? Support your responses with
suitable illustrations drawn from school experiences
and other informal contexts of learning.
Education is a social process….
Education is growth...
Education is not preparation for life...
Education is life itself .
Analytical Concept of Education

In the 20th century, a group of educationists who were
influenced by the analytical and linguistic philosophy
analyzed the concept of education. Among them, it is
noteworthy to mention the philosophical and educational
thinkers like R.S. Peters, Flannery O’Connor, Paul Hirst
and Alfred North Whitehead. According to them, education
19
Basics in Education
is not a simple unitary concept and it does not refer to any

one particular process. For example, it is not a concept like
gardening which is a specific activity. It is like the concept
‘reform’. For example, if you are asked the question, ‘how
do you reform a person who has committed a mistake, or
a crime or disobeyed the rules?’, you may have different
responses, like by punishing, or by counselling, or by making
the person to repent and so on. From this, we understand
that, reform picks out to no particular process. People can
be reformed by counselling, reading a religious book, by
preventive detention, etc. Similarly, people can be educated
by reading books, by exploring the environment, by travel, by
having a conversation with others and in the classroom as
well. It encapsulates criteria to which any one of a family of
processes must confirm. As proposed by R.S. Peters (1956),
the logically necessary conditions for ‘education’ are:
that it is concerned with the transmission of knowledge;
which is worthwhile, and in which;
the transmission of knowledge is done in a morally
appropriate manner.
Each of these conditions is considered necessary to define
what education is. They could not be merely contingent and,
therefore, not present in a correct application of the concept.
Taken jointly, they are said to be the concept of education.
Education is also considered as a process of initiation,
like saying, that it is an activity rather than it is a concept
or idea. You must have come across the cultural practices
in certain communities of initiating the child into learning
which is celebrated as a ceremony (Akshara Abhyasa). In
ancient India, the boy after a particular age was initiated into
Vedic learning, which was called as Upanayana Sanskara.
This practice of upanayana is carried out even now in some
communities. Even in some of the tribal communities, the
male child, at a particular age, is initiated into the family
occupation, for example, hunting, by the tribal leaders and
family heads. Similarly, the above educational viewers,
especially R.S.Peters, considered education as a process of
initiation into what is considered as worthwhile for the child
to learn. He extends his ideas further, saying that education
involves essentially certain processes which intentionally
transmit what is valuable in an intelligible and voluntary
manner and creates in the learner a desire to achieve it.
20
In sum, from various interpretations and views on education

that have been discussed so far, we can say that education is a
complex concept which does not refer to a particular process.
It has been viewed variously such as acquisition of knowledge,
transmission of culture, drawing out and developing the best
potentials in an individual, etc. By educating an individual
we attempt to direct him/her towards development of some
desirable knowledge, understanding, skills, interests,
attitudes and critical thinking, etc. Through education, one
develops proper understanding about the natural and social
phenomena around and tend to live harmoniously. Education
also helps one to develop certain essential skills like, reading,
writing, communicating, handling objects, decision making,
examining and analyzing things, group living, etc. that are
required in one’s day-to-day life situations. Education also
helps in value and moral development of individuals. It helps
one to be committed to tasks, goals and positive desires
and pursue them intrinsically. Education refers to essential
processes that are worthwhile to be transmitted and which
helps in change of attitudes and values towards the desirable
ones. We shall look into what these essential processes are in
the following sections.
Activity 7
Collect the views of school teachers, of people belonging
to other professions and of some community members
on ‘what education and educated person mean to
them?’ Analyse their views with reference to what you
have understood by education in this sub section.
Learning Check 5
1. Compare the classical views with that of the
Liberalists views on education.
2. What is the role of educational institutions
according to progressivists?
3. Why does John Dewey view ‘education as a process
of reconstruction of experiences’?
4. Why is Education not a unitary concept?
5. ‘Education is a process of Initiation.’ Explain.
21
Basics in Education
Whether Education Is Natural or Social

Process?
education as a natural process
In your experience as a student for so many years, you must
have realised that all learning do not take place in a formal
setting like a school or a college alone. You must have learnt
many things by observing nature, and by interacting with
people around you. So, we all know that children learn to
identify many things on their own from their surroundings,
though later they learn to identify them with a name supplied
to them with the help of parents, or elders or teachers.
Education is considered to be a natural process, by
some educationists. In their view, education takes place
spontaneously in human beings through their experiences
in nature. This view assumes that an individual develops or
grows like a plant to become something that is presumed to be
desirable. As a biological organism, the humans interact with
the environment and gain experiences. These experiences
lead to some sort of learning, which, in turn, results in the
development of the individual. In other words, education
becomes a life-long process and with every experience,
the individuals gain an understanding of the self as well
as of the environment. According to this view, education
is not only preparation for life, but it is synonymous with
life. Thus, education is concerned with imparting survival
skills; developing the child’s innate potentialities; making
the individual fit for his/her environment; and socialising
the child. Maria Montessori, a great educationist, stated that
education is not what the teacher gives, it is a natural process
spontaneously carried out by the human individual and is
acquired not by listening to words, but by experiencing in the
environment. In this context, the task of the teacher becomes
that of preparing a series of activities spread over a specially
prepared environment and let children learn through their
observations, interactions, and tasks carried out.
The process of education which makes human beings
successful in their respective environment continues
throughout life. Life involves a constant and continuous
modification of experiences. As a consequence, the ideas,
22
perceptions, skills, attitudes and values undergo a change.

This helps the child to adjust and accommodate to the fast
changing world. Educational adjustment of the child is
further conditioned by the nature of demands of the society
to which the child should be adapted and attuned.
According to Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, a great
philosopher, “Education is natural, harmonious and
progressive development of man’s innate powers.” It is
believed that education consists in the development from
within of potentialities rather than ‘moulding’ externally. It
is also asserted that curriculum should arise from the needs
and interests of the child rather than from the demands of the
teacher. Self-expression is considered more important than
mastering of the subject matter. Many of the Indian and the
western thinkers like Rabindranath Tagore, J. Krishnamurthi,
Rousseau, Froebel and Montessori considered the education
of the child in the natural environment where the child
explores and learns through his/her experiences. The natural
process of education consisted in preparing the most natural
and life-supporting environments for the child and observing
the child living freely in this environment.
Though this view can be appreciated, we see that it suffers
from certain limitations. It does not answer the questions
like what are the worthwhile things that the individual would
learn which they can apply to their life situations and what
they can pass on to others, and what are the criteria by which
we can say that they have achieved the required standards.
There is no end to education. It is not that you
read a book, pass an examination, and finish with
education. The whole of life, from the moment you are
born to the moment you die, is a process of learning.
— Krishnamurti
Education is a natural process carried out by the

child and is not acquired by listening to words but by
experiences in the environment.
— Maria Montessori
We have come to this world to accept it, not merely

to know it. We may become powerful by knowledge,
but we attain fullness by sympathy. From our very
childhood habits are formed and knowledge is
imparted in such a manner that our life is weaned
23
Basics in Education
away from nature and our mind and the world are
set in opposition from the beginning of our days.
Thus the greatest of educations for which we came
prepared is neglected, and we are made to lose our
world to find a bagful of information instead. We
rob the child of his earth to teach him geography, of
language to teach him grammar. His hunger is for the
Epic, but he is supplied with chronicles of facts and
dates...Child-nature protests against such calamity
with all its power of suffering, subdued at last into
silence by punishment.
— Rabindranath Tagore
EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL PROCESS

While some educationists felt that education is a natural
process, which takes place in the interaction between the
individuals and the environment, there were others who
felt that education is a social process, and one of the prime
functions of the school is to help in the socialisation of the
child. Let us examine how education functions as a social
process.
Among all living organisms, you must have noticed that it
is the human child that depends on the parents for relatively
a longer period for nourishment, shelter and for learning
basic skills. This prolonged childhood also helps the child
to prepare himself / herself better for adult life. During this
period, the child learns the necessary skills for her survival
in this world. Since human life is not only the result of
biological and physiological functions, the child has also to
get training in the intellectual, social and cultural aspects of
existence. It has to learn the norms and values of the group
to become an accepted and effective member of the group.
In other words, a child needs to be socialised, acculturised
and provided with knowledge and skills of survival together.
Home is the first place where the child receives this education
in an informal way. Later, school plays an important role as a
formal agency to impart education. It exerts greater influence
in educating the child, in addition to other social agencies
like home, neighbourhood, community, religion, media, etc.
It is well known that human is a social animal and this belief
gives support to the concept of education as a socialisation
24
process. This is also derived from the philosophy that child

needs to be educated in a desirable way.
The process of education thus takes place in social
settings, and society as a whole exercises great control over
its process. Every society uses education as a means for
promoting its own interests. While education is subjected to
the control of society, it also influences society by contributing
to its goals. Education performs a threefold social function by
maintaining, transmitting and creating social values, ideals,
beliefs and culture. For this purpose, education provides a
learning platform for children to develop a variety of skills
and other dimensions such as social interaction, emotional
growth, physical awareness, awareness of life around us and
intellectual and emotional dispositions such as attitudes
and values. The values, ideals, goals, mores, traditions and
culture of society are inculcated in a child through education
in order to make him/her an effective member of the society.
In fact, all education, beginning with family, has the task of
socialising children and adolescents. The modern concept of
education also gives importance to social settings in which
interaction between the teacher and the taught takes place.
But it is not enough, if there is just an interaction between
the teacher and the children. There ought to be an active
interaction among children, as they learn quite a lot from
each others’ experiences.
To understand that socialisation of the child is a major
social process of education, let us turn to John Dewey,
according to whom all education proceeds by the participation
of the individual in the social consciousness of the race. It
means that any system of education that is devoid of social
environment is not education at all. You have learnt that
education is initiating the child into worthwhile activities
in the preceding sections. Socialisation is the process of
initiating an individual into norms of a group and into his
own role or roles in it. Education as a social process does
include initiation into the norms and roles of the society in
general.
Education is thus both a natural and a social process,
wherein development of the uniqueness and individuality of
the child is considered as the very essence of education, and
25
Basics in Education
Activity 7
1. Give illustrations to show how education received
at home helps in the socialisation process of the
child.
2. Have you come across a school where education
is treated as a natural process? If so, prepare a
paper giving all details and share your experiences
with the entire class.
at the same time initiating him/her into the society, for which
school prepares him/her. The individual is means to an end
– the end of perpetuating the social order in the socialisation
process and the individual is an end by him/herself in the
educative process.
Learning Check 6
1. Identify the role of school in the socialisation
process of the child.
2. What role should the school play to make
education as a natural and as a social process?
3. As a teacher, how would you contribute to the
education of a child for socialisation?
Whether Education is Intentional or

Unintentional?
Most of our actions or work that we do is directed towards
some goals. Let us take an example of you joining the B.Ed/B.
Sc.Ed/BA.Ed course. You must have joined with an aim of
becoming a teacher in school. Some of you may be having
an aim of pursuing your post graduate course and then
becoming a teacher. Most of our actions or decisions are
geared by some intentions which may be either at conscious
or unconscious level. Let us examine, what kind of a process
‘education’ is – whether intentional or unintentional.
Education is an intentional activity which necessitates
achievement of some goal or the other. For example, when a
man has lost something, he doesn’t look outside, nor does he
26
produce something different from the activity he is engaged

in. He tries to find out what he has lost. He achieves or
attains the end which is internal to the activity in which he
is engaged. Similarly education is intentional which involves
certain processes or tasks in which the individual gets
engaged for considerable period of time. Thus, it becomes
intentional, goal directed, or value directed or ‘normative’.
Education has instrumental (‘knowledge for practical
ends’) and intrinsic dimensions (‘knowledge for its own sake’).
For example, teaching carpentry is both valuable in itself and
valuable as a means of increasing production of furniture
or construction of houses. Similarly, the instrumental value
is something extrinsic to education, while the intrinsic is
valuable for its own sake. If a person is doing a particular
course, in order to get a job or to earn money, we can say that
the person has an instrumental value. On the otherhand, if
a person is doing a course, just for the love of the subject or
wanted to learn more in that field, we can say that the person
has an intrinsic value. A deliberate effort to plan educational
activities such as curriculum, textbooks, school, etc. in order
to bring in some changes in the learner in a desired direction
is the instrumental dimension of education. There could be
certain aims of education that have an intention of initiating
every man and woman into the kind of educational activities
which make them to take right place in the society; develop
vocational skills, so that they become self reliant while there
could be some aims to develop a thirst for knowledge for its
own sake and to develop aesthetic sense in the individuals.
Education suggests that, not only what develops in
someone is valuable, but also that it involves the development
of knowledge and understanding. In learning at school, the
practical ends, besides the intrinsic ends are also important,
as the learning situation is often geared to approval, passing
exams, and moving to the higher classes based on one’s
performance and so on. The non-instrumental or knowledge
for its own sake involves no exterior motive or intention or a
purpose. The person in learning enjoys doing so, just for the
sheer joy involved in it.
27
Basics in Education
Activity 9
1. Identify the various educational activities that are
carried out in schools with a purpose. Analyse
the purpose of the educational activities and their
relevance in educating children.
2. Is it possible to have education with intrinsic
values alone? Discuss and present your views in
the class.
3. Identify the activities of schools that are non-
instrumental?
Though education is intentional, it is not a single aimed

activity. It has multiple aims which are directed towards
the individual and national development. The imperative
character of education for individual growth and development
has been universally accepted. It encompasses teaching and
learning specific skills and something less tangible but more
profound, i.e. imparting of knowledge, sound judgement and
wisdom. Education also takes upon itself the responsibility
for striking a balance while developing these abilities, so
that a ‘harmonious personality’ becomes the outcome. As
an individual in the society, one has to think critically about
various issues in life and take decisions about them being
free from bias and prejudices, superstitions and blind beliefs.
Education intends through its processes, develops in an
individual the capacity for critical and analytical thinking
and changes his/her approach to life. It aims at awakening
curiosity, stimulate creativity, develop appropriate interests,
build essential skills, attitudes and values, and the capacity
to think and judge independently. Education also intends to
develop certain secular, democratic and social values, thereby
serving as the means of realisation of nation’s goals and ideals.
According to the Education Commission (1964-66),
‘education must serve as a powerful instrument
of social, economic and cultural transformation,
necessary for the realisation of national goals’.
What Does Education Comprise of?

With an understanding of the concept of education and
its intentions, let us look into what education comprises
28
of. According to R.S.Peters (1967), education comprises of

normative and cognitive aspects. It comprises of certain
criteria by which we can explain the educative process.
THE NORMATIVE ASPECT OF ‘EDUCATION’

Education develops appreciation for certain norms or
standards. For example, how do you judge a person good
in housekeeping? Is it not when good housekeeping meets
certain standards, certain criteria to satisfy? Similarly,
education has certain standards or criteria to be fulfilled. It
consists of initiating others into (a) doing activities that are
‘worthwhile’, and (b) modes of conduct and thoughts which
have standards written into them by which it is possible to
act, think, and feel with varying degrees of skill, relevance
and aesthetic sense. Education has normative implications
as it implies that something worthwhile is being intentionally
transmitted in a morally acceptable manner. For example,
can we say that a person ‘x’ is educated, yet there are no
changes in his ways of thinking, attitudes, and behaviour? It
would be contradiction to say this. Therefore, there are certain
norms or standards by which we call a person as educated. It
also implies that the person has undergone some worthwhile
activities that we call as educative processes. In this context,
what becomes important is the task achievement or processes
that are worthwhile and intentional, in which one is engaged
in a morally acceptable manner. For example, you know very
well that education involves teaching and instruction to some
extent, yet one may not be sure whether all teaching results
in education. Though it may or may not result in education,
definitely, it is not morally objectionable. But when a person
uses conditioning as a method to educate an individual, just
like the ways animals are conditioned to certain behaviour
by rigorous training, then it is morally objectionable. So,
conditioning or indoctrinating might be ruled out as the only
process of education.
From the above, we may infer that educational practices are
those in which people try to pass on what is worthwhile as well
as those in which they actually succeed in doing so. Success
may be evident by some of the characteristics such as sense
of relevance, precision, applicability of knowledge, power to
concentrate, higher order of thinking abilities, and so on.
29
Basics in Education
THE COGNITIVE ASPECT OF EDUCATION

Other important requirements describe education as the
family of tasks. These are (a) knowledge and understanding,
and (b) the cognitive perspective. Let us examine these
characteristics in order to understand what education is in
the total sense.
Knowledge and Understanding
Let us go back to our earlier question ‘To whom do we call as
an educated person?’ Do we call an individual as an educated
person just because he has mastered skills in a particular
area? Definitely we do not call a person as ‘educated’ who
has mastered skills, even though the skills he has mastered
may be highly recognised in the society or highly prized, like
engineering, dealing with machines, computers, etc. For a
person to be educated, he should also have some body of
knowledge and some kind of conceptual understanding to
rise above the level of a collection of disjointed facts. This
implies understanding of principles for the organisation of
facts which enables an individual to apply what he has learnt
to his/her life situations. A merely informed person is not the
same as a truly educated man or woman. For example, a
person may be having a number of masters degrees and lots
of information regarding his subject, but he/she may lack
certain qualities needed to describe him/her as ‘educated’
man. One must also know the ‘why’ of things. Further, the
knowledge acquired by the individual must not be ‘inert’. It
means that the knowledge acquired should not be a ‘dead
weight’ or useless which cannot be applied. For example, the
knowledge of science should not stop at the acquisition of
scientific facts and procedures, but should enable the learner
to look at the nature, earthly phenomena, the cause and
effect relationships, the discoveries made, the speculations
of man about life occurrences in the past, understanding the
present in light of the discoveries made and look into future
possibilities about life on earth and the universe as a whole.
The knowledge acquired should also enable one to have
better attitudes and approaches to life, rather than getting
lost in unfounded beliefs, dogmas and irrational thinking.
This differentiates between a merely ‘knowledgeable’ man
and an ‘educated one’. Scientific thinking does not just mean
30
knowing the evidence based on certain assumptions, but

one should also know what counts as evidence and ensuring
that it can be observed. Education also implies the kind of
‘commitment’ that comes from being ‘on the inside of’ a form
of thought and awareness. It requires one to understand and
to care for the internal standards of those thoughts, forms
and awareness. Without such commitment, one gets lost
in the information gathered in the name of knowledge and
such person cannot be called as an educated person, whose
knowledge is purely external and inert or useless.
Cognitive Perspective
A further requirement of education is what has been termed as
‘cognitive perspective’. This means that education must involve
essential processes of knowledge and understanding and the
holistic view of all aspects of situations that would enable one
to apply the knowledge and understanding rather than being
inert (dead weight, useless and worthless knowledge). The
cognitive perspective is linked with understanding and there
is no place for inertness which is useless or worthless. For
example, we can have knowledge which we understand and
we can make use of such knowledge in actual life situations.
On the contrary, we can have knowledge which we cannot
use it, because we do not understand it (inert). A scientist
may be good in his/her subject, very thorough with scientific
principles, and yet does not see the interrelatedness in the
field with rest of the things around, in the patterns of life
in the universe. What he/she is lacking here is ‘cognitive
perspective’. Such an individual cannot be really considered
as educated. Education cannot be tied down into specific
compartments and specialised skills, viz. scientist, teacher,
doctor, engineer, and so on. Education is concerned with the
development of whole man and not just a part of him.
Criteria of educative process

(i) Education implies transmission of what is
worthwhile to those who are committed to it.
(ii) Education involves not only knowledge and
understanding, but also some sort of cognitive
perspective which stresses on interrelating
the knowledge with the world around.
31
Basics in Education
(iii) Education must be carried out through

procedures that uphold dignity and autonomy
of persons and secure and utilise their
willingness, purposiveness and capabilities.
(iv) Education is concerned with the development
of the whole man, and each activity must
contribute to it.
— R.S.Peters (1967,1971)
Activity 10
1. Identify the qualities of an ‘educated’ person. What
Qualities do you expect an educated individual
should have?
2. Read the UNESCO report on ‘Learning to be’.
Identify the points that describe the dimensions of
education. Discuss their relevance to the criteria
of education mentioned above.
3. Analyse the role of the school in satisfying the
criteria of education.
EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES
You have already seen that education does not refer to a
single process, but to a family of processes leading to the
achievement of being educated. It is, therefore, necessary to
isolate the different aspects of being educated and consider
which educational processes are of particular relevance.
Training
Training refers to the development of specific skills which are
to be exercised in relation to particular ends or functions in
accordance with the rules pertaining to the activity. Skills
of reading, writing and computations are some of the basic
skills to be mastered before formal education can proceed
further. A skill cannot be learnt instantaneously by just seeing
somebody performing it. It requires a kind of drill or constant
practice, especially under the supervision of the instructor
or the teacher who is teaching the skill. The teacher who is
teaching a skill also provides a model of the performance and
corrects it to bring it to perfection. In this case, very little
emphasis is given to the underlying rationale for performing
32
a skill. For example, a person who wants to play music on

an instrument cannot perform the skill unless he or she
practices it constantly for a long period. Training also carries
with it an application of the skill which is wider than mere
learning of the skill. For example, while undergoing physical
training course, a person not only learns the skills of doing
exercises, games and so on, but also learns good habits
of keeping him/herself fit, healthy, punctual, eating right
type of food, etc. Such learning cannot take place simply by
imitating someone blindly.
Training consists of a systematic series of activities
involving instruction, practice, etc. to produce desirable
habits or behaviour in particular aspects of life or vocation,
for example, military training, technical training, computer
training, etc. Thus training aims at developing and promoting
specific skills in a chosen area with a view to make the
individual undergoing training an expert in the field or task
concerned. It is a kind of capacity building of an individual
in a particular skill.
Activity 11
1. What does the term ‘training’ mean to you?
2. Can we call your course where you are taught to
become a teacher as a training course? Discuss
your meaning of training in the groups. List down
the different types of training courses that you are
aware of.
3. Discuss how training is different from learning.
Learning Check 7
1. Which part of your course has a training
component in it?
2. Does training result in education?
3. Does education of a person involve training?
Instruction and Learning by Experience

Instruction is a process which helps in the acquisition of
knowledge. It is the means employed to bring about desirable
changes in learners. Instruction involves communication
of ideas, values, skills, information and knowledge to the
33
Basics in Education
students. Instruction may also involve use of systematic

and scientific methods of communication for effective
transaction. Instruction aims at effective learning in
individuals with a view to educate them. Thus, instruction
becomes the instrument of educating individuals along
with his/her educative experiences. In acquiring a body
of knowledge, instruction serves as one of the means of
providing experiences. This does not mean that a teacher
has to make children sit passively in the class and give
instruction. By nature, children are very curious to know
things around them by directly observing or by exploring on
their own. The teacher can facilitate their learning capacities
by creating appropriate learning opportunities and be at
hand when children ask questions. In this way, there can be
no danger of instruction becoming a teacher-centred. Mere
experience alone will not help the child to discover. To enable
the child to do that, the right sort of questions have to be
asked at the appropriate time and his/her experience has to
be guided in a proper direction. It is the task of the teacher to
help and guide children in their knowledge exploration, and
development of skills and values.
Understanding of Principles
As you have already learnt in the preceding sections,
understanding of principles does not depend upon
accumulation of isolated bits of information and knowledge.
Rather, it requires reflection on what one already knows and
relating them to other facts and concepts, so that underlying
principles between the facts and the concepts could be
known. It should be noted that understanding of principles
has no meaning unless one has acquired knowledge of the
concepts. For instance, there could be no appeal to principle,
unless there is an experiential or direct knowledge of the
concepts. In our daily life instances, we come across many
natural and physical phenomena. When we look at them, we
don’t merely observe but acquire knowledge about them. We
do try to see relationships among different events and also
try to identify a common thread that runs across. We try
to identify the principles that govern certain occurrences in
nature. For example, when you understand the concept of a
plant, you also try to understand the principle that governs
34
the growth of the plant – why the roots of a plant always grow
towards the ground? And why do the leaves and fruits fall
down? and so on. In morals, similarly, principles are needed
if one has to justify the human conduct. Therefore, the grasp
of principle is not just acquisition of knowledge, but goes
beyond it in stating the rules and the relationships.
Logical and Critical Thinking
Logical and critical thinking is one of the educational processes
involving the purposeful application of cognitive abilities in
order to attain more and higher cognitive structures and
capabilities. Development of such higher cognitive processes
in children is another important aspect of teaching. The
responsibility of a teacher is to create learning contexts in
such a way that the concepts and meanings are discovered
and at the same time a critical attitude towards them are
also developed. Creating appropriate learning environment
to develop logical thinking and critical thinking is a part
of educative process. Further, mere passing on a body of
knowledge or principles without any systematic attempt to
explain or justify them does not constitute true education;
rather it leads to indoctrination. Indoctrination means
imposing the principles of a particular school of thought so as
to create faith in those principles in the minds of learners. You
must have come across certain institutions or schools which
impose their dogmatic beliefs and ideals on children without
letting them to question or inquire into them. Education can
never take place in an indoctrinated environment, where the
individuals are treated as mere objects, but not as thinking
minds.
Learning and teaching is the process of education. In this
process, the teacher and the learner interact with each other,
exchange thoughts and ideas, ask and answer questions, etc.
In contrast, the indoctrination does not allow any reasoning
or development of critical mindedness. Developing critical
mindedness involves an attempt to explain and justify
beliefs and practices, giving an opportunity to question the
fundamental assumptions on which the beliefs are based,
looking for evidences for belief, probing into presuppositions
and thinking in a clear, coherent and rational way. The
importance of critical thinking in a democratic society is
35
Basics in Education
necessary for individuals to take right place in the society. In

fact, the success of democracy rests on the individuals’ ability
to think critically and not to be carried away by propaganda.
Thus development of logical and critical thinking constitutes
another important aspect of educational process.
Activity 12
1. Identify the extent to which skill development,
factual learning, and scope for developing logical
and critical thinking are attempted through
curricular areas.
2. What kind of educational processes would you
adopt in the following contexts?
• Students want to set up an experiment in
science.
• Students want to practise computer skills.
• Students want to solve the mathematical
problems.
• Students want to develop speaking and reading
skills in English.
• Students want to know why the objects fall
down when dropped from heights.
• Students want to know why ships do not sink
whereas the other heavier objects sink in
water.
Does Education Occur only in Educational

Institutions?
Where does education take place? If you ask this question
to yourself or to others, probably you may get an answer
from most of them, that it take place in the institutions.
Education does not necessarily take place only in institutions
like schools, colleges and universities. Education is often
being confused with schooling, relying on the premise that
time spent in school is directly related to education. Try to
recall all that you have learnt during your schooling days. It
is possible that most of us have learnt things even outside
the school. In schools, we find that what one has to learn
is predetermined which may or may not be related to one’s
context. The experiences gained outside the school help in
36
understanding the school content. Many times, we came

out with knowledge that is personally relevant and easily
transferable to new situations.
Many people have a strong belief that somehow spending
time in school will make a person educated. This is one of
the biggest misnomers that prevails throughout our society.
Certainly, there are many wonderful, authentic, relevant
learning experiences that take place in school at all levels.
But that is not the only source of education.
The process of education takes place in all personal and
social situations. Education in this sense would certainly
include all efforts for inculcation of values, attitudes and
skills that the society desires to be imparted to children.
In contrast to this broader notion, education occurring in
institutions like schools and colleges is an act of consciously
imparting values, knowledge and skills in accordance
with the requirements in a formal situation. Schools and
colleges also impart deliberate and systematic training in
specialised subject areas that may not be otherwise gained
through the informal process. In its essence, schooling is a
limited educational exercise in terms of range of experiences
provided. It is also limited to a specific period of human life,
i.e., from childhood till one leaves school, while the process
of education continues throughout the life. We learn most
from our surroundings, from our friends and from other
people who share our interests. Besides school, there are
number of institutions in the society which are the agencies
of education, such as the family, the community, the temple,
the church, etc. These institutions are also known as
agencies of education. The processes of education in these
institutions are deliberately planned with a continuous effort
to give certain type of knowledge, skills, or attitudes.
In the institutions like schools and universities, the
knowledge is systematised and classified into subjects.
Educational activities of a school are understood in terms of
the subjects which are taught in it. The schools as the social
institutions, in fact, are established with the presupposed
objective of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes to the
future members of the society, as it is considered important
for living in the society. In ancient India we had institutions
37
Basics in Education
like guru ashrama, guru kula, vihara, sangha, pathasala and

vidhyapitha which played a prominent role in the process
of socialisation and transmission of knowledge and rich
cultural heritage of India. In the medieval period, we had
maktabs (schools) and madarasas (colleges). It is during the
British rule, the concept of school system emerged in India.
Education also takes informally outside the institutions.
For example, we also learn through the library, the
newspapers, the magazines, the mass media and interactive
communication technology, interaction with learned people,
and others, etc. All these sources entail learning. Interacting
with a farmer might lead one to acquire an understanding
of what kinds of crops are grown every year in different
seasons; how much is invested by the farmer for production
of crops; how much does he profit from the production of
crops; the hurdles faced by the farmer in marketing, etc.
This learning takes place informally without any structured
ways and means like curriculum, teacher or textbooks or
an institution. It opens wider possibilities of learning from
others’ experiences and get connected to the questions,
issues and feelings that are important to people. In contrast
to this, education that takes place in the institutions is
more formal and structured, that tends to take place in an
organised manner with lots of instructional planning and
support which are deliberately planned.
It must be remembered that there is some knowledge which
is historical and rooted in certain social traditions and had
been accumulated from generation to generation on which
the community depends considerably for developmental
purposes. The community depends upon the agency like
schools for the transmission of such knowledge, skills, and
values to children which may not be possible otherwise
to learn everything through informal means. Besides,
the school environment can also eliminate the unworthy
features of the existing environment from influencing the
children in developing unhealthy attitudes and values. The
school has the duty of omitting things like the undesirable
social issues such as discrimination, inequality, gender bias,
communalism, etc.
It is necessary to have a common core subject matter and
values to have a unity of outlook upon a broader horizon
38
than being confined to a small group norms and culture. The

school as an institution coordinates the diverse influences of
the various social environments from which the individual
students come from and provides an educative environment
in which the individuals interact, socialise and learn those
that are ‘worthwhile’. This would develop a common and
balanced outlook to diversities in society, a critical and an
analytical mind which applies rationally what is learnt to the
life situations.
Activity 13
Read the National Curriculum Framework – 2005.
Analyze the ideas related to ‘learning beyond the
classroom and the schools’.
Learning Check 8
1. Explain the role of a school as an institution in
educating students.
2. What are the other possible things that the child
learns from his/her environment before coming to
school ?
LET US SUM UP
The word education is derived from two Latin words ‘Educare’
and ‘Educere’. The first one meaning ‘to raise’ and to ‘to bring
up’, while the second one means to ‘to lead forth’ or ‘to come
out.’ The narrow meaning of education is confined only to a few
specific, deliberate, planned influences that have a bearing
on the development of the individual. However, education is
much more than this. It is considered to be a lifelong process,
which includes all the events, experiences, knowledge and
wisdom that an individual acquires at different stages of
one’s life formally, informally and incidentally.
Education in ancient India was aimed at training of the
mind as an instrument of knowledge and the discharge of
one’s dharma. The contemporary Indian thinkers linked it
with the human and societal development. The western view
on education has also changed over time from it being the
activities of mind to reconstruction and reorganisation of
39
Basics in Education
experiences. Education is both a natural and a social process,

wherein development of the uniqueness and individuality of
the child is considered as the very essence of education, and
at the same time initiating him/her into the society, for which
school prepares him. Education does not refer to a single
process, but to family of processes leading to the achievement
of being educated. Some of the processes are training,
instruction and learning by experiences, understanding of
principles, and logical and critical thinking.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Compare the views of Indian thinkers with western
thinkers on the concept of education. How did the
concept of education undergo changes over a period of
time? Explain with justification.
2. Analyse the following statement and give your
interpretation. “You do not educate a man by telling him
what he knows not, but by making him what he was
not.”– Ruskin.
3. Explain the concept of education as (i) initiation, (ii)
worthwhile activity with examples.
4. What are the criteria of education? Which are the criteria
that you think are satisfied by schooling? Explain with
examples.
5. Discuss the concept of ‘educated man’ with reference to
today’s educational context.
6. Why education does not refer to a particular process?
Justify your answer.
7. Which of the two is important – ‘Education as a natural
process’ or ‘Education as a social process’ ?
8. What kind of educational processes are important in
developing an inquiring mind? Support your answer
with suitable illustrations.
9. Does education take place through training and
instruction? Justify your response with suitable
examples.
10. Why does education comprise of development of critical
attitude? Give reasons.
40
11. What are the sources other than schools, through which
education takes place? Do those sources satisfy the
criteria of educative process?
12. Explain the role of an institution in educating a person.
What are the requirements of education that are satisfied
in an institution?
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Aurobindo. S. 1990. On Education. Aurobindo Ashram,
Pondicherry.
Dewey, J. 1916. Democracy and Education, The Macmillan
Company, New York.
Good, C.V. (Ed.) 1973. Dictionary of Education (3rd edition).
McGraw Hill, Michigan.
Kabir, Humayun. 1961. Indian Philosophy of Education, Asia
Publishing House, Bombay.
Kriplani, K. 1980. Rabindranath Tagore: A Biography,
Viswabharathi, Shantiniketan.
Krishnamurthi, J. 1994. Education and the Significance of Life.
Krishnamurthi Foundation, India.
Mani, R.S. 1996. Educational Ideas and Ideals of Gandhi and
Tagore (A Comparative Study). New Book Society of India,
New Delhi.
National Council of Educational Research and Training.
2005. National Curriculum Framework, NCERT, New
Delhi.
Peters, R.S. 1967. The Concept of Education. Rutledge &
Kegan Paul Ltd. Great Britain.
Peters, R.S. 1971. Ethics and Education. George Allen and
Unwin, London.
Raymont, T. 1906. The Principles of Education. Longmans,
Green, and Company, London.
Srivastava, G. 2003. Compiler. Reflections of Eminent Indian
Thinkers about Women - A Monograph. NCERT (DWS),
New Delhi.
Thapan, M. 2006. Life at School: An Ethnographic Study.
Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
UNESCO. 1996. The Treasure within Learning.
41
Chapter 2
Goals of Education
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Bases of Educational Goals
–– Social Desires and Aspirations
–– Vision about an Educated Person
• Nature of Educational Goals
–– Universality
–– Country Specificity
–– Responsiveness to Changing Socio-economic
Realities
• Goals of Education in India
–– Societal Aspirations
–– Qualities of an Educated Person
–– Documents in India
–– Educational Goals in the Emerging Indian
Society
• Functions of Educational Goals
Let Us Sum Up
Review Questions
References
Goals of Education
Introduction
In Chapter 1, you studied the meaning and nature of
education; how and in what situations it occurs. It was
mentioned that education is a pre-planned as well as an
incidental process which takes place in social settings. It is
a human enterprise organised by a society for its survival,
stability or perpetuation, and in due course of time it also
becomes an agent of transformation of the society. Like
any other pre-planned and deliberate human enterprise,
education also has pre-specified goals which make it focussed
and goal-oriented.
In this chapter, you will study the sources and nature of
educational goals. The goals are derived from the universal
goals of the humankind, national goals and life goals of the
individuals. The educational goals are universal as well
as culture-specific and are modified from time to time in
accordance with the changing desires and aspirations of
the society. You will also study in this chapter the desires
and aspirations of the contemporary Indian society and our
vision about the attributes of educated Indians. You will also
come to know about the views of various commissions on
education in the independent India about the goals which
the country’s education system endeavours to achieve. We
shall also take note of the ways in which educational goals
affect various educational processes such as curriculum
content, curriculum transaction, evaluation, educational
management, and so on.
Objectives
After going through this chapter, you would be able to:
1. Explain the bases of educational goals.
2. Describe major characteristics of educational goals.
3. Analyse the basis of educational goals in the present day
Indian society.
4. Examine the rationale of educational goals articulated
in the reports of various Commissions and policy
documents.
5. Describe how educational goals influence the content
and process of education.
6. Formulate desirable goals of education in India for the
second decade of the 21st century.
43
Basics in Education
Bases of Educational Goals

The educational goals are drawn from different sources.
These are: (a) Desires and aspirations of the society, and (b)
Vision about an educated individual. This section discusses
these two goals in some detail.
Social Desires and Aspirations
The human society operates at different levels, such as global,
national and provincial or sub-national. The aspirations
of the society cannot be the same at all levels because of
variations in needs, challenges and opportunities.
Global Aspirations
The aspirations of the global society are reflected in the
charters of the United Nations, and its specialised organs
like UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation), international laws and treaties,
declarations and resolutions adopted by the General
Assembly of the United Nations, and the report of the
International Commissions on Education. As per its charter,
the United Nations was established to maintain international
peace and security. To this end, it takes effective collective
measures for the preservation and removal of threats to the
peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other
breaches of the peace. It also aims at achieving international
cooperation in solving problems of economic, social, cultural
or humanitarian character and in promoting and encouraging
respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for
all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.
The human rights elaborated in the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly of the
United Nations on 10 December 1948, provide a common
standard of ‘achievement for all people and all nations’. It
emphasises that all human beings are born free and equal
in dignity and rights; everyone has the right to life, liberty
and security; no one shall be held in slavery and subjected
to torture or inhuman treatment; all are equal before the
law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law, and everyone is entitled to all the rights
and freedoms without distinction of any kind, such as race,
colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, property, birth or other status. The
44
Goals of Education
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination

against Women adopted by the General Assembly of the
United Nations in 1979 condemned discrimination against
women in all its forms and emphasised the need to embody the
principle of the equality of men and women in their national
constitutions and to adopt appropriate legislative and other
measures prohibiting all discrimination against women. The
convention on the Rights of the Child adopted by the General
Assembly of the United Nations in 1989 re-emphasised that
the child, by reason of his physical and mental immaturity,
needs special safeguards and care including appropriate legal
protection, before and after birth. It further emphasises that
every child shall have the right to freedom of the thought,
conscience and religion and the disabled child shall have the
right to special care on account of his/her special needs. It
enjoins on the national governments to take all appropriate
legislative, administrative, social and educational measures
to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment,
and maltreatment or exploitation including sexual abuse.
B. Lindqvist, UN Rapporteur, in 1994, observed:
“All children and young people of the world, with their
individual strengths and weaknesses, with their hopes
and expectations, have the right to education. It is not
our education system that have a right to certain types of
children. Therefore, it is school system of a country that
must be adjusted to meet the needs of all children.”
Besides adopting declarations and conventions on human
rights and freedoms, the United Nations has also adopted
a number of declarations and accords on environmental
pollution and protection, global warming, energy conservation,
reduction in carbon emissions, sustainable development,
conservation of natural resources, etc. These efforts of the
international community have emphasised the responsibility
of the present generation to leave behind the resources and
kind of earth worth living for the future generations.
Emphasising the role of education, the UNESCO charter
states that since the wars begin in the minds of human
beings, the defences of peace shall have to be constructed
in minds only. This profound statement brings to the fore
the potential of education to guide and facilitate the desired
45
Basics in Education
change in the perceptions and attitudes of human beings.

Therefore, the potential of education needs to be exploited to
promote peace and inculcate respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms.
In nutshell, the global society aspires for the establishment of:
• World order free from injustice, exploitation and
discrimination;
• World order based on universal respect for human
rights and freedoms;
• Peaceful world committed to the resolution of conflicts
through peaceful means; and
• World community conscious of its responsibility and
obligation towards the future generations.
Activity 1
Visit a library, pick up documents related to various
organisations of the United Nations. List down their roles
and functions.
National Societies
Being part of the global society, most of the nations, to a large
extent, share their aspirations with global societies, with
modifications in accordance with their historical and cultural
traditions and current developmental status. The aspirations
of a national society are reflected in its constitution, laws and
policy pronouncements. An under-developed society aspires
to improve its position on various developmental indicators
and a developing society may aspire to strengthen its clout
and prestige in the comity of nations. A liberal democracy
may strive to develop democratic values, openness and
liberal attitudes, while a totalitarian and authoritative
society may expect citizens to conform to the established
norms. A secular society expects its citizens to develop
secular values and rational outlook. A multilingual, multi-
religious and multicultural society may aspire to promote
national and emotional integration, and develop feelings
of togetherness and respect for diversity. It is well known
that many societies in the world do not allow women equal
opportunities for development, while liberal democracies do
not allow any type of discrimination on the basis of gender.
A theocratic state gives preferential treatment to the citizens
46
Goals of Education
following a particular religion. A national society generally

experiences tension between its urge to get integrated with
the world society and to preserve its separate national and
cultural identity and promote its world view. The aspirations
of the contemporary Indian society are discussed in detail
elsewhere in this chapter.
Sub-national Societies
A number of nations in the world having federal set up
are divided into geographical regions with concentration of
people belonging to a particular ethnic or linguistic group.
In India, each state constitutes a distinct socio-cultural unit.
Each unit not only shares aspirations of the bigger India as
well as global society but has quite a few its own aspirations
which inform the formulation of state-specific educational
goals. For example, each unit may nourish a desire to get
integrated with the national stream and make a mark in
different spheres of human activity like science, technology,
industry, sports, education, etc. At the same time, it may
have an urge to preserve its separate cultural identity along
with its customs and traditions and promote its language,
way of life and art forms.
Thus, while formulating educational goals, a society needs
to take into account social aspirations at all the three levels,
namely, global, national and sub-national. It has to strike a
balance if the aspirations at different levels are at variance
from each other, and set long term and short termpriorities.
Activity 2
How many States and Union Territories does India
consist of? List down diversities existing between them.
Think about the implications these diversities might
have for the educational goals of people inhabiting
those States.
Vision about an Educated Person

In our conversations we often differentiate between an educated
and an uneducated person. We expect an educated person to
possess certain characteristics which an uneducated person
normally does not possess. But all the human beings do not
have the same vision about an educated person as it depends
47
Basics in Education
on their educational, social and professional background.

Likewise, the vision of different societies about an educated
person depends on their nature as well as on their social,
political and economic goals. A secular society expects an
educated person to be liberal in outlook, a democratic society
expects an educated person to be tolerant towards conflicting
view points, and a socialist society perceives the educated
person as the one who possesses scientific and rational
outlook and cooperative attitude. In a religious society, a
person who believes in the existence of a supreme power and
perceives the human beings as a reflection of the supreme is
considered an educated person.
You know that a person is called upon to perform
different roles in different situations. In some situations, he/
she behaves as a learner; in the work place, he/she acts
as a worker; and in social situations he/she functions as
a citizen. Above all, his/her over-arching role as a human
being permeates in all other functions. As a learner, an
educated person demonstrates his/her inclination to seek
truth through acquisition and construction of knowledge. As
a worker, he/she observes higher standards of work ethics
and strives to improve the quality of his/her work through
application of theoretical knowledge related to the field.
As a citizen, an educated person values the constitutional
principles and always gives precedence to the unity and
progress of the nation vis-à-vis his/her personal interests
or those of the community. As a human being, an educated
person rises above the narrow considerations of caste, creed,
region or nationality.
Realising the importance of self knowledge, the Delors
Commission (1996) recommended that it should be integral
part of education curriculum at all levels. We all know that
human beings know much about natural phenomena, social
phenomena, the achievements and failings of other human
beings, societies and nations, but have very little knowledge
of their own self. An educated person not only understands
his/her own strengths and weaknesses but has the capacity
to examine his/her beliefs, values, attitudes and prejudices.
He/she has the capability to further strengthen his positive
thinking and attitudes and capacity to evolve strategies to
get rid of negative feelings and attitudes.
48
Goals of Education
Activity 3
List your vision of an educated person. Discuss it with friends
and teachers. Note the commonalities and differences.
In this section, you have learnt that educational goals

are derived from the aspirations of the global, national and
sub-national society. The maintenance of peace, resolution of
conflicts through peaceful means and inculcation of respect
for human rights and fundamental freedoms are the most
obvious aspirations of the global society. Besides sharing
the aspirations of the global society, a national or a sub-
national society aspires to make a mark at the international
and national levels, respectively. The aspirations of a nation
are reflected in its constitution and policy statements adopted
from time to time. The educational goals across societies
differ because of variations in their aspirations. The vision
of an educated person is another source for the formulation
of educational goals. The vision of an educated person in a
society depends on its nature as well as on its social, political
and economic goals. As a learner, an educated person not
only acquires knowledge through different sources, but also
constructs knowledge on the basis of his personal experiences
and observations. As a citizen, he has faith in the social and
political ideals of the society. Besides possessing knowledge
of self, an educated person also has the ability to analyse his
own strengths, weaknesses, beliefs, attitudes, prejudices, etc.
Learning Check 1
1. Which documents/sources you shall consult to
formulate goals of education for your country?
2. Mention two goals which should be adopted by
educational systems of all countries.
3. What is your vision of an effective learner?
Nature of Educational Goals

As discussed in the previous section, educational goals
are derived from the vision of a society about its future
anspirations, and about the qualities and values of an
educated person. This implies that educational goals belong
49
Basics in Education
to two broad categories, namely, social goals and individual

goals. Some of the goals in the two categories have universal
character, that is, these goals are common across cultures
and nations. On the other hand, there may be certain goals
which are specific to a country or group of countries. In
this section, an attempt has been made to examine some
important features of educational goals.
Universality
You might have read or heard that education aims at the
‘all round development’ of the child’s personality. Some
educationists hold the view that one of the goals of education
should be to enable a person to realise his/her potential. That
is, through the instrumentality of education, a child should
be equipped to become what she is capable of becoming. You
will realise that this statement has a universal appeal and,
therefore, is equally relevant for almost all countries of the
world.
The UNESCO’s Commission on Education in the 21st
Century, headed by Jacques Delor, in its report Learning the
Treasure Within (1996), identified the following four pillars of
learning which ought to be the basis for the organisation of
education in any part of the world.
1. Learning to know
2. Learning to do
3. Learning to live together
4. Learning to be
Let us examine these goals in some details.
Learning to Know
A student has to continuously strive to ‘know’ things by adopting
a variety of methods such as reading, listening, questioning,
discussion, exploration, observation, experimentation, etc.
However, it is not enough for a person to obtain information
about certain things or to know certain facts. He must
develop the ability to examine the obtained facts and pieces
of information to arrive at conclusions leading to learning
of concepts and principles. In other words, a learner should
be enabled to learn ‘how to learn’ and not only to acquire
knowledge on her own but also to construct knowledge on the
50
Goals of Education
basis of her own observations, experimentation and analysis

of available data.
Learning to Do
In addition to acquisition of knowledge and reflection on
concepts and principles, a person in today’s world has to
pick a large number of work skills for day-to-day life and
also for specialised work situations. It is for this very reason
that some sort of work education or work experience is
included in the school curricula all over the world. However,
this does not mean that learners can learn work skills only
in work education classes. Instead ‘work’ has to be made
integral to all learning areas in the school. Moreover, with
the advancement of existing technologies and emergence of
new technologies, learners have to continuously renew and
upgrade their skills. Above all, the learners need to develop
the attitude that all work is dignified.
Learning to Live Together
In the present day’s world, there are tensions and conflicts at
all levels between individuals, between ethnic groups, between
racial groups, between religious groups, and between the
nation states. In many families, different members sometimes
find it difficult to get along with one another. Within a nation
state, there are sometimes tensions among various linguistic,
religious, regional or ethnic groups because of conflicting
interests and aspirations. Also, many countries in the world
have strained relations with other countries, especially with
their neighbours. In view of the above mentioned realities
of the present day world, individuals, groups of people and
nations must learn to live with others in harmony which
is possible if they are not only tolerant towards others’
viewpoints, but also show genuine respect for them.
Learning to Be
Every individual is born with potential for certain
mental abilities. During the process of growing up, she
gets opportunities to realise her potential through the
instrumentality of formal and informal education. She also
develops her own viewpoints, beliefs and value systems on
the basis of critical analysis of her own observations and
experiences and knowledge of social aspirations. In addition,
51
Basics in Education
she has to learn to actualise his potential in different spheres,

that is, she has to persistently strive to become what she
is capable of becoming. A student must learn to acquire
knowledge about her own ‘self’, that is, she should develop
the ability to identify her strengths and weaknesses and
to develop a viewpoint on various social and moral issues
and accordingly develop principles governing her conduct in
different situations.
The four pillars of learning discussed above are in fact
individual goals of education, which are universal in nature.
The education system in all the countries has to be guided by
these goals of individual development and students all over
the world must acquire them.
Learning Check 2
1. Why are universal goals of education needed?
2. What will happen if there are no universal goals?
3. Give examples of four pillars of learning.
Country Specificity
In addition to universal goals, each country also formulates
its own educational goals in tune with its culture, polity and
economy. As the world is fast becoming a global village, the
countries aim to produce citizens who not only have faith
in socialist ideology but also practise socialist values in life.
Likewise, you must have noticed that, in recent years, there is
fast development in the societies, fast means of transport and
communication, and large scale migration of people from one
country to another. As a result of such migration, countries
like United Kingdom (UK), Australia, USA, Canada and many
others have adopted ‘multiculturalism’ as a goal of education
to promote respect and harmony among different cultural
groups. A country like India, with multiple diversities based
on religion, language, ethnicity, etc., emphasises ‘national
and emotional integration’, or development of national
unity and spirit of togetherness as the goals of education.
A democratic country like India emphasises development
of democratic values like tolerance, accommodation and
respect for divergent viewpoints. In such a society, the vision
of educated person is that of a true democrat. On the other
hand, counties at different stages of industrial development,
52
Goals of Education
formulate their educational goals in accordance with

their needs of industrial growth in future. ‘Acceleration of
modernisation’ is generally accepted as goal of education in
societies which are relatively backward on various indicators
of modernity.
Responsiveness to Changing Socio-Economic

Realities
The educational goals in every society periodically undergo a
change in tune with changing social realities and aspirations.
While pleading for the introduction of English education in
India, Lord Macaulay had stated that his aim was to provide
such education to Indians which will equip them to run
the government offices in the country. During the entire
British period, educating Indians to become loyal citizens
to the British Empire remained the goal. However, after
independence, national development based on the principles
of democracy and secularism was accepted as the goal. A
number of countries during the past few decades have
accepted ‘multiculturalism’ as the goal after they accepted
migrants from different countries. The educational goals in
the present day Russian Federation cannot be the same as it
had as a part of USSR. As the world in the 21st century shall
be different from the world of the 20th century in several
ways, it will have different educational goals too. Recognising
the need for having different educational goals and strategies
in the 21st century, the UNESCO appointed a Commission.
The four pillars of learning identified by the Commission on
Education in 21st Century have been discussed above.
Excerpts of T. B. Macaulay’s Minutes on Indian
Education, dated the 2nd February 1835.
...I have no knowledge of either Sanskrit or Arabic.

But I have done what I could to form a correct
estimate of their value. I have read translations of
the most celebrated Arabic and Sanskrit works. I
have conversed, both here and at home, with men
distinguished by their proficiency in the Eastern
tongues. I am quite ready to take the oriental learning
at the valuation of the orientalists themselves. I have
never found one among them who could deny that a
single shelf of a good European library was worth
53
Basics in Education
the whole native literature of India and Arabia. The

intrinsic superiority of the Western literature is indeed
fully admitted by those members of the committee
who support the oriental plan of education.
…But there is yet another argument which seems
even more untenable. It is said that the Sanskrit and
the Arabic are the languages in which the sacred
books of a hundred millions of people are written,
and that they are on that account entitled to peculiar
encouragement. Assuredly it is the duty of the British
Government in India to be not only tolerant but neutral
on all religious questions. But to encourage the study
of a literature, admitted to be of small intrinsic value,
only because that literature inculcated the most
serious errors on the most important subjects, is a
course hardly reconcilable with reason, with morality,
or even with that very neutrality which ought, as we
all agree, to be sacredly preserved. It is confined
that a language is barren of useful knowledge. We
are to teach it because it is fruitful of monstrous
superstitions. We are to teach false history, false
astronomy, false medicine, because we find them
in company with a false religion. We abstain, and
I trust shall always abstain, from giving any public
encouragement to those who are engaged in the work
of converting the natives to Christianity. And while
we act thus, can we reasonably or decently bribe
men, out of the revenues of the State, to waste their
youth in learning how they are to purify themselves
after touching an ass or what texts of the Vedas they
are to repeat to expiate the crime of killing a goat?
…In one point I fully agree with the gentlemen to
whose general views I am opposed. I feel with them
that it is impossible for us, with our limited means,
to attempt to educate the body of the people. We
must at present do our best to form a class who may
be interpreters between us and the millions whom
we govern – a class of persons Indian in blood and
colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals
and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to
refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich
those dialects with terms of science borrowed from
the Western nomenclature, and to render them by
54
Goals of Education
degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the

great mass of the population. (italics added)
Downloaded from
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/
pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt_minute_
education_1835.html
on 14th April, 2013.
In this section we have discussed that educational goals

are universal as well as country specific. The two types of
goals have to be complementary to each other in any society.
While the universal goals are common for all the countries,
the country-specific goals are different for each country.
Above all, the educational goals are not static as these have
to change from time to time.
Learning Check 3
1. Why is it necessary to supplement universal goals
of education by country-specific goals?
2. What will be the consequences if the educational
goals are not re-formulated in accordance with
the changing social realities?
3. Compare the visions about an educated person in
a democratic and a totalitarian society.
Goals of Education in India

In the previous sections, you have studied that goals of
education in a society are based on its present and future
aspirations, on the one hand, and its vision about an educated
person, on the other. Some of the goals are universal while
others are country-specific but they have to be periodically
reviewed in the light of changing realities and aspirations
of the society. This section describes India’s thinking about
the goals which have guided her educational system in the
past and the goals which should guide reconstruction of
the system in the future. But before discussing the goals
of education, it seems appropriate to briefly reflect on the
aspirations of the Indian society and its vision about an
educated person.
55
Basics in Education
Societal Aspirations
The vision and ideal of the Indian people are emphasised in
the Preamble to our Constitution:
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA having solemnly resolved
to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST
SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all
its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and
the unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth
day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT
AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
The resolve of the founding fathers of our constitution
mandates adoption of the principles of socialism, secularism
and democracy as the bases of all aspects of national
endeavour including education. The values of justice, liberty,
equality and fraternity must be the guiding forces for the
organisation of various social, political and economic systems
including education. The unity and integrity of the Nation has
to be the overriding goal of education as it is the pre-requisite
to achieve breakthrough in any other aspect of national life.
The vision of the founding fathers has been elaborated
and interpreted at regular intervals through a large number
of policy resolutions, statements and legislations. In the
21st Century, the country has a vision to develop as political
and economic super power, on the one hand, and to ensure
inclusive and balanced development across regions and
communities in the country, on the other. In the field of
education, the country aspires to achieve excellence with
Activity 4
Invite teachers and students to participate in a seminar
on the topic “Preamble to Indian Constitution”.
Request each one of them to pick one basic principle
of the Constitution and address the gathering on the
same, with particular focus on education.
56
Goals of Education
equality, that is, to strive for producing human resource of

exceptional calibre while ensuring equality in opportunities
for all citizens of the country.
Qualities of an Educated Person

In ancient India, an educated person was expected to follow four
fundamental goals of human life; Dharma (righteousness or
moral-ethical value), Artha (economic pursuit), Kama (worldly
pleasures) and Moksha (deliverance). It was recommended
that the human beings may acquire worldly possessions and
pursue worldly pleasures during life but it should be done
following the path of dharma. However, the supreme goal of
human life is to strive for Moksha, that is, liberation from
the shackles of limitless desires and evils like Kama (lust),
Krodha (anger), Mada (intoxication), Lobha (greed), and
Moha (attachment). Education was perceived as a means of
liberation or deliverance (sa vidya vimuktya – education is
the one that liberates), and therefore, an educated person
was one who had risen above all types of bondages of desires
and negative feelings emanating from them.
The relevance of the vision about an educated person based
on the fundamental goals of human life has not diminished
in the contemporary Indian society and, therefore, it has to
be incorporated in its vision of an educated person.
The qualities of an educated person required in the
contemporary time, as construed from the Constitutional
goals and values, reports of Commissions on education,
policy resolutions, etc, have been summarised below:
• Being a true democrat, he/she practises democratic
values in all aspects of life, specially appreciates and
accommodates divergent viewpoints;
• Believes in secularism and, therefore, possesses uniform
feelings for all religions (sarva dharma sambhav);
• Being a votary of social justice, he/she supports promotion
of disadvantaged sections of the society;
• Takes pride in his/her Indian identity and, therefore, is
not swayed by divisive forces based on religion, language,
caste, region, etc.;
• Being a rationalist, he/she engages with personal and
social problems with scientific bent of mind;
57
Basics in Education
• Being a seeker of knowledge, he/she also contributes

in the generation of new knowledge on the basis of his/
her own observations, experimentation and analysis of
existing situations; and
• Observes instinctively fundamental duties of citizens
enunciated in Article 51 of the Constitution of India in
letter and spirit.
Activity 5
According to you, what should be the qualities of
an educated person? Give the particular behaviour
associated with a quality in a context.
Documents in India
In the earlier section, we have discussed the aspirations of
the contemporary Indian society and also its vision of an
educated person. The discussion may appear to be sufficient
for the formulation of educational goals for the 21st century.
However, before attempting this, it would be worthwhile to
briefly reflect on the goals of education enunciated in the
reports of various Commissions on education and important
policy statements.
The University Education Commission (1948-49)
The Commission, set up immediately after independence
under the chairmanship of Dr Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan,
deliberated on the aims of university education in the context
of new political changes in the country and expectations from
the universities as organs of civilisation. The Commission
visualised education as a means of building new India by
undertaking the following steps.
(i) Strengthening Democracy: The Commission
emphasised that education should aim at the development
of body, mind and spirit of each individual. Therefore,
each individual in a democratic society needs to be
recognised as a valuable asset and should be enabled to
develop his/her potentialities in all dimensions and get
adjusted to the society.
(ii) Promotion of Social Justice: Promotion of social
justice is an important pre-requisite for the success of a
democracy. In the absence of equitable development of
58
Goals of Education
all sections of the society it will be difficult to strengthen

democratic traditions in the country.
(iii) Valuing Liberty: The autonomy of each individual
needs to be respected and protected. The individuals
must learn to protect their own liberty in thought and
expressions but at the same time should be ready to
allow freedom to others.
(iv) Promoting Equality: In order to ensure democratic way
of life, it is essential to provide equality of opportunities
to all individuals for which economic barriers shall have
to be dismantled by providing assistance to backward
communities.
(v) Promoting Fraternity—National: In order to build a
strong new India, it is imperative to promote fraternal
bonds between different segments of the society and
between different regions of the country. It needs to the
emphasised that, inspite of diversities, there is cultural
unity in the country.
(vi) India’s Cultural Heritage and Past History: The
Indian culture has continuously evolved since the
period of Indus civilisation and is still evolving. As a
result of interactions among several cultural streams,
a composite Indian culture has evolved in the country.
There is need to study the past history of the country.
(vii) Promoting Fraternity—International: There is a
need to strike a balance between world mindedness
and national sentiments. By broadening the spirit of
patriotism, we need to move towards the concept of
positive peace and world citizenship.
The above discussion on aims of education makes it clear
that we cannot preserve real freedom unless we preserve the
values of democracy, justice, liberty, equality and freedom.
Learning Check 3
1. What is meant by development of body, mind, and
spirit?
2. What position did the Chairman of the University
Education Commission finally occupied in India?
3. What is the difference between promoting
fraternity at the national and international levels?
59
Basics in Education
Our educational system must find its guiding principles

in the aims of social order for which it prepares and in the
nature of the civilisation it hopes to build.
Secondary Education Commission (1952–53)
The Secondary Education Commission, with
Dr A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar in chair, emphasised
the need for formulating the aims of education with special
reference to the needs and ideals of our country. The
Commission identified the following as educational needs of
democratic India.
(i) Developing Democratic Citizenship: Democracy is
based on faith in the dignity and worth of every single
individual and human being. But every individual must
acquire many sided art of living in the community and
qualities like discipline, cooperation, social sensitiveness
and tolerance.
(ii) Improving Vocational Efficiency: Improvement in
vocational efficiency of individuals is necessary to raise
the productivity of the individuals and of the country
as a whole. There is a need to introduce vocational and
technical courses in educational institutions to improve
the vocational efficiency of individuals.
(iii) Development of Personality: In order to release the
sources of creative energy in the students, courses in
arts, crafts, music, drama, etc. must be introduced.
(iv) Education for Leadership: Since the Commission
specifically dealt with secondary education, it emphasised
that secondary education, in its ideology and approach,
should grow from the education that is being given at the
mass level and should consequently be closely integrated
with basic education. The secondary education should
aim at developing leadership at intermediate level as
everyone cannot join higher education, Secondary
schools should train persons who will be able to assume
the responsibility of leadership in their own small groups
of community or locality.
It is evident that the Commission has attempted to
strike a balance between aims of individual and social
development. The needs of a democratic India are sought to
be met by developing personality of individuals and raising
their vocational efficiency.
60
Goals of Education
Education Commission (1964–66)

The Report of the Education Commission (1964-66), under
the chairmanship of Dr D.S. Kothari, was titled as ‘Education
and National Development’. The title of the report is
indicative of the Commission’s thinking about the potential
of education. The Commission perceived education as the
great enterprise of national reconstruction whose principal
objective was to raise the standard of living of people which
necessitates development of human resources. The country
needs educational revolution which necessarily means
relating education to life needs and aspirations of the people,
which certainly shall go a long way in making it a powerful
instrument of social, cultural and economic transformation
necessary for the realisation of our national goals. The
Commission suggested that in order to realise the national
goals, the following should be the goals of education:
(i) Enhancing Productivity: Education must aim at
enhancing the level of productivity of individual learners
in diverse fields and thereby enhancing the productivity
of the entire nation. Science, mathematics and work
experiences as compulsory areas of school curriculum
and advanced level research in science and technology
are some of the means to raise the level of productivity
of the manpower. However, enhancing productivity
does not mean increasing production. Instead, it means
raising the level of efficiency and work output of workers
in any field of human activity.
(ii) Promoting Social and National Integration: In view
of the strains and tensions among diverse communities
and regions, the Commission felt that there was urgent
need to promote social and national integration in the
country. The development of ‘national consciousness’,
no doubt, is the pre-requisite for national development.
(iii) Accelerating Modernisation: Education must be
geared to accelerate the pace of modernisation in the
country, which is an indicator of social and national
progress. The advancements in science and technology,
development of infrastructure and increasing use of
technology in different aspects of life are important
manifestations of modernisation. But more important
is the modernisation of attitudes and perceptions, i.e.,
developing scientific and liberal attitudes.
61
Basics in Education
(iv) Character Formulation Based on Social, Moral and

Spiritual Values: National development does not mean
only development of infrastructure and advancements
in science and technology. It also means preparation of
citizens of strong character possessing and practising
social, moral and spiritual values. They need to strike
balance between secularism and religion, on the one
hand, and between science and spirituality, on the
other, and adopting open mindedness, tolerance and
objectivity as guiding principles of life.
Learning Check 4
Find out the similarities and differences in
the recommendations of Secondary Education
Commission and Education Commission.
National Commission on Teachers (1983-85)

The National Commission on Teachers (1983-85), also
known as Chattopadhyaya Commission, enunciated four
national goals in its report titled ‘The Teacher and Society’.
The Commission further recognised education to be the most
important instrument for the attainment of these goals. The
goals are described below.
(i) A United Secular India: During the tenure of the
Commission, the country witnessed strong stresses and
tensions in the name of caste and religion. The mixing of
politics with religion and caste had further complicated
the situation. The Commission noted with great concern
that ‘Indians’ had become the smallest minority in the
country, while people owing allegiance to caste, religion,
language or region-based groups were in majority and
relished their separate identity at the cost of their
identity as ‘Indian’. In view of the strong divisive forces,
the Commission concluded that the most urgent need of
the hour was to develop a national spirit and a national
identity.
(ii) A Modern Nation: Modernisation does not merely
mean development of world class infrastructure and the
increasing use of latest technologies. The Commission
opined that it essentially means giving primacy to reason,
an openness and flexibility of mind, and an ability to
62
Goals of Education
fashion life and environment, and not to surrender to

unknown forces. The scientific temper and spirit must
permeate the life of all our people. Science has indeed
revolutionised all aspects of human life. It has discovered
new areas of knowledge, and, therefore, the emerging
society will need highly skilled and qualified manpower
in the new areas of knowledge. The modernising of
India is possible only if such manpower is available for
which the education system shall require expansion and
diversification.
(iii) A Productive People: In order to accelerate the pace
of modernisation, the country needs hard working
and disciplined people, who ought to be conscious of
quality in their work. They shall have to develop and
observe work ethics in their respective spheres of
activity. Through education, we shall have to raise the
productivity of our people by undertaking programmes
of skill upgradation along with inculcation of values of
hard work and discipline.
(iv) A Humane and Caring Society: Today’s world is,
by and large, governed by the principle of ‘survival of
the fittest’. The richer and powerful individuals and
nations endeavour to utilise maximum resources for
their personal ends leaving very little for the majority
of weaker individuals and nations. However, there has
been a strong current of empathy and fellow feeling in
many civilisations. Our Constitution has also a vision
of rendering social, political and economic justice to all
citizens of the country. The policy of reservation in jobs
and educational institutions for the weaker sections
of the society is a step towards the establishment of a
caring society. However, the constitutional provisions
need to be reinforced by refining the sensitivities of
people through the mechanism of education.
National Policy on Education (NPE-1986)
As per the NPE-1986, the following ideas constitute the
essence and role of education:
(i) Education is fundamental to our all-round development
– material and spiritual.
(ii) Education has an acculturating role. It refines
sensitivities and perceptions that contribute to national
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Basics in Education
cohesion, a scientific temper and independence of mind

and spirit – thus furthering the goals of socialism,
secularism and democracy.
(iii) Education develops manpower for different levels of
economy. It is also the substrate on which research and
development flourish, being the ultimate guarantee of
national self reliance.
(iv) Education is a unique investment in the present and the
future.
The above mentioned statements in the NPE-1986,
emphasise the following as goals of education:
• All round development of learners – both physical
and spiritual.
• Furthering the goals of socialism, secularism and
democracy by attempting modification in the mindset
and value systems of individuals.
• Attaining national self-reliance by developing skilled
manpower for different levels of economy.
In sum, the NPE-1986 reiterates that for the attainment
of national goals, the total development of learners, and that
too in the appropriate direction, must be ensured.
National Curriculum Framework–2005
The Position Paper of National Focus Group on ‘Aims of
Education’ made an attempt to seek answer to the question.
‘What ought to be the aims of education’? The following are
the aims of education as per NCF– 2005.
(i) The school must help the creation of vital links between
children’s experiences at home and in the community
and what the school offers them.
(ii) Self knowledge should be the aim of education, which
can be achieved through continuous process of self
discovery, of learning the truth about oneself.
(iii) The child or the adolescent must be convinced of
the superiority of a life of virtues to a life of vice and
wickedness. The virtues must incorporate morality,
comprising truth and love, or ahimsa. Truth means
freedom from self deception.
(iv) Education should aim at promotion of respect for
cultural diversity in the country, that is, a child must
learn to respect and do justice to the cultures of other
communities.
64
Goals of Education
(v) Individual differences are as important as cultural

differences. Education must, therefore, promote and
nourish as wide a range of capacities and skills in our
children as possible.
(vi) Since knowledge is not a unitary concept and there are
different kinds of knowledge as well as different ways of
knowing, education must give as much importance to
literary and artistic creativity as to seeking knowledge
through laboratory experiments or deductive reasoning.
(vii) Education must be seen as a liberating process, that is,
as a means to liberate children from the shackles of all
kinds of exploitation and injustice (e.g. poverty, gender
discrimination, caste and communal bias).
(viii) Education should take place in an environment that is
aesthetically pleasing and students should take an active
part in creating such an environment for themselves.
(ix) Education must enable every child to be proud of his/
her nation, for which it must foster within the child an
intimacy with people who are directly connected with
achievements which are part of our national heritage.
The educational aims mentioned above were used as an
input for the development of NCF–2005. It is evident that the
aims give primacy to the aims of individual development. The
social or national goals are sought to be approached through
the development of appropriate qualities in children.
Educational Goals In The Emerging Indian

Society
The aspirations of the contemporary Indian society, the
vision about an educated person and the survey of goals of
education articulated in the reports of various commissions
of education, may form the basis for the formulation of goals
for the emerging Indian society. The following can be set as
the parameters for the formulation of goals.
• There is a need to strike a balance between the development
of an individual and of the society.
• India aspires to join the league of developed nations at
the earliest
• A developed country is in a position to ensure higher
standard of life for her citizens because of availability
of high class infrastructure, healthcare and educational
facilities.
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Basics in Education
• In order to realise her dream of becoming developed

country, India shall have to move ahead on the path of
inclusive development encompassing all sections of the
society and all regions of the country.
• The gigantic task of national development is possible
through scientific and technological advancements and
economic prosperity which are in turn possible through
development of highly skilled manpower.
• The qualified and skilled manpower is not enough for
transforming the society into a modern, caring and
humane society. This shall require citizens with modern,
liberal and scientific outlook and with strong sense of
national identity and spirit of togetherness.
We have discussed above six parameters for the
formulation of educational goals. You can think of a few more
parameters or modify or elaborate further some of them. In
the light of modified list of parameters, it should be possible
for you to formulate goals of education in the emerging Indian
society.
Activity 6
1. Critically examine the parameters suggested
above. Prepare a modified list after discussion in
the class.
2. Divide the class into two groups. The groups may
prepare separate lists of individual and social
goals of education respectively for discussion in
the plenary.
3. Organise a discussion on the relative importance
of individual and social goals of education.
Learning Check 5
1. What suggestions were given by Kothari
Commission for the modernisation of Indian
society?
2. Why did Chattopadhya Commission emphasised
the need for a caring and humane society in India?
3. As per NPE-1986, what is sought to be realised
through acculturating role of education?
66
Goals of Education
Functions of Educational Goals

In the present section you will engage yourselves with
questions like ‘Why should we formulate goals of education?’
and ‘How do goals impact different processes of education?’
The well-articulated educational goals are the major source
from which objectives of different stages or different sectors
of education are derived. Likewise, the objectives of different
curricular areas are also influenced by the educational goals.
The educational goal of ‘skilled and qualified manpower’ shall
lead to ‘expansion and diversification of technical education’,
as an objective of higher and technical education. The
‘modernisation of society’, as a goal shall mean promotion
of science and technology and ‘development of scientific
temperament’ as objectives of curriculum. The educational
goals also impact educational programmes, curricular
provisions and curriculum transaction methodologies.
‘Enhancing productivity’ as a goal shall necessitate
introduction of ‘work education’ and ‘vocational courses’
in schools, colleges and technical education institutions.
It shall also necessitate development of proper work ethos
and approaching all types of work as dignified. ‘National and
social integration’, as a goal, shall necessitate ‘inclusion of
the study of different cultures and life and people of different
states’, in the curriculum.
The above examples indicate that the educational goals,
evolved on the basis of consensus, set the parameters for
setting the curricular objectives, content of curriculum,
evaluation procedures, educational schemes, financial
targets, etc. The clarity about the targets to be achieved leaves
little scope for any doubt or confusion about the programmes
or schemes to be launched or interventions to be made. The
well articulated goals serve as the lighthousewhich makes
it easier for the wandering ships to move forward in the
right direction to reach their destination. The usefulnessand
desirability ofany educational intervention is determined
against the criteria of educational goals.
In short, the educational goals are the targets which
are sought to be achieved through the implementation of
a variety of educational programmes and schemes. The
curricula and teaching-learning materials should be such
67
Basics in Education
as have the potential to realise the goals of individual and

social development. The educational goals thus serve as the
basis for delineating objectives of different levels (elementary,
secondary, collegiate) and sectors (technical, vocational,
professional). The educational goals also provide direction
to the task of educational planners and administrators,
curriculum development institutions, examining bodies
and teachers. In the absence of properly articulated goals,
adhochism may prevail in the work of the above mentioned
persons and institutions.
Activity 7
Divide yourselves into five groups. Each group may be
asked to select one of the following goals:
1. Strengthening Democracy
2. Modernising Society
3. Promoting National Unity
4. Learning to Live Together
5. Nurturing Individual Talents
Each group shall be required to work out
implications of the selected goal for the content and
process of education and present its report in the
class for discussion.
Learning Check 6
1. Why is it necessary to lay down goals of education?
2. What role do goals play in determining the suitability
of educational schemes and programmes?
3. How shall absence of well-articulated goals impact
the work of curriculum development institutions?
LET US SUM UP
In this chapter we have engaged with a few questions
concerning goals of education, such as what forms the bases
for the formulation of educational goals, what is the nature
of educational goals, what goals of education have been
identified by various commissions and policy frame-works
68
Goals of Education
in the contemporary Indian society and what goals should

be formulated as the guiding principles for the organisation
of the educational system in the 21st century. We have
discussed that the educational goals at any point of time are
formulated on the basis of the current and future aspirations
of the society and its vision about an educated person.
The aspirations of the Indian society are reflected in the
Preamble of the Indian Constitution which visualise India as
a secular and democratic republic committed to the values
of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. The present day
Indian society also aspires to ensure better standard of living
to its citizens by joining the group of developed nations. An
educated person in our perception is one who has scientific
temperament and liberal outlook, and is capable of original
thinking and generation of new knowledge on the basis of
his/her own observations, experimentation and reflection.
The educational goals are characterised by universality as
well as country specificity. The goals concerning personality
development of individuals may be universal in nature but
such goals have to be supplemented by the goals of social
development which cannot be the same across countries.
The goals formulated at a particular point of time shall have
to be revised periodically in view of the changing needs,
realities and priorities of a society. The survey of educational
goals articulated in the reports of various commissions on
education, presented in this chapter has also confirmed
the view that educational goals have to be responsive to the
changing needs and concerns of the society. In the beginning
of the 21st century we aspire to strengthen democracy
based on secular and liberal traditions and ensure inclusive
development encompassing all sections of the society and all
regions of the country. We also aspire to be a technologically
advanced and a knowledge driven country and strong
economic power for which the education system shall have
to be restructured.
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Basics in Education
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. ‘Learning to live together’, is one of the four pillars of
education emphasised by the Delors Commission. How
is it related to development of social and emotional
integration as a national goal in India?
2. What promoted the Education Commission (1964-66) to
emphasise ‘Modernisation’ and ‘Productivity’ as national
development goals?
3. Is education a means to realise social goals or is it an
end in itself? Give arguments in favour of either of the
two viewpoints.
4. How shall you justify accepting ‘Self knowledge’ as one of
the educational goals and also as an area of curriculum
at all stages of education?
5. How far is India a ‘Caring and Humane Society’? How
shall you justify its acceptance as a national goal?
REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS

Ministry of Education, GOI. 1949. Report of the University
Education Commission (1948-49), New Delhi.
——. 1953. Report of the Secondary Education Commission
(1952-53), New Delhi.
——. 1966. Report of the Education Commission (1964-66),
New Delhi.
——. 1984. Report of the National Commission on Teachers
(1983-84), New Delhi.
MHRD, GOI. 1986. National Policy on Education, New
Delhi.
NCERT. 2005. National Curriculum Framework–Report of the
Focus Group on Aims of Education, New Delhi
UNESCO. 1996. Learning the treasure within; Report of the
UNESCO Commission on Education in the 21st Century,
Paris.
70
Chapter 3
Processes and Modes of

Education
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Education as an Activity or a Process
–– Education as an Activity
–– Education as a Process
• Processes of Education
• Modes of Education
–– Informal Education
–– Formal Education
- Face-to-Face Mode
- Distance Education Mode
–– Non-Formal Education
• Inclusiveness of School Education
• Need of Schooling for all Children
Let Us Sum Up
Review Questions
References
Basics in Education
Introduction
In the previous chapters you have read about the meaning,
scope and goals of education. You know that the education
is a product of social aspirations, national priorities and the
futuristic perspectives of the individuals and the society.
It has to keep pace with the national and international
developments as well. It is not a restricted activity or a one-
time affair with rigid nature or water tight boundaries. It
is not a transitional activity which could be conducted at
random. Rather, some aspects of education are transmitted
across generations in the form of knowledge or skills. In this
chapter we will discuss whether education is an activity or
the process and how the transmission of education takes
place from one generation to the next. This chapter will also
help you to understand what are the different processes of
education and in what manner this whole process is carried
out and why is schooling essential? This chapter will help us
in understanding different processes and modes of education.
Objectives
After going through the chapter, you would be able to:
1. distinguish between the education as an activity or a
process;
2. explain the processes of education;
3. differentiate between different modes of education; and
4. analyse the linkage between schooling and the outside
experiences.
Education As An Activity Or A Process

When we get up in the morning, we do a number of things
such as exercise, meditation, planning our activities for the
day. While getting children ready for school, parents do talk
about their culture and traditions and indirectly advocate
some values. The parents send their ward to school for getting
good quality education. In the foregoing discussion you might
get an impression that there are certain activities which are
consciously or unconsciously performed by the individual
every day. Thus, an activity may be the task performed
by an individual in a conscious or unconscious manner.
Similar is the case with education. Education begins at home
72
Processes and Modes of Education
with parents telling children about traditions, values, etc.,

through festivals, stories or ceremonies. Also, the society
and the school impart education for socialisation of children
through a lot of activities.
To a common person, education is regarded as a well-
thought activity that is consciously imparted by various
institutions including family, society, schools, etc. The schools
play important role in imparting education where teaching-
learning comprises of different disciplines or subjects, each
having a set of actions/tasks divided into different levels.
When you ask a person the question related his/her level
of education, it generally refers to the assumption that the
person would be in a position to perform certain mental tasks
appropriate to his/her level of education. The performing
of mental tasks is an activity. But is education merely an
activity? Does education consist of the same or different
activities? In the first unit you have studied that education is
referred to by some people as lifelong learning. It shows that
education is not merely an activity but is more than that.
Lifelong learning cannot be activity alone rather it indicates
about the process. The question arises is whether education
is an activity or the process? You also know that education
has been conceptualised by some philosophers as drawing
out the best out of the individual. Some others refer to it
as acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Some say
that education is nothing but training of people’s mind in
a particular direction to bring about desired changes. Two
definitions focus on the activity.
In doing any activity you think, act, evaluate, reformulate
and learn. The actions involved in performing the activity are
done in a sequential manner and an order is followed. There
could be more than one activity. The sequence of actions in
doing one or more connected activities is known as process.
A process is the manner or the way in which an activity
takes place or an activity is conceptualised or done. Education
is regarded as a socialisation process. Learning can not be an
activity alone. Development of personality through education
may involve a process of social interaction. Education is an
ongoing process by which the child learns ways and norms
of the society. It is a process by which an individual learns
the values, attitudes, norms and other attributes of one’s
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Basics in Education
culture. Education is a complex and long process of acquiring

at least a few qualities. It may, however, be difficult to draw
a distinction between the activity and the process. If you ask
a statesman, an artisan, a teacher, a parent, a philosopher
and a student about what education means to them, you
would be surprised to know the multiple interpretations and
views people have about education. A large majority of these
views fall in the middle. Now let us try to understand these
two issues separately.
EDUCATION AS AN ACTIVITY
When education is consciously imparted through a formal
process, it can be called as an activity taking place in an
institution or elsewhere. When we talk of instruction, it is an
activity conducted with a definite purpose. When education
focuses on the development of skills with an objective and
rationale, it is an activity. Providing degrees through education
may be termed as an activity. Whenever we want to get
knowledge, we have to resort to an activity and thus gaining
knowledge is an educational activity. Imparting knowledge is
also an educational activity. Learning too cannot be without
an activity whatsoever it may be. Teaching or instructions
provided for education are also activities. Reading, writing,
calculating, performing, etc., are activities associated with
education. All these indicators suggest that education is an
activity. To meet the desired goals or in order to achieve the
objectives of education the activities will have to be performed.
Now let us take the example of development of skills. Can
the skills be developed without an activity? For example,
if you want to develop the skill of carpentry or fishery or
writing or reading, how will you do so? The skills can only be
developed through some activities. Developing these skills is
covered under education and thus education is an activity.
Not only development, but even testing of the skills or showing
how to perform a skill, repeating something or recapitulation
also involve activities. Thus, even development of skills
suggests that education is an activity. Further, application
of knowledge to new situations is covered under education.
How this application of knowledge can be understood or
taught? This is possible through activities only. A person can
be taught application through examples as activities.
74
Activity 1
1. Organise a panel discussion of your classmates to
show that education is an activity.
2. Give two examples to suggest that education is a
purposeful activity.
3. Devise ways to show that application of knowledge
can be regarded as an educational activity.
EDUCATION AS A PROCESS
We discussed that education is an activity which is organised
to achieve some desirable goals. But is education only
an activity? Education is certainly not only restricted to
activities.
Let us take an example of a day in a school. It begins with
morning prayer involving prayers, exercises, yoga, National
Anthem, etc. Why all these activities are done during morning
prayer? These are consciously done to promote physical
and mental development of children. There is a way and a
rationale for performing these activities, which may be called
as process of organising morning prayers. Then classes are
held in organised manner which again involves a process.
Children learn games, or a concept through the process
of thinking and doing. Learning from simple concepts to
complex concepts involves a process. In a way, education
is a continuous lifelong process as an individual continues
to learn one or other things from the time of birth till death.
Some people equate education with formal schooling where
the child learns things in a graded fashion. The schooling in
the graded manner is also a process. Learning or teaching
is a process which involves a series of activities. Education
concerned with all round development of the child is a
process. Developing one’s potential to its optimum level
through education is a process. Understanding, using or
applying knowledge gained through education according
to situations also refer to the processes of education.
Observation and drawing inferences from the observations
are also educational processes. Education as you know
helps in a transmission of knowledge, skills, societal values
and processes from one generation to the next and thus
education can be considered as a process of transmission
75
Basics in Education
of all these virtues. It is a continuous process concerned

with the development of an individual. So, from the ongoing
discussions you may be tempted to conclude that education
is both an activity as well as a process. Now let us try to
discuss how education takes place?
Learning Check 1
1. What is the difference between education as an
activity and education as a process?
2. Which definition of education suggests that
education is an activity?
3. Analyse different meanings of education from the
point of it being an activity or a process.
Processes of Education
Though you must be familiar with some of the processes of
education but let us discuss some of these processes for the
sake of convenience and understanding. The process refer
to activities that take place under the umbrella of education
and the way these activities take place. You will be tempted
to say that in educational processes reading takes place or
the writing takes place. You may also say that educational
processes are nothing but teaching and learning. But
educational processes may include many things besides
teaching and learning. It may include understanding, training,
instructing, developing skills, acquisition of knowledge or
information and much more. The processes could also include
the verification of knowledge, revision and reinforcement
as well as creation of new knowledge. Education is also a
process of learning values, attitudes, norms and attributes
of culture. It is a process of understanding social interaction,
knowing traditions, religions, etc. All these processes lead to
the education of the child.
The processes of education include the socialisation of the
child; development of his/her personality, physical, social,
emotional and cognitive development, as well as harnessing
the innate potential. These processes of education are
practised through several means and modes. Let us begin
with the means and we will discuss different modes of
education in the latter part of this chapter.
76
Education is imparted through the above mentioned

processes with the help of some set of activities in the form
of some defined curriculum in a graded manner. These set
of activities are then translated into syllabi and transacted
using various approaches. You must have heard of National
Curriculum Framework–2005. What is this? This is a broad
framework to give a common shape to the set of activities
desired to be undertaken at different levels in India and
has an inbuilt scope for the flexibility suiting to the diverse
needs of the people. The approach followed to transact this
curriculum in the form of activities too varies. According to
the NCF–2005, the approach suggested to be followed is the
constructivist approach where the child is supposed to be
the creator of one’s knowledge and the teacher is supposed
to be the facilitator in the process of education. You might be
learning more about NCF–2005 and constructivist approach
in subsequent chapters. All these processes of education
could form an activity in itself or can be a set of different
activities in the same process. You will have a better idea of
all these processes when you go for your teaching experience
programme. Processes and approaches to education may
vary according to modes of education. Let us now discuss
about these modes of education. Details about all these
processes will be told to you in your foundation of education
courses like psychology and sociology of education.
Modes of Education
The ways in which education takes place or the processes
are carried out in educating the child are known as modes
of education. It is the manner in which all the educational
activities are carried out. In order to understand different
modes of education, let us try to understand how education
has developed historically. You must be familiar that earlier
education was confined to a limited number of people who
could afford it. This was the privileged class or the so called
elites who only had a reach to education. However, with the
passage of time and realisation of the importance of education
by all nations including India towards its contribution in nation
building, the outreach of education has now been expanded
to every citizen. With the implementation of national schemes
77
Basics in Education
like District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) and later

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and Rashtriya Madhyamik
Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), compounded by the Right to Free
and Compulsory Education Act 2009 in India, the spread of
education has widened to a great level. In order to meet this
huge demand of education and with the advancement in
technologies, lots of ways and means or modes are available
to provide education at every door step. It may take place
formally or informally and sometimes consciously in a non
formal manner. In the following sections, you will read about
the different modes of education: Informal, Formal and Non-
formal.
Activity 2
1. Discuss among your colleagues how they have
got their education till now and classify them
in different categories by thinking of different
possible classifications.
2. Ask your classmates to make a list of some other
ways in which the education can take place.
Informal Education
Even when few people had an access to education, all humans
learnt a lot of things without making any conscious effort for
the same. An illiterate person, without even having familiarity
with a single alphabet, possesses a lot of knowledge. From
where did he/she acquire knowledge? Who taught them?
Every child, or for that matter every human being or even
animals, has a tendency to learn. Every one learns a lot of
things consciously or unconsciously through observation,
experience or imitation at home or in the surroundings, from
parents, peers, family members and the community. This
kind of education earned by an individual from the sources,
other than the ones that are purposely meant for imparting
education, is called informal education. The type of learning
resulting from daily life activities related to work, family
or leisure is called informal learning. It is not structured
(in terms of learning objectives, learning time or learning
support) and typically does not lead to certification. Informal
learning may be intentional like the one from mother telling
78
the daughter about the traditions, but in most cases it is

non-intentional (or “incidental”/random) (Cedefop 2001).
Informal education takes place all the times and throughout
the life of an individual. It does not have any limit or
boundaries. Informal education, or in other words we call
it as socialisation, begins at home. It may be accidental or
incidental. It may be conscious or unconscious. Education
through mass media and exposure to other experiences like
exhibitions, films, newspapers, visits to different places, etc.,
also constitute informal education. However, tutoring at
home or private tuitions are not covered under this mode of
education.
Activity 3
1. Organise a panel discussion with your classmates
to find out the characteristics of informal
education.
2. Observe a child for a few days to understand the
role of informal learning in the development of the
child.
3. Make a list of ways in which informal education
can take place.
4. List, with the help of your friends, different ways
in which informal education takes place at places
other than at home.
Formal Education
Since ancient time, education is consciously imparted through
different institutions. The Guru-Shishya Parampara (Teacher-
Pupil tradition), prevalent during ancient days, desired the
pupil to live in the ashram of the Gurus, called Gurukuls,
for getting education. This kind of institutionalised effort to
provide education may be termed as formal education. Thus,
formal learning is the learning that is typically provided by
an institution, is structured (in terms of learning objectives,
learning time or learning support), and often leads to
certification. Formal learning is intentional from the learner’s
perspective (Cedefop, 2001). With the passage of time, the
formal mode of education took the shape of schooling.
The most popular and effective mode, formal mode of
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Basics in Education
education, helps in developing the capabilities of individuals,

transmitting requisite knowledge from one generation to
the other, inventing new knowledge, advancement, etc. The
formal mode of education is supplemented by the informal
mode that an individual gets from other sources including
the experience. Formal education also takes place in various
manners. Depending upon the way of delivery of formal
education, it can be classified in different categories.
Face-to-Face Mode
When the learner is in direct contact with the instructor in
a face-to-face situation, it is called the face-to-face mode
of imparting education. Such a situation exists in case of
classroom teaching in the schools where teacher and the
pupils physically remain present in a face-to-face manner at
the time of getting education. This is regarded as the most
effective mode of education as there is a greater scope for a
learner to interact with the teacher and the teacher also can
explain as per the need and requirement of the learner. This
is the most used and the most demanded mode of education.
It is also known as the traditional or the conventional mode of
providing education. The face- to-face mode can be organised
full time or part time depending upon the need of the learner
and the time devoted for the purpose.
When the learner devotes the time or does the work as
per the time prescribed for the education one intends to
get, it may be called full time face-to-face mode. It is the
learning according the requisite hours of the course per day
at one stretch without breaking it into parts. The learner
in such a situation learns at the pace of the institution or
the course. The learner is registered with institution for the
period needed for the education and attends the institution
accordingly. This type of education is usually being provided
in schools across the country. Most of the formal education
is available in this mode at all levels.
If the learner is not in a position to devote the prescribed
time for the course because of one’s compulsions, the full
time courses are bifurcated into part time courses. It is for
convenience of the learners to get more time to complete
the courses at their pace. In such a case, the duration of
the same course has to be increased. It is mostly done to
80
accommodate the learners already in job or having some

other compulsions so that they are not deprived of education.
In this mode, except for the increased duration of the course,
all other things remain the same as in full time face-to-face
mode. It is an alternative to the full time face- to- face mode.
It may be noted here that the semester courses are not part
time courses, rather they are full time courses.
Distance Education Mode
As an alternative to face-to-face mode, and in order to cover
the larger groups of learners who could not be educated
through face-to-face mode for diverse reasons, the mode of
distance education has come into existence. As the name
suggests, this mode adopts an approach in which education
is provided from a distance. The learner and the teacher may
geographically be located at different places and the education
is imparted using means other than direct interaction or
face-to-face teaching-learning. However, even though the
two are not face-to-face to each other, the learner is vitally in
touch with the teacher. In a way, the distance mode has also
some inbuilt component of face-to-face interaction between
the teacher and the taught. Distance mode, however, also
assumes various means.
Distance education through correspondence is earliest
mode of distance education. In this mode the education
provider develops the learning material, which is sent to
the learners. In this mode, the teaching learning material is
developed in a learner-friendly manner in the form of some
modules or lectures and sent to the learners by post. The
learner can interact with the teacher through correspondence
by post or otherwise. The progress of the learner is monitored
through feedback and assignments. This method is still
partly prevalent though it has been supplemented with more
modes.
Teleconferencing is a mode where the teacher and the
taught are connected with the help of satellite and there
are possibilities of interaction through communication
technology. Distance mode through teleconferencing is
used as an adjunct to the correspondence education. The
teleconferencing is largely used for interaction with students
in order to clarify their doubts or to provide education to the
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Basics in Education
learners of distance education. You know that now in India

EDUSAT is used for this purpose. In this mode the learners
get instructions from an educational studio at one end, while
they themselves remain physically present at the other distant
end. It could be a two-way communication though satellite
with different means available for questioning by the learners
like telephone, internet or other technological means.
Distance education through video-conferencing is similar
to teleconferencing where both the instructor and the
learners can see and interact with each other although both
may remain physically thousands of kilometres apart. This is
done in various ways through internet like Skype or through
a satellite based two-way interaction systems as is the case
of teleconferencing.
Distance education is also done through mass media
like television, newspapers and radio. Gyan Vani and Gyan
Darshan are the popular mass media programmes besides
educational TV and other radio programmes of various
nature and duration, which are in use for distance education
of the learners and are aired for education at different levels.
In the distance education through online, the learners
get education at their convenience, where place, time and
duration do not constitute the barriers. In this mode, the
total course material is uploaded on the site of the learners
or sent as an attachment by e-mail and the learners enjoy
the facility of using this interactive material as per their
convenience. These online courses need a proper planning
and implementation with a facility for on the spot clarification
of the doubts.
e-learning mode of distance education is a recent
development which is totally computer based. In this mode,
the learner is provided with computer-based interactive
materials having several alternatives and solutions of the
problems. The teaching-learning process takes place with
use of internet, e-mails, and discussion forums, in addition
to the basic material and the supporting teachers. It utilises
the facility of both the computer technology as well as
communication technology. Now even e-books have started
coming in the market to facilitate e-learning.
Like e-learning a new concept of distance education, called
m-learning or learning through mobile, has begun to take
82
shape. In this type of learning, in addition to educational or

instructional materials that is made available to the learners,
the mobile is used for online interaction between the tutor(s)
and the learners. At present, it is in very limited use but
time is not far when m-learning could also become a powerful
mode.
It may be mentioned here that no single mode can be
said to be self-sufficient and if different modes are used
in combination they could have a compounded effect on
education of the learners.
Learning Check 2
1. What is formal mode of education?
2. How can formal education be imparted?
3. Discuss different ways of face-to-face education.
4. Is distance education an alternative to formal
education? Discuss.
5. What are different modes in which distance
education is imparted to the children?
6. Which mode of education do you think is preferable
and why?
7. How EDUSAT can be a powerful mode of
education? Discuss.
8. Can you think of some more modes of distance
education than those discussed in this unit?
Non-Formal Education
There are other modes too through which education
takes place. Do you know how literacy campaigns help in
educating masses? There are many other programmes, such
as awareness campaigns, adult literacy, etc., which may not
conform to the requirements of formal educational mode but
are equally important and are carried out with specific aims
and objectives. These alternative modes are called non-formal
modes of education. This non-formal education is a mix of
formal education and informal education in the sense that it
takes place informally in a formal environment. Non-formal
education, therefore, refers to the organised and sustained
educational activities that do not correspond exactly to the
definition of formal education. Non-formal education takes
place both within and outside educational institutions,
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Basics in Education
and cater to persons of all ages, depending on the country

contexts. It may cover educational programmes to impart
adult literacy, basic education for out of the school children
or may be development of life skills, work skills, and general
culture for vocational courses such as sewing, stitching,
or music, etc. Non-formal educational programmes do not
necessarily follow the ladder system and may have differing
duration, and may not confer certification of the learning
achieved (UNESCO, 1997, 41). Hobby courses, small duration
vocational courses, education provided through mass media
or the adult education or the training of entrepreneurs for
special trainings could be covered under non-formal mode of
education.
Activity 4
1. Organise a seminar on non-formal mode of
education.
2. Discuss in your class how non-formal education
is useful and why?
3. Discuss with your teacher about the utility of
non-formal education for unorganised sector.
4. Make two groups in your class and have a debate
on formal and non-formal education.
Inclusiveness of School Education

India is a country with lot of diversities in terms of religion,
social group, culture, etc. In order to establish the integration
of outside experiences with the school learning, it becomes
imperative that the school education be inclusive. This
means that the school should try to provide an environment
conducive to allow the integration of experiences to take
place with that of school functioning. The school education
should provide experiences that may be beneficial to the
child in the outside world. For example, it needs to help in
development of meaningful life skills. The inclusiveness of
school education may include physical inclusion (in terms of
the infrastructure and resources), social inclusion (inclusion
of all types of social, cultural and racial groups) and other
kinds of inclusions as enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
Inclusiveness of school education is possible only when
the children learn to respect all religions, cultures and social
84
groups. The school education needs to develop values that

help in developing an attitude of appreciation among the
child for different social and religious groups in the school
and the society. The school education is expected to meet
all these challenges and work for an inclusive society with
peace and harmony for all kinds of diverse groups. It needs
to create unity in diversity. You must have studied about all
these diversities and the inclusiveness of Indian education
system in other papers as well as in your previous classes
also. Inclusiveness also includes the inclusion of home
experiences with the school experiences. This can be possible
only when the teachers get an autonomy and freedom to do
activities according to the need of the inclusive society.
Inclusiveness in education is also concerned with
embracing children with disability and the differences
arising due to socio-economic disadvantaged conditions. The
National Policy on Education (NPE, 1986) stressed the need
for integrating children with disability with other groups.
The objective to be achieved, as stated in NPE 1986, is “to
integrate the physically and mentally handicapped with
general community as equal partners, to prepare them for
normal growth and to enable them to face life with courage
and confidence”. The National Curriculum Framework 2005
(p.84) enumerated the characteristics of inclusive education
(see Box 1).
Box 1: Characteristics of Inclusive Education

• Inclusive education is about embracing all.
• Disability is a social responsibility – accept it.
• No selection procedures to be adopted for denying admission to learners
with disabilities.
• Children do not fail, they only indicate failure of the school.
• Accept difference... celebrate diversity.
• Inclusion is not confined to the disabled. It also means non-exclusion.
• Learn human rights ... conquer human wrongs.
• Handicap is a social construct, deconstruct handicap.
• Make provisions – not restrictions: adjust to the needs of the child.
• Remove physical, social and attitudinal barriers.
• All good practices of teaching are practices of inclusion.
• Learning together is beneficiary of every child.
• If you want to teach, learn from the child. Identify strengths not
limitations.
• Inculcate mutual respect and inter-dependence.
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Basics in Education
Need of Schooling for all Children

Education has assumed different meaning in different times.
Earlier the people were educated for communicating with each
other, or for the purpose of getting jobs in offices to carry out
administrative functions of the country or the regimes. But
now it has been very well recognised that education means
socialisation of human beings. If you see the definitions
and explanations about education in previous chapters or
elsewhere, you must appreciate that education is not only
needed for the development of innate potential of human
beings but is also an essential component needed for the
development of a nation. Throughout the world, it is reiterated
that education is required for all the human beings in order
to harness their potentials and make best use of it for the
humanity. Providing education to all the children has been
on priorities in the charter of all the countries throughout the
world. The education has been accepted as an instrument
of constructive change and upliftment of humanity. United
Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) has been trying for the education of all children in
all the countries.
India is committed to the education of all the children
up to the age of 14 years since the implementation of its
Constitution, initially through the Directive Principle 45,
which later took the shape of the Right of Children to Free
and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 (RTE). To achieve this
goal, the Act envisages the responsibilities of governments’,
schools and teachers. The governments’ responsibility
is to ensure compulsory admission, attendance and
completion of elementary education by every child; provide
a neighbourhood school; and infrastructure including school
building, teaching staff and learning equipment. The Act also
expects every teacher to be regular, punctual and conduct as
well as complete the entire curriculum within specified time
and assess the learning ability of each child. The schools
will have 1:40 teacher-pupil ratio which has to be ensured
by the respective governments. The Act has also prepared
a schedule of norms for number of teachers, buildings,
minimum number of working days/instructional hours in an
academic year, minimum number of working hours per week
for a teacher, teaching-learning equipment, library, play
86
materials, games and sports equipments. Local governments

and communities can plan, monitor the implementation of
RTE through School Management Committees. The parents
are the key functionaries of School Management Committees
which are supposed to draw school development plan as
per RTE norms, manage their implementation in the school,
supervise and support the implementation of plans, monitor
the finance, management, academic progress, etc., ensure
accountability and transparency in the system, make a
liaison between the school and the authorities for releasing
and generating funds for the schools. Thus schooling or the
teaching learning system under RTE is a collaborative effort
among the teacher and the community. The details of this
Act may be found in the Journal of Indian Education (2011,
Vol. XXXVII, Number 2, pp. 141-153).
Education has been accepted as the only mean that could
bring the desirable changes in the behaviour of the children.
School is the formal socialising agency that could be used
for modification of the behaviour of children and develop
the social and individual values needed for well being of the
social system. Schooling is the largest network which has
been created to fulfil this huge task of providing education
to all the children in the country or for that matter all over
the world. It has been assigned not only the responsibility
but also been provided with all the resources to carry out
this work effectively and efficiently. No other system in the
world is powerful enough to owe the responsibility and large
enough to carry out this huge task.
Learning Check 3
1. Why education has been made a Fundamental
Right?
2. Is there a need to make education a right?
Activity 5
1. Organise a debate on the issue of Right to
Education in your institution.
2. Make different groups in your class and discuss
the utility of different modes of education in
separate group.
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Basics in Education
Let Us Sum Up
In this chapter, you have learnt that education is both an
activity as well as a process. There are several modes of
education. We all get educated through various informal
modes as is imbibed at home or through observation and
experience. Education can be imparted through formal, non-
formal or informal modes. Formal education is the most
practised and largest set of institutionalised educational mode.
It can be provided through face-to-face mode or the distance
mode. Face-to-face is the classical system of education as is
provided in schools. Education through distance mode could
be provided in various ways like correspondence education,
online education, teleconferencing, video conferencing, etc.
e-learning, and m-learning are the latest additions to
the distance learning mode. Non-formal education is the
education provided through untraditional mode like the one
provided through mass media or the adult education, etc. It
is clarified that no one mode could be said to be inferior, or
superior to the other. Every mode has its own advantages as
well as limitations. Every mode has a specific purpose and
need to be used accordingly. Two or more modes of education
can also be used simultaneously.
Education does not take place in the schools only. The
experiences gained by an individual outside the school
also contribute immensely to his/her education. In fact,
the school education becomes more meaningful when it is
integrated with the outside experiences. The education in
schools has to be linked to outside school experiences. The
education has been very well recognised as an activity that
needs to be provided to every individual and the schools are
the best the foremost sought means to provide it. The schools
can meet the demand as well as the need of education as
per the individual and social requirement. Education is the
Fundamental Right of an individual. It meets the national
priorities as well as the individual and social needs.
88
Review Questions
1. Why is education known as an activity?
2. Is education a process or an activity? Justify your answer
with appropriate examples.
3. Differentiate between different modes of education on
the basis of their objectives.
4. What is the informal mode of education? How does it
help in education?
5. Which mode of education is most sought of?
6. Through what means can education through distance
mode be imparted?
7. What is the relationship between the school education
and the outside experiences? How can the two be
integrated?
8. Why education in the form of schooling is needed to be
provided to all citizens?
REFERENCES
Eaton, Sarah Elaine. 2011. Formal, non-formal and informal
learning. http://www.infed.org/archives/e-texts/eaton_
formal_nonformal_informal_learning. htm] Archived 22
May 2011.
Cedefop Glossary http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/about-
cedefop/projects/validation-of-non-formal-and-informal-
learning/european-inventory-glossary.aspx]
Mc Givney, V. 1999. Informal Learning in the Community: A
Trigger for Change and Development (Leicester: NIACE).
Cited in Helen Colley, Phil Hodkinson and Janice Malcolm
(2002), Non-formal Learning: Mapping the Conceptual
Terrain. A Consultation Report. Leeds: University of Leeds
Lifelong Learning Institute. Also available in the informal
education archives:http://www.infed.org/archives/e-
texts/colley_informal_learning.htm]
Hodkinson, Phil; Colley, Hellen and Janice Malcolm. 2003.
The Interrelationships between Informal and Formal
Learning. Journal of Workplace Learning, 15, 313–318.
89
Basics in Education
Eraut, M. 2000. Non-formal Learning, Implicit Learning and

Tacit Knowledge. In F. Coffield (Ed), The Necessity of
Informal Learning. Policy Press, Bristol.
Billett, S. 2001. Participation and Continuity at Work: A
Critique of Current Workplace Learning Discourses. Paper
given at the conference Context, Power and Perspective:
Confronting the Challenges to Improving Attainment in
Learning at Work, Sunley Management Centre, University
College Northampton, 8 –10 November.
Feutrie, M. 2007. Validation of Non-formal and Informal
Learning in Europe: Comparative Approaches, Challenges
and Possibilities. Paper presented at the conference on.
Recognition of Prior Learning: Nordic-Baltic Experiences
and European Perspectives., Copenhagen, 8 March.
UNESCO. 2005. Community Learning Centres Asia Pacific
Programme for Education for All. retrieved from http://
appeal/topic.01.htm
——. 1997. International Standard Classification of Education.
UNESCO, Paris.
——. 1994. Forum on Education for All, UNESCO, Paris.
——. 1996. International Consultative Forum on Education for
All, UNESCO, Paris.
90
Chapter 4
Knowledge: Meaning
and Facets
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Understanding Knowledge
–– Definition of Knowledge
• Knowing and Knowledge
–– Ways of Knowing and Forms of Knowledge
• Knowing and Knowledge: The Indian Way
• Forms of Knowledge
• Characteristics of Knowledge
• Facets of Knowledge
Let Us Sum Up
Review Questions
References
Basics in Education
Introduction
The school is one of the agencies which write down, transact,
and transform knowledge and thereby influence the lives of
children who attend the school for a specified number of
years. Schools facilitate and distribute knowledge among
its inmates. Though human individual gets knowledge from
every experience in life, the knowledge that a child receives
in school decides his/her future life and place in the society.
Since teachers as professionals deal with knowledge, there
is a need to understand the concept of knowledge itself.
Therefore, this chapter focuses on understanding the nature
of knowledge and knowing, in general, and its manifestation
in the school context, in particular. Reflective reading is a
prerequisite to make meaning of the content presented in this
chapter. Therefore, students, while ‘reading’ this chapter,
need to be more reflective about the ‘content’ of knowledge
and knowing.
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
• describe meanings of knowledge;
• understand the non-material and abstract nature of
knowledge;
• formulate one’s ‘own’ meaning of knowledge;
• identify different facets of knowledge;
• classify knowledge into different forms and identify differ-
ent ways of knowing;
• understand the nature of school knowledge and their cor-
responding ways of knowing; and
• become conscious of critical role of culture in knowing in
schooled context.
Understanding Knowledge
Knowledge is always concerned about knowing something.
This something could be natural objects, man-made things,
events, processes, persons, their activities, their relationships
and many others. All of these and many other ‘objects’ of
knowledge may, collectively, be called as phenomena.
Therefore, knowledge always refers to comprehension
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Knowledge: Meaning and Facets
of some or the other phenomenon. Knowledge is sum of

human understanding of the world, be it physical, biological,
social, mental and spiritual. In simple but generalised way,
knowledge is sum of human understanding of material and
mental reality – given and constructed. The acquisition
of knowledge, or the build-up of knowledge, is by its very
nature always refers to a process or the road from ignorance
to knowledge, from not knowing things to knowing them. The
transition from lack of knowledge to acquisition of the same
is shaped by the human activity, which involves seeing lack
of relation with a phenomenon to seeing the relation with
phenomenon.
Knowledge, the noun, is used in different contexts
and situations to convey different meanings to different
people. Knowledge has different aspects, kinds and levels.
Knowledge, in common sense understanding, signifies
all the human meanings, beliefs about matters of facts
(things, objects, events), about relationships between facts,
and about principles, laws, theories that are at work in
the nature and society. Knowledge is understanding about
the relationships; the relationship of the knower with the
known. In other words, it is the relationship of the subject
with the object. Knowledge is the result of knower’s active
engagement with the object of knowledge. Knowledge and its
intensity depend on the relationship between the knower and
the known. Further, knowledge is understood in terms of
enlightenment. The Indian tradition considers it as breaking
the veil of ignorance. In practice, knowledge is a claim in the
sense that the knower proclaims that he or she is aware of
the phenomenon. This is to say that having knowledge of the
phenomenon means both being aware of that phenomenon
and also stating that the awareness is true. In the school
context, knowledge is the sum of conceptions, ideas, laws,
and propositions established and tested as correct reflections
of the phenomenon.
Learning Check 1
1. Give examples of acquisition of knowledge from
the daily life.
2. Differentiate between ignorance and knowledge.
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Basics in Education
Definition of Knowledge
Many believe that the knowledge cannot be defined. The
problem of definition of knowledge is ongoing and is a
never ending debate among philosophers. Knowledge, says
Prichard (1976, P. 100), ‘is sui generis, and, as such, cannot
be explained’. Since knowledge is sum total of definitions
and explanations of phenomena, it is not possible to define
knowledge. In spite of this difficulty, philosophers have made
attempts to define knowledge.
The most accepted definition of knowledge is that it is
a justified belief. In one of his dialogues, Theaetetus, Plato
examined three definitions of knowledge that were widely in
circulation at that time. The three definitions of the knowledge
are (as given in Encyclopedia of Philosophy):
1. Knowledge is Perception or sensation;
2. Knowledge is True belief, and
3. Knowledge is True belief accompanied by a rational
account of itself or ground.
After thorough examination, Plato defined knowledge as,
‘justified true belief’. According to Plato’s definition, human
knowledge, in order to be given the ‘status’ of knowledge,
should fulfill the condition of being a belief – true and justified.
John Locke, the founding father of empiricism, and who
defined ‘mind as tabula rasa’, surprisingly defined knowledge
as “the perception of the agreement or disagreement of two
ideas”. For pragmatist Dewey (2010), knowledge denotes an
‘inference from evidence’.
The National Curriculum Framework–2005, while
placing the experience of the knower at centre, also defined
knowledge. According to it, “Knowledge can be conceived
as experience organised through language into patterns of
thought (or structures of concepts), thus creating meaning,
which in turn helps us to understand the world we live in. It
can also be conceived of as patterns of activity, or physical
dexterity with thought, contributing to acting in the world,
and the creating and making of things. Human beings over
time have evolved many bodies of knowledge, which include
a repertoire of ways of thinking, of feeling and of doing things,
and constructing more knowledge (P.25).”
The process of understanding the meaning or defining
knowledge direct us to identify, at least, three aspects
associated with knowledge. These aspects are:
94
1. Processes involved in knowledge acquisition/generation/

construction; this eventually enters into the domain
of ways of acquisition/generation/construction of
knowledge; to be precise it is ways of knowing;
2. Forms of knowledge; since knowledge is sum of human
understanding, there ought to be different forms of
understanding or types of knowledge; and
3. Purpose of knowing/knowledge. The purpose of knowing
is different in different contexts.
Therefore, instead of labouring in understanding or
defining knowledge in its product form, it may be appropriate
to focus on knowing – the process, which explicates and
explains and, to a large extent, determine the meaning and
also nature of knowledge.
Activity 1
1. Collect various definitions of knowledge, and
analyze the differences and similarities among
them.
2. Think of various goals and functions of knowledge
in different contexts. Discuss it with fellow student
teachers.
3. Organise a group discussion to deliberate on the
various forms of knowledge and their uses.
Knowing and Knowledge

Epistemology is one of the branches of philosophy, which
is concerned with the theory of knowledge. It refers to the
origin, nature and limits of human knowledge. It deals with
some important issues, such as whether knowledge of any
kind is possible, whether knowledge is innate or learnt,
whether knowledge is a mental state, and so on. As such,
epistemology, deals with two fundamental problems of
knowledge–origin of knowledge and validation of knowledge.
The discussion on origin of knowledge focuses on the relative
roles of knower and the known in the making of knowledge.
In the process it generated wealth of knowledge on both ways
and forms of knowing and knowledge. In order to know the
origin of knowledge, it is required to focus on process of how
do we come to know. Process of coming to know begins with
knower’s (the subject) engagement with to be known (the
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Basics in Education
object). The knower’s engagement and relationship begins

with his/her contact with to be known. The contact takes
place through senses in a context – physical, biological,
socio-cultural and others. In this context, the knower own
initiatives for seeking knowledge employing different ways
assume significance.
Activity 2
Select a piece of knowledge (e.g. physical exercise
is good for health, one should drink a lot of water,
etc.) from your daily life. Try to establish relationship
between the knower and the known for the selected
piece of knowledge.
Ways of Knowing and Forms of Knowledge

As described earlier, knowing is both a process and a
product. As a process, it refers to the method of coming
to know the phenomenon. Knowledge, as a product, is
resultant of knowing–the process. Knowing happens through
perception, reason, and emotion; and codification is done in
the language. Similarly, there are means or source of every
way of knowing. These sources are the knower’s senses and
mind. Different sources of knowing construct different forms
of understanding and different types of knowledge.
Activity 3
Select a piece of knowledge from your school textbook.
Reflect on the various processes or ways of producing
that particular knowledge. Prepare a flow diagram.
Discuss it with others.
Sense Perception: The Beginning of Knowing

The acquisition of knowledge begins with the reception of
external stimuli by our sense organs, which is immediately
converted into the form of perception. Perception refers to
having knowledge about a stimulus that impinges on our
sense organs. Thus, knowledge starts with experience of the
facts or matters through sense organs – individually and
collectively – at the individual level or while participating in
96
social activity. The ultimate source of all human’s knowledge,

says Nathaneil Branden (1971), is the evidence of reality
provided by the senses. Through the stimulation of various
sensory receptors, the humans receive information which
travels to his brain in the form of sensations (primary sensory
inputs). These sensory inputs, as such, do not constitute
knowledge; they are only the material of knowledge. Human’s
brain automatically retains and integrates these sensations
with the already available information in the brain – thereby
forming percepts. Percepts constitute the starting point and
base of man’s knowledge: the direct awareness of entities,
their actions and their attributes. Since the sense-organs
play vital role in the origin of knowledge, these are considered
as ‘gateways of knowledge’. The Indian philosophy, in fact,
refers senses as ‘gyanendriyas’. Each sense organ, namely
eye, ear, nose, tongue, and skin, by the way of coming into
contact with the object, provide ‘information’ about the
quality/property of the object. Integration of these ‘discrete
information’ about different qualities/properties of objects
into meaningful concepts is the knowledge proper of that
object. This integrating role, it is believed, is done by the
mind.
Will Durant (1966), by conducting a journey into
antiquity, brings up the irrefutable role of sensation in
establishing not only knowledge but also in its validation (i.e.
the establishment of the truth). According to him, the senses
are the test of truth. But all the senses; one alone may well
deceive us, as light deceives us about colour, or distance
about size; and only another sense can correct the error
which one sense has made. Truth is consistent sensation.
But again, ‘sensation’ must include all that we learn from the
instruments with which we enlarge and sharpen sense. The
sensation must include the internal sense; our inward ‘feel’
of our own life, and mind is as immediate and trustworthy
as any report, to that life and mind, from the sense-organs
that variously touch the external world. There are other
persons than ourselves in this world, and their senses—
and therefore their ‘truths’—will not always agree with ours.
Therefore, truth must be socially consistent sensation; and
when more than one moment of time is concerned, it must
be permanently consistent sensation. Sensation, however
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Basics in Education
consistent may be, provide us with ‘information’ about the

phenomenon; but it is the persistent reason that translates
perception into meanings and concepts. Let us see how this
process is constructed.
Learning Check 2
1. Describe the characteristics of sensation.
2. How is sensation converted into perception? Give
an example from your real life.
Perception to Conception
The first requisite for building-up of knowledge is obtaining
perceptions, that is, making observations arising out of
various relationships with phenomena. Secondly, having
entered into relationship with phenomena and obtained
observations about them, we must go on to formulate
judgments or propositions about them and their properties
and relations.
All the animals have perceptions, and their perceptions
contain definite, concrete ‘information’ about things. In the
absence of those concrete things in the context, animals
fail to ‘perceive’ things; this is what Adler calls ‘Perceptual
Abstraction’, an abstraction that is possible only in the
presence of an appropriate sensory stimulus and never in
its absence. However, humans perceive things even in their
absence due to their conceptual faculty. The unique ability to
conceptualise things and express them in the form of ideas,
propositions, and laws enables humans to create or generate
knowledge. However, there is a basic difference in active and
conscious role of the knower in the process of moving from
sensation to perception and perception to conception. It
must be remembered that the process by which sensations
are integrated into percepts is automatic. However, the
integration of percepts into concepts is a deliberate effort
on the part of human beings. It is a volitional process that
man must initiate, sustain and regulate. Thus, perceptual
information is the given, the self-evident. On the other hand,
the conceptual knowledge requires a volitionally initiated
process of reason.
You may like to know the process involved in converting
perception into conception and, thereby, resulting knowledge
98
in some detail. The sense perception reproduces things as

they immediately appear to sense organs. The senses give
only particular pieces of information about particular things
conditioned by the particular circumstances under which
we perceive them. After that, due to conceptual faculty,
particular properties, relations and motions of particular
things, are unified to more comprehensive knowledge having
their own laws of existence, change and interconnections. In
the first stage, our knowledge expresses merely ‘the separate
aspects of things, the external relations between such things’.
In the second stage, we arrive at judgments which no longer
represent the appearances of things, their separate aspects,
or their external relations, but embrace their essence, their
totality and their internal relations. The passage from the
first stage to the second stage involves, in the first place,
active observation. In the second place, it does also involve
a process of thought arising from observation—a process
of sifting and comparison of observations, of generalisation
and formation of abstract ideas, of reasoning and drawing
conclusions from such generalisation and abstraction. The
first stage of knowledge is ‘perceptual knowledge’, because it
confines itself to summarising what is received by the sense
organs, and the second stage, i.e. the conceptual knowledge,
is concerned with making the perceptual knowledge
rational, logical and comprehensive. To avoid the risk of over
simplification, the whole discussion about ways of knowing
and thereby resulting forms of understanding and types of
knowledge is given in Table 1.
Table 1
Ways of Knowing and Forms of Understanding
Sl. Means of Modes of Forms of Understanding/
No Knowing Knowing Type of Knowledge
1. Senses Experience Perception;
Description of facts of matter;
Perceptual knowledge;
Empirical knowledge.
2. Mind Reason Reasoning;
Rational Knowledge;
Conceptual Knowledge;
Causal knowledge;
Knowledge of Relationships;
Interpretative Knowledge.
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Activity 4
Select any school textbook. Organise a discussion in
the class to identify topics, chapters, subjects that fall
into different modes of knowing and different forms of
understanding.
Learning Check 3
Mention the characteristics of conceptual knowledge.
Differentiate between sensory, perceptual, and
conceptual knowledge.
Along with the above mentioned two fundamental sources,

it is argued that emotion (such as joy, happiness, sorrow,
etc.) is one more source/means of knowing that is situated
within individual person. ‘Emotion’ also acts as means and
contributes to the construction of knowledge. However, at the
same time, critics consider that the emotions are obstacle in
the pursuit of ‘real’ knowledge.
Language as Means of Knowing
Apart from the above mentioned sources/means of knowing,
the culture or the social context into which a child is born,
acts, in more fundamental ways, as the means of knowing. As
knowing is a meaning making process, the meanings to the
concepts are provided by the language of the society and the
cultural context. You must have experienced that meaning
of the same object or thought varies from one cultural
context to another. For example, a person considered to be
intelligent in one cultural context may not be considered so
in another culture. Studies have shown that a person who
speaks less but places the arguments in its right perspective
is considered intelligent in Asian and African context. In
contrast, the European and African cultures value the
person who is fast and talks more. Thus, the very process
of experiencing reality is facilitated by the cultural tools.
Therefore, in a distinct way from internal sources, culture
acts as means of knowing and knowledge. This is also true in
the case of school knowledge. Because, school knowledge is
textual and begins with words; in a way it is worded world. It
is primarily conceptual knowledge. In conceptual knowledge,
words play vital role in understanding abstract meaning of
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concrete. In fact, says Nathaniel Branden (1971), “Words,

enable man to deal with such broad, complex phenomena
as ‘matter’, ‘energy’, ‘freedom’, ‘justice’ which no mind could
grasp or hold if it had to visualise all the perceptual concretes
these concepts designate.”
Activity 5
In your school, you will notice that children come from
different backgrounds. Observe them and note down
the variations in their conceptual understanding of
same objects, events, or phenomenon.

It may be further noted that the ideas do not merely
represent things in their immediate existence as presented
to the senses, but represent properties and relations in
abstraction from particular things. This is a product of
the second signal system in human brain. Sensations are
signal’s immediate connections with concrete particular
objects. Words are ‘signals of the first signals’, and their
reference is not only to particular, concrete things which are
signaled by sensations, but to the things in general which
produce sensations of a definite kind. Hence, by means of
words, we can express general conclusions about things and
their properties, and about how they are to be used. The
second signal system, from which comes the use of words,
does not and could not arise and develop as the personal or
private possession of individuals. The second signal system,
therefore, can develop only by the formation of a language,
common to a social group.
Culture and Knowing
The preceding discussion highlights the role of social
and cultural factors in knowing and construction of
knowledge. You must have read that Jean Piaget, the Swiss
psychologist, described intelligence in terms of assimilation,
accommodation, and adaptation. He viewed that cognitive
development among children takes places through four
stages. These are sensory-motor stage (0-2 years), pre-
operational stage (2-7 years), concrete operational stage (7-
12 years), and formal operational stage (12+ years). However,
Piaget was criticised for overlooking the effects of social and
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cultural environment in knowing and cognitive development

among children. The stages of cognitive development observed
by Piaget are not necessarily ‘natural’ for all children because,
to some extent, they reflect the expectation and activities
of children’s culture. Lev Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive
development suggests that our cognition is a function of both
social and cultural forces. People use psychological tools—
language, signs, symbols, etc.,— to master the function of
perception, memory, attention and so on. As each culture has
its own set of psychological tools, one might observe cultural
variations in the meaning attached to a situation/object/ event.
Knowing and Knowledge: the Indian Way

In Indian philosophical tradition, various schools of philosophy
have discussed different means of valid knowledge. These
are, in brief, given below.
Pratyaksha, or sense perception is the natural and
direct way of knowing external things. It leads to immediate
cognition. It is the principal means of knowledge of
physical world. Perception is the primary source of human
knowledge. Perception is also defined by the Nyaya school as
that knowledge which is caused by the contact of an organ
(indriya) with its object and is infallible.
Broadly speaking, perception (pratyaksha) is twofold—
external and internal. Perception by any of the five sensory
organs (of hearing, sight, touch, taste, and smell) is external.
Mental perception (of pain or pleasure, of knowledge or
ignorance, of love or hate, and so forth) is internal.
Another method of knowledge is inference (Anumana).
Man alone is capable of this method of knowing. Based
on sensible facts, it goes beyond the reach of the senses.
It explores the unseen. Perception acquaints us with the
particulars of a thing, and inference with its general nature.
A third means of knowledge in the Advait tradition is
verbal testimony, Sabda, that is, authentic words, spoken or
written. It adds vastly to our stock of knowledge. In fact, it is
the principal medium of formal education.
Along with these three means of valid knowledge, the
Vedanta considers three other means of knowledge. They
are, comparison (upamana), postulation (arthapatti), and
non-apprehension (anupalabdhi).
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Learning Check 4
1. What is meant by pratyaksha?
2. Explain Anumana.
3. Describe the role of sabda in knowledge
acquisition.
4. What are the means of knowledge, as described
by Vedanta?
Forms of Knowledge
So far you read that the knowledge is sum of ideas, concepts
about object. Therefore, all knowledge has two elements—the
object and the conceptualisation of the object. Knowledge of
the real, says Clarence Irving Lewis (1929), “involves always
two elements, of given and ineffable presentation, and the
element of conceptual interpretation which represents the
mind’s response. We might say that the conceptual is the
formal element, of order or relation, and the given is the
material or content element.”
Since the knowledge consists of multiple objects and their
different conceptualisations, it is categorised into different
forms. Further, human knowledge is classificatory; the very
process of conceptualisation results into the categorisation/
classification of objects and, thereby, the knowledge.
Categorisation could be done either on the basis of object of
the knowledge or on the basis of level of understanding of the
phenomenon. Knowledge can also be classified depending on
the purpose and the perspective. Thinkers have classified
the knowledge into the knowledge of appearance and the
knowledge of essence. It is also classified as immediate
knowledge and mediate knowledge. John Locke distinguished
three kinds of knowledge (cited in Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
These are:
1. Intuitive knowledge, of such things as the fact that red
is not green and the fact of one’s own existence;
2. Demonstrative knowledge, which includes mathematics,
morality, and the existence of God; and
3. Sensitive knowledge, which is concerned with “the
particular existence of finite beings without us.”
Knowledge, in a practical way, can be classified into
following categories on the basis of means used in the
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process of knowing by which a particular ‘class’ of knowledge

is generated.
• Experiential Knowledge, a form of knowledge that can
only be obtained through experience. For example,
the knowledge of what it is like to see colours, which
cannot be explained to a person born blind.
• Experimental Knowledge is based on or derived from
experience, or empirical evidences.
• Reasoned or Logical Knowledge is knowledge of the
truths and principles of deductive logic.
• Intuitive Knowledge is the knowledge that is acquired
without inference and/or the use of reason. It comes
from within by looking inside or contemplation.
• Revealed Knowledge, facts that are simply apparent
to people and can’t be denied, as they see it.
At the beginning, we have seen that the Knowledge
is always knowledge of some phenomenon/thing/object.
Therefore, simplest and most practical basis of classifying the
Knowledge is the phenomenon/ object which the knowledge
probes into. Selection of school/ disciplinary knowledge is
based on this categorisation. Table 2 contains the object of
study, its conceptualisation, methods of understanding and
validation, if any.
Activity 6
Select a chapter from science textbook. Analyse it with
respect to the dimensions given in Table 2. Repeat this
exercise for other subjects.
Characteristics of Knowledge
Knowledge has following characteristics that explicates and
brings forth its nature.
Non-material and Abstract Nature of

knowledge
The various definitions of knowledge, be it common sense
meaning of knowledge that the knowledge is shared
understanding; be it justified belief, or verified belief, or
agreement between two ideas or knowledge is sum of
concepts, ideas, principles, laws; point out that knowledge
is non-material and abstract in nature. In addition to this,
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Table 2
Knowledge Classification
Sl. School Phenomenon/Object Nature of the Knowledge Modes of Nature of Validation

No Subject of Study Understanding
1. Natural Nature–Physical and Causal;‘Objective’ with Observation, Verification/
Science Biological little subjectivity Experimentation falsification
‘Concrete things’
2. Social Society in all its Dynamic; Interpretative Constantly reconstructed
Science aspects Normative; Understanding; in the light of values and
Interpretative Critical evaluations; utilities; Judged in the light
Dialogue. of Normative resolutions
3. Maths Numbers, Symbols Human construction and Logical Deductions Proof
and Logic, Highly structured
‘Abstract thought’ Axiomatic;
Abstract and Given
4. Language Words, Grammar; Human construction but Narrations; Utilitarian

Culture; Highly dynamic; Creative
Inter-subjective; Creative expressions
Knowledge: Meaning
and
Facets
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knowledge has certain other characteristics, such as it is

social in nature, it is cumulative and perspectival, and is
limited and limitless. Let us analyse these characteristics of
knowledge.
Social Character of Knowledge

Knowledge is a socially shared understanding. Thus, it is
essentially a social product. It is built up socially, as a product
of the social activity of men and women. Knowledge is not
the handiwork of isolated individual mind; it is the result
of collective pursuit of the society. Though contribution of
individuals in knowledge generation is immense and the role
individuals in accumulation of knowledge, at any point of
history, is tremendous, all the individuals do this historical
act of generating and accumulating the knowledge precisely
by participating in social activity and processes. Not only
that, the knowledge stock, into which individuals are born,
provides individuals with a sense of understanding. Without
this, no individual could have contributed to the knowledge.
Every individual acquires a great deal of knowledge from
his own experience; but he would not do so apart from his
association with fellow humans. Therefore, the knowledge is
acquired and built up only in society, and its roots lies in
the social activities of man. Hence, knowledge is essentially
social in character.
Cumulative Nature of Knowledge

Knowledge is cumulative in nature because it is socially
preserved and transmitted from one generation to the future
generations. It is not static, but always grows and develops
in generations. Indeed, as there is scope for newer and
newer understanding of reality, knowledge of the reality gets
expanded. As human relations with world of objects and their
utilities, ideas and their relevance assumes newer dimensions
over time, human understanding of the world of objects and
the world of ideas undergoes change and in the process adds
new knowledge to the existing stock of knowledge. In this
way, incomplete understanding moves towards complete
understanding of the reality. Knowledge grows through
a process of not only adding to but also perfecting and
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correcting the already existing body of knowledge. In no field

is knowledge ever perfect, final and complete. Knowledge is
necessarily cumulative; knowledge once constructed does
not perish; because, knowledge, unlike material things that
perish after some time, is non-material in nature. Therefore,
accumulation is inevitable.
Knowledge is Perspectival
Knowledge does not simply ‘explain’ the objective reality
hanging ‘out there’; it constructs the reality within the limits
set by experience. It is not simply explanatory in character;
rather, it is interpretative in character and nature. It is
interpreted in a social context. This inherent character of
interpretiveness of knowledge makes it perspectival rather
than simply perceptual. Knowledge develops perspectives
among knowers.
Knowledge is Both Limited and Limitless

The cumulative character of knowledge also informs us both
limit and limitless nature of knowledge. At any particular
stage in the development of humanity, knowledge comes
up against limits set by the limited character of available
experience and by the existing means in obtaining knowledge.
Therefore, knowledge is always limited, and is at the same
time limitless. In other words, the known is always bounded
by the unknown but not the unknowable.
Learning Check 5
1. So far, you have seen the role of perception
in knowledge. As perception is conditioned/
facilitated/limited by biological constitution/
factors as well cultural factors that include,
language, beliefs and normative orientation of
individual, critically examine the roles of those
factors in their knowing.
2. What is the role of perception in different areas of
knowledge? How does it differ across various school
disciplines/subjects—language, mathematics,
social science, arts and science?
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Facets of Knowledge
Knowing is an act of identification that invariably and
instantaneously includes differentiation; to identify we
differentiate and to differentiate we identify. For example, first
of all you may identify the facilities available in two or more
schools and differentiate between them, which is a better
one, based on the identified characteristics. Unification and
differentiation are simultaneous dimensions of knowing or
cognition. Concept formation, says Nathaneil Branden (1971),
“moves from the apprehension of similarities and differences
among existents (entities, attributes, actions, relationships)
to an explicit identification of the nature of those similarities
and differences. Concept formation involves a process of
discrimination and integration.”
Therefore, concept means a cognitive act(s) of unification
of different internal aspects/properties/characteristics of an
object while separating it from and establishing relationship
with other things. It is non-material codification of material
reality. It is making ‘general’ statement of ‘particulars’.
Thus, knowledge has two facets: identification of specific
characteristics of different objects and drawing general
conclusions based upon the specificities. It is pertinent to
quote Jerome Bruner (1972) to make meaning of relationship
of two facets – particular and general – of knowledge. He
says, “We organise experience to represent not only the
particular that have been experienced, but the classes of
events of which the particulars are exemplars. We go not
only from part to whole, but irresistibly from the particular
to the general.” Knowledge is sum of meanings, concepts,
laws, and principles, that are ‘universals’ of particular
phenomenon; knowledge is abstracted (which are universals)
concretes (which are particulars). To be precise, knowledge is
abstraction of concrete reality. Abstract idea is the expression
of various concrete practices. It is the theory of practice that
emanates from the practice and shapes future practice.
Abstraction has various levels.
The Levels of Abstraction

Abstracts and concretes are relative to context and levels.
Sense ‘perception’ is an abstraction of concrete reality.
Here qualities of the perceived object are abstracted by
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the perceiver; at the same time sense ‘perception’ may be

said to be concrete in comparison with the abstractness of
concepts/ideas, since sensations are signals of particular,
concrete objects, whereas concepts/ideas are formed by a
further process of abstraction. The concept/idea of cat,
for example, is an abstraction formed out of the repeated
perception of particular cat, and expresses what is common
to many observed particulars. The abstraction involved in
concepts/ideas is, therefore, of another order of abstraction
from that of perception. Perception involves the abstraction of
particular aspects of a thing from the concrete thing, whereas
concepts/ideas abstraction involves what is common from
among many particulars. Thus, again, the concept/idea
of ‘animal’ is higher level of abstraction than concept/idea
of a particular ‘kind of animal’. Still further abstraction is
species. It goes on and on. The only absolute distinction
which can be drawn between the abstract and the concrete
is the distinction between the concreteness of phenomenon
and the abstractness of its reflection in consciousness.
Information, Belief, and Truth

Knowledge is expressed or shared in the form information,
belief, and truth. In fact, when knowledge is stated in the form
Table 3
Knowledge in Relation to Information, Belief, and Truth
Information Belief Truth
It is raw data; Belief is personal and primarily Verified
It is discrete; subjective feeling and expectation, knowledge;
Pre-meaning though shared by others; Truth is a
stage of Could be verified or beyond property of
knowledge; verification; beliefs, and
Prerequisite to Pre-linguistic experience may be called derivatively
knowledge; ‘belief’ of sentences
Preliminary Preparedness for delayed reaction to a which
level of situation is belief – be it true or false; express
knowledge; preparedness for delayed reaction that beliefs.
It is about is only true is knowledge.
facts of known; Pre-intellectual response to a
Publicly situation;
available. Unverified knowledge; pre-verified
stage of knowledge;
Unquestionable knowledge.
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of concepts, principles, laws, propositions, and theorems

and enters into public domain for consumption, it assumes
various forms depending on the context and the emotion it
evokes in knower. However, there is difference between these
‘terms’. Table 3 informs us distinct features of each term.
Learning Check 6
1. How do beliefs influence the pursuit of knowledge?
2. What are different knowledge claims in different
subject areas? Have an inter-disciplinary dialogue.
3. What kind of reasoning we do in social sciences
and natural sciences? Do we find any difference?
LET US SUM UP
We began this chapter by examining the nature of knowledge.
You have read that knowledge is both a process and a
product. You further read that sensation, perception, and
concept formation are the essential processes of knowledge
acquisition. The Indian way of knowing gives emphasis of
pratyaksha (sense perception), anuman (inference), sabda
(word), and upamana (comparison), arthapatti (postulation),
and anupalabdhi (non-apprehension). Further, the
knowledge can be categorised in different categories based
upon its nature and means of acquiring knowledge. Included
among the characteristics of knowledge are its abstract
nature, social embeddedness, cumulativeness, perspectival,
and limited and limitlessness. Information and belief play
important roles in formation of knowledge.
REVIEW EXERCISES
• Explain when the knowledge is considered to be a process
and a product.
• Describe the role of sensation, perception and concept
formation in knowledge acquisition.
• Explain the Indian way of knowing.
• What are the various classifications of knowledge?
• Explain the characteristics of knowledge with examples.
• What are the different facets of knowledge?
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Branden, Nathaneil. 1971. Psychology of Self-esteem, Bantam
Books, New York.
Bruner, J.S. 1972. The Relevance of Education (Edited by
Anita Gil). George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London.
Dewey, John. 2010. Essays in Experimental Logic, Aakar
Books, Delhi.
Durant, Will. 1966. The Pleasures of Philosophy. Simon and
Schuster. New York.
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 1967. Macmillan.
Lewis, C.L. 1929. Mind and the World-order. Dover Publications
Inc., New York.
Locke, John. 1690. An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding.
NCERT. 2005. National Curriculum Framework. 2005.
National Council of Educational Research and Training,
New Delhi.
Russell, Bertrand. 2003. Human Knowledge. Routledge,
London.
Swami Satprakashananda. 1995. Methods of Knowledge
according to Advaita Vedanta. Advaita Ashrama
(Publication Department), Calcutta.
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Chapter 5
Process of Knowing
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Process of Knowing
• Ways of Knowing
–– Sense Perception
–– Language
–– Reason
–– Emotion
• Process of Knowledge Construction
–– Essentials for Construction of Knowledge
–– The Process of Constructivism
–– Guiding Principles of Constructivist Learning
Let Us Sum Up
Review Questions
References
Process of Knowing
Introduction
In Chapter 4, you have learnt about the nature of knowledge.
Now the question arises is that how do people come to know
the various things happening around them. What is the
mechanism or process of knowing? You should understand
that ‘knowing’ is not a one-time affair; rather, people learn
things daily and it is a life-long process. Life experiences
are great sources of knowledge. We keep on learning from
childhood to adulthood till old age, and gather knowledge
through various sources and methods. You will read in
this chapter the processes of knowing, what it entails and
what determines it. You will also learn the numerous ways
of knowing and the role played by each in the process of
knowledge construction. The various types of knowledge and
their mutual interaction are also enumerated upon.
Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• describe the meaning of knowledge;
• identify the different ways of knowing;
• describe the process of knowledge construction; and
• enumerate the relative roles of knower and known in
knowledge transmission and construction.
Process of Knowing
As you know, in today’s world, the knowledge and the
capability to create and utilise knowledge are considered to
be most advantageous to an individual. Knowledge creation is
a dialectical process, which involves systemisation of various
facts through dynamic interactions between individuals and
the environment. Knowledge creation is a spiral that goes
through seemingly opposing concepts such as order and
chaos, micro and macro, part and whole, mind and body,
tacit and explicit, self and other, deduction and induction,
and creativity and efficiency. There is a need to understand
that knowledge creation is a transcending process through
which entities (individuals, groups, and institutions) go
beyond the boundary of the old into a new self by acquiring
new knowledge. In the process, new conceptual artifacts
and structures for interaction are created, which provide
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possibilities as well as constrain the entities in consequent

knowledge creation. Thus, knowledge creation is a cyclic
process.
You have learnt in the last chapter that knowledge is
not part of the reality. It is a reality viewed from a certain
angle or context. The same reality can be viewed differently
depending on the angle (context) from which one sees it. The
Indian context also emphasises on the role of desh (ecology),
kala (time), and patra (person). The same reality is viewed
differently by different persons, in different times, and in
different contexts. It means that, in knowledge creation, one
cannot be free from one’s own context. The social, cultural,
and historical contexts are important for individuals,
because such contexts give the basis to individuals to give
meaning to it. That is why, limited interaction with the
environment and externalisation of personal knowledge
can lead to ontological ills and fallacies, because the whole
complexity of given phenomenon may remain undiscovered.
Hence, in knowledge creation, one tries to see the entire
picture of reality by interacting with those who see the reality
from other angles. It is important here to understand how
the interactions among the parts (individuals, work groups,
etc.) are dynamically linked to form a continuously evolving
whole, which, in turn, impacts the environment where the
learning actually takes place.
Knowledge is created through interactions between human
agency and social structures. Our actions and interactions
with the environment create and enlarge knowledge through
the conversion process of tacit and explicit knowledge. We
enact our actions with two main levels of consciousness –
practical consciousness and discursive consciousness in
our daily lives. The discursive consciousness gives us our
rationalisations for actions and refers to more conscious and
therefore more explicitly theoretical knowing. The practical
consciousness refers to the level of our lives that we do not
really think about or theorise. In that sense, we can say that
tacit knowledge is produced by our practical consciousness
and explicit knowledge is produced by our discursive
consciousness.
Any theory that attempts to define the process of knowing
is required to explain as to how information is accessed,
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stored, and retrieved in order to understand how learning

takes place. Knowing begins with undifferentiated perception
of personal space and time along with undifferentiated
sensorial reactions to internal and external stimuli. With
the acquisition of language, formulations of self and non-self
co-emerge as differentiated entities that are stored, recalled,
imagined, and communicated with maximum contextual
relevance. Since, during the precursor stage, thoughts,
emotions, and symbolic language are not fully functional,
the process of knowing is limited to learning pre-linguistic
visual-spatial contextual relevance.
Figure 1 illustrates the levels of the mind and the
relationship among knower, process of knowing, and known.
The level of awareness of the knower determines the
corresponding process of knowing, as well as the nature of
the knowledge gained. Education traditionally trains the
knower to use deeper levels of the mind to gain more useful
and fulfilling knowledge. Knower and known are united on
the ground of transcendental consciousness. The result is
complete knowledge of natural law, and on that basis,
thought and action are spontaneously most effective.
Figure1: Knower-known through the process of knowing
The process of knowing is a personalised, individual task

that is influenced by experience and unintentional contextual
cues. There are three aspects of knowledge – the knower
(the consciousness of the participant), the known (the field
of study), and the process of knowing (which connects the
knower to the known). Modern education focuses only on the
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known, the field of study, and excludes the other two-thirds

of knowledge, the knower and the process of knowing.
Activity 1
1. Think of how knowledge construction is the spiral
process.
2. Select a few social incidents or phenomenon. Try
to analyse how their meanings vary according to
the context.
Learning Check 1
1. Why is it important to know the views of people
having diverse perspectives in the process of
knowledge construction?
2. Differentiate between practical and discursive
knowledge.
3. Explain the relationship between knower, process
of knowing, and known.
Ways of Knowing
We come to know about the environment through various
ways. In the earlier chapter, you read that perception, reason,
logic and language are all valid ways of knowing and all have
a particular purpose and place. A child, from infancy to early
childhood, relies heavily on sense perception for knowledge
acquisition. It is only after stepping into late childhood that
the other three ways of knowing start taking place. Language
and emotions are followed by reason. By adulthood, it is
a combination of all the four that actively converge in the
process of knowledge acquisition.
Activity 2
1. Observe children of different age groups. Note
down the incidents that reflect the children are
using perception, reason, logic and language in
knowledge acquisition. Note down their ages also
when they begin using these processes.
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Process of Knowing
A teacher needs to train the students in the critical

evaluation of knowledge, so that they can see how different
types of knowledge have to be judged in different ways.
Critical evaluation will also allow them to evaluate new
knowledge as they relate to specific knowledge issues. The
different ways by which students can be initiated into the
process of knowing are:
• By perceiving concrete objects and acquiring sensory
knowledge.
• By experiencing situations themselves.
• By relating to previous knowledge/associations.
• By relating to real life situations.
• By dealing with problematic situations and developing
rational and abstract knowledge.
• By interacting with others and gaining knowledge of
relationships.
Let us discuss the four ways of knowing in some detail.
Sense Perception
Though sense perception is the most basic and immediate
‘way of knowing’, sometimes it might not be a very reliable
source. All the five senses, i.e., touch, taste, sight, smell
and hearing, contribute immensely towards our quest for
knowledge acquisition. They are sometimes referred to as the
gateways of knowledge.
Some questions pertinent to Sense Perception
• How do sensation and perception differ?
Perception is described as a process of registering sensory
stimuli as meaningful experience. A common distinction
between sensation and perception is that sensations
are simple sensory experiences, while percepts are
complex constructions of simple elements joined through
association. Another is that perception is influenced by
expectations, needs, unconscious ideas, values, conflicts,
and past learning of the person.
• To what extent do our senses give us knowledge of
the real world?
All the five senses (touch, taste, sight, smell and hearing)
contribute in providing us with the knowledge of the real
world.
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• In what manner does our physical constitution (mind/

intellect) influence and limit our sense perception?
Sense perception is a subjective activity hence it varies
from individual to individual, depending upon one’s
innate abilities. Our intellect defines the limits of our
sense perception. You must have read the proverb which
says that we see things as we are, not as the things are.
Our physical conditions, motivational dispositions and
mental state directs our sense perception.
• What are the various stimuli (range of stimuli) that
make us respond?
Human beings are able to detect a range of stimuli from
the external environment, some of which are useful for
knowledge acquisition and communication. All objects,
events, phenomenon, living and non-living things, etc.
constitute the stimuli. Any change around in one’s
environment elicits a response which is a precursor to
knowledge construction and consolidation.
• What is the actual mental construction of sense
perception?
Perception is the process of attaining awareness or
understanding of the environment by organising and
interpreting sensory stimuli. Perception is not the passive
receipt of these signals. It is shaped by learning, memory
and expectation. It depends on complex functions of the
nervous system, but seems mostly effortless because this
processing happens outside conscious awareness.
• How is perception interpreted?
Perception is merely the interpretation of the information
gathered through the five sense organs into a cohesive
whole.
• How does technological advancement alter/affect our
sense perception?
The advancement in technology (e.g., use of audio-visual,
multi-media, animation, etc.) in some ways, deepens
our sensory contact with reality while also reducing it at
other levels. In the near future, technology will extend
and deepen our natural perceptions by making our sense
perception more evolved. We will see more of the world,
penetrate into its mysteries more fully with our senses,
and perceive it more accurately than we do today. With
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virtual worlds becoming a reality the only fear is that we

may lose contact with reality in some sense.
• What do perceptual theories have to say about the
process of knowing?
We perceive the world as it is. The way that things look,
feel, smell, taste, and sound are the way that they are. We
see colours, for example, because the world is coloured.
This view of perception is called, somewhat dismissively,
naive realism.
Plausibly, the perception is a lot more complicated
than this. Though things may appear to be coloured to
us, our experiences of colour are merely representative
of the surface property of objects; the physical property
of reflecting certain wavelengths of light and the colour
‘red’ as we experience it are two quite different things.
This is called representative realism, which suggests that
perception is not the passive process that the naive realist
suggests. Rather, we are actively involved in perception,
supplying much of the content of our experiences, and
must bear this in mind if we are to know what the world
is really like in itself.
More extreme than either naive or representative
realism is idealism. Idealists, persuaded by the thought
that we have direct access only to our experiences of the
world, and not to the world itself, have questioned whether
there is anything beyond our experiences. A more recent
theory, phenomenalism, which bears some similarities to
idealism, has also been proposed.
• How sensory stimuli are restructured into structured
knowledge?
Perception is the background of experience which guides
every conscious action. The world is a field for perception,
and human consciousness assigns meaning to the world.
We cannot separate ourselves from our perceptions of the
world. Experience is the primary source of knowledge,
and knowledge is derived from sensory perceptions. For
example, during a visit to a park, children react differently
to their surroundings. While some students are drawn
to the colours of the flowers, others react to the sweet
smells and some completely ignore the flowers, opting
to play with the swings. Later on, when asked to relate
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the experience, some students describe the colours of the

flowers, others, the smells, some others just describe the
playthings in the park. Each student describes according
to his/her own sense perception. When asked to recognise
‘rose’, some recognise it by colour and shape, while others
by its smell. This indicates that each student constructs
his/her own image about the flower using his/her own
sense perception.
Learning Check 2
1. Why sense organs are considered the gateways of
knowledge?
2. Why knowledge acquired through sensory
perception is not considered reliable?
3. Give examples of external stimuli. How are they
different from internal stimuli?
4. Describe the role of technology in sense perception.
5. What is the role of experience in sense perception?
Language
Language acts as a carrier or medium for conveying the
knowledge from one individual to the other. It integrates
knowledge acquired through varied sources at varied places
and names it (concept- name). It helps in memorising and
recalling. In this context, the followings should be kept in view.
Contribution of Language to Knowledge Acquisition and
Transmission
The acquisition of a first language occurs so easily for most
people, and communication with others is so effortless, that
the influence of language in shaping thoughts is seldom
noticed. The appeal of a well-constructed argument can be
sensed even without any formal training in logic or other
forms of reasoning. Language is so much a part of human
activity that it is easily taken for granted. The issues related
to language and knowledge call for conscious scrutiny in
order to recognise its influence on thought and behaviour.
Knower–Known Relationship
Language facilitates the process of knowing. The role of
language in constructing knowledge is vital. Language is
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Process of Knowing
commonly understood as a tool to describe and report the

reality. However, this is a limited view of language since
language is not only content; it also provides context and a
way to re-contextualise content. We do not only describe and
report with language but we create with it. It is argued that
language significantly influences how we construct knowledge
while interacting with each other. Words expressed through
language and their meaning influence how we perceive and
interpret the world around us. Language affects our thinking.
While constructing knowledge, we are processing cognitions
through language. Therefore, language is considered as a
vehicle of thought.
It is an accepted fact that knowledge is socially constructed.
However, how knowledge is constructed and what sustains it
is less commonly understood. Language and meaning plays
a crucial role in knowledge construction. In analysing the
role of language and meaning in knowledge construction
three issues may be pointed out:
• We know more, than we can tell;
• We say more, than we know; and
• What is said, will be interpreted differently.
Activity 3
Think of concrete examples of three issues related
to the role of language and meaning in knowledge
construction and discuss them with your teacher.
Reason
Developing rational and critical thinking abilities is pivotal
to acquiring reliable knowledge. It involves both conscious
and unconscious reasoning. Sometimes what has happened
in the past (previous experience) teach us to reason with
reference to the future. Developing association between
past, present and future occurrences is part of the reasoning
process creating patterns/chains in process of learning.
In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods of
reasoning as the deductive and inductive approaches.
Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the
more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a ‘top-
down’ approach. Inductive reasoning works the other way,
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moving from specific observations to broader generalisations

and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a ‘bottom-up’
approach. It is often the case that when disputes arise over
knowledge claims, what is at issue is not only the substance
or facts of the matter, but also the logic or reasons given for
acceptance of the facts, and the procedures used in reaching
a conclusion.
Activity 4
Think of examples of deductive and inductive reasoning
from science, language, maths, etc. Discuss them in
group with other students.
Emotion
The emotions and their expression vary across cultures and
hence knowledge so acquired may not be as reliable. It is
subjective and less measurable. It helps as well as hinders
in the process of knowledge construction. The training of
emotions is a key factor in enhancing the teaching-learning
process. Arousing positive emotions in the knower facilitates
smoother transmission of knowledge. The teacher should
help create positive emotions in the knower about the known.
Curiosity and eagerness are the most essential ones.
Learning Check 3
1. Describe the characteristics of sensory knowledge.
2. How does language shape the acquisition of
knowledge?
3. Differentiate between deductive and inductive
reasoning.
4. What role do emotions play in knowledge
acquisition?
Process of Knowledge Construction

In the context of school, the knowledge construction process
relates to the extent to which teachers help students to
understand, investigate, and determine how the implicit
cultural assumptions, frames of references, perspectives,
and biases within a discipline influence the ways in which
knowledge is constructed. Three processes are singled out as
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Process of Knowing
crucial to constructing this knowledge: activation of existing

knowledge, communication between stakeholders, and
envisioning of how a new system will change work practices.
Activating knowledge refers to making it explicit and
accessible to all stakeholders. Both users and developers of
knowledge benefit from activation.
Communication between stakeholders consists of creating
a shared understanding through interaction among people.
It is a social activity in which all participate and contribute
to knowledge construction. It does not simply refer to
transmission of information from one person to another. The
understanding created through communication can never
be absolute or complete, but instead is an interactive and
ongoing process in which common ground, i.e., assumed
mutual beliefs and mutual knowledge, is accumulated and
updated through negotiation and accumulation of meaning
over time.
Envisioning is the third key knowledge construction
process. Envisioning is a constructive process in the sense
that it is based on prior understandings but extends toward
the future. It is, therefore, different from activation because
it builds new understandings, rather than surfacing existing
ones.
Activity 5
Think of concrete examples of three processes of
knowledge construction, mentioned above from real
life experiences.
The recent thinking about knowledge construction

assumes that knowledge is not something which can
be transmitted from one person to another; rather, it is
jointly constructed by all parties involved in the process
of knowledge construction. Constructivism is basically a
theory, based on observation and scientific study, about how
people learn. According to this theory, people construct their
own understanding and knowledge of the world, through
experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.
When one encounters something new, one reconciles it with
one’s previous ideas and experiences, maybe changing what
one believes, or maybe discarding the new information as
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irrelevant. In any case, one becomes active creators of one’s

own knowledge, asking questions, exploring, and assessing
what one knows. As teachers, we must encourage students
to constantly assess how the activity is helping them to
gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their
strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally
become ‘expert learners’. This gives them ever-broadening
tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom
environment, the students learn ‘how to learn’. One might
look at it as a spiral. When they continuously reflect on their
experiences, students find their ideas gaining in complexity
and power, and they develop increasingly strong abilities to
integrate new information. One of the teacher’s main roles
becomes to encourage this learning and reflection process.
Example: A group of students in a science class are
discussing a problem in physics. Though the teacher knows
the ‘answer’ to the problem, she focuses on helping students
restate their questions in useful ways. She prompts each
student to reflect on and examine his or her current
knowledge. When one of the students comes up with the
relevant concept, the teacher seizes upon it, and indicates
to the group that this might be a fruitful avenue for them
to explore. They design and perform relevant experiments.
Afterward, the students and teacher talk about what they
have learned, and how their observations and experiments
helped (or did not help) them to better understand the
concept.
Learning Check 4
What are the various ways through which teachers
can help students to construct their knowledge? Give
examples.
Essentials for Construction of Knowledge

Constructivism as a paradigm hypothesises that learning
is an active, constructive process. Here, the learner is an
active constructor of information. In this process, the
learners actively construct or create their own subjective
representations of objective reality. New information is
linked to prior knowledge, giving mental representations
its subjective nature. Here, learning involves an active,
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Process of Knowing
contextualised process of constructing knowledge rather

than merely acquiring it. Each person distinctly interpret
the information and engages in his/her own knowledge
construction process. Constructivism does not consider the
learner a blank slate (tabula rasa), but assumes them to
possess a composite of past experiences in a cultural context.
There are certain essentials for knowledge construction.
These are described below.
• Previous knowledge of the learner works as the foundation
for building the future knowledge.
• The background and environment of learner: Constructivism
takes into account the background and environment of
the learner. For example, we cannot expect a learner who
lives in Leh (a cold desert area) to understand the concept
of evergreen fir tree because he has not seen any tree
around.
• ‘Hands-on’ experiences: Some theorists of constructivism
believe in learning by doing. For example, you cannot learn
swimming by theoretical classes, you’ve got to jump into
the water. It may, however, be noted that constructivism
does not essentially mean learning by doing something
physically only. It could be learning by doing mentally as
well.
• Constructivism does not believe in transmission of
knowledge from one person to another. It’s not as if we are
filling a bucket with water out of a well. The knowledge
to be effective and long lasting, each learner has to build
one’s own knowledge base.
• The teacher provides direction to the learner. He/she
helps in developing inquisitiveness among the learners so
that they can move towards finding answers/solutions to
the question and thereby grasp the concept. The teacher
also identifies the level acquired by the learner and the
level a learner is capable of attaining. The teacher also
reasons out with the learner the consequences of other
alternatives. For example, while teaching fourth grade
learners about houses in mountains; it would amount
to stifling the learning process to simply talk about the
sloping roofs and wooden structures. The knower should
motivate the learner to probe what would be the result if
we had flat roof and thatched roofs? Why wood is more
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viable than marble or stone (cost factor, convenience,

transportation, etc.)?
• The teacher also helps the learner to chart the course
of learning so that learner is not thrown off track. This
is done by laying down specific learning objectives and
expected learning outcomes. With every new concept,
the knower (teacher) should restrict herself to minimum
achievable objectives.
• The teacher should inter-relate concepts, subjects and
activities across the curriculum so that what is learned in
one activity gets strengthened and reaffirmed in another
(Integration of Concept).
Learning Check 5
1. What are the basic premises of constructivism?
2. Show with examples how does hands-on-
experiences help in constructing knowledge?
3. Describe the role of teacher in the process of
knowledge construction.
4. What is meant by internalisation of concepts?
Give examples.
The Process of Constructivism

In the classroom that follows constructivist approach,
students work primarily in groups, and learning and
knowledge result from the dynamic interaction in the group.
There is a focused emphasis on social and communication
skills, as well as collaboration and exchange of ideas among
the group members. Contrary to the traditional classroom
in which students work primarily alone and learning is
achieved through repetition wherein the subjects are strictly
adhered to and are guided by a textbook, in constructivist
classrooms various active learning activities are encouraged.
Some activities encouraged in constructivist classrooms are:
• Experimentation: students individually perform an
experiment and then come together as a class to discuss
the results.
• Research projects: students research a topic and can
present their findings to the class.
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Process of Knowing
• Field trips: This allows students to put the concepts and

ideas discussed in class in a real-world context. Field
trips would often be followed by class discussions.
• Films: These provide visual context and thus bring
another sense into the learning experience.
• Class discussions: This technique is used in all of the
methods described above. It is one of the most important
distinctions of constructivist teaching methods.
Activity 6
1. Select a concept from science textbook and
perform an experiment to personally verify the
nature of the concept.
2. Organise a field trip to a zoo with other classmates.
Observe and note down the behaviour of animals.
Find out similarities and differences between their
behaviour.
In today’s ICT-friendly learning environment, constructivist

approaches can also be used in online learning. For example,
tools such as discussion forums, wikis and blogs can enable
learners to actively construct knowledge. Constructivist
approaches tend to validate individual and cultural
differences and diversity. In the constructivist classroom, the
teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus,
the teacher’s main focus should be on guiding students by
asking questions that will lead them to develop their own
conclusions on the subject.
In constructivist paradigm, the following instructional
approaches may be employed effectively.
Direct Instruction: The teacher usually spends some time
lecturing; then the teacher guides the students through a
complex problem, with the problem broken down into simple
steps; then the students are given, one by one, the simple
steps to carry out on their own; finally, the students are
given one or many sample problems to accomplish on their
own. Most mathematics teachers apply this technique.
Expository Teaching: The teacher presents the subject
matter and directs the students through the lesson. A rule
is presented with an example and then practice is provided.
The teacher focuses the students’ attention on the key
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points of the subject and may use graphics, diagrams, or

other representations to elaborate on the subject. Examples
include pictorial relationships, application of the rules,
context through historical information, and prerequisite
information. Such examples are provided to give contextual
elaboration and to help students see the subject matter from
many different perspectives.
Guided Exploration: In guided exploration, problems
can be incorporated into lecture, laboratory work, and field
courses. They fit beautifully into the exploratory phase of the
learning cycle approach to teaching and work best when they
are assigned before any lectures or readings on the topic.
Because guided-discovery problems are time-consuming
and foster deep learning, they are best used to teach course
material that is especially important, conceptually difficult,
or counterintuitive.
Cooperative/Collaborative Learning: In this method, each
member of a team is responsible not only for learning what
is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating
an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the
assignment until all group members successfully understand
and complete it. Cooperative efforts result in the participants
striving for mutual benefit so that all group members gain
from each other’s efforts.
Inquiry or Problem-based Learning: In this type of learning,
the learner attempts to investigate questions, scenarios,
often assisted by the teacher. For example, to teach children
‘How can we enhance and preserve our beautiful World?’,
children could be made to experience what it might be like in
our environment in the year 2020. Children could wear face
masks, work in a hot environment, and have limited access
to water. This will stimulate lots of discussion about why
our world might become like this and introduce the concept
of sustainability. Let us take another example. A science
teacher might provide students with a brief demonstration of
how perceptions of colour change depending on the intensity
of the light source and then ask them to design their own
experiment to further examine this relationship. In this
example the student is left to discover the content on his/
her own.
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Process of Knowing
Table 1
Constructivist Learning Situation
(from National Curriculum Framework-2005, p.19)
Process Science Language

Situation Situation
Learners read a text on Learners read the
mammals and view a story ‘Kabuliwallah’.
video on life of mammals Later, they are given
in different locals. Such background material
events or activities with illustration of
consist of mammals certain scenes of
moving in groups on the story and brief
land or in water, grazing, descriptions. A few
attacking a prey, giving learners enact one or
birth, flocking together two scenes depicted in
at the time of danger the illustrations.
and related events.
Observation Learners make notes Learners watch the
of the key events or scenes enacted.
behaviour or activities of
animals.
Contextualisation They relate their They relate story of the
analysis to the text. text with the illustration
of the background
material.
Cognitive Teacher illustrates how Using a scene enacted,
apprenticeship he/she would analyse the teacher models how
and interpret such to integrate reading the
information using the story and illustration
examples of mammals. of the background
material.
Collaboration Learners form groups Learners work in
to work on the learning groups to generate
task while the teacher interpretations while the
suggests/guides them as teacher suggests/guides
they proceed. them as they proceed.
Interpretation Learners analyse and They analyse and
construction generate evidence to generate their own
verify their hypothesis interpretation of the
related to mammals story.
living on land or water,
etc.
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Multiple They provide Comparing the

interpretations interpretations and interpretations within
defend their ideas or and between groups
hypothesis using their gives the learners
analyses and text both the idea that people
within and between can have different
groups. Evidence and reactions to the story
arguments along with ‘Kabuliwallah’.
the text expose them to
various ways of finding
answers or interpreting
data.
Multiple By going back and forth Using the text,
manifestations through the process and background illustrations
relating each contextual and their own
background on various reflections, the learners
events and behaviour of see how the same
mammals, the learners characters and themes
notice that the general can be manifested in
principles embedded several ways.
in what they are doing
become manifested.
Role of the Teacher: In this context, the teacher is a facilitator who
encourages learners to reflect, analyse and interpret in the process of
knowledge construction.
Guiding Principles of Constructivist Learning

• Learning is an active process in which the learner uses
sensory input and constructs meaning out of it.
• People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists
of constructing meaning from whatever is learnt. Each
meaning we construct makes us better able to give
meaning to other sensations which can fit a similar
pattern.
• The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental;
it happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on
experience may be necessary for learning, especially
for children, but it is not sufficient; we need to provide
learner with activities which engage the mind as well as
other faculties.
• Learning involves language. The language we use
influences learning. language and learning are inextricably
intertwined.
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Process of Knowing
• Learning is a social activity. Our learning is intimately

associated with our connection with other human beings,
our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual
acquaintances, recognising the social aspect of learning
and conversation, interaction with others, and the
application of knowledge.
• Learning is contextual. We do not learn isolated facts and
theories in abstract manner separate from the rest of our
lives: we learn in relationship to what else we know, what
we believe, our prejudices and our fears.
• Some form of prior learning is essential for new learning to
take place. It is not possible to assimilate new knowledge
without having some structure developed from previous
knowledge to build on. Any effort to teach must be
connected to the state of the learner and provide a path
into the subject for the learner based on that learner’s
previous knowledge.
• It takes time to learn. Learning is not instantaneous. For
significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder over
them, try them out, play with them and use them.
• Motivation is a key component in learning. Motivation not
only helps learning, it is essential for learning.
• Unless the learner knows ‘the reasons–why’, he/she
may not be involved in using the knowledge that may be
instilled in him/her, even by the most severe and direct
teaching.
Major Shifts Envisaged in Constructivist Learning
Paradigm
To summarise, Table 2 contains the major shifts for teacher
as envisaged in constructivist learning from traditional
learning approach.
Table 2
Major Shifts
(Taken from National Curriculum Framework–2005, p. 110)
From To
Teacher centric, stable designs Learner centric, flexible process
Teacher direction and decision Learner autonomy
Teacher guidance and monitoring Facilitates, supports, and
encourages learning
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Passive reception in learning Active participation in learning

Learning within the four walls of Learning in the wider social context
the classroom
Knowledge as ‘given’ and fixed Knowledge as it evolves and created
Disciplinary focus Multidisciplinary, educational
focus
Linear exposure Multiple and divergent exposure
Appraisal, short, few Multifarious, continuous
Activity 7
Discuss the implications of major shifts given in table
2 with your teacher and classmates.
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (17 November, 1896 – 11

June, 1934) was a Russian psychologist,
the founder of an original holistic
theory of human cultural and biosocial
development commonly referred to as
cultural-historical psychology, and
one of the chief proponents of social
constructivism theory. His major
works include Educational Psychology,
The Socialist Alteration of Man, Ape,
Primitive Man, and Child: Pedagogy of the
Adolescent, Thinking and Speech, Tool and Symbol in Child
Development, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher
Psychological Processes, Thought and Language.
LET US SUM UP
Knowledge creation is the integration of opposing aspects
through a dynamic process of dialogue and practice. The
process of knowing is a personalised, individual task that is
impacted by experience and unintentional contextual cues
and ‘learning’ as an intentional process of conveying and
receiving knowledge. There are three aspects of knowledge–
the knower (the consciousness of the participant), the known
(the field of study), and the process of knowing (which
connects the knower to the known). Knowledge results from
the coming together of the knower, the process of knowing,
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Process of Knowing
and the object of knowing–knowledge blossoms in the

togetherness of knower, process of knowing, and known.
Therefore, knowledge is the composite structure composed
of the knower, process of knowing, and known. Modern
education focuses only on the known, the field of study,
and excludes the other two-thirds of knowledge, the knower
and the process of knowing. The different ways of knowing
are: sense perception, language, reason and emotion. Three
processes which are crucial to constructing knowledge are:
activation of existing knowledge, communication between
stakeholders, and envisioning of how a new system will
change work practices. Knowledge involves the knower and
the known, the existential and the situational. The role of
the knower and the known in the process of knowledge
construction thus becomes crucial. Knowledge comes to
life inside the realm of experience. It is constructed, made
by relations that unveil themselves in time. Constructivism
as a paradigm hypothesises that learning is an active,
constructive process. Learners actively construct or create
their own subjective representations of objective reality.
A few instructional approaches which may be used in a
constructivist classroom are: direct instruction, expository
teaching, guided exploration, cooperative/collaborative
learning, inquiry/problem based learning, pure exploration
and discovery approaches.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the various aspects of knowledge?
2. What are the different ways of knowing?
3. What are known as the ‘gateways of knowledge’?
4. What is considered as a ‘vehicle of thought’?
5. How is deductive reasoning different from inductive
reasoning?
6. Name the processes crucial to knowledge construction.
7. What are the various modes of knowledge creation?
8. Name a few factors which affect knowledge transfer.
9. What is constructivism?
10. Name a few instructional approaches which may be used
in a constructivist classroom.
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Berger, P.L., and T. Luckmann. 1975. The Social Construction
of Reality – A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge,
Penguin Books, London.
Dillbeck, M.C. et al. 1987. Consciouness as a field: The
transcendental meditation and TM-Sidhi program and
changes in social indicators. The Journal of Mind and
Behaviour, 8, 67-104.
Dummett, M. 1993. The Seas of Language. Oxford University
Press, Oxford.
Fosnot, C.T. 2005. Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives and
Practice. Columbia University Press.
Krough, G., K. Ichijo and I. Nonaka. 2000. Enabling Knowledge
Creation. Oxford University Press, New York
NCERT. 2005. National Curriculum Framework–2005, New
Delhi.
Scaife, Jon. 2012. Constructivism in Action: Teaching for
Learning. Routledge.
Tobin, Kenneth. 1993. The Practice of Constructivism in Science
Education. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale,
NJ.
Vygotsky, L. 1978. Mind in Society. Harvard University Press,
London.
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Chapter 6
Organisation of
Knowledge in Schools
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Meaning of Knowledge Organisation
• Forms of Knowledge Included in School Education
• Selection of Knowledge Categories in School Education
• Agencies for Selection and Organisation of Categories
of Knowledge in Schools
• Process for Developing Curricula, Syllabi, and
Textbooks
–– Principles of Formulating Syllabus
–– Characteristics of a Good Syllabus
–– The Process of Curriculum Development in
India
Let Us Sum up
Review Questions
References and Web Links
Basics in Education
Introduction
As a student, you must have wondered how the knowledge
that you received in the schools is selected and organised.
Who does this? Do the teachers have autonomy to decide
what will be taught in a particular class? Why some topics
are introduced in a particular class and not in some other
class? What are the various subjects that are taught in school
and what is the basis of introducing a particular course in a
particular class? Which are the agencies that decide about
the courses? How the mechanism for evaluation of what and
to what extent students have learnt is decided and which are
the agencies responsible for implementing it? Whether the
courses and evaluation mechanisms are same throughout
the country? These are some of the questions that this
chapter attempts to address.
Objectives
• describe meaning of knowledge organisation;
• appreciate the different forms in which knowledge is
organised in the school;
• explain the methodology of organising knowledge;
• enumerate the agencies responsible for developing
syllabi in India; and
• explain the process of developing curriculum, syllabi,
and textbooks in the country.
Meaning of Knowledge Organisation

The organisation of knowledge in schools refers to the various
activities which encompass the entire varieties of learning
experiences (curricular and co-curricular). It covers the syllabi,
courses of studies, the teaching methods, the characteristics
of teachers and students, the interactions taking place
between the teacher and the taught, between taught and
the environment, the textbooks, teaching aids, library, the
system of evaluation, different co-curricular programmes
such as morning assembly, prize giving ceremony, sports,
competitions, dramas, observation of different religious
or national festivals, etc. It specifies course outlines along
with objectives, learning experiences, and evaluation tools
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Organisation of Knowledge in Schools
and follow up measures. It covers a wide and varied range of

occupations, activities and experiences provided to the child
for his/her integral development – physical, vital, mental,
psychic and spiritual. As an illustration, the role of morning
assembly in the integral development of the child is presented
in the box given below.
Morning Assembly (Taken from National Curriculum

Framework–2005, p. 97)
The day begins with teachers and children getting
the school and classrooms ready for the day ahead.
Cleaning the rooms, including the toilets, putting
up display boards in the classrooms, organising
materials and getting equipment, all these activities
convey a sense of ownership among students and
teachers and foster a sense of responsibility towards
the material and space they use. This also gives them
time to talk to each other and catch up the events of
the previous day. This reduces the need for such talk
during class time.
During the general assembly, everybody sits
together, and according to their classes or in lines,
but the younger ones in front and the older ones
behind. One day a week they listen an inspiring
story. On another day they listen to music, a guest
talk, or share a moving experience, read out and
discuss an interesting report from the newspaper.
Then everyone goes to class.
The knowledge imparted in schools should take into

account the needs and interests of the learners, nature of
the living environment of the learners, and principles and
the concepts proposed to be deliberated upon. The school
curriculum has to vary according to the individual learner
(their socio-economic background, religious and cultural
traditions, disability, etc.) and the teacher. A syllabus
might be prescribed by the State, a textbook might also be
prescribed by the State, but the curriculum cannot be made
uniform as no two teachers are identical in the method of
teaching, no two children are identical in their methods
of learning and no two schools have identical resources of
learning environment. Ideally, organisation of knowledge
should be flexible, so as to suit the requirements of the
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Basics in Education
individual learners to enable them to grow freely, gradually

bringing their innate potentialities to the surface.
Activity 1
1. Visit a couple of schools. Prepare a list of activities
(curricular and co-curricular) conducted in the
school.
2. Observe the efforts made by the school to organise
these activities according to the needs of the
individual learner.
The organisation of knowledge has different purposes. To

Rousseau, it needs to give freedom to the child to pursue his/
her own pace of progress. Mahatma Gandhi believed that the
organisation of knowledge in schools needs to be influenced
by the social aims of education and the totality of experiences
carried out through a particular craft. Tagore was of the view
that the totality of experience needs to be characterised by
universal brotherhood, in tune with the motto of his Viswa
Bharati Yatra Visra bhabati ekanidam. To Sri Aurobindo,
totality of experience covers physical, vital, mental, psychic
and spiritual personalities of the child. In case of Froebel,
this experience is the rounded whole of the knowledge and
experience of the human race, achieved through play.
The organisation of knowledge in schools is a cyclic
process, whose main components are: objectives, content,
method, evaluation and feedback. Ideally, learners need to be
consulted in deciding the content and process of organisation
of knowledge. However, the amount of consultation may be
comparatively less in lower classes. Organisation of knowledge
in schools is an ongoing process. As the knowledge expands,
many areas of the knowledge provided in the schools become
familiar to the common man. A child learns many things
informally from his/her environment, which his/her parents
had to learn formally, through a school delivered programme.
The development of technology continuously pours more
and more facts, concepts, information to the door of the
common man. Hence, the agencies periodically review the
knowledge being delivered in the schools and utilise the new
developments to improve the same.
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Related to this is the question as to how much time

children should devote in the school. The box given below
illustrates this fact.
Time on Task (Taken from National Curriculum

Framework– 2005, p. 96)
The concept of time on task is an essential reckoner
for taking stock of the total time that children spend
actively on learning. This would include time spent
on listening, reading, writing, doing activities,
discussing, etc. It would not include waiting for one’s
turn, copying from the board or revising. Particularly
in multigrade classes, planning and designing of
learning activities for children need to ensure that
children’s time on task is maximised.
Total study time that is expected from students in
both face-to-face and self-study or homework needs
to be accounted for while planning the syllabus or
course of study for students, especially as they go
into higher grades.
Total homework time
Primary: No homework up to Class II and two hours
a week from Class III.
Middle School: One hour a day (about five to six hours
a week).
Secondary and Higher Secondary: Two hours a day
(about 10 to 12 hours a week). Teachers need to
work together to plan and rationalise the amount of
homework that they give to children.
Learning Check 1
1. What are the school activities covered under
knowledge organisation?
2. What is, in your opinion, the purpose of learning
organisation?
3. Give examples to show that organisation of
knowledge in schools is a cyclic as well as ongoing
process.
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Basics in Education
Forms of Knowledge Included in School

Education
The process of organisation of knowledge begins with the
development of curriculum framework. The curriculum
document is expected to be creative. However, you will observe
in most of the cases that it is prescriptive in its approach. It
specifies the topics and gives guidelines for the programmes
of study including assessment materials, class time and
teaching methods. It provides directions for development of
textbooks for various classes. In most of the cases, the schools
are given opportunity to create, approve and implement
their own curricula, keeping in view the national curriculum
framework. In India, the National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) has been developing school
curriculum at intervals. The NCERT has brought out four
curriculum frameworks in 1975, 1988, 2000, and 2005.
The States have been attempting to develop State version of
the national curriculum developed in 2005. The schools in
India seldom develop their curricula, although, nearly half a
century ago, the Report of the Education Commission 1964-
66 suggested autonomy for the schools to develop their own
curricula. Traditionally, the curriculum is subject- based
and shows flexibility in scope to accommodate individual and
institutional differences as well as varieties of learning and
teaching styles, and facilitates development of higher order
thinking skills in learners. Also, some curricula give freedom
to schools to decide time to devote to various compulsory
subjects. The forms of knowledge included in the national
school curriculum in India are described below.
• Language: It is advocated that the home language(s) of
children should be the medium of learning in schools.
Considering the multilingual nature of the Indian society,
the implementation of three-language formula (mother
tongue, the regional language and one foreign language)
needs to be pursued in its spirit, promoting multilingual
communicative abilities of children. Study of Sanskrit as
a modern Indian language and study of other classical
and foreign languages may also be considered.
• Mathematics: The teaching of mathematics needs
to develop among the learners the ability to think and
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reason mathematically, to pursue assumptions to logical

conclusions and to handle abstraction. It includes a
way of doing things, and the ability and the attitude to
formulate and solve problems. Its twin concerns are:
what can mathematics education do to engage the mind
of every student, and how can it strengthen the student’s
resources?
• Science: Improvement of organisation of knowledge in
science education has been a priority for the nation.
Hence, a number of projects came into being, with or
without support of agencies like UNICEF and UNESCO.
The NCF–2005 (pp. 46-50) stated that the primary school
science curriculum should include study of the natural
environment, artifacts and people through exploratory
and hands on activities to acquire the basic cognitive and
psychomotor skills through observation, classification,
inference, etc. At the primary stage, science and social
science should be integrated as ‘Environmental Studies’
and should also include health education. The science
content at the upper primary stage should include
working with hands to design simple technological units
and modules (e.g. designing and making a working model
of a windmill to lift weights) and continuing to learn more
on environment and health including reproductive and
sexual health through activities and surveys. Secondary
school curriculum to include systematic experimentation
as a tool to discover/verify theoretical principles, and
working on locally significant project involving science
and technology and should also cover issues surrounding
environment and health including reproductive and
sexual health.
• Social Sciences: It is advocated that the social science
curriculum at the primary stage should cover the natural
and the social environment. It should cover study of the
environment through illustrations from the physical,
biological, social, and cultural spheres. It is felt that the
environment study approach will lead to better awareness
of environmental issues and also social issues. Social
studies at the upper primary stage may be taught as
history, geography and political science. At the secondary
stage, sociology and economics topics may be added.
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Basics in Education
The social studies curriculum should attempt to develop

the values of equality, liberty, justice, fraternity, dignity,
plurality, and freedom from exploitation in the learners.
• Art Education: The NCF–2005 (p-55) was of the view
that “Arts, visual and performing, need to become an
important component of learning in the curriculum.” The
curriculum needs to introduce students to the rich and
varied artistic traditions in the country. Arts education
must become both a tool and a subject taught in every
school as a compulsory subject (up to Class X) and should
cover all four main streams covered by the term arts (i.e.,
music, dance, visual arts and theatre).
• Health and Physical Education: A part of health
education is covered under science curriculum. The NCF–
2005 (pp. 56-58) adopted a holistic definition of health
within which physical education and yoga contribute to
the physical, social, emotional and mental development
of a child. The document suggested medical checkups be
made a part of the curriculum and education about health
be provided which address the age-specific concerns at
different stages of development. It pointed out the necessity
of education on yoga. It also pointed out importance of
age-appropriate context-specific interventions focused
on adolescent reproductive and sexual health concerns
including HIV/AIDS and drug/substance abuse.
• Work and Education: Mahatma Gandhi argued for
craft-centred education. The Secondary Education
Commission 1952-53 (Mudaliar 1953) recommended
craft subject for every student so that if necessary one
could earn his living by pursuing it. Besides, the student
would learn the dignity of labour and experience the
joy of doing constructive work. Work Experience was
suggested by the Education Commission (1964-66). The
Committee for Review of the Curriculum for the Ten
Year School (Patel 1978) suggested for Socially Useful
Productive Work (SUPW). The NCF–2005 (p.130) stated
that “Institutionalisation of work-centred education as an
integrated part of the school curriculum from the pre-
primary to the +2 stage is expected to lay the necessary
foundation for reconceptualising and restructuring
vocational education... to meet the challenges of a
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globalised economy.” According to this document, a set of

work-related generic competencies (basic, inter-personal
and systemic) may include critical thinking, transfer of
learning, creativity, communication skills, aesthetics,
work motivation, work ethic of collaborative functioning
and entrepreneurship-cum-social accountability.
Activity 2
1. Visit your institution library and pick up the
National Curriculum Framework–2005. Prepare
a list of the subjects included in it with their
purpose.
2. Organise a group discussion to chalk out the
various issues concerned with the implementation
of three-language formula.
Learning Check 2
1. What are the characteristics of a good curriculum?
2. What is three-language formula?
3. What is the purpose of teaching mathematics to
the students?
4. Why the purpose of teaching science and social
sciences at different stages vary?
5. What is the purpose of including health education
in school curriculum?
6. Do work and education go together? Give reasons.
Selection of Knowledge Categories in

School Education
You may ask a question that how a particular knowledge is
selected and included in the school curricula. As you read
in Chapter 2, the selection of knowledge depends upon the
educational goals which is characterised by universality
and culture specificity. While selecting knowledge, one
has to analyse the needs of the learning community and
also evaluate the existing curriculum. This may help in
designing a curriculum that can bridge the gap between the
practice and the demand of the new situation. An efficient
and scientific curriculum provides totality of experiences,
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Basics in Education
variety and elasticity in approaches. It is centered around

the community–its life, its activities and its experiences.
It also looks for meaningful utilisation of leisure time. Its
programmes are correlated and well integrated. It takes care
of the democratic attitudes and values of life. It also keeps
a balance between informal, formal and non-formal ways of
learning. Thus, a curriculum has to be need-based, flexible
and adaptable to local conditions, simple, functional, utility-
based and should not be heavily loaded with content, activity,
experience and work oriented. The following principles are
followed in developing a curriculum.
1. Totality: The basis of selection of knowledge categories
keeps in view the totality of the experiences that a child
should receive for the development of his/her integral
personality. However, one may notice that curriculum
in prevailing school systems is dominantly scholastic
and does not necessarily address human psychological
functioning integrally.
2. Variety and Elasticity: The knowledge categories
need to develop varied talents among the individuals
in different areas of life and work. For example, the
notion of multiple intelligences considers intelligence as
a multidimensional concept. There are eight identified
intelligences—Logical-mathematical, Linguistic, Spatial,
Bodily-kinaesthetic, Musical/rhythmic, Interpersonal,
Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic intelligences (for details,
Srivastava, A.K., 2013). Thus, there is a need to allow
provisions for individual differences among learners and
utilise varied instructional techniques such as the use
of multimedia to make classroom situations interesting
for the learner as well as for the teacher.
3. Community Centredness: An effective school
curriculum is community-centred. It is vitally and
organically related to needs and aspirations of the
community. For example, in the context of India, inclusive
education (providing education to all irrespective caste,
gender, physical disability, etc) is required. Knowledge
categories are also selected so that they can develop the
community. The selection depends on the resources, of
the community. Surveys of community resources, both
physical and human, pin-point the needs and ensure
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optimum utilisation of the resources of the community

and their enrichment.
4. Leisure: An effective school curriculum trains students
for proper utilisation of leisure. Report of the Secondary
Education Commission 1952-53 (p.79) stated that the
curriculum should be designed to train the students not
only for work but also for leisure. Knowledge categories
are selected not only to provide rigid mental work, but
also to have some areas of physical, vital or aesthetic,
and spiritual education. A school life can be made very
pleasant by introducing school clubs, hobby centres, etc.,
which give scope for the cultivation of varied interests of
the learners. The utilisation of leisure time in pursuits
like singing, dancing, painting, reading, yoga, etc. will
help in developing a sound personality of the child.
5. Correlation: An effective school curriculum ensures
effective correlation among different subjects of study.
The Report of the Secondary Education Commission 1952-
53 (p.79) stated that “Subjects should be inter-related
and, within each subject the contents should so far as
possible be envisaged as ‘broad fields’ units which can
be correlated better with life rather than narrow items
of information.” In an ideal curriculum, a subject is not
taught as a water-tight compartment. In fact, a true
teacher correlates his/her subject with corresponding
areas of another subject. Effective teaching for various
subjects needs to ensure that the knowledge gained in the
specific subjects is correlated with relevant knowledge
in other subjects and the hobby of the child and its life
expectations.
6. Activity: Learning is at its best, when done through
activity. Learning by doing is the slogan for teaching
subjects through activity. Activity makes learning real.
Knowledge categories, therefore, should have provision
for project work, team work, play and manual work, etc.
to cater to the instinctive desires of the child to think and
make things, etc. This is especially important for lower
classes. Activity centredness makes schools become
place of work, experimentation and discovery.
7. Flexibility: Effective knowledge categories take care
of local conditions (e.g., weather, etc.) to cater to the
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Basics in Education
needs of individual learners and their communities. The

curriculum should also suit to the changing situations
of the world. These should give scope for role of teacher
in selecting appropriate learning categories in the
beginning of the academic session, getting modified
during an academic session, if necessary. In ideal
situations, teachers make knowledge categories adjust
to the motivation, and interest of the learner. In a sense,
it emphasises for having scope for incorporating evolving
knowledge in the day-to-day classroom transaction.
8. Utility: Effective knowledge categories are based on the
principle of utility. These should be of utility to a learner,
so that after finishing learning, a learner is able to utilise
the material learnt to improve his/her conditions of
living. Included in such type of knowledge are life-skills
knowledge, vocational education, health and hygiene, etc.
9. Creativity: Effective knowledge categories are based
on strategies that make children creative. The creativity
deals with the higher mental areas. Each person has
some areas in which she/he is creative. The task of
education is to find out these areas and help the learner
to enrich them. The schools, therefore, should try to
have provision for development of creative talent in
children. This principle is more applicable in case of
schools exclusively meant for gifted children.
10. Play: Play way method is an effective strategy, especially
used for early childhood care and education. Work and
play in education was suggested by Maria Montessori.
Froebel made ‘play’ the basis of education. According to
him, the work is to be done in spirit of play. Play helps an
individual to unfold him/herself. It gives rise to qualities
like feeling, cooperation, tolerance, self-dependence,
freedom in thinking and action, etc. Play is yet to find
its due place in the curricula. Most of the so called
kindergarten, montessori and nursery schools, etc. exist
for business, not for integrating play and education.
11. Conservation: Every society makes attempts to
preserve its culture and transmit the same to the future
generation. An education system is expected to perform
this role efficiently. Culture refers to the shared attitudes,
values, beliefs, traditions, etc. of a society.
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12. Democratic values: John Dewey, a prominent

educationist, gave much importance to democracy in
education. Democratic approaches in education are
‘sine qua non’ of the modern educational system. An
ideal curriculum should be based on democratic ideas
in education. Such a curriculum should also try to make
a child understand the role of democracy for education
and vice versa.
13. Equality: Equality involves providing equal opportunity
to all not only in access, but also in the conditions for
success. NPE-1986 suggested a core curriculum for all
school curriculum development agencies.
Activity 3
1. Analyse a curriculum to see the extent to which it
caters to the needs of the society. Discuss it with
teachers.
2. Think of a few concrete activities that will make
school curriculum more interesting to the learners.
Discuss the same with teachers for introducing
the same in the school.
3. Think of the ways in which culture of a society
can be preserved by education.
Learning Check 3
1. What are the characteristics of a good curriculum?
2. What is the purpose of relating various subjects
with each other?
3. What does the principle of utility refers to?
4. What is meant by democracy in education?
5. What is the meaning of equality in education and
how can it be achieved in our context?
Agencies for Selection and Organisation

of Categories of Knowledge in Schools
At the national level, each country has a department of
education. In case of larger countries, such as India, in
addition to the Ministry of Human Resource Development
(which consists of Department of School Education and
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Basics in Education
Literacy and Department of Higher Education), each state of

the Union has a department of education. Further, in India,
education is placed in the Concurrent List of the Constitution
(this point has been discussed later in this chapter).
At the international level, the International Baccalaureate
Organisation (IBO) has 3318 schools (as on 12 January 2012)
spread over 140 countries. In India, IBO has 86 schools, out
of which 33 offer IB Primary Years Programme, 8 Middle
Years Programme and 77 IB Diploma Programme.
In India, MHRD is the main body responsible for
organisation of knowledge in schools. It formulates policy
for the purpose. The National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT), New Delhi, an autonomous
organisation under the Department of School Education
and Literacy of MHRD, is the national level agency involved
in selection, and organisation of knowledge in schools. The
NCERT brings out at intervals a new national curriculum
framework. At the state level, the State Council of Educational
Research and Training (SCERT) either develops state level
curriculum guidelines or adapts national curriculum
framework. The National Institute of Public Cooperation and
Child Development prescribe guidelines for organisation of
knowledge in Anganwadis, which provide early childhood
care and education as part of Integrated Child Development
Services (ICDS) scheme.
There are three national level bodies that formulate
courses of studies for various examinations conducted by
them. These are Central Board of Secondary Education
(CBSE), Council for the Indian School Certificate Examination
(CISCE) and National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). At
the state level, there are State Boards of School Examination
to conduct state level examinations at the end of Class X and
Class XII. A list of various examining bodies which conduct
public examinations for school level are given below.
National Level Boards/ Councils
1. Central Board of Secondary Education Preet Vihar, Delhi
– 110 092
2. Council for the Indian School Certificate Examination
Nehru Place, New Delhi – 110 019
3. National Institute of Open Schooling, A-24-25,
Institutional Area, NH-24, Sector-62, NOIDA-201 309
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State Level Boards/Councils

Andhra Pradesh 1. Board of Intermediate Education, Hyderabad.
2. Board of Secondary Education, Hyderabad.
Assam 1. Assam Higher Secondary Education Council,
Guwahati.
2. Board of Secondary Education Assam,
Guwahati.
3. Assam Sanskrit Board, Guwahati.
Bihar 1. Bihar School Examination Board, Patna.
2. Bihar State Madrasa Education Board, Patna.
Chhattisgarh 1. Chhatisgarh Board of Secondary Education,
Raipur.
2. Chhatisgarh Madrasa Board, Raipur.
3. Chhatisgarh Sanskrit Board, Raipur.
4. Chhatisgarh State Open School, Raipur.
Goa Goa Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary
Education, Alto Betim.
Gujarat Gujarat Secondary and Higher Secondary
Education Board, Gandhinagar.
Haryana Haryana Board of School Education, Bhiwani.
Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Board of School Education,
Dharamsala.
Jammu & Jammu & Kashmir State Board of School
Kashmir Education, Jammu (November to April)
Srinagar (May to October)
Jharkhand Jharkand Academic Council, Ranchi.
Karnataka 1. Government of Karnataka, Dept. of Pre-
University Education, Bangalore.
2. Karnataka Secondary Education Examination
Board, Bangalore.
Kerala 1. Kerala Board of Public Examination,
Thiruvananthapuram.
2. Kerala Board of Higher Secondary Education,
Thiruvananthapuram.
Madhya Pradesh 1. Board of Secondary Education, Madhya
Pradesh, Bhopal.
2. M.P. State Open School, Board of Secondary
Education Campus, Bhopal.
3. Maharishi Patanjali Sanskrit Sansthan, Bhopal.
Maharashtra Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher
Secondary Education, Pune.
Manipur 1. Board of Education, Manipur, Imphal.
2. Council of Higher Secondary Education, Imphal.
Meghalaya Meghalaya Board of School Education, Tura.
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Basics in Education
Mizoram Mizoram Board of School Education, Aizawl.

Nagaland Nagaland Board of School Education, Kohima
Odisha 1. Council of Higher Secondary Education,
Bhubaneswar
2. Board of Secondary Education, Cuttack.
Punjab Punjab School Education Board, Mohali.
Rajasthan 1. Board of Secondary Education, Ajmer.
2. Rajasthan State Open School, Jaipur.
Tamil Nadu Tamilnadu State Board of School Examinations

and Board of Higher Secondary Examinations,
Chennai
Tripura Tripura Board of Secondary Education, Agartala.
Uttar Pradesh 1. U.P. Board of High School and Intermediate
Education, Allahabad.
2. U.P. Sec. Sanskrit Education Council, Lucknow.
Uttarakhand Board of School Education, Nainital.
West Bengal 1. West Bengal Board of Secondary Education,
Kolkata.
2. West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary
Education, Kolkata.
3. West Bengal Board of Primary Education,
Kolkata.
4. West Bengal Board of Madrasa Education,
Kolkata.
5. Ravindra Mukta Vidyalaya, (West Bengal State
Open School), Kolkata.
Note: States not having independent boards have not been

included in the list.
Process for Developing Curricula, Syllabi

and Textbooks
As you know, the curriculum covers the whole spectrum
of teaching-learning activities in the school. On the other
hand, the syllabus restricts itself to examinable portions of
the curriculum. The independent/autonomous schools, not
affiliated to any school board, have their staff councils which
give final seal to the proposals of the individual teachers in
having a curriculum including text materials for teaching-
learning of the students – either prepared by the teachers
themselves or procured from the open market. These may
150
also use textbooks prepared by the NCERT or SCERTs,

State School Boards/ Councils and State Textbook Bureaus.
Printed Curriculum Guidelines are also made available by
various agencies. During the course work, students acquire
the theoretical knowledge and practical skills that enable
them to develop capacity to learn.
Principles of Formulating Syllabus

The syllabus is one of the most important aspects of the
curriculum. It is a written document consisting of the contents
that the students have to study for a particular course and
the types of examinations. A high quality improved syllabus
prescribes the number of periods expected to be necessary
for teaching a particular unit, the aids and other materials
necessary for teaching a unit, and the major and the minor
ideas of teaching a unit. In ideal situations, each teacher
frames syllabus for his or her teaching work. At higher
classes, he or she consults students for the preparation of
the syllabus. At lower classes, the needs and interests of
the students are generally taken for granted. In India, the
syllabi are prepared centrally and are applicable to a number
of schools, irrespective of their environmental variations.
As mentioned earlier, in each state, there is a Board of
Secondary Education that looks after the framing of syllabus
for students appearing at the school leaving examination.
They also prepare syllabi for primary and middle classes.
In some states, there are Boards/Councils of schools of
higher secondary education, which prepare syllabi for their
schools. Sometimes, one Board frames syllabi for one or
more examination systems. At the central level, there is the
Central Board of Secondary Education that prepares syllabus
for Kendriya Vidyalayas, Navodaya Schools and other types
of schools affiliated to it. There is also National Institute of
Open Schooling and the Council for Indian School Certificate
Examination. There are also State Open Schools. Thus, there
are varieties of syllabi in the country.
Learning Check 4
Differentiate between a curriculum and a syllabus.
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Basics in Education
Characteristics of a Good Syllabus

A good syllabus (a) is flexible; (b) is community centred;
(c) is life centred; (d) is activity centred; (e) is experience
centred; (f) is integrated with other subjects; (g) encourages
creative thinking; (h) is characterised by experimental
activities; (i) provides opportunities to each learner to learn
at his/her own pace of learning; (j) provides opportunities
to each learner to learn according to his/her own areas of
interest and interest priorities; (k) has scope for utilisation
of varieties of resources available in the environment of the
learner; (l) has scope for teachers to use varieties of methods
and approaches in teaching; (m) has abundant facilities for a
student to build and apply scientific concepts and principles;
(n) is organised so as to promote functional understanding,
growth in instrumental skills, growth in the process of
problem solving and development of attitudes, interests
and appreciations; (o) provides scope for self evaluation of
students; (p) allows participation of students in its design; (q)
has a built-in evaluation system; (r) is broken down logically
into units and sub-units in accordance with the interest,
significance and usefulness to the students; (s) integrates
the needs of the individual learner and its activities and also
integrates social needs with individual needs, (t) indicates
the approximate number of teaching periods necessary for
teaching a unit and various methods and resources to be
used for teaching different lessons; (u) enables the learner to
get the eternal knowledge which has been conserved since
ages, thus bridging the past with the present; and (v) enables
the learner to become futurologist and look for a better world,
utilising better service of knowledge gained.
The Process of Curriculum Development in

India
Curriculum development is a continuous process that takes
into consideration the national goals, societal aspirations
and disciplinary advances at any given point of time. In
India, since the country attained independence nearly six
decades ago, a number of attempts were made to develop
curricula for school education. These were based upon
the national concerns related to education articulated by
the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53), and the
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Education Commission (1964-66). The recommendations of

these commissions formed the basis for the National Policy
on Education (NPE, 1968). The NPE recommended the
implementation of a common school structure (10+2 system
of schooling) and a common pattern of studies throughout
the country. It also visualised education to be more closely
related to the lives of the people, to raise the quality of
education and provide expanded educational opportunities,
to emphasise the development of science and technology,
and to inculcate moral and social values.
These recommendations were incorporated in the first
curriculum– The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School – A
Framework, developed by the National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) in 1978. The supporting
syllabi and textbooks to be used as models by the States and
the Union Territories were also developed.
A major impetus to education was provided in 1976
through a constitutional amendment, whereby education,
until then a State subject, was placed under the Concurrent
List. Concurrency signifies a meaningful and challenging
partnership between the Union Government and the States.
According to this amendment, the roles and responsibilities
of the States continued to remain intact. However, the Union
Government has now a larger responsibility to strengthen the
national and integrative character of education, to maintain
quality and standards, and to promote excellence at all levels
of educational pyramid throughout the country.
In the changed circumstances, for the first time in 1986,
the country as a whole had a National Policy on Education
(NPE, 1986). The NPE–1986 envisaged a national system of
education based on national curricular framework which
would contain a common core along with other components
that are flexible. It also envisaged removing disparities and
equalising educational opportunities by addressing to the
needs of disadvantaged sections of the society. To achieve
these goals, the NPE–1986 called for reorganisation of
education at different stages. It was against this backdrop
that the second National Curriculum for Elementary
and Secondary Education – A Framework (1988) was brought
out. This framework suggested a shift from summative
evaluation to formative evaluation. Attempts were made to
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Basics in Education
define minimum levels of learning at all stages of school

education.
The 1990s were marked with two important educational
concerns. The first was related to the curriculum load on the
children – both in terms of the physical load that a child has
to carry daily on his/her shoulders, and the burden of non-
comprehension of the contents. The report of the Yashpal
Committee, namely Learning without Burden (1993), focused
on this issue in a systematic manner and recommended
that very little, fully comprehended content is far better
than a great deal, poorly comprehended content. The
second step was related to the decentralisation of education
and recognising the role of Panchayati Raj institutions in
the management of school education. The involvement of
Panchayati Raj institutions offers an opportunity to make the
system less bureaucratic and the school more autonomous.
It also entails the responsibility to localise knowledge and
curriculum practices.
The third National Curriculum Framework for School
Education (2000) addressed the concerns as equality of access
to quality education and opportunity, strengthening the
national identity and preserving cultural heritage, responding
to the impact of globalisation and the challenge of information
and communication technology, linking education with life
skills, reducing the curriculum load, and value development.
It also viewed education as a lifelong process. A shift from
factual knowledge to the process of understanding, thinking
and internalising was envisaged. It also stressed the mastery
learning approach by using diagnosis and remediation
for weaker students and enrichment programmes for the
brighter ones.
The National Curriculum Framework–2005 (NCF–2005) is
a landmark in the development of Curriculum Framework. It
is based upon the following guiding principles (p. 5):
(a) Connecting knowledge to life outside the school,
(b) Ensuring that learning is shifted away from rote methods,
(c) Enriching the curriculum to provide for overall
development of children rather than remain textbook
centric,
(d) Making examinations more flexible and integrated
into classroom life and,
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(e) Nurturing an over-riding identity informed by caring

concerns within the democratic polity of the country.
As already described, NCF–2005 assumes that learning
is a process of the construction of knowledge. Learners
actively construct their own knowledge by connecting new
ideas to existing ideas on the basis of materials/activities
presented to them (experience). It envisages that teaching
of the curricular areas should be based upon the following
principles (NCF–2005, pp. 127-128):
Language
• Language skills- speech and listening, reading and
writing – cut across school subjects and disciplines. Their
foundational role in children’s construction of knowledge
right from elementary classes through senior secondary
classes needs to be recognised.
• A renewed effort should be made to implement the
three-language formula, emphasising the recognition of
children’s home language(s) or mother tongue(s) as the best
medium of instruction. These include tribal languages.
• English needs to find its place along with other Indian
languages.
• The multilingual character of Indian society should be
seen as a resource for the enrichment of school life.
Mathematics
• Mathematisation (ability to think logically, formulate
and handle abstractions) rather than ‘knowledge’ of
mathematics (formal and mechanical procedures) is the
main goal of teaching mathematics.
• The teaching of mathematics should enhance children’s
ability to think and reason, to visualise and handle
abstractions, to formulate and solve problems. Access to
quality mathematics education is the right of every chlild.
Science
• Content, process and language of science teaching must
be commensurate with the learner’s age-range and
cognitive reach.
• Science teaching should engage the learners in acquiring
methods and processes that will nurture their curiosity
and creativity, particularly in relation to the environment.
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Basics in Education
• Science teaching should be placed in the wider context of

children’s environment to equip them with the requisite
knowledge and skills to enter the world of work.
• Awareness of environmental concerns must permeate the
entire school curriculum.
Social Sciences
• Social science content needs to focus on conceptual
understanding, rather than lining up facts to be
memorised for examination, and should equip children
with the ability to think independently and reflect critically
on social issues.
• It should have interdisciplinary approaches, promoting
key national concerns such as gender, justice, human
rights, and sensitivity to marginalised groups and
minorities.
• Civics should be recast as political science, and the
significance of history as a shaping influence on the
children’s conception of the past and civic identity should
be recognised.
Work
• School curricula from the pre-primary stage to the senior
secondary stage need to be reconstructed to realise the
pedagogic potential of work as a pedagogic medium in
knowledge acquisition, developing values and multiple-
skill formation.
Art
• Arts (folk and classical forms of music and dance, visual
arts, puppetry, clay work, theatre, etc.) and heritage
crafts should be recognised as integral components of the
school curriculum.
• Awareness of their relevance to personal, social, economic
and aesthetic needs should be built among parents,
school authorities and administrators.
• The arts should comprise a subject at every stage of
school education.
Peace
• Peace-oriented values should be promoted in all subjects
throughout the school years with the help of relevant
activities.
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• Peace education should form a component of teacher

education.
Health and Physical Education
• Health and physical education are necessary for the
overall development of learners. Through health and
physical education programmes (including yoga), it may
be possible to handle successfully the issues of enrolment,
retention and completion of school.
Habitat and Learning
• Environmental education may be best pursued by
infusing the issues and concerns of the environment into
the teaching of different disciplines at all levels while
ensuring that adequate time is earmarked for pertinent
activities.
Learning Check 5
1. What are the implications of placing education in
the concurrent list?
2. What are the major recommendations of Learning
without Burden?
3. Describe the role of Panchayati Raj institution in
education.
4. What are the major recommendations of NCF–2005
regarding teaching of different subjects in the school?
LET US SUM UP
Reorganising knowledge in schools at suitable intervals
is an accepted practice in educational science. Such an
exercise is inevitable to take care of a good deal of knowledge
explosion taking place that makes in a certain span of years,
a significant portion of formal knowledge informal. In case
of a scientific exercise, the evaluation of the existing manner
of knowledge organisation becomes the basis for reframing
of knowledge organisation strategies–technique as well as
content.
The knowledge in school is organised in terms of curricular
areas. While organising such knowledge, a number of
things are kept in mind. In India, there are several agencies
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Basics in Education
responsible for selection and organisation of knowledge, such

NCERT, CBSE, SCERTs and State Boards of Education. At
the national level, so far four times curriculum has been
developed. The latest being the NCF–2005, which focuses on
constructivist principle of learning.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the meaning of organisation of knowledge.
2. What are the areas under which school knowledge is
organised?
3. Explain the basis of knowledge organisation.
4. List the central level agencies involved in knowledge
organisation.
5. What roles do state level agencies play in this endeavour?
6. Mention some of the characteristic features of NCF–
2005.

Adiseshiah, M.S. 1978. Report of the National Review Committee
on Higher Secondary Education with Special Reference to
Vocationalisation. Govt. of India, New Delhi.
Government of India. 1968. National Policy on Education
–1968, New Delhi.
——. 1986. National Policy on Education – 1986, New
Delhi.
——. 1986. National Policy on Education – 1986, (With
modifications undertaken in 1992). New Delhi.
——. 1953. Report of the Secondary Education Commission
(1952-53), New Delhi.
——. 1966. Report of the Education Commission (1964-66),
New Delhi.
——. 1985. The Challenge of Education – 1985, New
Delhi.
International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO): http://www.
ibo.org/country/IN/index.cfm.
MHRD. 1993. Learning without Burden, MHRD, Government
of India, New Delhi.
158
NCERT. 1988. National Curriculum for Elementary and

Secondary Education: A Framework. New Delhi.
——. 2000. National Curriculum Framework for School
Education – 2000, New Delhi.
——. 2005. National Curriculum Framework – 2005, New
Delhi.
——. 1978. The Curriculum for the Ten Year School – A
Framework – 1978, New Delhi.
——. 1976. The Higher Secondary Education and Its
Vocationalisation – 1976, New Delhi.
Srivastava, A. K. 2013. Intelligence—General, emotional,
multiple. In The Encyclopedia of Cross-cultural Psychology
(pp.733-741). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
159
Chapter 7
Teacher Autonomy and

Accountability
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Meaning of Autonomy
–– Freedom vs. Autonomy
• Teacher Autonomy
–– Characteristics of Teacher Autonomy
–– Domains of Teacher Autonomy
–– Arguments for Teacher Autonomy
–– Factors Affecting Teacher Autonomy
–– Ways to Develop Teacher Autonomy
–– How Does Teacher Autonomy Help in Enriching
Learning Situations
• Accountability
–– Meaning of Accountability
–– Types and Functions of Accountability
• Do Autonomy and Accountability Go Together?
Let Us Sum up
Review Questions
Teacher Autonomy and Accountability
Introduction
By now, you are familiar that the National Curriculum
Framework (NCF, 2005), and the Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education Act (RTE, 2009), have brought about
a paradigm shift in school education. These developments
focus on our commitment to achieving universalisation of
elementary and secondary education with inclusion of all
children in regular schools by adopting the constructivist
pedagogy. To achieve these goals, teachers are required to
be skilled, smart and adaptable to the requirement of every
student. Imagine a classroom full of 20-30 students, each
student with a distinct learning style and different learning
needs. A common teaching strategy for all students would
obviously not work in such a situation. It requires adopting a
distinct teaching technique, even a distinct curricula to suit
the needs and capabilities of each student. Such situation
demands teachers to be autonomous to make pedagogical
choices. NCF-2005 advocated that teachers’ autonomy is
essential for ensuring learning and to address children’s
diverse needs. It further emphasised that as much as the
learner requires space, freedom, flexibility, and respect,
the teacher also requires the same. Related to the concept
of autonomy is the accountability of the teacher. The
present unit addresses these issues. In this unit, we shall
be discussing the concept of teacher autonomy, why it is
required, and how it is related to accountability.
Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to;
• describe the concept and importance of teacher autonomy;
• analyse critically the factors that influence teacher
autonomy;
• understand the strategies that may be adopted to develop
autonomy among teachers;
• explain the role of accountability in realising the objectives
of educational system; and
• critically evaluate the contemporary scenario with respect
to teacher autonomy and accountability.
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Meaning of Autonomy
The notion of autonomy has been one of the central concerns
of philosophers since ancient times. The concept first came
into prominence in ancient Greece and was derived from the
Greek words ‘auto’ (self) and ‘nomos’ (rule or law), meaning
one who gives oneself their own laws. According to Collins
Cobuild English Dictionary (1995), autonomy refers to
‘the ability to make your own decisions about what to do
rather than being influenced by someone else or told what
to do’. The terms such as independence, self-sufficiency,
self-government, self-rule, sovereignty, etc., are used as
synonymous to autonomy. Initially the term was used to
characterise states that were self governing. But later on
it came to be widely understood as a property of persons.
Today, the concept of autonomy is used in both the senses,
although philosophers deal with autonomy primarily as a
virtue of the person.
The concept of autonomy for the first time came into
philosophical prominence with the work of Immanuel
Kant who was strongly influenced by the writings of Jean-
Jacques Rousseau. Although Rousseau did not use the term
‘autonomy’, his conception of moral freedom–defined as
“obedience to the law one has prescribed to oneself”– has a
clear relation to Kant’s understanding of autonomy. Kant’s
moral theory is based on the position that rational human
wills are autonomous. Kant enforced that autonomy does
not consist in being bound by no law, but by laws that are
in some sense of one’s own making. His idea of autonomy
goes beyond the ‘negative’ sense of being free from influences
on our conduct originating outside of ourselves and contains
foremost the idea of laws made and laid down by oneself, and,
in virtue of this, laws that have decisive authority over oneself.
As per Kant’s philosophy, an autonomous person’s
sources of authority, or principles that bind him, are in his
own will. Also, to achieve autonomy, one has to make himself/
herself free from the influence of external circumstances and
to give himself/herself laws that are expressive of his/her
own power. It means the autonomous person is conscious of
his/her own power and freedom, and is not merely governed
by the value judgements of others. Rather, she/he is capable
of determining values for himself/herself.
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Freedom VS. Autonomy

As per Kantian concept, an autonomous person is free.
The question arises what is the difference between freedom
and autonomy? Is autonomy a synonym to freedom? In the
present section, we shall discuss this issue.
Freedom and autonomy are entirely two different
practices. Freedom is a practice that always occurs with
reference to a subjugating power. That is, it is concerned with
gaining control over others. On the other hand, autonomy
is a practice of self-constituting power that exists in-itself
and for-itself. An autonomous person is ‘master-in-him/
herself’. He/she initiates a task and does it in his/her own
way. While autonomy is associated with the presumably self-
sovereign individual, freedom dialectically interweaves the
individual with the society. In ‘freedom,’ individual selfhood
does not stand opposed to or apart from the collective, but
is significantly formed and realised by his or her own social
existence. Thus, individual freedom refers to one’s ability
to act without any external or internal restrains and have
sufficient power and resources to realise one’s desires.
Autonomy, in contrast, refers to the independence and
authority of the desires that motivate a person to action.
Thus, autonomy is a positive concept (sometimes even called
positive freedom), where an individual is free to make his/
her own rules, act according to his/her own will as long as
he/she is responsible for his/her conduct. In freedom, an
individual is free to lead his/her life and to choose among
alternatives, among courses of action, so long as it causes no
injury to others.
Learning Check 1
1. What is autonomy?
2. Give examples of freedom from daily life.
3. How is autonomy different from freedom?
Teacher Autonomy
Now the question arises what is teacher’s autonomy and why
is it required? To understand this, let us take an example.
Suppose you want to get an almirah built. What would you
do? You will definitely hire a carpenter and tell him about
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your expectations and end results, but you will never tell him
how to do it. You will respect him as an expert and hold him
accountable for results. So, you give him complete autonomy
in determining how to do it. If he doesn’t live up to the
expectations, you can negotiate changes but his autonomy
and expertness in no way will be questioned. But the same is
not true for teachers. They are held accountable for results,
while their autonomy is limited.
How Teachers Lose Their Identity in Hallowed
Portals
For those in the teaching profession, much of the job

satisfaction comes from exercising their judgement and
employing their own means to meet the diverse needs
of the students. But today, teacher autonomy has fallen
victim to the burden of tradition. The older the school,
the higher the expectations from a teacher to confirm to
a specific mould.
Established institutions give young teachers

entering the profession little room to experiment or be
innovative on the job, as teachers are stereotyped and
expected to fit the conventional idea of a teacher that
the government, school management and parents are
used to. Starting from the way the teacher is expected
to dress, the way she talks to students, to the methods
used to discipline the students, the teacher is ‘monitored’
and her ways ‘corrected’, many a time by teachers who
have put in more years in the organisation and know
the ways of the school.
J. Pushpa, who retired after putting in 35 years

in the same convent school some years ago, mentions
an incident where a young teacher who spoke up for a
student that the school management wanted expelled
was forced to resign. “She was a substitute teacher
working in place of another woman who was on
maternity leave, while waiting for another colleague
to resign so she could take her place. She lost her
job because the school management thought that such
outspokenness did not fit their description of how a
teacher was expected to behave. During my years there,
I have often heard the nuns say, ‘This is the way we
do it in our school’ and offer no other explanation
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for why things ought to be done a certain way,”

Pushpa said.
Today, many school managements, parents and

students consider academics to be the sole purpose of
a school. This forces them to curtail the creativity of a
teacher when they try to attempt anything out of the
ordinary, calling it a waste of time.
Educational consultant K. R. Maalathi, who

handles teacher recruitment and training for schools
across the country, said, “All said and done, schools
only want teachers who can help students score high
marks. Maybe 10% of schools in the country want or
allow teachers to be different. But, it is not enough for
teachers to identify the face of the child whose name is
on the attendance register. It is important to know the
background of each child, so the teacher can also serve
as a counsellor that the child turns to, when in need.”
Others believe that such a loss of individuality

is largely self-created, and that rarely do teachers
make use of the freedom to innovate. X. Jenovic Reni,
a software professional, recalls a Class VI geography
teacher who walked into class the first day and spoke
about quizzes, stories, field visits and games as ways
to look at the subject. “We were all excited. But that
initial enthusiasm soon fizzled out and soon we went
back to reading from the textbook.”
Sometimes, educational policies framed by

government agencies are also to be blamed for the
loss of individual professional autonomy. Laudable
attempts such as the state government’s Activity Based
Learning Methodology or the CBSE’s Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE), which are aimed at
instilling freshness into the majority population, stifle
the few teachers who attempt to open children’s minds
to learning in their own way. The result is that teachers,
overwhelmed by the need to maintain records of marks
of so many different components or assess students
on so many factors in the case of CCE, give in to the
temptation of taking the beaten path.
M Ramya,
TNN,The Times of India: Chennai, 14 November 2010
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Points for Reflection 1

• Narrate your experiences, which either support or
contradict the above statements.
For decades, educational policies all over the world have

effectively placed new responsibilities on teachers. The
NCF-2005 brings a paradigm shift in the teaching-learning
process, by placing an emphasis on constructivist approach,
which gives lots of autonomy to the learners in deciding their
own learning process. However, it must be realised that the
development of learners’ autonomy is not separate from
the development of teachers’ autonomy. Rather, the two go
hand-in-hand, as one gives meaning to the other. How can
we expect teachers to prepare students who can think and
take their decision independently, when teachers themselves
are not allowed to do so? Education certainly needs a new
paradigm shift that emphasises freedom in thought and
action for teachers.
It may be noted that teacher’s autonomy is not a new
concept. This concept was voiced in many policies over the
decades. The National Policy on Education (1986), in its
Chapter IX on ‘The Teacher’ stated that “The status of the
teacher reflects the socio-cultural ethos of a society; it is said
that no people can rise above the level of its teachers. The
government and the community should endeavour to create
conditions, which will help motivate and inspire teachers
on constructive and creative lines. Teachers should have
the freedom to innovate, to devise appropriate methods of
communication and activities relevant to the needs and
capabilities of and the concerns of the community.” This is
further reinforced by NCF-2005, which states that “Teacher
autonomy is essential for ensuring a learning environment
that addresses children’s diverse needs. As much as the
learner requires space, freedom, flexibility, and respect, the
teacher also requires the same.”
A number of attempts have been made to define teacher
autonomy. One way teacher autonomy can be defined is by
relating it with students’ autonomy. It is considered as the
ability of teacher to help students to adapt themselves to their
new roles and take responsibility for their own learning by
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developing a sense of autonomy and independence (Cotterall

& Crabbe, 1999).
Another way autonomy can be defined is ‘freedom
from control by others over professional action’. This view
emphasises that teachers do not consider themselves mere
agents of others rather they like to take sole responsibility
for the goals to which they are committed by considering
themselves as autonomous professionals, free from control
exerted by anyone else and able to decide and take action on
their own (Little, 1995).
Finally, there is the concept of ‘autonomous teacher as an
autonomous learner, with their ability to grow professionally’.
This concept focuses on teachers’ capacity for self-directed
professional development by continuously updating their
knowledge (Tort-Moloney, 1997). This concept of autonomy
focuses on the teachers’ responsibility to be always ready to
do their job and grow professionally as they themselves are
aware of why, when, where and how pedagogical skills can
be acquired.
Characteristics of Teacher Autonomy

Efforts have been made to outline some characteristic
features of teachers’ autonomy. Ramos (2006) has outlined
few of the characteristics of teacher autonomy based on
online collaborative discussion of the term teacher autonomy
by a group of teachers. These are discussed below.
1. Teacher autonomy involves teachers’ negotiation skills,
their ability to reflect on their own teaching process,
readiness to engage in lifelong learning, and their
commitment to promote learner autonomy. Teacher
autonomy is very closely related to the notion of a
reflective teacher and a researcher. It means teachers
reflect on their own teaching and engage in action
research in order to provide better learning experiences
to their students.
2. Autonomous teachers have good knowledge of the
institution in order to confront institutional barriers
in socially appropriate ways and to turn constraints
into opportunities for change. However, they should be
aware that neither teacher, nor student autonomy mean
freedom from all constraints.
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3. Teacher autonomy is developed through observation,

reflection, thoughtful consideration, understanding,
experience and evaluation of alternatives. Mere absence
of authority does not lead to autonomy.
What is not Teacher Autonomy
Wilches (2007) reviewed the available literature in
the field of teacher autonomy and concluded that:
1. Teacher autonomy is not independence
or isolation rather it involves teachers’
interdependence, responsibility, mutual support,
professional discretion, and commitment to the
educational community.
2. Teacher autonomy is not merely a way to hold
them more accountable for their job and hence
reducing responsibility of the government
towards school. Teacher autonomy refers to
teachers’ right to take initiative and carry out
necessary professional action according to
school and the stakeholders’ needs.
3. Teacher autonomy is not a static entity that
some people possess while others do not. It
is a condition that varies in accordance with
situation, personal, and external constraints.
4. Teacher autonomy does not refer to an absolute
state of freedom from constraints; rather it
involves responsibly exercising discretion in
accordance to the interest and needs of school
stakeholders.
Domains of Teacher Autonomy

An autonomous teacher can intervene in various domains
including teaching and assessment, curriculum development,
school functioning, and professional development. A brief
description of these domains, as explained by Wilches (2007),
is presented in this section.
Teaching and Assessment
It includes the extent to which teachers exert control over
their teaching goals, content, skills, methods, and materials;
assessment criteria and methods; time management; and
observation of students’ behaviour and the classroom
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environment. Teachers’ autonomy in each of these domains

varies and is widely determined by their professional
competence and by the presence of centralised curriculum
policies that may inform aims, content and methods of
teaching and assessment in each school.
Curriculum Development
Teachers’ proposal, initiation, implementation and evaluation
of curricula, and the introduction of extracurricular activities
to enrich the curriculum are included in this domain.
The empirical evidence in this area shows that teachers’
engagement with curricular innovations varies from one
teacher to another and is strongly influenced, amongst other
factors, by cultural traditions, external factors, and teachers’
beliefs about teaching and learning that may affect the way
they lead, accept, or reject new instructional ideas.
School Functioning
The third domain in which teachers exercise their autonomy
is school functioning, described as teachers’ decision making
on administrative tasks such as school expenditures, budget
planning, school finances, class timetable, curriculum for
the whole school, etc. Studies show that teachers’ decision
making in this area is related to the teachers’ position in the
school. The senior teachers report higher levels of autonomy
in this type of task as compared to other teachers.
Professional Development
It refers to the extent to which the teachers have the
opportunity to engage in professional education and training
and decide for themselves the content, methods, instructors,
and location of their training. Research shows that self-
directed professional development has positive effects on the
professional development of teachers including enhancement
in professional competence and motivation to generate
changes in the school environment.
Activity 1
Visit a nearby school and discuss with teachers
and principal about their autonomy. Discuss about
various domains in which they feel autonomous and
the domains in which they demand more autonomy?
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Learning Check 2
1. What is teacher autonomy?
2. Does teacher autonomy refer to isolation and
absolute state of freedom?
3. What are the domains of teacher autonomy?
ARGUMENTS FOR TEACHER AUTONOMY

Among the many arguments that support providing autonomy
to the teachers, a few have been described here.
Autonomy is a basic human need and an imperative in
teaching
“It is argued that the basic needs of all people are to feel
competent, experience autonomy, and relate well and positively
to other human beings. People need some levels of autonomy
in their life and work in order to improve the chances of
experiencing positive mental health.” (Naylor, 2011).
Teacher and learner autonomy are interconnected
NCF-2005 supports development of students’ autonomy as
an important goal of education, which is related to teachers’
autonomy, since one gives meaning to the other. Learners’
autonomy is more likely to flourish in an environment that
supports teacher autonomy. Developing independence,
autonomy, and self-control in students is impossible if the
teachers have no autonomy in their work. Aiming to build
autonomy in others while having little control over their
teaching creates a paradox that most students quickly notice,
and this makes the encouragement of students’ autonomy
meaningless for teachers and students alike.
Schools are emotionally-charged spaces where students
find their place, and where teachers must exercise
judgement
In schools, students negotiate with their shifting world,
and teachers are instrumental in guiding them through
their learning and life changes. To guide and to teach in
such places, teacher judgement is crucial and, to exercise
judgement, teachers must have enough degree of autonomy
within the requirements of the ethics and law. Moreover,
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the ability of citizens to exercise judgement is crucial to

maintaining democracy. Schools play an important role
in helping students apply their judgement to function as
autonomous thinkers in a democratic society (Naylor; 2011).
Freedom of control over professional action is required
Teachers are not technicians who implement other people’s
decisions. Teachers are ‘professionals’, capable of deciding
for themselves. But in reality, they are the ‘victims’ of received
ideas. People with real political power take all the important
educational decisions. Teachers have little or almost no say
in deciding about curriculum, objectives, goals, techniques,
or materials to be used in the classroom. How can such a
system, where teachers are not free to think, encourage
creative thinking among students? Education needs a
paradigm shift that emphasises freedom of choice in thought
and action for teachers.
Need for personal and professional development of
teachers
An autonomous teacher seeks out opportunities over the
course of his or her career to develop further. He/she tends
to be self-motivated, high functioning and display greater
cognitive outcomes, well-being, and persistence. When a
teacher is dominated by authorities or forced to do allotted
tasks, his/her efficacy is reduced and they frequently react
with resistance, resentment, and a loss of energy.
Teacher autonomy involves interdependence, not
working in isolation
Teacher autonomy necessarily involves interdependence
and not complete isolation from educational communities or
just individualism. Total independence is not autonomy. An
autonomous teacher is self determined, socially responsible
and critically aware participant with a vision of personal
empowerment and social transformation. He/she respects
others, negotiates, cooperates, and depends on others.
Building autonomy requires teachers to move from
‘private’ to ‘public’ spaces
Private space or place refers to work environments where
a teacher essentially works alone, without peer discourse
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or some explicit sharing of pedagogical approaches, either

while teaching or in reflections on teaching. Public spaces or
places are those in which teachers are engaged in some form
of peer discourse, or where teachers make their approaches
more public, perhaps through presentations. There may be
degrees of moving into a more public place or space, such as
dialogue with a colleague, engagement in an inquiry group, or
presenting and publishing. Moving into a more public space
represents one part of the responsibility that accompanies
autonomy: the responsibility to engage in discourse about
practice in ways that teacher judgement can be shared
and discussed with peers and others in public spaces.
Teachers, by giving an account of their teaching, are being
pro-actively accountable and thereby taking more control
of accountability rather than reacting to the accountability
demands of districts or governments (Naylor 2011).
Learning Check 3
• Discuss how autonomy can contribute to personal
and professional life of a teacher?
• Describe the various concrete actions which
reflect that the teacher is autonomous.
Factors Affecting Teacher Autonomy

After understanding the meaning of teacher autonomy and
various domains where teachers exercise their autonomy,
the next thing that might come to your mind is that why
teachers’ sense of autonomy varies in different situations?
What are the factors that affect teachers’ autonomy? Many
researchers over the years have discussed various reasons
that can influence teacher autonomy. A summary of these
factors is described in the following paragraphs.
(a) Professional competence and support: Teachers report
higher levels of autonomy if the institutions, where they
work, provide them sufficient opportunities for decision
making and risk taking. They also report a higher
sense of autonomy when new educational demands
have been complemented with the enhancement of
their professional competence and awareness about
innovative theories and practices.
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(b) Teachers’ personal beliefs system: “Personal beliefs

of teachers about the nature of knowledge, perceptions
of self and feelings of self-worth (self-concept, self-
esteem), confidence (self-efficacy), preconceptions about
specific subjects or disciplines can affect teachers’ sense
of autonomy to a great extent” (Pajares, 1992).
(c) Teacher’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation:
Intrinsic factors include job satisfaction, desire to
assist students to accomplish goals, desire to make a
difference in society and sense of achievement while the
extrinsic factors comprise of external elements including
wage, nonmonetary fringe benefits and recognition
of performance. It is found that intrinsic rewards,
especially job satisfaction, are more powerful for
motivating teachers than are extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic
motivation helps in developing teacher autonomy, while
stress, pressure or teacher burnout results in negative
outcomes for teacher autonomy.
(d) Psychological constraints: Teachers are concerned
with fear of change, fear to release control, and fear
of empowerment of students through the exercise of
the power balance in the classroom are some of the
psychological factors that restrain teachers to exercise
autonomy (Ramos, 2006).
Ways to Develop Teacher Autonomy

You have read that teacher autonomy is influenced by various
factors. The fact is that many teachers face a dilemma between
what they want to do and what they have to do. Teachers
are required to develop autonomy within these limitations.
However, since there is no one best way to foster autonomy,
it is crucial for teachers to explore various ways and find
approaches that best fit into their own styles (Iida, 2009).
This section discusses, from practical aspects, how teacher
autonomy can be promoted in a given teaching context.
Developing Ability and Willingness to Implement
Changes
To become an autonomous teacher, ability and willingness
to implement changes are the most important and essential
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elements. In the case of autonomous teacher, they represent

the capability and the drive to develop autonomously and
guide students on the road to autonomy. Some important
elements, identified by Romas (2006), for implementing
changes are as follows.
• Self awareness develops amongst teachers a better
understanding of himself/herself as learners and
professionals, and also about his/her strengths and
weaknesses. It is important that teachers become
aware of what happens around them, to their students,
at the work place, in the community, in the country
and in the world. Through awareness, a teacher is
better able to identify his/her students’ needs, goals,
capabilities, desires, changes and dreams, so that he/
she can help them develop autonomy and awareness
of their own learning processes.
• Responsibility is another quality without which
autonomy is not possible. It gives us freedom
and empowerment; at the same time it demands
dedication, organisation, time management skills,
investment, stamina, perseverance and commitment
to tasks and projects.
• Challenges take a teacher a step forward and show
him/her scope of his/her capabilities. They lead
teachers to professional growth. Challenges may take
the form of exploration into new areas, of decisions to
improve notoriously an area of teachers’ knowledge
or skills or to undertake research, etc.
• Participation and collaboration are also key
elements to the development of autonomy. Growing
together, constructing collectively and undertaking
projects, innovations and enterprises is of paramount
importance.
• Changing roles mean transforming teacher’s role
in the classroom, from controller to advisor, from
instructor to guide, from transmitter to observer
and listener, from evaluator and judge to researcher.
Transforming teacher’s role in the classroom is
concomitant with the transformation of students’
roles.
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Creating a Social Network for Professional Teacher

Development
Iida (2009) points out that if teachers see their own teaching
from different aspects, it can allow them (teachers) to
discover some clues to make their teaching more effective
and to develop autonomy. Their professional development
can be carried out in both individual and collaborative
ways. He suggested action research, self-observation, and
peer observation and several other useful approaches for
professional teacher development.
• Action Research: Action research contributes to
teachers’ autonomous learning through the process
of discovering, posing problems, and possibly solving
them. This enables teachers to explicitly explore
and discover possible solutions to specific student’s
learning difficulties in class. Likewise, since action
research can be a community effort, it allows teachers
to work collaboratively through discussion with
colleagues who provide their support and experience.
Action research includes three components necessary
for developing teacher autonomy: critical reflective
inquiry, empowerment, and dialogue.
• Self-observation is another way to develop autonomy.
Through a process of videotaping (or audio taping),
describing, analyzing, and interpreting the teaching,
teachers can develop an awareness of and learn more
about their own teaching. It may also be more effective
for teachers to incorporate the notion of ‘collaboration’
into the approach by going beyond the concept of ‘self’.
It can create opportunities to meet with colleagues and
discuss their self-observation reports. Dialogues with
peer teachers can allow them to get new perspectives
and to reconstruct knowledge about teaching.
• Peer observation is another technique. One
approach in peer observation is that two teachers
organise a lesson, and one teaches while the other
observes the class; and after the lesson, both teachers
describe what happened in the classroom and detail
their experience of the lesson, and discuss how the
lesson could be modified next time on the basis of
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the descriptions; and for the next class, the role is

reversed.
• Reading professional literature or journals
enables teachers to gain awareness of what is
currently happening in the field all over the world
and to construct new knowledge about teaching and
conducting classroom research.
• Attending conferences and use of internet are also
effective ways to develop as teachers.
HOW DOES TEACHER AUTONOMY HELP IN ENRICHING
LEARNING SITUATIONS
An autonomous teacher is a facilitator and an advisor. In
a learning situation, his/her responsibility is to create
a learning environment that provides students with the
materials, equipment, tools, guidance, and support that
they need in order to successfully develop and carry out their
own plan of study. Autonomous teachers take the student’s
perspective during instruction and deeply value, understand,
and appreciate that perspective. They work hard to identify,
nurture, and build students’ inner motivational resources.
An autonomous teacher helps the students in the following
ways.
• He/she engages and supports all students in learning.
Learning Check 4
1. Is autonomy a basic human need? Give examples.
2. How does a teacher’s autonomy require him/her
to move from private to public spaces?
3. What are the external constraints that affect
teachers’ autonomy?
4. What are the psychological constraints that affect
teachers’ autonomy?
5. What are the approaches of professional teacher
development?
6. How does peer collaboration increase teachers’
autonomy?
7 How can teachers’ involvement be promoted in
decision making process?
8. How does teachers’ autonomy help in enriching
learning situations?
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• He/she uses a variety of instructional strategies and

resources to respond to students’ diverse needs.
• He/she facilitates learning experiences that promote
autonomy, interaction, and choice.
• He/she engages students in problem solving, critical
thinking, and other activities that make subject
matter meaningful.
• He/she promotes self-directed, reflective learning
among all students.
Activity 2
Discuss with your friends and teachers whether
increasing teachers’ autonomy leads to quality
education or lack of control? Record their viewpoints
Accountability
You have so far read that autonomy encourages teachers to
teach in their own style, and use the techniques, materials,
and technology that work best for students. In return for
this autonomy, teachers should be held accountable for
students’ progress. The teacher should realistically be held
accountable for what he/she actually tried to teach the class
and how much he/she helped each student improve. Now
the question arises what is accountability and what are its
functions?
Meaning of Accountability
Teachers’ accountability is a long debatable issue. It is
concerned with making teachers responsible for the quality
of their teaching. Over the years, attempts have been made
to define teachers’ accountability. One working definition of
accountability is proposed by Heim (1995). According to him:
“Accountability is the responsibility that goes with the
authority to do something. The responsibility is to use
authority justifiably and credibly.”
Heim considered accountability as a multi-faceted
concept involving responsibility, authority, evaluation and
control. According to him, it involves at least two parties and
a mutually acknowledged relationship between them. One
party delegates authority, to take action, to another party
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in order to demonstrate credible performance. Control is

exercised through the delegation of authority, which may be
continued or may be withheld depending on demonstration
of credible performance.
Accountability may be directed either towards the process
(i.e., how something is done), or towards the outcomes (i.e.,
what results are accomplished). In case of teachers, when
it is directed towards the process, teacher is delegated the
authority to engage in activity with the responsibility of
conducting the activity properly in accordance with prevailing
expectations. When it is extended to include outcomes, then
teacher becomes responsible for the consequences or results
of his/her actions—whether positive or negative, and whether
intended or not.
Activity 3
Discuss the different types of authority that can be
delegated to staff members in schools.
Types and Functions of Accountability

Levitt, Janta & Wegrich (2008) in their report Accountability
for Teacher have discussed various types and functions of
accountability. These are described below.
Types of Accountability
• Organisational: Organisational accountability works
through superior/subordinate relationships (like
principal and teachers) and defines actors’ authority
and responsibility. It secures compliance with some
explicit rule or standard and, even when actors
have a considerable amount of autonomy in their
conduct, they still feel the pressures of organisational
accountability.
• Political: Political accountability is exercised mainly by
elected politicians and is about achieving democratic
control. It is implemented in three dimensions: (1)
election of representatives or political parties, (2)
ministerial, when it is applied indirectly through
ministers that are held accountable for every affair
in their ministry, and (3) legislation expressed in
constitutional or other equivalent documents.
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• Legal: In legal accountability, courts and other judicial

institutions’ accountability systems play the central
role by protecting rights and redressing wrongs. It is
mostly about checking the integrity of organisational
and individual behaviour.
• Professional: The professionals like teachers, lawyers,
doctors, etc., are bound by some codes of conduct
and practices set by the professional associations.
Professional accountability focuses on conformity to
these standards and codes of conduct for professional
behaviour as these norms are binding for all members
and need to be implemented by all professionals in
their everyday practice.
• Moral or ethical: Ethical or moral accountability has
a central place in a professional’s conduct. It relies
on the internalised values to which the professionals
voluntarily adhere to. The difference between ethical
or moral and professional accountability is the
degree to which it has been incorporated in official
standards. Professional accountability is binding
for members of professional associations while the
ethical or moral accountability relies on informal
code of conduct by the professionals. For teachers,
it is the commitment towards children, their parents
and other stakeholders, to act in the best interest
of students to facilitate their effective learning and
development.
Functions of Accountability
The functions of accountability are given below.
• Democratic control: Accountability plays an important
role in excercising the democratic control by civil
society on representatives (here teachers) by
subjecting them to public scrutiny, and judging them
on their effectiveness and efficiency in serving the
public.
• Enhancing the integrity of public governance:
Accountability arrangements enhance the integrity
of public governance by strengthen commitment
to honesty and appropriate conduct, and hence
encourage consistency of actions.
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Basics in Education
• Supporting performance improvement: Accountability

supports performance improvement that flows
from organisational learning and avoid unintended
outputs or outcomes.
• Maintaining and enhancing the legitimacy of public
governance: Accountability works as an instrument
that ensure transparency and answerability between
actors (teachers) and the stakeholders (parents,
students, society) by bridging these two spheres.
It also ensures that the public voice is heard and
enables individual institutions to be answerable to
the public.
• Mechanism for catharsis: Finally, accountability
also serves as a mechanism for catharsis in cases
of serious misconduct and breach of public trust.
Detailed investigation that explores all factors that
led to the unacceptable consequences provides an
opportunity to acknowledge what went wrong and
why. Hence, prevent recurrence of errors and help to
support better compliance with rules and regulations.
Activity 4
Visit your nearby school and discuss with the principal
how she/he ensures accountability by teachers.
Do Autonomy and Accountability Go

Together?
It was discussed earlier that teachers are professionals.
They need and deserve significant degrees of autonomy in
terms of what and how they teach. In turn, teachers are
held accountable for students’ progress. Studies reveal that
autonomy in decisions relating to curricula, assessments
and resource allocation tends to be associated with better
student performance, particularly when schools operate
within a culture of accountability. It has been reported
that the students tend to perform better in countries where
schools have greater autonomy over what is taught and how
students are assessed. Similarly, schools that enjoy greater
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autonomy in resource allocation tend to show better student

performance than those with less autonomy. However,
interestingly enough, in countries where there are no such
accountability arrangements, schools with greater autonomy
in resource allocation tend to perform worse.
Accountability for common standards is important
because today’s pupils will be the parents, adult citizens, and
productive workers of tomorrow. Society has a strong interest
in ensuring that they are well prepared for those roles, and
that they share an understanding of the virtues required by
a free society. Society also has an obligation to ensure that
no child or youth is harmed by neglectful or abusive parents
or schools. Thus, both autonomy and accountability are
important regimes. Autonomous schools must work within
an accountability framework to be effective. Autonomy comes
with accountability, and accountability without autonomy
makes no sense. Both autonomy and accountability can
exist together and one gives meaning to other.
Learning Check 4
1. Define accountability.
2. How does accountability exercise democratic
control?
3. What is the relation between teachers’ autonomy
and accountability?
LET US SUM UP
In the present chapter, we have discussed autonomy in general
and teachers’ autonomy in particular. We have learnt that
there are a number of views regarding teachers’ autonomy
including the teacher’s ability and willingness to help learners;
freedom from control by others over professional action;
capacity to engage in self-directed teaching or professional
action; and autonomous teacher as an autonomous learner.
There are various characteristics of teacher autonomy and
different domains in which teachers exercise their control
including teaching and assessment, curriculum development,
school functioning, and professional development. It is further
emphasised that teacher autonomy is not an omnipresent
attribute of certain teachers; it manifests itself differently in
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Basics in Education
every teacher, and at the same time, every teacher perceives

and exercises his/her professional autonomy across different
domains in different ways. Teacher autonomy is influenced
by various factors including professional competence and
support, teachers’ personal beliefs system, teachers’ intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation, and psychological constraints.
Teachers are required to develop teacher autonomy within
these limitations. However, since there is no one best way
to foster autonomy, it is crucial for teachers to explore
various ways for teacher development and find approaches
to best fit into their own styles. A number of approaches
to develop teachers’ autonomy have been discussed in the
present chapter including developing ability and willingness
to implement changes, creating a social network for
professional teacher development, developing learners’
autonomy, increasing opportunities for peer collaboration,
and promoting teacher involvement in decision making
processes. An autonomous teacher is a facilitator and an
advisor. In learning situations, his/her responsibility is to
create a learning environment that provides students with
the materials, equipment, tools, guidance, and support,
they will need in order to successfully develop and carry
out their own plan of study. In return for this autonomy,
teachers should be held accountable for student progress.
The teacher should realistically be held accountable for
what she/he actually tried to teach the class and how much
she/he helped each student improve. Accountability is the
responsibility that goes with the authority to do something.
The responsibility is to use authority justifiably and credibly.
Both autonomy and accountability are important regime and
can exist together as one gives meaning to the other.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain your understanding of teacher autonomy. In
which domains do you, as a teacher, require autonomy
and why?
2. “Teacher is a wild animal in captivity.” Discuss the
statement.
3. Explain how teacher autonomy influences learner
autonomy?
182
4. Explain how teacher autonomy can help in realising

objectives of education?
5. What are the factors that hinder teacher autonomy?
Explain how you as a teacher will minimise their effect.
6. Discuss the ways through which teachers can be made
more accountable?
7. Does increase in accountability mean decrease in
autonomy?
REFERENCES AND WEB LINKS

Collins Cobuild English Dictionary. (3rd ed). 1995. Collins
Publishers, New York.
Cotterall, S. and D. Crabbe (Eds.). 1999. Learner Autonomy
in Language Learning: Defining the Field and Effective
Change. Peter Lang, Frankfurt.
Heim, M. 1995. Quoted in Heim, M. Accountability in
Education: A Primer for School Leaders. Hawai‘i School
Leadership Academy (Monograph, Product # MO9601),
Honolulu.
Iida, A. 2009. Teacher Autonomy and Professional Teacher
Development: Exploring the Necessities for Developing
Teacher Autonomy in EFL Japanese Contexts. Asian EFL
Journal, vol. 35, article 3.
Levitt, R., Janta, B. and Wegrich, K. 2008. Accountability of
Teachers- Literature Review. Rand.Europe. (Technical
Report, General Teaching Council England).
Little, D. 1995. Learning as Dialogue: The Dependence of
Learner Autonomy on Teacher Autonomy. System, 23(2),
175-182.
NCERT. 2005. National Curriculum Framework–2005. NCERT,
New Delhi.
Naylor, C. 2011. The Rights and Responsibilities of Teacher
Professional Autonomy. BC Teachers’ Federation.
(BCTF Research Report, Section XII, 2011-EI-03),
Vancouver.
National Policy on Education. 1986. Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Department of Education,
Government of India, New Delhi.
Pajares, F. 1992. Teachers’ Beliefs and Educational Research:
Cleaning up a Messy Construct. Review of Educational
Research, 62, 307-332.
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Basics in Education
Ramos, R.C. 2006. Considerations on the Role of

Teacher Autonomy – Theoretical Discussion Papers.
Available online- http://caljjournal.files.wordpress.
com/2010/12/2006-p-183-202.pdf.
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsary Education-2009.
Government of India, New Delhi.
Tort-Moloney, D. 1997. Teacher Autonomy: A Vygotskian
theoretical framework. CLCS Occasional paper No. 48,
Trinity College, Dublin, CLCS.
Wilches, J.U. 2007. Teacher Autonomy: A Critical Review of
the Research and Concept Beyond Applied Linguistics.
Available on line: http://quimbaya.udea.edu.co/ikala/
images/PDFs/Vol%2012%20rticulo%2010 pdf
184
Chapter 8
Learner Autonomy
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Meaning of Learner Autonomy
• Development of Learner Autonomy
–– Family Pressure
–– School Practices
–– Teacher Factor
• Curriculum, Textbooks, Instructions and Discipline
in Learner Autonomy
• School and Developing Learner Autonomy
• Individual Autonomy and Collective Responsibility
Let Us Sum up
Review Questions
Basics in Education
Introduction
As you know, a growing child has the capacity to observe,
assimilate, explore, investigate, and organise the information
presented to him/her. It is the ingenuity of the people
present around him/her to nurture these hidden capacities
of the children. As academics and scholars gained better
understanding of ‘how children learn’, they diverted their
attention from the role of teacher as transmitter of knowledge.
Teachers are now viewed as the ones who are partners,
facilitators, observers, co-workers, co-investigators, co-
learners, etc., in the teaching-learning process. It is realised
that children come to the school with huge, often amazing,
amount of information and teachers’ job is to help this
information getting converted into meaningful knowledge.
This view is in contrast to the long prevailing beliefs and
practices where the teacher was assumed to be the only
repository of all knowledge and information, and only the
teacher could determine what and how much was to be
transferred to the learner. It was only the teacher who decided
what information was suitable for the particular age and
stage of the learner. Subsequently, it became the prerogatives
of government and school boards to prescribe age-specific
curricula that the teacher should transact and the learners
must learn. Rote-memory and reproduction of information
became the concern of schools, teachers, learners and
parents. The learners were reduced to obedience in its worst
form. There was no chance or time for the learners to pursue,
explore, examine and analyse what they would genuinely be
interested in on their own. It was this effective prescription
which numbed the creativity and possibilities of innovative
action among the learners. This chapter focuses on ways and
means to make learner autonomous for deciding what is to
be learned, the pace of their learning, and the teachers’ role
in developing such competencies among the learners.
Activity 1
Consult literature to find out the salient characteristics
of teaching-learning processes prevalent during
ancient period. Prepare point-wise comparison of the
traditional practices with the contemporary ones and
discuss it with classmates.
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Learner Autonomy
Objectives
• differentiate between the nature of learner and teacher
autonomy;
• explain the factors affecting learner autonomy;
• describe how learner autonomy can be fostered in the
school context; and
• understand the way autonomy helps in fulfilling societal
responsibility.
Meaning of Learner Autonomy

In the last few decades, research has shown that learners
have so much to contribute to the process of learning which,
if acknowledged, accepted and supported by the system,
would be deeply conducive to create a learning society. The
renewed focus on the phenomenon of life-long learning also
advocates nurturing autonomy among the learners in the
initial stage itself. It is believed that this would help to create
self-assured lifelong learners; men and women, imbued with
active and creative faculties, who are willing to innovate and
explore.
As the Activity 1 will show you, the traditional Indian
system of teaching and learning was based on the following
four steps:
1. Learning from the teacher,
2. Self-learning; which included pondering over and
reflecting upon various aspects of what was received
from the teacher,
3. Discussion with peers, and
4. Utilisation of the knowledge or what was learnt.
A careful analysis of these steps will reveal that the last
three steps are entirely at the ‘command’ and ‘discretion’
of the learner. There are instances available in the Indian
traditional literature which indicate that the education
system of that time encouraged learner to self-evaluate the
levels of his/her ‘learning attainments’, and, if satisfied,
request his/her teacher for permission to enter into worldly
life. Today, most of this seems to have been lost under the
constraints imposed by the education system which focuses
primarily on final year-end examination marks, at the cost of
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several other aspects that are essential to lead a fulfilling and

contributing life.
The learner autonomy can be conceptualised as the
capacity of the individual to engage in ‘critical reflection,
decision making, and willingness to act and experiment on
one’s own.’ It may be defined as the ability to take personal or
self regulated responsibility for learning. According to Little
(1991), learner autonomy is essentially a matter of learners’
psychological relation to the process and content of learning–a
capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making
and independent action. When a learner actively participates
in the learning process and gets hold of every opportunity to
learn and learn more; he/she is assumed to show the signs
of an autonomous learner. It is the responsibility of people
around the learner to remove the barriers and impediments
that may discourage the learner. Sometimes, even passive
support enhances self-confidence and puts the learner on an
independent path.
Formally, learner autonomy could imply the learner
taking charge of his/her own learning in certain aspects
from diverse sources. The term learner autonomy has come
to be used in several ways. According to Benson and Voller
(1997), learner autonomy is used for:
1. situations in which learners study entirely on their own;
2. set of skills which can be learnt and applied in self-
directed learning;
3. an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional
education;
3. the exercise of learners’ responsibility for their own
learning; and
4. the right of the learners to determine the direction of
their own learning.
Thus, it is clear that promotion of autonomy among
learners involves encouraging them to take responsibility
for their own work. This can be achieved by giving learners
some control over what they want to learn (content), how
they will learn (methodology) and when they want to learn
(time). Research shows that students in such a permissive
environment set realistic goals, plan work, develop coping
strategies with new and unforeseen situations, evaluate
and assess their own work, and, generally, learn how to
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Learner Autonomy
learn from their own successes and failures in ways which

helps them to become more efficient learners in future. In
case the learning environment does not develop autonomy
and forced to score high marks/grades in the school board
examination, he/she may lose all interest and motivation.
The way education is being imparted, in schools and even
in colleges, encourages dependence on others and leaves
little scope for fostering autonomy among the learners. In
a teacher-controlled classroom, there is little scope for
acceptance of students’ ideas and practically no possibility
of these being discussed and tried out. Research findings
have shown that autonomous learners show initiative, are
willing to partner with peers and teachers, are self-aware
and committed, consistently reflect upon the attainments of
the self and also of the process being followed. In various
examinations conducted in schools and universities, those
who top the list of successful candidates, do not necessarily
excel, in comparison to others, in their chosen life goals.
Learning Check 1
1. Are learners more efficient and systematic when
given autonomy?
2. List the characteristics of an autonomous learner.
3. What are the conditions that nurture autonomy
among the learners?
4. Do high scorers in board examination excel in
other aspects of life as well? Comment.
Activity 2
For a particular class, find out the set of skills
that learners can achieve on their own. Write a few
sentences about the methodology of achieving the
same.
Development of Learner Autonomy

There are several factors which influence the development
of autonomy among the learners. Let us take the exercise
of examining the range of restrictive and rigid practices that
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place a tight noose around not only the learners but also the
teachers. Included among these factors are family pressure,
school practices, teacher factor, etc.
Family Pressure
As you know, it is wrong to assume that children begin
learning in the school; rather, learning begins at the time of
birth itself and parents, other family members, peer group,
neighbours play important roles in influencing the learning
process of children. The disciplinary practices of the parents;
be it authoritative, authoritarian, permissive or restrictive;
affect the development of autonomy among learners. You
must have observed that parental wishes, desires and their
unachieved goals in life often decide the course and direction
of studies for their children. My son must become an engineer
or do MBA and my daughter must become a medical doctor
could be the parental prescription even before his/her child
celebrates his/her first birthday. In a society that values
obedience as one of the essential duties in life, child’s own
interest and talent gets wasted in umpteen cases. Parental
pressure, particularly from the educated ones, often retards
the process of expression of interest by the child in his/her
desired direction.
It has another dimension too. Comparison of learner
attainments, mostly marks/grades obtained by them,
with their classmates is often done by the parents, which
frequently results in admonition to score better than ‘him’
or ‘her’. It creates unavoidable pressure and stress on the
learner. It is a great depreciation in the cognitive capital of
the country when a child interested in literature is confined
to study subjects of parental choice and made to sit in an
entrance examination for an engineering course and, finally,
ends up as an electrical engineer. Tuitions at individual level
and coaching in identified institutions restrict the natural
and emerging talents. These practices leave little scope
for the learner to think beyond what has been transferred
by the teacher. There is neither the scope nor the time for
reflection, experimentation and observation for children. All
these factors negatively affect the development of autonomy
among the learners.
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Learner Autonomy
School Practices
Presently, a large majority of schools in the country follow
prescribed curricula and syllabi. Once these syllabi reach in
the hands of the teacher, he/she redefines the task before
him/her: completion of the assigned task given in terms
of syllabus and the textbooks in the prescribed time. The
parents, learners and teachers all seem united on one count:
only those components matter which are to be examined
for the award of marks in the final year end examination;
everything else is secondary. If the schools give due
importance to activities, such as work experience, socially
useful productive work, working with community, etc., the
process of nurturance of talent would definitely get a big
boost by providing opportunities to the learner to delineate
their area of interest and move ahead in that direction.
Another opportunity to boost learner autonomy could be
seen in assigning ‘project work’ to them on topics/themes of
their choice and permit full play to them to use their skills
and talents. Currently, conducting a project work has, by
and large, been reduced to a farce. The children can purchase
‘project work’ in the market and submit it in the school. The
teacher may be overworked and not in a position to guide
students about how to do the project work. Project work, when
done in group with peers, innovative ideas do emerge and take
practical shape. Occasionally one does receive some sporadic
reports of an amazing innovation by someone working in
tough conditions without much support or motivation. These
are instances of learner autonomy leading to innovations.
In India we still have a long way to go to provide a
cafeteria approach to the learners in selection of subjects.
The similar is the case with year-end examinations which
continue to remain a source of great stress and strain both
for the parents and the students. Imagine a situation in
which a child could select subjects of choice and arrange
these in order of preference and offer him/her for evaluation
when ready for it! A transparent, flexible, non-restrictive
curriculum that permits many choices and interests could
effectively enhance the scope for learners to gain experience
in themselves, their capacity to reinterpret, incisively analyse
and come out with new explanations and possibilities.
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Teacher Factor
Most of the aspects mentioned above could be taken away
from the list of restrictive practices in the context of learner
autonomy if the teacher is professionally competent,
committed, performing, proud of his/her task and willing to
guide his/her students on the basis of individual differences.
The teacher could generate awareness amongst parents
about the level to which they should impose their wishes
on their children in matters of nurturing talents and giving
them the liberty of making choices and taking decisions.
A teacher, who keeps himself/herself abreast of the new
developments in the field, can indicate possibilities and
encourage students to realise the bliss of learning on their
own. For this, the teacher should be willing to work with the
students as a partner and co-worker. A teacher who ‘grows’
with years often presents an example of the ‘positive outcomes
of learner autonomy’. Young persons would innovate even
when enmeshed in restrictions and restraints, once they find
someone ready to stand with them with affection and always
ready to provide encouragement.
Major Shifts in Education

The National Curriculum Framework – 2005 (p.110) describes the major
shifts in educations as follows.
From To
• Teacher centric, stable designs • Learner centric, flexible process
• Teacher direction and decisions • Learner autonomy
• Teacher guidance and monitoring • Facilitates, supports and
encourages learning
• Passive reception in learning • Active participation in learning
• Learning within the four walls of • Learning in the wider social
the classroom context
• Knowledge as “given” and fixed • Knowledge as it evolves and is
created
• Disciplinary focus • Multidisciplinary, educational
focus
• Linear exposure • Multiple and divergent exposure
• Appraised, short, few • Multifarious, continuous
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Learner Autonomy
Learning Check 2
1. Can every learner become an autonomous learner?
Give reasons in support of your answer.
2. What changes can be made in the school practices
to develop learner autonomy?
3. What is the meaning of a non-restrictive
curriculum?
Activity 2
Consult the library and find out the difference
between authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and
restrictive child-rearing practices. Discuss with other
students and parents.
Curriculum, Textbooks, Instructions and

Discipline in Learner Autonomy
You may now ask the question that what role do curriculum,
syllabi and textbooks play in developing learner autonomy?
Alternatively, one might also ask why it should be necessary to
give freedom to the learners to learn on their own irrespective
of curriculum, syllabi and textbooks. Indeed the learners do
not require freedom from curriculum, syllabi and textbooks
if their developmental characteristics are matched with
these prescriptions. For example, it stands pedagogically
confirmed and academically accepted that no child should be
made to learn alphabets or numerals or reading and writing
in pre-schools. However, one could visit any prestigious
school with high credibility and would find the school and
also the teachers taking pride in the ‘levels of proficiency
the children in pre-school have already attained in language
and mathematics!’ It is the nurturance of the developmental
competencies of the child in the initial years that prepares
him/her for better formal learning in subsequent years. Pre-
school is also the time to let children themselves realise and
express their areas of interest. The task of the teacher is to
allow and encourage this process.
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It should be remembered that the role of the teacher in

promoting autonomy of learner is of paramount significance.
The teacher presents a ‘method’ before the learner and, at the
same time, also emphasises that this is not the only method.
There could always be other alternative methods; let us explore
them. It must be inculcated in the minds of the learner that
the roles of the textbooks, syllabus and the teachers are only
to facilitate and help him/her on their march to exploration in
the search of knowledge and acquisition of skills. This type of
confidence building results in enhanced motivation and self-
confidence among the learners. It gets hindered if the school
imposes textbooks, syllabus and demands weekly progress
reports, expecting comparability of learner attainments.
There are certain basic essentials in the process of growing
up. Certain inputs like providing necessary nutrition to an
infant and a growing child does require someone else to
take charge of it. Similar is the requirement when the child
proceeds on the path of education. Textbooks, curriculum,
instructions and discipline are to be considered ‘supportive
but not restrictive’ in the process of growing up and acquiring
the skill and capability of ‘learning to learn’ and eventually
becoming an autonomous lifelong learner.
During the first couple of years the schools need not go
beyond the activity books that may enhance the interest of the
child. To elaborate this point, the box given below contains
descriptions related to what autonomy does not mean.
What is not Learner Autonomy?

• Autonomy does not necessarily refer to self-
instruction/learning without a teacher.
• It does not mean that intervention or initiative on
the part of a teacher is banned.
• It is not something teachers do to the students.
• It is not a single easily identifiable behaviour.
• It is not a ready state achieved by all learners
once and for all.
In the present day, in addition to the teacher, school

library, etc., with the advent of ICT, access to knowledge
and information is easily available through various sources.
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Learner Autonomy
Learning autonomy can be developed by encouraging children

to acquire information by ‘searching’ various sources and use
the information in building their knowledge. The principles
of guided learning could be used in a manner that it leads to
greater motivation and applications of skills so acquired in
new and challenging situations.
Autonomy is also expressed as the ability to learn how
something can be learnt – learning to learn – and may not
be the same when this acquisition is put to applications in
subsequent situations. This could happen only when the
learner realises that the textbook is not the only source and
there is a world beyond the teacher and his/her methods
and content. Nurturing autonomy requires the teacher to
encourage such thoughts among the learners.
One of the most supportive ideas that help nurturance
of autonomy is the capacity of the learner to visualise the
inter-linkages between various aspects of knowledge that
are formally presented as subjects of study in schools and
colleges. Once the learners move out of the confines of the
textbook and the teacher, the world opens up before him/
her. This nurtures autonomy the most.
Activity 3
1. Make a list of few sources of knowledge and
learning.
2. List various activities that teachers must do to
develop autonomy among the learners.
School and Developing Learner Autonomy

You know that learning has never been confined to schools
or to a formal system, where it was imparted at a fixed
place by more learned and knowledgeable teachers and
scholars. Those who never attended a Gurukula, Madrasa, or
Seminary did learn to lead their life and not all of these lives
were wasted. One could cite examples of those who excelled
not only in their own life, but also influenced others to lead
an enlightened life. The life of Mahatma Gandhi was deeply
influenced by his mother. The following words of Gandhi
would illustrate the level to which traditional and family
learning could elevate an individual.
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Basics in Education
“I learnt from my illiterate but wise mother that all rights

to be deserved and preserved come from duty well done.
Thus the very right to live accrues to us when we do the
duty of citizenship of the world. From this one fundamental
statement, perhaps it is easy enough to define duties
of man and woman and correlate every right to some
corresponding duty to be first performed…”
In every society, the transfer of knowledge and wisdom
from one generation to the next is often recalled with great
sense of reverence as its contribution to the growth of
human civilisation is tremendous. However, things change
with times and impact every aspect of human activity and
endeavour. The growth of formal system of education is also
linked with human aspirations, expectations and knowledge
creation that have successfully explored every aspect of
the secrets of nature. Definitely all this can no longer be
transmitted orally. It has to be formalised. In India, Nalanda
and Taxila prepared scholars of repute who explored the
oceans of knowledge for the benefit of mankind, irrespective of
geographical boundaries and diversities of every conceivable
variety. Modern schools and universities are a consequence
of these gradual developments.
However, the question that arises is that does learning take
place if the learner is free from the constraints of schooling?
Such a question prompted Ivan Illich (1973) to publish his
global-attention-catching work entitled Deschooling Society.
This critical discourse delineated the limitations that formal
systems impose on the learners. Illich also suggested
alternatives. According to him:
“A good educational system should have three purposes:
it should provide all who want to learn with access to
available resources at any time in their lives; empower
all who want to share what they know to find those who
want to learn it from them; and, finally, furnish all who
want to present an issue to the public with the opportunity
to make their challenge known.”
In the world of 21st century when the march towards
a learning society is considered inevitable, an alternative
system of learning shall always be under inquisition and
under experimentation. The outcomes of such efforts will
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Learner Autonomy
always add value to the existing system. There would be

no doubt at any stage in the minds of human beings that
learning can never be confined or constrained by external
systems or impositions. It may be pertinent to mention here
that the question of comprehensive learning was examined
in the Delors Commission Report, mentioned in Chapter 2.
It states that ‘education must, as it were, simultaneously
provide maps of a complex world in constant turmoil and
the compass that will enable people to find their way out.’ It
further points out that it is no longer possible for an individual
to draw upon the store of knowledge acquired in the initial
years and use them throughout one’s life. One has to be
always ready to seize every available opportunity of learning
and including updating and renewing the skills. Not only
this; one has to be ready to broaden one’s attitudes as well
along with knowledge and skills. This Commission identifies
four pillars of knowledge, discussed in Chapter 2. It points
out that formal education/schooling has mainly focused on
learning to know and to a lesser extent on learning to do. These
two alone are no longer sufficient. The Commission states
that “equal attention should be paid in all of the organised
learning to each of these four pillars, so that education is
regarded as a total experience throughout life.” This would
immediately require significant changes in the very goals of
education, structure of educational programmes and also
the pedagogy of imparting it. The Commission states:
“A broad, encompassing view of learning should aim to
enable each individual to discover, unearth and enrich his
or her creative potential, to reveal the treasure within each
of us. This means going beyond an instrumental view of
education, as a process one submits to in order to achieve
specific aims in terms of skills, capacities or economic
potential, to one that emphasises the development of the
complete person, in short, learning to be.”
In sum, it can be said that learning always takes place
beyond the schools, without the school and definitely along
with the school. Times ahead shall demand far greater
initiative on the part of the person to equip him/her for
lifelong learning without any inhibitions or hesitations.
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Basics in Education
Learning Check 3
1. According to you what are the restraints schools
impose on the learner?
2. How do you see the recommendations of Delors
Commission in terms of developing learner
autonomy? Give reasons.
Activity 4
Try to recall the good things you learnt from your
mother, father and other adults in the family. How did
it help you in your future development?
Individual Autonomy and Collective

Responsibility
Autonomous learners, whether individuals or groups,
remain active towards the learning task identified, delineate
and analyze alternatives, do not worry about taking risks
and encountering failures, possess ample self-confidence,
and, in group situations, command peer confidence. They
also understand and appreciate that autonomy could lead
to productive, creative and innovative outcomes only when
it is coupled with a strong sense of responsibility. It is the
role identification, on the part of both the teacher and the
learner that could result into a mutually perfect setting: the
teacher to support the learner on his/her path to analyze
deeper into the task undertaken; and the learner in receiving
such inputs and incentives that would add value to his/her
efforts.
Now, the question arises is that to what extent the teacher’s
supportive role strengthens the learner’s autonomy? It is to
be realised that only a professionally equipped teacher, who
is also a keen observer of student’s traits and behaviour,
can help the learner in reducing his/her dependence on the
teacher. The existing teaching-learning system is, without
doubt, heavily dependent on the teacher. The transition from
teacher-dependence to student-autonomy is not an easy
task as it requires making additional efforts on the part of
both of them. A couple of aspects could be applicable in most
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Learner Autonomy
of the situations such as focused attention, corrections and

strategy variations at appropriate points resulting out of self-
monitoring and evaluation. At each stage, both must know
how to savour the success. Further, as the learner attains
higher levels of autonomy, greater is the sense of achievement
of the teacher.
The developments in information and communication
technology (ICT) have considerably changed the face of the
classroom and have created new sources of information and
knowledge. It has also transformed the role of the teacher
significantly. It would be interesting to note the teachers’ roles
and corresponding students’ roles as identified by Weaver
(1970). Table 1 contains teachers’ roles and corresponding
students’ roles and outcomes.
Table 1
Teachers’ Roles and Corresponding Students’ Roles and
Outcomes (Weaver, 1970)
Likely Student
Teaching/
Teachers’ Roles Students’ Roles Quality as
Learning Process
Outcomes
1. Appreciator As determined 1. Searcher Self-
by students Determination
2. Partner Participation 2. Partner Responsibility
3. Patron Making 3. Designer Creativeness
4. Guide Searching 4. Explorer Adventurousness
5. Questioner Experimentation 5. Searcher Investigation Skill
6. Tutor Reflection 6. Thinker Understanding

7. Counsellor Expression of 7. Client Insight
feeling
8. Moulder Conditioning 8. Subject Habits
9. Instructor Transfer of 9. Memoriser Possession of
information Information
10. Exemplar Imitation 10. Trainee Skills
It would always be open to re-examine the above role

identification. It would, however, be obvious that none of
these could be discarded. The problem arises when either the
teacher or the learners ignore any of the aspects delineated.
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Basics in Education
Activity 5
Select a theme of study in your course. Delineate
the roles of teacher and students in transacting that
theme with a view to develop autonomy among the
learners.
LET US SUM UP
You have read in this chapter that autonomous learning
requires greater, intelligent and sustained effort on the part
of the teacher. It is not a teacher-less learning. Learners
become autonomous only gradually and acquire better and
higher traits as they move along and move ahead. Some may
take longer time and require greater persuasion than others.
Committed, competent and ‘performing teachers’ interacting
with willing and curious learners create conditions conducive
to autonomous learning. This subsequently leads to creation
of new ideas and knowledge, and thereby enhancing the
global knowledge capital that could be utilised for the good
of the people making their lives better and meaningful.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the concept of learner autonomy. How is it
related with teacher autonomy?
2. Explain the factors affecting teacher autonomy.
3. What role do curriculum and textbooks play in
development of learner autonomy? How can their
influence be negated?
4. Does learner autonomy develop outside the formal system
of education? Elaborate your answer with examples.
5. How does individual autonomy influence collective
responsibility?
Benson, P., and Voller, P. (Eds.). 1997. Autonomy and
Independence in Language Learning. Longman,
London.
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Learner Autonomy
Esch, E. 1996. Promoting learner autonomy: Criteria for the

selection of appropriate methods. In R. Pemberton, S.L.
Edward, & H.D. Pierson (Eds.), Taking Control: Autonomy
in Language Learning (pp. 34-38). Hong Kong University
Press, Hong Kong.
Illich, I. 1973. Deschooling Society. Penguin, New York.
Little, D. 1991. Learner Autonomy 1: Definitions, Issues and
Problems. Authentik, Dublin.
McGarry, D. 1995. Learner Autonomy 4: The Role of Authentic
Texts. Authentik, Dublin.
UNESCO. 1996. Learning the Treasure Within. Report to
UNESCO of the International Commission on Education
for the Twenty-first Century, Paris.
Weaver, T.R. 1970. Unity and Diversity in Education.
Department of Education and Science, London.
What is Learner Autonomy and How It Can Be Fostered?
Dimitrios Thanasoulas); [email protected]):
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Chapter 9
Values: Concept and

Context
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Values: Meaning and Concept
• Types of Values
• What Values Should Be Followed in Life?
• Value Conflicts
• Perspectives on Values
–– Psychological Perspective
–– Sociological Perspective
–– Philosophical Perspective
• Theories of Values
–– Pragmatic Theory
–– Empiricist Theory
–– Realist Theory
–– Idealist Theory
• Values: Absolute or Relative
• Creation of Values
–– Can Humans be free of Values?
Let Us Sum up
Review Questions
References
Values: Concept and Context
Introduction
You must have often come across the thoughts of the well-
known thinkers, philosophers and educationists emphasising
the significance of values, not only as a way of life, but also
something which justifies our existence as human beings.
For example, the Jain Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira, said
“Anger annihilates affection, pride the politeness, deceit
the friendship but greed destroys all – affection, politeness
and friendship (Mahashramana, 2001). Mahatma Gandhi
expressed that “humility is the primary thing to be acquired.
One who is not humble cannot put one’s learning to proper
use.” Jawaharlal Nehru said “A consideration of cultural and
moral values and standards is essential if we have to solve
the problems that afflict the world today.” (Jayaswal, 1955).
The Nobel Prize winner scientist Albert Einstein has said “Try
not to become a man of success but rather try to become a
man of value.”
In our daily life, however, we constantly face situations or
come across news items which compel you to wonder whether
values exist at all in the modern societies. For example,
you must have come across news items such as teacher
raped student, teacher beat student such that student
became deaf, student murdered teacher for being strict, a
boy made an objectionable MMS of a fellow girl student and
circulated on web and among friends, son murdered mother
for property, children threw mother out of house and she is
living on street, new born girl child thrown in dust bin, etc.
These news items lead one to ponder whether values exist
in our society. If so, what actually are values? How does one
acquire values in life? Whether every individual should have
the same value system or is it justified if you and I have
different values? What should happen when two persons have
values which are in conflict with each other? Who determines
what is right? Can there be a human being with no values
at all? It is often said that the money is the only value left in
contemporary society. Is money really a value? Who creates
values or who determines what a value is? While reading this
chapter you may get answers to some of these questions,
or else you would develop enough insights to analyse such
situations and come out with a logical explanation. This
chapter takes you to a systematic journey into what is the
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meaning and concept of value from various perspectives; the

nature of values – relative vs. absolute; creation of values;
significance of values in human life and the values prevalent
in the contemporary society.
Activity 1
Before proceeding further, reflect on and discuss
your thoughts with fellow colleagues on the questions
raised above and prepare a brief.
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you would be able to:
• describe the meaning of values;
• conceptualise values from different perspectives and
relate these to everyday life;
• discuss as to what extent values are absolute;
• reflect on the necessity of values in human life and the
process of development of values; and
• analyze values in present day context.
Values: Meaning and Concept

Keep your thoughts positive, because your thoughts
become your words.
Keep your words positive, because your words
become your behaviour.
Keep your behaviour positive, because your behaviour
becomes your habits.
Keep your habits positive, because your habits
become your values.
Keep your values positive, because your values
become your destiny.
— Mahatma Gandhi
Activity 2
Reflect on the thoughts of Gandhiji (given above) and
give your opinion on the same.
The word ‘value’ comes from the Latin word valere and an
old French word valoir meaning ‘be worth’. The psychological
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and social sciences define values as preferences or as

desirable goals, emotions and interests. The humanistic
disciplines define values as functioning imperatives or
‘oughts’ (Mukerjee, 1964). If you try to look at the definitions
of values, you find a number of expressions, yet it is difficult
to get a universally accepted definition, which is the case with
many abstract concepts. Some such expressions attempting
to define values are presented in the box given below.
Values can be defined as broad preferences
concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes
(Wikipedia).
Values are rules by which we make decisions about
right or wrong, should or shouldn’t, good or bad.
Values are principles or standards of behaviour.
Values can be defined as a set of norms of behaviour
which guides the people to do things in such a way
that there will be joy, satisfaction, peace of mind
and harmony among individuals and in society
(Njayarkulam, 2003).
A value is an enduring belief that a specific mode
of conduct or end state of existence is personally or
socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode
of conduct or end state of existence. A value system
is an enduring organisation of beliefs concerning
preferable modes of conduct or end states of existence
along a continuum of relative importance (Rokeach,
1973).
An analysis of the definitions given in the box above shows

that values are conceptualised as preferences, enduring
beliefs, norms/rules/standards of behaviour as guiding the
conduct, and attitude of humans towards what is right or
good or acceptable. However, every value has an underlying
ethical framework and it may be difficult to have a universal
agreement on such a framework. Hence, it is also important
to see the context before being judgemental. Further, the
term value can be used in two different connotations – the
values attached to some objects, events, person, etc., and the
values that one believes in and which are characteristics of
the individual’s character or personality or collectively of a
group, society, culture or nation. The two have to be clearly
understood while dealing with the concept of value.
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Basics in Education
Learning Check 1
Derive a viable, comprehensive definition of values
and explain your concept with suitable examples.
Social scientists have defined values in many ways.

Kluckhohn (1951) gave perhaps the most influential definition
of value by saying that “A value is a conception, explicit or
implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a
group, of the desirable, which influences the selection from
available modes, means, and ends of action” (p. 395). This
definition not only encompasses both individuals and groups
but at the same time focuses on potential for both action
and reward. Another important definition of value was given
by Rokeach (1973), according to which values are “enduring
beliefs that a specific mode of conduct is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-
state of existence” (p.5). These two definitions represent two
contrasting views. Kluckhohn emphasises on a functionalist
and deterministic view according to which values necessarily
lead to actions. Rokeach, on the other hand, saw values as
giving meaning to actions.
Whatever may be the expressions; it is evident that values
are something important to an individual or collectively
to a group or a body, be it a society, a community, an
organisation, nation, or human kind as a whole. Values form
a basis to decide what is right or wrong and direct our actions,
reactions and attitude towards someone or something. If not
guided by values, actions or reactions are based on instinct.
Usually, animals are said to act on the basis of instincts,
which is cited as a natural difference between humans and
animals. However, to what extent the behaviour or action
is guided by values depends on the conviction towards the
values.
An Incidence in a School
Let us take a situation from a school setting. Mr Data
Ram, a local property dealer of the area and father
of Savitri, visibly disturbed other parents and their
wards during Parent Teacher Meeting by bringing his
fleet of personal security guards in the classroom. He
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entered the classroom out of turn disregarding other

parents waiting for their turn. The class teacher
politely requested other parents to wait and happily
met Data Ram. Discussions went on for about 20
minutes. In the meantime, there was heated exchange
of words outside the classroom between his security
guards and waiting parents. Data Ram left the scene
smilingly with the school Principal. Mohit, a student
of Class VI was observing this incident. When he
tried to complain to the Principal, he got stern reply
“ki phark penda hai” (How does it matter?). While
some parents kept quiet, the others were agitated,
some also tried to argue with the class teacher who
tried to pacify them.
We come across so many situations as mentioned in

the box above where we need to apply some standards and
principles for judging the people’s actions and reactions,
ideas, situations, etc. The particular incidence raises some
questions: Why parents were waiting outside in queue? Why
Data Ram was supposed to wait for his turn? What was
the necessity to bring personal security guards inside the
classroom? Why some parents got disturbed while others
didn’t? Students standing outside were in dilemma that why
teacher and Principal are cooperating with Data Ram, while
parents are not? What is right, what is wrong?
Activity 3
Reflect on the incident described in the Box given
above. What values or lack of values can be deduced
from this incident? As a Principal, class teacher or
parent, how would you have reacted and why? Give
justifications.
What comes to the mind next is as to what value systems

should be followed. How the values are created? Are these
absolute or relative? Can human beings be free of values?
This chapter will discuss some of these questions and
will also include some text on the values prevalent in the
contemporary society.
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Types of Values
Values have been classified in different ways. One simple
classification is personal, social, and core or universal
values. Values important to a person are referred to as
personal values, those to the society are called social values
and values prized by all can be termed as core values.
Eduard Spranger identified six value types (refer Rao &
Rao, 1996). These are described below.
1. Theoretical Value: The chief motive under this class is
the discovery of truth. A person who believes in such
values aims to systematise and order knowledge with an
overwhelming interest to reach the truth.
2. Economic Value: This refers to practical values based on
what is useful. In this sense this can well be related with
the pragmatic theory of values.
3. Aesthetic Value: Values related with harmony and beauty
are called aesthetic values. Here we need to understand
that beauty has a wider and deeper connotation than
generally understood (and projected by the commercial
world). It is not only the external beauty but the beauty
within. An aesthetic person sees and seeks beauty
everywhere. He/she may not be an artist but has artistic
pursuit in all spheres of life.
4. Social Value: These are the values considered important
by the society guiding the desired social conduct, serving
as criteria for the members of the society to decide
their preferences and course of action from various
alternatives. These decide the social standards and are
very essential for maintaining a harmonious society.
5. Political Value: Achieving power, success, etc., are the
values that can be put under this category. Individuals
believing in these values are not afraid of struggle and
competition. They nurture a desire to be on the top and
have power over others, be it people or nature.
6. Religious Value: Religious values are ethical principles
founded in religious traditions, texts and beliefs.
Religious values are often based on scriptures and a
religion’s established norms (Wikipedia). To be one with
the nature and with the supreme power, the God, is
considered to be the highest religious value.
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While the above classification is considered close to

complete by some authors, the others don’t believe so.
Activity 4
Do you think that the above classification is complete?
Do you agree that for each value, there is a cultural
bias or it is a social construct? Reflect and put your
arguments.
Let us look at some other classifications also. Rokeach

(1973) places all the values in two broad categories. Based on
the concept that some of the values are an end in themselves,
these are put under category ‘terminal values’, while others are
a means to achieve the ends, which are called ‘instrumental
values’. Table 1 contains the details of Instrumental and
terminal values. The terminal or instrumental values are also
referred to as intrinsic and extrinsic values, respectively.
Table 1
Instrumental and Terminal Values (after Rokeach, 1973)
Instrumental Values Terminal Values
Cheerfulness True Friendship
Ambition Mature Love
Love Self-respect
Cleanliness Happiness
Self-control Inner Harmony
Capability Equality
Courage Freedom
Politeness Pleasure
Honesty Social Recognition
Imagination Wisdom
Independence Salvation
Intellect Family Security
Broad-mindedness National Security
Logic A Sense of Accomplishment
Obedience A World of Beauty
Helpfulness A World at Peace
Responsibility A Comfortable Life
Forgiveness An Exciting Life
There could be another classification based on the

antecedents of values, such as, personal, social, cultural,
religious, spiritual, human, and ethical. Thus, there is
no single classification of values. There can be various
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classifications based on source of values, consequences of

values, nature of values, etc.
Activity 5
Think what could be different bases for classification
of values. Divide yourselves in groups and work out
various possible classifications. Then also reflect
whether there can be one unified classification for
values.
In one of the most systematic and comprehensive works

on values, Shalom Schwartz (1994) views values as ‘concepts
or beliefs that pertain to desirable end states or behaviour,
transcend specific situations, guide selection or evaluation of
behaviour and events, and are ordered by relative importance’
(p.4). She has developed a schematic representation of
‘almost’ universal human values. She found a great deal
of empirical and cross-cultural support for her scheme
(Schwartz, 1994). Schwartz was supported and recognised
in almost 70 countries around the world. These values have
been defined in terms of motivational goals that they carry
(refer Table 2).
Table 2
Values and Motivational Goals Associated with Them
(after Schwartz, 1994)
Value Motivational Goal
Hedonism Self centred sensual gratification
Power Status and prestige
Achievement Competitive personal success
Stimulation Encourage risk taking and adventure
Self direction Autonomous thought and action
Universalism Concern for welfare of others
Benevolence Preserve and enhance welfare of those
with whom one is in personal contact
Conformity Self-restraint
Tradition Traditional and religious activities
Security Stability, safety and harmony of society,
relationships and self
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Schwartz’s values have been organised under two

higher order dimensions of values: openness to change vs.
conservation, and self enhancement vs. self transcendence.
Stimulation and self direction, for instance, in Schwartz’s
system of values, fall under ‘openness to change’; whereas
conformity, tradition and security fall under ‘conservation’.
Similarly achievement and power represent ‘self enhancement’
and universalism and benevolence represents ‘self
transcendence’. Thus, according to Schwartz (1994), values
are not merely abstract conceptions of what is considered as
desirable, but are motivational in nature and influence our
choices and actions. These values express certain human
needs, and these needs then motivate social behaviour.
What Values Should Be Followed in Life?

Various sets of values have been suggested from time to time by
great thinkers and concerned organisations. However, some
values are considered to be core values. These are the values
which are basic to humanity, irrespective of race, religion,
culture and time, and are expected to be followed by every
human being under normal circumstances. These can also
be regarded as eternal and universal values. For example, all
religions stress on values like truth, love, compassion, moral
integrity, etc. Ancient Indian scriptures have suggested values
for human behaviour, from which our philosophers, thinkers
and educators have drawn inspiration. For example ^^lR;e~
czq;kr] fiz;e~ czq;kr] lR;e~ vfiz;e u czq;kr** establishes truth as value,
at the same time also indicates a path for human behaviour
that an unpleasant truth may rather not be spoken.
The Parliamentary Standing Committee in its 81st Report
emphasises that Truth (Satya), Righteous Conduct (Dharma),
Peace (Shanti), Love (Prem) and Non-Violence (Ahimsa) are
core universal values that can become foundations for values-
based programmes. These represent five domains of human
personality, i.e., intellectual, physical, emotional, psychological
and spiritual, and are correlated with five major objectives of
education, i.e., knowledge, skill, balance, vision and identity.
J.P. Naik, the great Indian educator, said “Even in regard to
personal virtues, it is essential to emphasise values such as
self-restrain, self-reliance, competence, sense of responsibility
and duty, and willingness to work…” (Naik, 1975).
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The National Institute of Educational Research, Japan,

after a series of meetings with UNESCO, has come out with
twelve values: Caring for others, Concern for the Welfare
of the Society, Concern for National and International
Community, Concern for the Environment, Concern for
Cultural Heritage, Self-esteem and Self-reliance, Social
Responsibility, Spirituality, Peaceful Conflict Resolution,
Equality, Justice, Truth and Freedom.
The NCERT and Gandhi Peace Foundation jointly
sponsored studies on Gandhian Values at school stage. The
values Gandhiji practised himself, and suggested for the
society are:
1. Truth (Honesty)
2. Non-violence (Love for mankind, service of humanity,
compassion, universal love)
3. Freedom (Fearlessness)
4. Democracy (National Integration, Positive Attitude)
5. Sarva Dharma Sambhava (Composite Culture, Reverence
for other’s beliefs, Communal unity)
6. Equity
7. Self-realisation
8. Purity of ends and means (Integrity between thought
and action)
9. Self-discipline
10. Cleanliness (non-consumerism/simplicity, etc.)
All these set of values have been suggested keeping in mind
the sustainability of society, maintaining peace and harmony
in the society, and self-realisation and self-upliftment of the
individuals. It is believed that society guided by such value
systems would be able to face challenges of violence and
fanaticism (Agrawal, 2003).
Value Conflicts
There are different levels of values – spiritual, ethical, moral,
material, etc. A ruthless pursuit of materialism has retarded
development and achievement of higher level values, e.g.
moral values. Thus, the crisis we face today is essentially
moral and spiritual. Material values are often in conflict with
ethical and spiritual values. We want to live long and healthy
lives but do not care to preserve our environment. We want
plenty and don’t care for sharing. In the complicated world
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of today, we face opposite situations where there is conflict

between values, and one has to make a choice between
the conflicting set of values, such as service and ambition,
power and love, pragmatism and idealism, etc. Hence, it is
not enough to teach and preach about positive values such
as love, service to humanity, idealism, equality, care and
share. Rather, it should also be taught what one should do in
such conflicting situations, which values should prevail. The
questions like why and how would also have to be answered
(Agrawal, 2003).
Our value system is often different for self and others,
which creates absurd paradoxes. If we are after money, we
justify it by ‘need’, but if someone else is after money we
brand it as ‘greed’. We may preach the value of being truthful
but may not follow it ourselves. We may value ‘convenience’
the most. The contradictions to traditional values are often
made to appear a part of modern value system and hence,
desirable. For instance, when we are not speaking the truth,
we are just being practical. Such pseudo value systems have
led us to situations which are alarming.
Activity 6
Recall a situation of value conflict you faced or
witnessed. Critically analyse the actions taken in that
situation.
Perspectives on Values
Psychological Perspective
Modern theories of values are based on the research
conducted in the discipline of psychology. Kluckhohn and
Strodbeck (1961) proposed that cultural value systems are
variations of a set of basic value orientations that flow from
answers to basic questions about being: (a) what is human
nature – evil, neutral, mixed, or good? (b) How do we relate to
nature or supernatural – subjugation, harmony, or mastery?
(c) What is the nature of time – past, present, future? (d) What
is the nature of human activity – being, being-in-becoming,
doing? (e) What is the nature of our relationship to others?
They organised a system for comparing values in terms of
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their level of generalisation and function in discourse and

conduct, and proposed that values fit into a pyramid of
ascending generalisation. For each society, a few central
or focal values were proposed to constitute a mutually
interdependent set of what makes for the ‘good life’. These
include the unquestioned, self justified premises of the value
system and definitions of basic and general value terms, for
example, happiness, virtue, beauty, and morality.
Sociological Perspective
From sociological perspective, values are internalised as
social constructs, underneath which there is a moral/ethical
framework. Preferences, judgments and actions are commonly
explained in terms of values that the society believes in and
passes on from one generation to another. Individuals take
on values as part of socialisation process into the family or
group or society. Societies differ in their value preferences.
For example, in Indian society, truthfulness, honesty,
compassion, and non-violence used to be the preferred
values, while Americans are set to value life, liberty, and the
pursuit of happiness. At the group level values are scripts or
cultural ideals held in common by members of a group.
It should be remembered that values are codes or
general principles guiding action, they are not the actions
themselves. Two societies can both value achievement but
differ tremendously in their norms as to what to achieve and
how to achieve. A value system presents what is expected
and hoped for, what is required and what is forbidden. It
is not a report of actual behaviour but a system or criteria
by which behaviour is judged and sanctions applied. Values
differ from goals in that values provide a general rationale for
more specific goals and motivate attainment of goals through
particular methods (Oyserman, 2001).
Now the question arises is that how do you know that
values exist? A number of options are available: (a) Individual
testimony, (b) Behavioural choices – yet behaviours are
influenced by many variables other than values, (c) Cultural
and social structures, (d) Social interchange – observation
of behaviour in situation of conflict, and more generally
observation of what is rewarded or punished, praised or
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vilified, provides data for identifying what is socially valued

(Oyserman, 2001).
Activity 7
Recall or imagine certain real situations in a classroom
and identify existence of values among teachers and
students. Also, attempt to identify the conflicting forces
that individuals faced in that situation. Do these arise
due to differences in socialisation processes?
From sociological viewpoints, everything social actors

appreciate, appraise, wish to obtain, recommend, set up or
propose as an ideal can be considered as a value. But what is
attractive for some may not be so to others. Thus, to each value
there is a corresponding opposing value, which is underrated,
disapproved, or rejected. For example, nationalism and
internationalism, private and public property, freedom and
equality, etc., may be according to diverse actors, values or
counter values (Rezsohazy, 2001).
According to Rezsohazy (2001), (a) each value has an
object, i.e. what is valued; (b) This object is qualified by a
judgment as valuable or contemptible, as good or bad, as
useful or useless, as desirable or undesirable, etc. Values
become norms when they command and/or regulate
conducts, prescribe a course of action. If honesty is valued,
you are not expected to misappropriate funds. Values provide
the grounds for accepting or rejecting particular norms, and
norms are standards for actual conduct; and (c) Value holders
are either individual or collective actors or social groups.
Philosophical Perspective
The study of values from the philosophical point of view is
the study of ethics and aesthetics. The branch of philosophy
dealing with it is called axiology. This refers to a philosophical
enquiry into what is ‘good’ and the concept of ‘goodness’. It
makes a distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic values.
Intrinsic value is an end in itself and, thus, is valuable for
its own sake, while extrinsic value is valuable as a means to
achieve something else, and thus is instrumental value. For
example, money is instrumental in achieving a goal, which
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may bring happiness. Thus, happiness may be regarded as

having extrinsic value. From the philosophical perspective
emerges the idealist theory.
Thus, the term ‘value’ has several connotations. The
philosophers, the sociologists, the psychologists, the economists,
the educationists, all have viewed and conceptualised values
from different perspectives. There is a need to understand
the meaning of values in terms of the explanation given by
the experts of different fields. We see that different theories
emerge from various outlooks.
Learning Check 2
List out the differences in diverse perspectives on
values.
Theories of Values
Values have been conceptualised in different ways, forming
various theories, such as, Pragmatic, Realist, Empiricist
and Idealist. The basis of classification of these theories
is epistemological. Let us briefly analyse the viewpoint
associated with each of these theories.
Pragmatic Theory
Pragmatic means practical. Thus, this theory assumes
that values are determined by their practical applicability,
significance, or outcome. For example, John Dewey, an
American Pragmatist, argues that a bird’s nest and a palace
are same in their aesthetic value as both support life. Thus,
nothing is valuable in itself but depends on its practical
utility. A pragmatist goes with the Darwinian theory of
evolution, believes in the survival of the fittest and values
are seen in the context of survival. In the above example as
a bird’s nest and a palace both support life, there is no basic
artistic difference in them. Both are equally beautiful and,
hence, have equal aesthetic value. The pragmatist theory of
value is that life is all about survival and all values are for
life; anything that is helpful in furtherance of life is valuable.
Empiricist Theory
In pragmatic theory an individual is in the centre of creation
of values, i.e. an ‘active’ agent. A bird makes a nest, a nest
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of value, and thus the bird is the creator of value. A person

makes a toy from wood. The wood gets value in the form of the
toy, which is an individual created value. In case of empiricist
theory, the individual is not an ‘active’ agent in creation of
values but is a ‘passive’ agent. The theory says that values
are self-existent. They are formed and maintained by a kind
of mental and emotional condition which determines the
attitude of the individual. They are imaginative constructs
made around ideals which can’t be empirically verified.
They are formed and maintained due to repetition of similar
situations according to laws of associations. Values are ideals
necessary for life.
Realist Theory
“According to realism, the objects of our experience are
independent of the experience and since values are also
objects of experience, they do exist independent of us”
(Ruhela, 2000). In other words, values exist independently of
human responses to them.
If you look into the criticism of the theories of pragmatist
and empiricist, you will find that these argue for the objective
nature of values. Through this criticism, the transcendental
source of values is also practised. Thus, while for a pragmatist,
individual is the creator of values, for a realist an individual
is directed by values which are self-existent.
A pragmatist does not believe in universal values. What
was suitable in ancient times may not be pertinent for the
modern living. The values should suit to the need of the time
and situation. Thus, in the pragmatist approach, there is no
space for a transcendental source of values but these are
created by experiences. The pragmatist theory of values are
individualistic in nature. Ruhela (2000) explains that in order
to understand the pragmatic theory of values more critically
we must examine its basic assumptions. It is essentially
personalistic. While defying universality and objectivity to
values it reduces their meaning and significance to the level
of the individual person. Thus, it accepts relativism in the
sphere of all values. There might be similarity between the
notions of values of different persons but, since the experience
and background of each person is different, the notion of
values of each individual will also be different. However, the
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question is shouldn’t ‘individual’ be replaced by ‘human’ and

this also forms the basis of criticism of pragmatist theory.
Idealist Theory
The idealist theory describes the state that it ‘ought to be’.
Some argue that what it considered as ‘oughts’ may or may
not exist in reality while others are of the view that they are in
existence. An idealist believes in the ‘absolute’, thus there is
an element of universality attached to values. Transcendental
source of values is also accepted in the idealist theory. The
critique of this theory is that it is too abstract.
Activity 8
There is and can be more arguments for and against
each theory. Critically analyse and put your augments.
Values: Absolute or Relative

As you can also see from the theories of values and other
reflections, there is a considerable debate on the nature
of values. For an idealist, values are self-existent, thus,
absolute. The pragmatists put the humans in the centre
of creation of values. Thus, with changes in person, time,
circumstances, there would be changes in values. Yet others
believe that values are absolute as they either exist or don’t.
There is no mid way. For example, regarding the truth as
value means that either a person is truthful or not truthful.
As Rokeach explains “we are not taught that it is desirable,
for example, to be a little bit honest or a little bit logical. Nor
are we taught that it is all right to be sometimes honest!” He
argues that values are ‘enduring’. The enduring quality of
values arises mainly from the fact that they are initially taught
and learned in isolation from other values as the absolute. If
values were completely stable, individual and social change
will be impossible. If they were unstable, continuity of human
personality and society will be impossible. Any conception of
human values, if it is to be fruitful, must be able to account
for the lasting as well as the varying character of values. It
may be suggested that the enduring quality of values arises
mainly from the fact that initially they are taught and learned
in isolation from other values in all-or–none manner. Such
and such a mode of behaviour or end state, we are taught,
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is always desirable. Paradoxically, however, there is also a

relative quality of values (Rokeach, 1973). The behavioural
outcome in a particular situation will decide as to what extent
a value held by the person is absolute or relative. However,
it needs to be understood that believing in or following
values is a matter of conviction, and not the convenience.
Gandhiji practised values in life such as non-violence, self-
restraint, truthfulness, etc. with the utmost conviction, and
he didn’t deviate from his values even in the most difficult
circumstances. Thus, for him the values he believed in were
absolute not relative.
Activity 9
1. Divide the class in two groups. Let one group take
situations from real life experiences, preferably
from school/classroom situations which pose
value conflicts and let the other group answer
what actions they would prefer to take and why.
Keep reversing the roles.
2. Collect examples from newspapers of the events
which justify values as absolute or relative. Put
yourself in situation of some character and place
your arguments in favour or against the action
taken by that character in the given circumstance.
Creation of Values
Values are said to be derived from life, from the environment,
from the self, society, culture, and beyond all, from the ideal
transcendent dimension of human existence and experience.
The awareness, utilisation and transmission of values are
uniquely human and linked with the mental and social
evolution of human beings (Mukerjee, 1964). Kantian ethics
and aesthetics hold that human capacities such as will and
imagination create values. Sri Aurobindo said, “The first rule
of moral training is to suggest and invite, not command or
impose, the best method of suggestion is by personal example,
daily converse and the books read from day-to-day.” (Sri
Aurobindo Ashram, 1997). Scientifically, it is reported that
an area in human brain, the limbic area, motivates to think
of God and absolute values.
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Can humans be free of values?

It is often said that a newly born child is a clean slate. Thus,
a baby has no values. These are learnt during the process of
growing up. Values reflect a person’s sense of right or wrong,
however, can a baby judge what is right in a particular
situation? Does a baby have any feeling of wrong doing if he/
she picks up something within reach and throws to another
person causing injury? If you observe behaviour of babies,
this becomes obvious that babies cannot distinguish good
from bad or right from wrong.
One view is that values can be taught. However, another
view is that values are self-existent. One more view is that
knowledge of values does not automatically make a person
follow them. However, here we have to understand that
knowledge confined to mere intellect is awareness and not
knowledge in its true sense, unless it is understood, absorbed,
internalised and believed in. Then only it will be reflected in
behaviour and put to practice. It consists of wisdom which
consists of a practical sense of values.
Activity 10
Reflect on ‘a baby is born free of values’ and put your
arguments with examples.
If we agree that values can be inculcated as one grows,

then the questions arise as to how values are developed and
at what stage or age an individual develops values? Morris
Massey, a sociologist, has categorised value formation in
three stages, age wise. From these stages, one can also get an
idea of the sources of value formation. These are as follows:
Age Stage
Birth to 7 yrs Imprint Period
8 to 13 yrs Modelling Period
13 to 21 yrs Socialisation Period
Stage I is the imprint period. In the early years of life, a

child is primarily in contact with the family – the parents, the
grand parents and other siblings. At this stage, the family
becomes the source of values. The child observes the values
220
of the family, believes in them and tries to follow. This is

the period of formation of beliefs, the child believes in what
is practised before him/her. The child also believes in what
parents say. If the parents tell the child to speak the truth,
be honest, help others, respect the elderly, share things, put
things back from where they are picked up, the child may
develop values such as honesty, truthfulness, sharing and
caring, self-reliance, etc. However, if there is a difference
between what is told to the child and what the parents
practise, the child may become confused. This may affect
his/her conviction towards values. As Massey puts it “Up
to age of seven, we are like sponges, absorbing everything
around us and accepting much of it as true, especially when
it comes from our parents.”
Stage 2, the modelling period, from age 8-13, is the period
when a child is in school, comes in contact with teachers
and peers, who influence the value development. In Massey’s
view “Between the ages of 8 and 13, we copy people, often
our parents, but also others. Rather than blind acceptance
of their values, we try them…At this age, we may be much
impressed with religion of our teachers.” The reinforcement
of a value formulated during the first stage may take place
in this phase in which teachers have a significant role to
play. For example, if a child is punished for speaking the
truth, instead of reinforcement, the particular value may be
erased. If a child notices that the teacher tells students to
be punctual but she herself comes late in the class many
a times, the child may interpret that there can be different
values for self and others. This eventually may lead to double
standards. It may also lead to the interpretation that belief
and behaviour can be different. If a child comes from a society,
where teachers are highly respected, such as ours, the child
believes in everything a teacher says or does. Thus, teachers
play a deciding role in value formation of an individual.
During the third stage, the socialisation period from age
13-21 years, the society also exerts influence on the value
system in the form of value development, reinforcement,
refinement or questioning. At this age we also follow peers
and our role models in which the media exerts influence.
This model may or may not hold ground in a number
of cases. But what is relevant is that there are different
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stages in value development and at different stages different

sources may become dominant and ultimately, what set of
values an individual believes in and with what hierarchy or
conviction, is a function of many factors, e.g. what a person
is taught in early years of life, what one sees in practice, his/
her interaction with persons who are ‘the persons of values’
and such others. The circumstances one is subjected to also
play their role, however, one should not forget the individual
differences. Many a times we see siblings living in the same
environment, exposed to similar circumstances but having a
very different value system.
Activity 11
Reflect on the process of value development described
by Massey. Try to devise your own model of value
development and justify it.
LET US SUM UP
The text here has established that values can be taught,
inculcated and learned and that early years of life are the
most important in value inculcation as young children are
keenly observing, absorbing and imitating what they hear
and see. There is a growing concern on erosion of values,
especially those of the higher order such as moral, ethical
and spiritual values in contemporary society. The process of
value development also emphasises the influence of teachers
on young minds. All these put together make a solid ground
for value education in schools. The chapter that you read next
will deal with issues such as to what extent can education
transform values in the society and what kind of values can
education, especially school education, perpetuate and such
others.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe in your own words the meaning of values.
2. Give examples of different types of values.
3. What values/value set do you follow in life? Put forward
a critical argument in favour of your value set.
222
4. Describe different theories of values.

5. Whether values are absolute or relative? Give arguments.
Agrawal, P. 2003. Value education as catalyst to build peace
and harmony to be imbibed in consumerism dominated
environment filled with paradoxes. In. K.P. Joseph
(Ed.), Peace and Value Education. A Creative Response
to Consumerism and Communalism. Dharma Bharti. P.
53-61.
Rao, M.G., and Rao, P.S. 1996. Attitudes, Values and
Perception. Kanishka Publishers and Distributors, New
Delhi.
Kluckhohn, C. 1951. Values and value-orientations in the
theory of action. In Parsons & Shils (eds) Toward a General
Theory of Action (pp. 388–433). Harper, New York.
Kluckhohn, F.R., & Strodbeck, F.L. 1961. Variations in Value
Orientations. In D. Oyserman (2001), Values: Psychological
Perspectives. International Encyclopedia of the Social and
Behavioral Sciences (pp. 16150-16153).
Mahashramana Yuvacharya. 2001. Thus Spoke Mahavira.
London: Jain Vishwa Bharati. In J.S. Rajput, Symphony
of Human Values in Education. NCERT, New Delhi.
Massey, Morris. en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris-Massey
(downloaded on 12.2.2014)
Mukerjee, R. 1964. The Dimensions of Values: A Unified
Theory. George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London.
Naik, J. P. 1975. Equality, Quality and Quantity: The Elusive
Triangle in Indian Education. Allied Publishers, New
Delhi.
Njayarkulam, K. 2003. Need for peace and value education
to promote inter-religious cooperation. In. K.P.
Joseph (Ed.), Peace and Value Education: A Creative
Response to Consumerism and Communalism. Dharma
Bharathi.
Oyserman, D. 2001. Values: Psychological Perspectives. In
International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral
Sciences (pp. 16150-16153).
Rezsohazy, R. 2001. Values, Sociology of. International
Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (pp.
16153-16158).
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Rokeach, M. (1973). The Nature of Human Values. The Free

Press, London.
Ruhela, S.P. 2000. (Ed). Values in Modern Indian Educational
Thought. Indian Publishers Distributors, Delhi.
Schwartz, S. H. 1994. Are there universal aspects in the
structure and content of human values? Journal of Social
Issues, 50, 19–45.
Sri Aurobindo Ashram. 1997. Sri Aurobindo and the Mother
on Education. In J.S. Rajput (2001). Symphony of Human
Values in Education., NCERT, New Delhi.
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Chapter 10
Education and Values
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Challenges to Education for Values
–– Complex Nature of Modern Society
–– Opportunities for Development
–– Value Priorities of Different Cultures
–– Changing Family Structure
–– Parental Aspiration for Children’s Career
–– Media
–– Systemic Factors
• Integrated Approach to Education for Values
• Developing Values Consensus
• Role of Curriculum Developers
• Role of Teachers
–– Teachers’ Self and Identity
–– Pedagogical Approach
–– Leadership
–– Communication Skills
–– Teaching of Subjects
–– Evaluation
Let Us Sum up
Review Questions
References
Basics in Education
Introduction
You must have heard people lamenting about the erosion of
values in present-day society. The blame is, by and large, put
on the education system for not doing enough in this regard.
What is your opinion? Do you know that ever since formal
schooling started, educators like Sri Aurobindo, Mahatma
Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore, Dayanand Saraswati,
Vivekananda, Gijubhai Badheka, Zakir Husain and others
had continually argued for evolving an educational system
that would lead to personal development of individuals in
line with the cherished ‘ideals and values’ of the society.
It may be mentioned that education does not simply aim
at mental development of the person; rather it focuses on
his/her overall development including personal, social and
moral enhancement. Towards this end, the school curricula
are organised not only for learning languages, mathematics,
science, etc., but also for learning to live effectively and
peacefully with others in the family, the neighbourhood
and society. It may be pertinent to mention here that the
National Curriculum Framework–2005 identified certain
broad aims of education that include “independence of
thought and action, sensitivity to others’ wellbeing and
feelings, learning to respond to new situations in a flexible
and creative manner, predispositions toward participation in
democratic processes, and the ability to work towards and
contribute to economic processes and social change” (p. vii).
Thus acquisition of values is integral to the education system
and personal, social and moral developments are intertwined
inextricably with the aims of education. The development of
these characteristics is, however, influenced by the family
and social contexts. This chapter introduces you first to
the various challenges to education in India that retard
Activity 1
Organise a group discussion with your fellow students
and teachers to deliberate the role of school and
teaching practices for nurturing personal, social
and moral values among students? Prepare a list of
activities that school should initiate towards this end.
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potentials of the school to promote values. It further focuses

on adopting an integrated approach to education for values,
developing value consensus, role of curriculum developers,
organising schools activities, and so on.
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should able to:
1. identify the challenges that retard the value nurturing
potentials of schools;
2. explain the integrated and holistic approach to education
for values;
3. explore opportunities inherent in the curriculum for
developing values; and
4. appreciate your own role in organising activities/
curricula in schools for value education.
Challenges to Education for Values

You must have wondered why people, even those who are
highly educated, fail to behave in accordance with the social
and moral values. In this section we discuss some sources
for these variations. Of course, these sources seem to be
interconnected.
Complex Nature of Modern Society

Modern society is considered to be a complex one. You must
have observed variations in the life styles of people belonging
to different sections of society, particularly in respect of their
dress, food, eating habits, work, migration from one place
to another, and so on. These changes have taken place due
to uneven spread of opportunities, increase in earnings and
availability of leisure time that has been possible by greater
number of blue-collar jobs and technological development
(Singh, 2000). According to Singh (2000), these changes have
brought about cultural confusion. The prosperity among
middle class and city dwellers has attracted rural workers
to the cities and the marginalised sections of society are
seeking a share in the prosperity. These changes in society
have been changing social structure and composition of
communities by bringing rural and marginalised groups to
live with the urban population. The continuous flux into the
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cities, of new caste and regional groups coupled with the

influence of western culture and living style, has given rise
to melting of physical boundaries between groups thus far
living separately, following the rules of their own traditional
cultures. Now communities are much less homogenous with
regard to caste, income, social status, education, etc.
The fast changing social composition of communities has
changed the earlier social structure, order and relationships
among social groups. At the same time an increased
population has affected the pattern of consumption of
natural resources and industrial produce. There are pockets
of discontented populations without benefits of development,
as well as populations which are living in affluence. The
overall ethos of society is saturated with inequality which
generates prejudice to economic, employment, resources,
gender and caste related issues. The biases and hostilities,
though latent, do often trigger conflicts and violence. The
worst sufferers are children, women and the poor.
Activity 2
For a moment look at your neighbourhood and note
down the different kinds of people living together. Find
out similarities and differences among them.
Opportunities for Development

You will agree that with the expansion of schooling facilities
and introduction of schemes like free education, free supply
of books, mid-day meals, stipend for girl child, etc., the
opportunities for growth and development have been thrown
open to a group of people who, for a long period, were denied
such opportunities. Today, everyone in the society is looking
for upward movement, both socially and economically, and
education is considered to be the tool for this movement
(Gintis, 1996). As a result, the school going population has
increased tremendously. There is vast difference in the socio-
economic standards of children coming to school. This has
created tension in the education system. The first generation
learners, and learners from educationally and other backward
classes, are challenged by the cultural gap in the spoken
language, dress, interpersonal styles of interaction, food, etc.
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They experience all kinds of problems at the personal and

the institutional levels like social isolation, low achievement,
indiscipline, absenteeism, etc. Their participation in the
institutional life is half- hearted which vitiates the outcomes
of education, which in turn adversely affects its value
development potential as well. You need to find out ways
to the challenges posed by different kinds of populations
studying together in school?
Activity 3
• Think of your own experiences in the school where
the socio-economic gap and motivation for upward
mobility among different groups may have led to
challenges in education in values.
Value Priorities of Different Cultures

You must have observed differences in the value priorities
and practices of different social groups in the school. The
majority group, their language, dress, cultural practices, etc.
get visibility while others remain invisible which alienates
them to social issues and priorities agenda of the school.
These groups are gripped by insecurity and feel hurt due to
insensitivity of the majority group towards them who remains
indifferent (Dastidar, 2002). The frustration of the minority
is often expressed in the form of their non-cooperation. Have
you ever experienced being in minority, for instance, being in
a place, group or class where others are different from you and
particularly if they are not so friendly with you? The values
of cooperation, collaboration, brotherhood, secularism, etc.
loose their meaning in such experiential encounters. These
values appear impractical.
Changing Family Structure

The migration of population towards cities and metros has
brought about many changes in the family and the social
structure. Unitary families are slowly replacing the earlier
joint families. As a result, the time spent by parents and
adults with children has reduced. Earlier, the grand parents
and other older adults living together with children used warm
persuasive ways to discipline them which is missing in the
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modern busy life style where both the parents are working.
The quality of adult-child interaction has implications for the
ethical and moral development of children. Hurried parents,
having very little time to spend with children, have less chance to
influence and nurture attitudes of responsibility, compassion,
caring, and sensitivity to others among their children. The
pressure and anxiety generated among children, due to lack
of parental supervision and warmth, further works against
their learning of appropriate beliefs and attitudes towards
themselves, their responsibilities and work. The vacuum
created by the absence of older parents in the family has to
be filled and the school being the next important institution
in the life of children has to take up this responsibility.
parental Aspiration for children’s career

Yet another challenge to the value nurturing potential of
school education is posed by the parental anxiety and
aspirations for children’s career. The pressure and anxiety
that children experience due to parental expectations may
generate frustration and anger among them. This occasionally
erupts into conflict and violence, not only in the classrooms,
but also in the family and towards peers. It should be
remembered that the emphasis on examination and marks
may not necessarily result in quality learning. Those who
are not able to keep up with the expected achievement levels
may adapt to all kinds of unethical practices depriving the
individual of all values. Irrespective of all the emphasis on
values and effort to nurture the same, the stress and the
anxiety due to examinations sometimes leads to high drop
out of substantial school population.
Media
The mass-media, be it electronic, print or video, and even
the hoardings and displays on the roadside, pose problems
to the nurturance of values. Media is such an important
influence in our lives but we are not even aware of it. Do you
know why media influences us so much? It is because media
exposure takes place even when we are not very alert and
critical to its messages. When you are watching TV or seeing
posters, do you realise that there are values embedded in
those programmes, and a lot of messages get into our sub-
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consciousness and influence our behaviour to a great extent

(Anderson & Taylor, 2008). The images of pleasant people,
places, faces, dresses, etc., depicting their value systems,
such as extravagance and ostentatiousness, attract younger
and older generations alike. The influence particularly on
young generation is so strong that the messages capture
their fantasy and they are ready to indulge in negative acts to
enjoy the pleasures of such material things. Mobile, internet
and other kinds of media only add more fuel to the fire.
Systemic Factors
The challenges emerging from socio-economic, cultural,
environmental, and technological changes could be further
intensified by the factors implicit in the organisation of the
schools, their policies, practices and activities, attitudes of
the various personnel, teachers and the local community.
For instance, the school uniform policy that the girls wear
skirts may come in conflict with the cultural ethos of the
community. Similarly, the expectation that all students
must perform at a very high level in all subjects puts stress
on those for whom academic assistance is not available at
home. Another instance could be that some of the students
in the school are not from affluent background and can’t
afford expensive clothes and gadgets available with other
children which may lower their self-esteem. If attention is
not paid, these situations could further undo the potential
of the school to nurture values. The factors that challenge
the value nurturing capacity of the schools may lie in the
society but their identification, and school-based action in
this regard is the need of the hour.
Activity 4
Recall how did your school influence your life. Could
it have been different? What would you like to do to
make it better for future students?
The task before the school is not easy considering these

challenges but the entire society is currently pinning its hopes
on schools. The schools and education systems globally,
realising their responsibility, are engaged in deliberations
and innovations to face up to this task. As a teacher what you
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do? How your interactions and relationships in the school,

within the classroom, outside the classroom in morning
assemblies, on the sport field, in the laboratories or even
in the corridors, have inherent potential to nurture positive
attitudes of responsibility, discipline, self-development or
negligence, injustice and frustration among students?
Learning Check 1
1. What are the major aims of education?
2. Do you agree that modern society is a complex one?
Give arguments.
3. How do media retard the value development potential
of schools?
4. Describe the role of school factors in value development.
Integrated Approach to Education for

Values
Educationists have adopted a variety of approaches and
practices for nurturing values among children. These are
known by different names, such as character development,
citizenship education, human rights education, non-violence
education, etc. The National Curriculum Framework–2005
suggested adopting a holistic and integrated approach to
education for values. The term holistic has two connotations.
The first one is related to the individual. According to this,
individual development is multidimensional in nature,
i.e. the physical, intellectual, emotional, social and moral
developments, which are interrelated. An individual
progresses on most of these aspects simultaneously. It is
not feasible to progress exclusively in one domain without
at least some progress on others. Hence, the overall holistic
development has to be the target of efforts in education for
values. The second connotation relates to the environmental
context. The individual is situated in a social milieu and
her interaction with the family, teachers, schools, peers and
neighbours influences his/her personal development. It is
important to take cognizance of his/her entire familial and
community context in the process of education for values.
The integrated approach focuses on making conscious
efforts to embed values in the experiences occurring
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everywhere in the school. The efforts for value education must

also include family and the community. The organisation
of the entire school system promotes values. The school
culture, its policies, the logo, the symbols, the physical
spaces, teachers’ own behaviour and pedagogical strategies,
classroom practices, evaluation system, etc., all have to be
scrutinised with regard to the values propagated by them.
Every subject has values and attitudes implicit in its content
and has implication for developing values. The pedagogical
practices, teachers’ own attitudes and values, and her skills
of handling students’ queries, concerns, conflicts, etc., have
to be transformed for quality outcomes in respect of learning
of content and values. The physical spaces – library, staff
room, principal’s room, etc., in the school; its discipline,
policies, classroom practices, etc. all are important for
learning of values.
The whole school approach to nurturing values is
preferred, in place of separate subject or activity based
approach. The underlying premise is that all events,
exchanges and interactions taking place in the school, inside
or outside the classroom, should draw attention towards
value-based behaviour. For instance, if teachers adopt a
caring and flexible attitude towards students, they will also
imbibe such attitude towards each other. The whole school
approach envisages participation of all personnel connected
with the school including parents, local community and
student communities and enlisting their cooperation in school
governance, decision making, particularly with regard to
physical facilities on the campus, curriculum implementation,
etc. Even though school policies are determined by the
State and administrative machinery, yet there is scope and
opportunity, within the constraints of these policies, to give
space to students to develop participatory school culture.
The key player in this regard is the teacher who influences
students and the school ethos in innumerable ways.
The task of organising school activities for development of
values is a creative and reflective exercise. It involves revisiting
the school curriculum, physical resources, the processes and
identifying opportunities which could tremendously influence
students’ value orientation. Teachers should make efforts to
infuse and reinforce values that are commensurate with the
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textual material taught in the school and the developmental

stages of children.
The following text from National Curriculum

Framework– 2005 (p. 63) shows that values should
not be taught in the school. Instead, entire school
activities should be organised in ways that lead
to value development. “Teaching values has often
meant exhortations about desirable behaviour. It has
also meant the suppression and denial of ‘improper’
and ‘unacceptable’ feelings and desires. This often
leads children to hide their own real feelings, desires,
thoughts and convictions and simply pay lip service
to moral values and ideals, without making any
commitment.”
Learning Check 2
1. What is the meaning of an integrated approach?
2. Physical spaces of the school, like library,
playground, corridors, etc. influence learning and
imbibe values. Do you agree with this statement?
List suggestions for using these spaces for
promoting Education for Values in your school.
3. Opportunities for inculcating values are hidden in
the school routine and discipline. Explain.
Developing Values Consensus

As you have read in Chapter 9, there are a host of personal,
social and moral values. People (students, teachers, others)
might come up to the school with different sets of values.
They may also differently mention the priority among these
values. Now, the challenge before the school is to develop
a consensus about the values to be developed among the
students. The National Curriculum Framework–2005, taking
guidelines from the Constitution, gives priority to the values
of democracy, equality, secularism, justice, multiculturalism,
human rights, etc. Despite this, the issue of which values
are worth pursuing has never been taken as settled by the
education system and educators.
The values, attitudes and skills needed to behave in
accordance with the good, social and moral conduct could
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create an endless list. It would be an arduous task to put

these together and classify them. There would always be
something left out. For instance, Constitutional values of
equality, justice, secularism, freedom, respect for human
rights and responsibilities, environment, etc., may seem
complete. But advocates of civic responsibilities would like
to add values such as honesty, cooperation, compassion,
courtesy, integrity, responsibility, self-discipline, respect,
tolerance, obeying law and order, etc. The proponents
of religion emphasise respect for tradition and cultural
practices.
The diverse sources of values like the Constitution,
citizenship in a civilised society, democracy, religion, moral
and ethical conduct are emphasised by the different groups
of people. At the institutional level clarity needs to be created
about how these values are not discrete but linked with each
other through a set of attitudes and beliefs. For instance, an
individual with a sense of responsibility will be responsible
towards others, his/her work, environment, law and order,
family members, etc. Hence the value of responsibility
overlaps with attitudes of responsibility as a citizen and
responsibility towards work. But institutions can draw their
own priority of values depending on their experiences. Since
our Constitution emphasises on secularism as an accepted
principal, the education policy accordingly stresses on
secular values.
Associated with the plurality of values is also the question
of how to translate implications of these values for school
experiences. The curriculum articulates the experiences to
be organised for students through the subject contents and
materials. But other factors like school policies, teachers’
orientation, disciplinary practices, classroom practices,
etc., are important and may create a wide gap between the
educational goals and actual outcomes. Hence, the role of
curriculum developers broadens. They have to reflect upon
the influence of these factors on students and provide
guidelines for the orientation of policies with regard to
practices which promote positive discipline, participation
of all children irrespective of their abilities, class and caste
diversities, creative decision making to utilise resources and
motivate staff, teachers, students and parents.
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Activity 5
Observe a few schools and prepare a list of values that
the schools attempt to inculcate among the students.
Note down the activities and sources of such values.
Role of Curriculum Developers

The curriculum needs to provide guidelines for schools and
different stakeholders for structuring curricular experiences
in ways that focus on values. These guidelines must be related
to the subject content, organisation of schools, pedagogical
approaches, and role of teachers, identity and leadership.
The guidelines must include suggestions for teachers to
make explicit the objectives of learning different curricular
subjects, and the need to highlight the attitudes and values
inherent in the subjects’ content. The guidelines must also
caution against making education for values too prescriptive
and didactic. Guidelines should also suggest ways and means
(games and activities) by which students can arrive at these
value conclusions themselves instead of being prescribed at
the beginning of the chapter. However, despite highlighting
these goals, the actual practice of teaching-learning may still
fall short of desired goals. The values related objectives of
content need to be highlighted. The guidelines may be directed
at all the functionaries at all levels. It is to be understood that
the role of teacher, the key player at school level, is delimited
by the way policies are understood and implemented by the
middle level administrators.
Activity 6
Prepare a draft guideline, in consultation with
classmates, for organisation of value-related activities
in the schools.
Role of Teachers
The teachers play an important role in nurturing values in
the schools. Apart from the pedagogical approach, teachers’
leadership qualities and their relationships with students,
other teachers, principal, staff members, parents, and
community all constitute areas of influence on development
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of values among students. Teachers’ relations with others

are influenced by many factors, such as his/her self and
identity, attitudes, leadership style, and communication
skills. These factors are discussed in the following sections.
Teachers’ Self and Identity

The self and identity of teachers has probably the strongest
influence on their interactions and relationships with others.
The self refers to the sum of all the perceptions that one
holds about oneself, such as I am a teacher, I am a Muslim,
I am efficient, I like to teach or not to teach, I am honest,
and so on. Depending upon the strength and quality of these
perceptions (positive or negative), the self develops negatively
or positively. The negative self is expressed in behaviours like
lack of trust in one’s own ability and that of others, absence of
caring and helpful attitudes, inability to take responsibility,
lack of perseverance on tasks, and so on. The positive self is
the opposite of all the above. A sound and healthy sense of
self is enabling. It bestows openness, flexibility, motivation,
caring, respectful and creative attitudes in the individual.
A positive person is likely to be less aggressive, prejudiced,
obstinate and frustrated. It may be remembered that self and
identity are crucial, for not only promotion of values among
students, but more importantly, for the effectiveness of one’s
own behaviour and relationships at home, at work, and in
other contexts.
Activity 7
What are your immediate thoughts and feelings when
you are angry, frustrated or unkind to others? Note
your immediate thoughts. Reflect upon them.
To begin with, it would be worthwhile to examine your

perceptions, attitudes and beliefs about yourself – your
abilities and socio-emotional qualities. Are these positive?
What is your identity? It helps to reflect, for instance, on
“What attitudes we hold towards our strengths, weaknesses,
beliefs about our own family, work, colleagues, etc.,? Are
these negative or positive?” Whatever be the direction of
these attitudes, it is important to analyse why these are so?
We have to critically examine if these beliefs hamper our
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relationships with others, and our ability to resolve conflicts.

Why it is sometimes easy to resolve conflicts with some
people, but not with others. We can easily connect with those
similar to us. On the other hand, people who are different in
terms of caste, language, region, colour, gender, etc., appear
distant. In order to establish healthy social relationships
with colleagues, principal, students, parents and staff, one
has to learn to accept others – even those different from us.
Healthy ‘self’ development and social relationships contribute
to happiness and well-being.
An important strategy that helps in development of ‘self’
is regular, daily reflection on one’s experiences – positive or
negative. Reflection is most effective when accompanied by
writing down the experiences, feelings, and conclusions of
daily life. Regularity of reflection helps in developing insights
into the beliefs we hold toward others and the way these
affect our behaviour. The insights enable us to overcome
attitudinal barriers and develop self-esteem and positivity,
which in turn would enable us to become effective in our work
and strengthen relationships with others – fellow teachers,
students, principal and parents.
Pedagogical Approach
The approach to teaching is influenced by the teacher’s
attitudes toward children and toward teaching. The implicit
assumptions about ‘how children learn?’, ‘who is a child’ and
‘what are their psycho-social characteristics?’, inform our
teaching-learning practices. For example, if one believes that
children are innocent and it is the lack of parental guidance
that causes lapses in their development, one would try to
influence parents. The belief that children are basically wild
and they need to be punished to control would influence the
teachers’ behaviour accordingly.
The traditional approach to teaching assumed that
children learnt by listening to knowledgeable adults. As a
result, the traditional approach of teaching focused on
content or giving a lot of information. In such case, it is the
teacher who does most of the talking in the class. It is one
way communication, occasionally interrupted with a question
or two, posed by the students. Though the students are
active observers, their observations and experiences are not
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capitalised upon in traditional teaching, neither the errors

in their work and thought get corrected. Students in such
a situation carry on with their erroneous observations and
beliefs. In contrast, the contemporary approach to learning
considers students as partners in the teaching-learning
process. They learn by constructing knowledge based on
assimilation of the concepts, correct or incorrect, in their
experiences. If opportunities are not provided to them to share
their learning and receive feedback, the expected learning
may not occur and this has implications for learning of
attitudes and values. Therefore, it is important that teachers
allow students to raise questions and doubts in the class not
only about the subject matter but also about other issues.
The issues raised by them reveal their attitudes. Teachers
have to be vigilant to the way students’ attitudes develop.
Let us take an example. The art teacher gave home work to
the students and asked them to prepare a model. The student
who got maximum marks had not made the model himself.
One student Raman dared to confront the teacher. He said,
“Sir, I made the model all alone, whereas Sohan’s brother,
who is much older, made the model.” The teacher said, “I
can’t do anything about this. His model is better so he gets
better marks.” The dilemma before the teacher and student
in the above example is not simple enough to be summarily
rejected. What would be the effect of teacher’s comment
on Raman? How the dilemma is resolved is an important
aspect of teacher’s pedagogic strategy to reward the process
of learning, perseverance, and the hard work. Mostly it is the
outcome that gets rewarded which forces some students to
adopt unethical ways to get success. The teacher has to stay
involved with students, their backgrounds, strengths and
limitations. This is possible through constructivist approach
to teaching. The way teachers handle the queries of students
could also influence their beliefs.
Activity 8
Observe a class and note down what happens in the
class. Find out the method of teaching adopted by the
teacher. Reflect on its implication for development of
attitudes and values among the students.
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Leadership
A teacher has to provide effective leadership to the students
within and outside the school. They could guide students to
manage their work and conduct in ways to avoid punishment
and criticism from teachers and parents, and work
effectively towards their educational goals. They could invite
participation of students in formulating classroom policies,
discipline and work schedule which would enable them to
relate warmly with students. Students would be motivated to
cooperate and follow established rules. Students could also
be involved in reflection on aberrations in policy or classroom
discipline or poor achievement or any other concerns and
device ways to deal with those problems with a positive frame
of mind.
Communication Skills
Communication skills influence interactions and relationships
a teacher could develop with the principal, students, staff,
and occasionally with the community. The quality of these
interactions affects the teacher’s efficiency as well. These
relationships impact not only students, but also the teacher’s
own mental health. The two most important communication
skills that she/he needs to possess are listening skills and
responding skills. Listening involves paying attention to what
the other person is saying, the verbal as well as non verbal
content of the communication. After listening, the teacher needs
to respond to the queries of students in an appropriate way.
Teaching of Subjects
Values are inherent in the subject content. During teaching
the subjects, teachers could make explicit the values inherent
in the content. All the subjects like science, social sciences,
languages, etc., are connected with real life and each one
has immense potential to convey values. The real purpose of
teaching these subjects is to understand their implications
in real life situations, including value inculcation. Integrated
approach to teaching values is more likely to enable students
to imbibe them. For instance, while learning History, the
students may critically examine the way perceptions of
different people about the same historical facts vary, and the
personal biases and prejudices that create different versions.
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Activity 9
1. Next time when you are in conversation with
others, observe yourself. Are you listening and
paying attention to the speaker or are lost in own
thoughts?
2. Do you want to improve your listening skills?
When you are talking with others – your friends,
acquaintances, strangers, etc. notice your own
thoughts. Write them down in your diary and reflect
upon them. Pay attention to your own and others’
non-verbal expressions during conversation.
There are innumerable opportunities for the teachers to

highlight values during teaching. For example, learning to
write letters in language classes need not be about imaginary
issues; rather, these should be about real issues facing
students in school, such as writing letter to the teachers
to alter classroom rules that are unjust. Language learning
must facilitate the expression of their grouses in polite and
inoffensive language using ‘I’ messages rather than ‘You’.
We could also help them understand how our messages, full
of negative vocabulary, generate anger and annoyance in
others. Students should be helped to enlarge their vocabulary
of positive, polite and happy words and expressions. In
addition, as a language teacher we could elaborate relevant
portions of textual materials to highlight how language
generates different feelings. By altering our usage of language
(i.e. appropriate vocabulary, tone and tenor), we could create
positive feelings.
The other set of opportunities arise in the questions and
queries of students regarding the subject content. When the
teacher deals with the queries of students, it holds promise of
bringing reflection on the values implicit in the subject content.
For example, the students may ask questions like, “How
will learning about chemical equations at secondary stage
benefit me at a senior secondary stage if I choose commerce
or humanity courses?” or “How will the knowledge of ‘Set’
in mathematics help me understand real life questions and
problems of mathematics?” The questions students raise are
endless like, “Geography teaches us about climate, weather
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and soil, etc. of different places, I am not likely to go to these

places, then how am I affected by this knowledge?” or “What
does it matter whether Jehangir lived before Humayun?”, and
so on. Due to lack of time or failure to realise the importance
of engaging students, teachers sometimes brush aside these
comments politely or angrily. Implicit in these questions are
opportunities for teachers to connect with students, motivate
them, and understand their difficulties in the subject or even
their personal problems. The task of teaching could shift
to learning when students understand the real objective of
studying these subjects and also to understand the value
underpinnings. For instance, understanding of geography
develops awareness of the individual about multicultural
ethos of our land and its people – their different dresses,
food habits, rituals, customs, festivals, living spaces, etc.,
as well as internationalism. Chemistry helps us understand
our relationship with the inorganic and organic world – the
substances in the environment – like food, air, water, etc.
and insight into leading a healthy disease free life.
The efforts of the teacher and the time spent in the
discussion or observation sessions mentioned above are not
wasted rather they facilitate students’ understanding, interest
and motivation. But, first, one has to believe in one’s own
pedagogical style, develop skills in organising discussions,
and motivate students’ participation. In order to elicit doubts
and help participation of all the students, teachers’ own
qualities like confidence, self-esteem and patience assume
importance. Entertaining students’ doubts and queries
is possible only when a teacher has a high sense of self-
esteem, or else a teacher may feel threatened. In addition to
entertaining the queries of the students, there is also need
to have patience to observe the gradual but subtle changes
taking place in students’ behaviour as a result of these
discussions, which are manifested in their increasing interest
and engagement with the subject. Initially, participation of
all the students may not be equally enhanced but gradually
change would become visible, if sustained efforts are made.
In order to assess these changes and feel satisfaction with our
efforts it is important to understand and carry out evaluation
of these changes.
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Evaluation
Evaluation of values is different from evaluation of any other
ability or learning. It poses problems as impact of values
on behaviour takes time to become visible and may not be
expressed at a time convenient for observation by others,
particularly teachers. The students may report inculcation
of values but real behaviour may or may not reflect the same.
For example, a child may believe in cleanliness but due to
certain impediments at home his personal appearance may
not reflect it. It is an internal assimilation of values that we
are interested in here.
Another problem that value assessment poses is that a
child could be caught in a dishonest act by chance; he/she
is labelled dishonest. All others who were with him or her do
not get caught, such a child will get stigma and humiliation
which is counterproductive to learning of values. There are
still other issues that argue against evaluation of the values
of students. For instance, a child who is not exposed to
values of courtesy, politeness, discipline at home will take
longer to learn. So, it is not fair to compare him with others,
and award less marks during assessment of values which
will be de-motivating.
In view of the above, it is not desirable to evaluate or rank
students. However, it is important to evaluate school ethos,
school policies, discipline, and classroom practices. The
evaluation has to focus on “what efforts are being made?, are
these efforts sufficient?, do they facilitate the development of
values among students?”, etc. The underlying assumption is
that an environment imbued with values is likely to nurture
values, subtly but surely.
The evaluation would require systematic data collection
on efforts made for nurturing identified values such as
cleanliness, health and physical fitness, self development,
work ethics and cooperation, non-violence in verbal and
non-verbal behaviour, respect for life and nature, etc. The
school policies and practices, for instance, special notices
on school bulletin board on maintenance of cleanliness in
the school and classrooms, and also personal cleanliness
or provision of resources for cleanliness, recognition for
maintaining cleanliness, creation of clubs on art, music,
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yoga, for recreation, mentoring responsibilities by teachers,

etc. may be documented for assessment. Another action could
be replacement of punishment by a system of recognition
for good conduct. Reminders, policy statements, monitoring
mechanisms and recognition systems, developed and put
into action, all may be taken stock of for documentation.
Teachers’ orientation with respect to the efforts for nurturing
values and their role in the process, etc. are examples of
actions taken by school which could also be documented for
assessment of values. Any changes reported by teachers,
parents, principal and students may also be recorded.
These actions would not bring results in a day, week or
month but if pursued with regularity and consistency over
a period of time, achievement would become visible. There
should not be humiliation, violence, ridicule or corporal
punishment for not following values but constructive,
productive and socially useful positive reinforcement may
be considered. In the name of value education the cultural
practices of any one culture may not be thrust on other
communities.
It is important that the efforts initiated for value nurturance
are assessed and documented from time to time by the
Principal and a separate committee of teachers, parents and
students is constituted for the purpose. The committee has
to include parents and students, and their participation and
involvement in the process is very necessary for the success
of such a programme.
Let Us Sum Up
In this chapter you were introduced to the fact that conscious
efforts for promotion of values through school education have
been made for a long time. The reason values nurturance
falls short of expectation lies in the challenges posed by a
number of factors in societal structures, and complexity due
to socio-economic, cultural and technological developments,
aspirations of people, and the media. The integrated and
holistic approach to education for values, advocated by
NCERT, was elaborated. At the school level the process starts
with developing value consensus, and identification and
development of the opportunities for value education in the
244
given curriculum. The teachers’ own self/identity and their

role in the process of value education is of great significance.
Finally, you have read that the evaluation of values is an
intricate process and needs to be done with care.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Mention three important aims of education?
2. List out factors that challenge education for value
development?
3. Describe the integrated approach to value education?
4. What are the various sources of values?
5. Mention three important roles of curriculum developers
in the context of value education?
6. How can school discipline be organised for promotion of
values?
7. How can ‘Self’ or ‘Identity’ be a source of conflict or
peace?
8. Mention diverse pedagogical approaches for nurturing
values.
9. Why value assessment should not be done for students?
10. How best assessment of value education programmes
could be carried out?
Anderson, M.L., and Taylor, H.F. 2008. Sociology. Wadsworth
Publishing Company, Belmont.
Dastidar, M. 2002. Minority Identity and Intergroup Differences
in Plural Societies: A Study of Political Response Towards
Majoritarian Discourses in India. www.open.ac.UK/Arts/
gips/delhi02/destigor.
Gintis, H. 1996. School Choice: The Issues and the Options.
Prospects, XXVI, 631-642.
NCERT. 2005. Education for Peace. Position Paper of National
Focus Group, New Delhi.
——. 2005. National Curriculum Framework–2005. NCERT,
New Delhi.
——. 2012. Education for Values in Schools- A Framework,
NCERT, New Delhi.
Singh, Y. 2000. Cultural Change in India. Rawat Publications,
Jaipur.
245
Chapter 11
Values in the Emerging

Social Context
STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Perspectives on Values
–– The Emerging Social Context in India
–– Some Important Values
• Value Conflicts in Schools
• Education and Values
• Transforming Values through Education
–– The Curriculum
–– The School and Classroom Environment
–– The Teaching-Learning Process
–– Evaluation/Assessment
• Peace for All
Let Us Sum up
Suggestions for Further Reading
Values in the Emerging Social Context
Introduction
Box 1
Student: Ma’am I do not want to work in this
group. Can I please request you to put
me in some other group?
Teacher: Why child? I believe you are in one of the
best groups. Why do you want to change
your group?
Student: Ma’am because I do not feel comfortable
working with ‘X’
Teacher: Is there any issue between the two of
you?
Student: No Ma’am. We hardly talk. I feel
uncomfortable because of his religion.
The conversation reported in Box 1 illustrates a student’s

honesty of purpose and intent. It suggests the presence of
‘truthfulness’ in the student, which is often considered as a
core or universal value. At the same time, the conversation
highlights the student’s discomfort and apprehension
in working with another student belonging to a different
religion. This suggests ‘lack of appreciation’ of an important
social value called ‘secularism’. How would you as a teacher
respond to the above situation? Would you appreciate and be
happy about the presence of truthfulness in the student at
the cost of the student’s inability to accept a person of a social
group different than his/her own? Such types of conflicting
situations often take place in the life of a teacher and he/
she has to make a choice that would influence the future
course of action. Indeed, values are significantly involved in
various kinds of social interactions and it is relevant for the
teacher to understand the nature and dynamics of values in
the contemporary social context.
Today the concept of value is no longer limited to religious,
spiritual, moral or ethical domain. It is all pervading and
defines the goals and preferences a person lives with through
his/her life. Since human life is organised at physical, social,
and spiritual levels, our participation in the society demands
diverse activities in different contexts. Values as a binding
force connect our commitments, investments, and actions.
In essence, they codify the ideals and aspirations that
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people endorse. They are embedded in and sustained by the

meanings, practices, and artefacts present in people’s culture.
This can be easily observed if we visit places of different
historical periods and examine writings, sculptures and other
artefacts. They amply document the imprints of the values
prevailing during various historical periods. Therefore, it is
reasonable to assume that the kind of values a person holds
is to a great extent influenced by the particular culture and
social context he/she lives in. The various social institutions
and cultural practices nurture certain values and prioritise
them. It is, however, to be noted that the relationship
between culture and values is bi-directional. While culture,
on the one hand, shapes value development, the values of
people also influence the development of cultural artefacts,
on the other. This chapter discusses the two-way interaction
between values and society and their relationship with the
processes of education.
Objectives
• describe diverse perspectives on values;
• explain the effect of value conflicts on the school system;
• elucidate the role of education in transforming values;
and
• explicate the role of school system in nurturing the value
of peace.
Perspectives on Values
You have read in Chapter 9 that values are those broad
ideas and notions that a person or a group carries regarding
what is ‘good’, ‘correct’ and ‘desirable’. They are socially
accepted as ideals and direct personal and social conduct of
the people. Values are often shared by most of the members
of a society. So, there are group perceptions about the
desirability of things which get converted into values. Thus,
group perceptions of desirability result into formulations of
values. These notions and ideas of desirable and undesirable
is largely a matter of belief. You may also observe values
acting as guiding principles for persons and society. That
is, values, to a great extent, direct and shape a person’s
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behaviour and a society’s attitude toward various issues and

objects. This characteristic of values makes them normative
in nature. Values act as norms for individuals living in a
society who usually abide by them for seeking social approval
and participating as important members of the group or
community. The norms inherent in values guide our actions
and direct the choices that we make. Values, thus, can also
be seen as bases for various decisions and choices made by
an individual.
The notion of values has been of great concern to the
Indian people. The ancient concept of purushartha represents
a scheme of four comprehensive categories of values i.e.
Dharma (moral-ethical value), Artha (economic value), Kama
(hedonistic value), and Moksha (spiritual value). In all these
values dharma is central. It involves the life principle that
maintains life and connects all aspects of life. Elaborations of
dharma by Indian thinkers suggest that it involves observing
moral values encompassing nonviolence, truth, non-stealing,
cleanliness, self-control, non-anger, etc. It situates human
beings in the natural habitat in a sustainable relationship.
Learning Check 1
1. Explain briefly ‘normative’ nature of values.
2. Discuss the Indian notion of values.
In everyday life a variety of

meanings are associated with the
term value. Each meaning is equally
important and justifies itself through
the philosophical position it belongs.
There are several intrinsic and
instrumental values put forward by
prominent thinkers. The values range
from economic opportunism, making
profits, democratic citizenship,
critical reflection, and independent
Rabindranath Tagore
moral thinking. In Rabindranath
Tagore’s vision of education the ‘moral man’ is placed above
the ‘commercial man’, but education that promotes economic
success and benefits is not devalued.
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Basics in Education
Mahatma Gandhi laid great

emphasis on moral and spiritual
values and stressed the importance
of character building as a moral ideal.
He gave importance to ‘truth’ and
‘non violence’. He also acknowledged
democratic values and believed that
welfare of the individual and the
nation are complementary to each
other. As aptly put by Gandhiji “A
nation cannot advance without
the units of which it is composed Mahatma Gandhi
is advancing, and conversely, no individual can advance
without the nation of which it is a part is also advancing.”
The idea that values are nothing but the religious and
spiritual principles of life, assumes that there is a path laid
for the life journey of each individual and each individual’s
responsibility is to follow that path and achieve the ultimate
aim of God-realisation. Salvation or freedom from bondage
is considered an important virtue in the scheme of religious
and spiritual values. Contrarily, the position that science and
technology define today’s world, the very importance given to
values comes into question. Science and technology both are
held as value neutral. There is another group that believes
in modernisation but subscribes to some values associated
with a modern and developing State, such as democracy,
secularism, equality, and so on.
THE EMERGING SOCIAL CONTEXT IN INDIA

The importance of values and need for the inculcation of
values can be understood in the light of value crisis as a
global phenomenon of recent times. As Bhardwaj (2005)
rightly observed, the rapid scientific growth and technological
advancements, resulting in industrialisation, materialism,
and consumerism, have threatened the traditional agrarian
moral standards. This atmosphere of valuelessness is leading
to disintegration, at the same time significant progress is
registered in certain fields. Bhardwaj mentions a quote by
Nietzsche where he remarked, “When a tree grows up to
heaven, its roots reach down to hell.” If attention is not paid
to values, deterioration might lead to disastrous results and
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might lead to disintegration of the social order. It is high

time, therefore, to rise to action and make conscious efforts
to promote values in personal and social lives.
Like all other societies of world, the questions of values
and their inculcation and promotion have been of a significant
concern for India too. The resurgence of concern for values, as
currently witnessed, is something that is shared by everybody
across all segments of society including the common man,
policy makers, teachers, writers, and industrialists. It is
happening against the backdrop of an ethos characterised by
violence, alienation, corruption, dishonesty, social tension,
discrimination, and atrocities on various groups (e.g., women,
children, poor minorities, weaker sections) (Misra, 2006).
It is important to realise that the loss of sensitivity to
values seriously hampers the process of national development
and also in some sense demolishes the faith of masses and
shatters the ideals of those great national leaders who fought
the freedom struggle and nurtured the spirit of democracy.
You read in the earlier chapter that the Constitution of India
lays the firm foundation of a sovereign, socialist, secular and
democratic republic. It promises to secure for all citizens:
social, economic and political justice; liberty of thought,
expression, faith, belief and worship; equality of status
and of opportunity; fraternity, assuming the dignity of the
individual; and the unity and integrity of the nation. All these
provisions along with the supremacy of the judiciary are the
cornerstones of peace and harmony in social life. India has
witnessed a number changes owing to various legislative
measures (e.g. reduction in age for voting, Right to Free and
Compulsory Education Act 2009, Panchayati Raj, Right to
Information, introduction of economic reforms, building of
infrastructure and revolution of ICT, and so on). However, the
benefits of these developments have not reached equally to
the different segments of the hierarchically organised Indian
society. The gaps in socio-economic development persist and
a large section, particularly from the marginalised groups
and communities, is still living life below the poverty line.
The systemic hassles, obsolete laws, and rising aspirations
have arrested the pace of progress. The result is rise in
dissatisfaction, conflict, corruption, and opportunism.
Also, there are large-scale changes due to globalisation and
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privatisation. Indeed, the social life in India is undergoing

significant changes.
In the present day highly complex and dynamic scenario,
India’s portrait of unity in diversity requires concrete
measures to promote social life on the basis of egalitarian
and democratic principles. H.S. Srivastava (2004) has
drawn attention to the Fundamental Duties enshrined in
the Indian Constitution in the light of two key values, i.e.
peace and harmony. These Fundamental Duties among
other things make it the duty of every Indian citizen: (a) to
uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of
India; (b) to promote harmony and a spirit of brotherhood;
(c) to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
(d) to protect and improve the natural environment; (e) to
have compassion for all living creatures; and (f) to develop
a scientific temper and a spirit of enquiry and reform.
By implication these provisions negate discrimination,
sectarianism, obscurantism, superstition, and violence.
Activity 1
Organise a group discussion to find out how values
inherent in the Indian Constitution promote peace
and harmony? Indicate specific provisions made.
SOME IMPORTANT VALUES

Appreciating that the values are inherent in indigenous
Indian thought and realising their significance for education
against the backdrop of current realisation of value crisis
makes it imperative to identify core values that should be
transmitted to children. The National Policy on Education
(1986) and National Curriculum Framework (2005), therefore,
spelt out certain guidelines, about values that shall be
promoted in children. According to these guidelines the
values worth inculcation are: appreciation for India’s cultural
heritage; equality of sexes; protection of the environment;
egalitarianism, democracy and secularism; Constitutional
obligations; nurturance of national identity; observance of the
small family norms; removal of social barriers; appreciation
for India’s freedom movement; inculcation of scientific
temper; human rights including rights of the child, especially
of girl child; and inculcation of personal and social values
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such as cleanliness, compassion, truthfulness, integrity,

responsibility, justice, respect for law and order, courage and
the values cherished for the functioning of democracy. A brief
description of some of the key values seems to be in order.
Democracy
As described in the earlier chapter, democracy refers to the
power of the people. According to Aristotle, democracy is a
“government by many.” The Greek word corresponding to
democracy suggested a system in which ‘the people’ performed
‘the ruling’. Democracy has a very close relationship with
education. The principles of democracy like liberty, equality,
fraternity, dignity of the individual, cooperation, sharing
responsibility, etc., are critical processes which deeply
influence the processes of education. On the other hand,
education at various stages and dimensions intrinsically
motivates a democratic way of life. Democratic values or
principles are applied to the whole range of activities in
imparting education to make it more effective, meaningful,
relevant, and useful. Similarly, without education of the
masses democracy cannot be a success. As individuals of a
civilised society, people ought to know their rights and duties
as citizens. This is a must for functioning on a democratic
pattern. Democracy in order to be a reality and a way of life
has to be introduced from the very beginning of education
and its values practised in schools and colleges. The spirit
of democracy, if practised, can immensely encourage an
accountable and participative style of functioning.
Activity 2
Think of the various ways through which schools can
promote and inculcate the values of democracy in
children.
Egalitarianism
Understanding democracy requires an understanding of
the basic premises of the Indian Constitution as well. The
Preamble to the Constitution distinctly embodies egalitarian
values. It should be noted that the relationship between
education and egalitarian values is bi-directional. Equality
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Basics in Education
for all can be ensured by providing equal opportunities to all

in the process of imparting education. Universal access to
education does not guarantee satisfaction only on account
of equal opportunity. Rather, it also entails equal conditions
for success. Similarly, education, through the contents and
methods followed, can play an important role in reflecting
the need and importance of Constitutional values of equality,
equity, and social justice. A teacher shall always try to set
examples of practising egalitarian values.
Secularism
Secularism is a modern value that implies equality and equity
and discards any kind of social or religious stratification
or differentiation. The concept thus entails tolerance for
all religions, castes and all kinds of social diversity. At
the same time, it upholds communal harmony as one of
the core concerns. This leads to a two-fold understanding
of secularism. Secularism implies not only disjunction of
religion and politics but also recognises religion as a private
and individual affair of a person. The Indian society is a
plural society with many religions, castes, tribes, languages,
and cultures. For India to survive, our society has to be
based on the principles of secularism. Donald Eugene Smith
(1963) explains the notion of secularism as follows: “The
Secular state guarantees individual and corporate freedom of
religion, deals with the individual as a citizen irrespective of
his religion. It is not constitutionally connected to a particular
religion nor does it seek to either promote or interfere with
any religion” (p. iv).
Two of the great Indian leaders, Mahatma Gandhi and
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, were principal advocates of
secularism. Their ideology of secularism was based on
commitment to the principles of brotherhood and truth, and
respect for all individuals. They practised these values and
set examples before the people. Pandit Nehru was a leading
supporter of the concept of the secular state. His proposal
and efforts for making India a secular state is acknowledged
as one of his greatest achievements. He disliked any kind of
relation between religion and politics. He wanted to transform
India into a Nation State that would embrace people of all
castes and religions without any discrimination.
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Education, therefore, shall endeavour for the promotion

and inculcation of secularism as one of its aims. John Dewey
sees school as a miniature society. Thus, foundation of a
secular society can be laid down in the school.
It, thus, becomes a crucial concern for schools to view
education as a process of ‘becoming’. Education shall take
into account all round development of children including
engaged citizenship. It shall not be viewed as an end in itself,
rather as a means to an end. Teachers can play a ground
breaking role in promoting values of secularism by creating
relevant opportunities and encouraging children of different
castes, communities and religions to celebrate, appreciate,
and respect each others’ festivals, cultural practices and
ways of life. Such activities, if done genuinely, can establish
and nurture cordial feelings among people belonging to
different cultural backgrounds. It is also critical for the
smooth functioning of the school because differences, if not
understood adequately, may lay seeds of ethnocentrism and
prejudice. All this may ultimately render differences into
deficits and lead to social conflicts.
Learning Check 2
1. What do the National Policy on Education and the
National Curriculum Framework say about values?
2. What do you understand by ‘Secularism’? Explain
with the help of an example.
3. How are education and egalitarianism related?
Discuss in the light of specific examples.
Value Conflicts in Schools

Conflict is defined by Fisher (1990) as incompatibility of
goals or values between two or more parties in a relationship,
combined with attempts to control each other and
antagonistic feelings. Conflicts can occur in almost all kinds
of interpersonal or social circumstances. Daniel Katz (1965)
created a typology that distinguishes three main sources of
conflicts: economic, value, and power. Economic conflicts
would involve competing motives to attain scarce resources;
value conflict would involve incompatibility in ways of life,
ideologies, preferences, principles and practices that people
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believe in; and power conflict would occur when each party
would like to maintain or maximise the amount of influence
that it can exert on others in a social setting. In today’s world,
consumerism and competition are becoming key drivers in
life and promote individualist spirit in which everyone is
trying to maximise his or her gain irrespective of its cost in
terms of the consequences for the well-being of others.
Activity 3
Think of examples of economic, value, and power
conflicts. Discuss it with fellow students.
The above situation poses a challenge in the process of

the development of values which takes place in the context
of family, school, electronic and print media (e.g. TV, cinema,
video games, internet, newspapers, magazines), customs,
and traditions of a society. Values are often communicated
and demonstrated by the elders and the people in positions
of influence and power. Observation and modelling become
the most important sources of value inculcation. Children
often learn through enculturation or living in a particular
setting and being constantly exposed to certain patterns of
behaviours. Today consumerism and violence, aggression,
and money are occupying a prominent place in the media.
Also, people are becoming present- oriented and evaluate
things in terms of immediate monitory gain.
With the multiple value systems arising out of divergent
preferences and desirability, it is expected that school, a
miniature of society, would serve as a potential ground for
emergence and escalation of value conflicts. It is found that
the social spaces in the schools often become sites for value
conflicts. These value conflicts can arise from differences in
the practices and preferences of teachers and students and
the diverse family backgrounds from which the children come.
Thus differences may occur between teachers and students
and between one group of students and another group. It
becomes highly critical, thus, to understand the implications
and consequences of the varied patterns of value conflicts in
school settings.
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The diversity in classroom in terms of various social

markers such as caste, class, gender, age, community,
religion, socio-economic status (SES), if not dealt with
properly, can lead to serious value conflicts in schools. The
way we think and feel about these differences and diversities
exhibits the values endorsed by us. The news items in
national dailies illustrate how continuous reinforcement
of materialism, economic prosperity, and individualism go
against the norms for human dignity and lead to conflicts
that result in prejudice, discrimination, hostility, inequalities,
crime and violence.
The word prejudice is closely related to the word prejudge.
It can be understood as a prejudgement or irrational
generalisation about an individual or an entire category of
people. It often takes the form of negative evaluation of the
‘other’. Human beings have a tendency to divide the world
around them into ‘us’ and ‘them’. These divisions can be
based on gender, caste, class, religion, language, skin colour,
and social class and so on. But it is important to understand
that prejudice is more than forming categories of in-groups
and out-groups; it is also about the cultural values that we
acquire from our parents, teachers, peers and institutions
like schools.
Education for Peace

(From National Curriculum Framework–2005, pp.
61-62).
Education for peace seeks to nurture ethical-
development, including the values, attitudes and
skills required for living in harmony with oneself and
with others, including nature. It embodies the joy of
living and personality development with the qualities
of love, hope and courage. It encompasses respect
for human right, justice, tolerance, cooperation, social
responsibility, and respect for cultural diversity, in
addition to a firm commitment to democracy and non-
violent conflict resolution. The concern for equality
and social justice….is the hallmark of education for
peace.
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Traditional cultural values and Constitutional values

such as brotherhood, unity in diversity, collectivity, harmony
and peace, secularism, equality and democracy need to be
emphasised in the practices observed in schools particularly
in matters related to cultural diversity. Multicultural
education that promotes equity for all the students is the
need of the hour. At the same time it is important to foster
respect in students towards each other’s culture and social
background.
Learning Check 3
What factors escalate value conflicts in school settings?

Education is not only about training of minds but also for
the purity of heart and self-growth. Values constitute an
integral part of the process of education. An emphasis on
values, while talking about education, does not imply that
something extra and additional is being stressed on. The
process of education inherently involves transmission of
values. As held by Seshadri (2005), “education is a process
of bringing about desirable changes in the way one thinks,
feels, and acts in accordance with one’s concept of good
life.” (p.10). However, as Seshadri rightly maintains, the
transmission of values does not imply passive conformity,
submission, and blind obedience to the values passed on
by adults. Education shall not be a process of authoritarian
training of dogmas. Education needs to encourage critical
and reflective thinking, rational selection and conscientious
behaviour. Emphasis on values in education makes pupils
good professionals as well as whole human beings too. It
makes them not only capable of earning anna (food) but also
gives them ananda (happiness). It is said that knowledge is
what helps us to attain liberation: Sa Vidya Ya Vimuktaye.
Education needs to respond constructively to the
twin concerns of individual and societal well-being. We
are simultaneously individuals as well as social beings.
Interdependence and complementarity are the valuable key
features of today’s world (Misra, 2006). A holistic vision that
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allows for a positive expression of universal human spirit

characterised by the ideal of the ‘whole world as a family’
(vasudhaiva kutumbakam) is the need of the hour. This age
old Indian ideal recognises the possibility of conceiving the
entire world as a cohesive structure of a family in which
mutuality, interdependence and collaboration are practised.
Today when globalisation is becoming a major force,
interdependence is becoming increasingly more and more
important.
The indigenous system of education in India lays
unambiguous emphasis on universal values like compassion,
non-violence, righteous conduct, forgiveness, tolerance,
sacrifice, and benevolence. These values were made part of
the practices of teaching-learning in such a manner that
a person coming out of the system naturally imbibed the
values as part of his/her life style. As mentioned earlier,
the discourse on values has revolved around the notion of
four broad life goals or purusharthas. The instructions given
by the teacher to students, after completion of the studies,
included observing truth, following dharma, do no harm to
truth, respect mother, respect teacher, respect guests, follow
only good deeds of others and not other activities (Satyam vad,
Dharmam char, Satyanna pramaditavyam, Matri devo bhava,
Acharya devo bhava, Atithi devo bhava, Yanyanvadyani
karmani tani sevitavayani netarani). These values primarily
emphasise the standards of conduct and relate to the
significant others. The goal is to create a productive and
harmonious life for the individual and society. The students
are expected to practise and organise their conduct around
these values. Human existence was conceived in terms of
an entity constituted by others. This notion derives from
the belief that a human being is born with five debts dealing
with obligations for all living beings, parents, seers, teachers
and gods.
Learning Check 4
1. “Education shall not be a process of authoritarian
training of dogmas.” Comment.
2. Which values were practised in indigenous system
of education and how?
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Transforming Values through Education

Viewed in historical context, schooling or formal education in
today’s India presents a stark contrast to the dominant ideals
noted in its indigenous tradition. In the contemporary period
schooling has a clear emphasis on skills and information
geared toward financial benefits. It does not address the
needs and aspirations of the people, society, and nation in
general. In some way it aggravates the problems by alienating
people from their cultural ethos and heritage. The training
of the mind in isolation is proving dangerous for the holistic
development of children. The head, heart and hand, all
three need to be coordinated for the fullest development of
human potential. The holistic development requires attention
to physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual aspects of
development. Development needs to be orchestrated within
the framework of values. In the context of our commitment
to the Constitutional values, education is to be viewed as a
medium to inculcate and promote the same in students. To
this end, it is important to realise that values are caught and
not taught. Thus it is the way a curriculum is transacted in
terms of concrete processes and activities that the students
imbibe the values. The abstract knowledge of values does not
go very far.
The values have to be woven into the curriculum, school
environment, and teaching-learning process in a way that
these facilitate transmission of values in children. Learning
needs to be illustrative of values in action. The lesson in any
subject, be it mathematics, civics, Hindi, science or English
may be designed, deliberated upon, and imparted in such a
way that they necessarily invite value related reflection and
action in a natural fashion. Similarly, the delivery of subject
content may have in-built elements of sharing, participation,
and care. By value informed design of the modes of
interaction between students and students, students and
teachers, and teachers and teachers within the school set-
up, possibilities for developing and reinforcing values may be
created. This requires commitment and determination on the
part of teachers and investment of the system to stand by the
values they admire. Being alert to the occasions in classroom
interactions, possibilities can be created to learn, practise
and enact values.
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Integration of values and education, thus, may be

viewed at three levels – curriculum, school and classroom
environment, and teaching-learning process. Let us attend
to these elements.
1. THE CURRICULUM
In the Indian context the relevance of values to the framing
of curriculum has an interesting history. The Sergeant
Committee felt in 1944 that a curriculum devoid of an ethical
base would prove barren in the end. The role of religious and
moral education in the growth of character was expressed
by the Mudaliar Commission in 1953. In 1964, the Kothari
Commission Report also concluded that there was a need
for preparing the youth to face both ‘work’, which could be
compared to living and ‘life’ which is higher and more sublime
than ‘living’.
Curriculum does not only include academic activities
but co-curricular activities also. Thus, every activity may
convey implicitly or explicitly a chosen value. To organise
any curriculum in such a way as to inculcate values, we
need first be aware of the objectives of the curriculum. There
should be a focus on an all round development of children
by covering cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
There shall not be over emphasis exclusively on the training
of the mind. Emphasis on an all round development assumes
that personal and social qualities, interests and values too
form an integral part of education.
• At the Nursery level some rhymes/songs can be used
which highlight the fact that God loves all his children
without any consideration of high and low births, religion,
creed and status. Games, both indoor and outdoor, which
instil a sense of equality among the children (for example
khokho, hide and seek) may be played. Teachers to teach
all children (whether someone is the ward of a village
pradhan, MLA, MP or an ordinary citizen) on the footing
of equality, especially on matters of arrival at school and
departure from it.
• At the Primary level some tests and stories should
be recommended which inculcate a feeling of oneness
among all sections of society, irrespective of caste, creed,
status, etc.
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• At the Middle level, religious tolerance, mutual respect

for people of different sections and statuses can be
communicated to students using different texts; group
activities may be planned which instil mutual cooperation
and harmony among different pupils.
• At the Secondary level, texts highlighting equality among
nation States, irrespective of their size and population
can be used; group activities (like drama or play) may
be planned which will inculcate a feeling of unity in
diversity. Caution may be taken to divide the groups in
a harmonious way so that strong and weak students are
evenly balanced on both sides.
• At the Post Secondary level, special courses may be
provided on egalitarian values and their imperative need
for a balanced society; projects and outdoor activities
should be planned to involve students (through NCC/
NSS) in community-service activities/adult literacy
programmes and adventure.
Learning Check 5
Comment on the objectives of a curriculum that
implicitly conveys values.
Children’s Literature
As you know, children’s literature plays a very significant role
in imparting values. Choudhuri (2005) opines that children’s
literature reflects values in a more gentle and propositional
manner rather than being prescriptive and narrative. He
further goes on to say that Panchtantra tales invariably
convey a moral. They teach values. India has developed its
unique children’s literature that promotes national pride and
culture. Choudhuri says that most of children’s literature in
Indian languages is based on the traditional Indian literature
like folk tales, mythological stories, retelling of the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata stories, Jataka stories, and other
popular tales of Birbal, Tenali Raman, Gonu Jha and others.
You will be benefited by reflecting on the importance and
need of using the rich resource of Indian classical traditional
tales and folklores in the contemporary context. Due to
nuclear family system and absence of time with parents
262
for storytelling, such resources can be used. Choudhuri

mentions folklore as very important in inculcating values.
In a Bengali local folk story, Manik Pir, a local faqir with
the status of a folk god, evokes goddess Lakshmi, imploring
her to help a poor Muslim hut builder, Murad Kangal. In no
time, Lakshmi proceeds to prepare an elaborate meal to help
Murad Kangal feed the two hungry faqirs, Manik and Gaj.
Choudhury feels that this simple narrative evokes a shared
memory, where religious and canonical boundaries hold little
meaning and offer a pluralistic discourse.
Learning Check 6
Why is children’s literature considered as playing a
significant role in imparting values?
2. THE SCHOOL AND CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT

The culture and the philosophy of the school is a powerful
source of inculcating values. Depending on the atmosphere
of the school, children acquire sensitivity to different sets of
values and ideals. Similarly, the physical environment of the
classroom and ambience of the school communicates certain
values that may facilitate or hinder development of values.
The arrangement of desks or chairs encourages particular
modes of interaction for certain topics in the lesson. Given
an ample space and a small class size, the circular or oval
arrangement of chairs encourages active student engagement
(Vosniadou, 2004).
3. THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS

The inculcation and transmission of desired values inherent
in the curriculum is realised through the teaching-learning
process. The teaching-learning process does not merely
include delivering the specific content with a view to perform
(or excel!) in examinations. The teacher-student interaction
holds a very significant place in the teaching-learning process.
Mahatma Gandhi believed that students learn not from
their books but from their teachers as well, which are their
role model. The various elements of the teaching-learning
process thus play key roles in conveying desired values to
children. To foster values like secularism, democracy, and
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Basics in Education
egalitarianism, the teacher has to first inculcate these values

in her and be a model to her students.
It is desirable that there should not be any scope for
discrimination, stereotyping or hierarchy based on the
categories of gender, caste, class, religion, etc. With the
concept of inclusive schools in place, we also need to make our
classrooms inclusive in a true sense. Equal opportunities for
participation and success needs to be ensured by the teacher.
Since values are learned better when they are not taught
directly, the teaching-learning process should be organised
to provide scope for experiential exercises. Through involving
students actively in discussion, dialogue and practical
activities, the teacher may make them think and reflect on
human actions and events (Seshadri, 2005). For this, different
perspectives from other cultures and contemporary realities
in various parts of the world can be consulted and values
of national and international integration can be arrived at.
Media resources can also be utilised for the same. Asking
students to think critically about the media content in terms
of values, bias and prejudice being conveyed can facilitate
students to have individual views about existing context of
our society. Cooperative learning is another way to foster
the values of equality and tolerance. Giving opportunities to
students to work in groups will give them scope to negotiate
compromise and work together towards a solution.
Learning Check 7
Indicate specific ways through which the teaching-
learning process can play a role in transformation of
values.
4. Evaluation/Assessment
Continuous and comprehensive system of evaluation covers
scholastic as well as non-scholastic aspects of students’
development. Evaluation of attitudes and values is one aspect
of the scheme. But a dilemma and ambiguity regarding
evaluating values can be observed. Srivastava (2004) lists
different issues related to the same, such as whether values
should be evaluated at all or not; which technique or a
combination of techniques is more suitable for evaluating
values; whether all the students should be assessed on all of
264
the values or some should be compulsory and others optional.

He further says that observation shall remain the main
technique of evaluation of values. Such evaluation cannot
be carried out at fixed times, rather it has to be continuous.
Enabling students to think critically is another aspect
that forms an essential part of the teaching-learning process
while facilitating value inculcation. Media resources can
be best utilised for this purpose. Asking students to think
critically about opinions, arguments and evidences, and
detect bias and prejudice can facilitate students to have
independent views about existing context of our society. But
it is equally important for the teacher to facilitate critical
reflections towards a direction.
Learning Check 8
Indicate evaluation strategies that shall be used by a
teacher in light of inculcation of desired values.
Peace for All

Education and schools are viewed as the medium to
transform values in society and nurture a culture of peace.
National Curriculum Framework – 2005 emphasises that
education should foster peace and tolerance among students,
especially in a multicultural society like ours. Schools can
promote a culture of peace by stressing on the goals of social
justice, secularism, egalitarianism, democracy, tolerance
and appreciation of diversity. Wells and Evans (2003) said
that peace does not mean running from conflicts, but rather
bringing consciousness to the moment when conflict takes
place and participating in a process of conflict transformation
which has been taught and reinforced through the
educational system. It encompasses relevant curriculum
designed to cultivate an environment where questioning,
critical thinking and compassion are encouraged in and out
of the school setting.
Nurturing a culture of peace depends on the process
of education as well as the specific content of classroom
instruction. Attempts shall be made to have discussions on
the great peacemakers of our world, like Mahatma Gandhi
and Mother Teresa, their principles of life. The discussion
should lead to possible ways that can be employed to
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Basics in Education
inculcate the peace promoting habits in all of us. School and

classroom environment shall be such that it has no hierarchy
but shared or distributed power between teacher and
students, an environment free of any kind of discrimination
or prejudice, hatred or dislike. Schools can nurture a culture
of peace by fostering the values of secularism, egalitarianism
and tolerance.
Secularism can be nurtured by different activities like
celebrating festivals of different religions, having discussions
on the significance of all the religions and emphasising oneness
of the divine. A variety of project works can be assigned to
students that focus on communal harmony. With the older
students leading, discussions involving critical reflection
can be organised and the importance of secular values for
national and international harmony can be discussed and
appreciated in the light of the present scenario.
Different audio-visual aids that highlight the composite
culture of India can be used. Stories or movies, which
have an implicit message of communal harmony, can be
shown to students and can be followed up by a discussion.
Egalitarianism should be role modelled by the teachers and
should reflect in the school’s environment as such. A school
–wide approach is desired which by recognising students
as responsible human beings and respecting their views,
promoting critical thinking and self-reflective abilities in
them may nurture and promote a culture of peace. Peace is
possible only when members of group support each other in
facilitating their goals.
Suggestions for Peace Activities
(from National Curriculum Framework–2005, p.62).
• Set up special clubs and reading rooms in schools
that concentrate on peace news and events that
violate the norms of social justice and equality.
• Compile a list of films—documentaries and feature
films—that promote the values of justice and
peace. Screen them from time to time in schools.
• Co-opt the media as a stakeholder in education
for peace. Invite influential journalists and editors
to address children. Ask for space in newspapers
and journals for children’s views to be published
at least once a month.
266
• Celebrate the cultural and religious diversity of

India in schools.
• Organise programmes to promote an attitude of
respect and responsibility towards women.
Resolution of conflicts without resorting to violence

is another condition for establishing peace. Peace is an
attitude toward life which strengthens social cohesion and
makes life worth living. Education can develop a culture
of amity and peace with love for others, mutual respect for
each other and better understanding for others’ feelings.
Creation and not destruction should dominate human
actions. Education prepares the mind with universal love
and tolerance irrespective of differences in religion, caste,
ethnicity, language and culture. A culture of peace should
be introduced through education at all levels starting from
preliminary level. It has to be impressed in the minds from
early childhood that it is peace and not violence that helps
human civilisation to survive and flourish. Peace education,
however, yet has to get an appropriate place in the process
of education. The lives and ideals of great men who preached
for love and peace should get due importance in our study
materials.
Activity 4
Select a topic from your discipline and plan it with a
view to promote peace and transform desired values.
Activity 5
Following are some techniques that can be used in the
process of transforming values through education.
Use these techniques and plan any topic(s) that you
find interesting and relevant.
(i) Learning by living/doing
(ii) Role play/enactment
(iii) Audio-visual and multi sensory experiences
(iv) Reading-listening-speaking/discussion/debate
activities
(v) Resolving value dilemmas and conflicts
267
Basics in Education
LET US SUM UP
You have read in this chapter that values provide a normative
dimension to individuals living in a society and guide their
actions and choices. Values lead to actions and at the same
time give meaning to actions. Values are not only abstract
conceptions of desirability but also carry motivational goals
with them. The Indian Constitution lays a firm foundation of
a sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic republic. Socio-
economic diversity and differences in personal values and
preferences may lead to serious value conflicts in schools.
Secularism recognises religion as a private affair, disjoint
from politics. The National Curriculum Framework–2005
proposes that these values should be promoted in schools.
Values and education can be integrated at the level of
curriculum development, teaching–learning process,
school and classroom environment and evaluation process.
Education can foster a culture of peace and tolerance in
students by promoting values of national concern.
Bhardwaj, I. 2005. Value-oriented Education. Journal of
Value Education, 5, 9-24.
Choudhuri, Indranath. 2005. Promoting Value Education
through Children’s Literature. Journal of Value Education,
5, 29-36.
Fisher, R. 1990. Teaching children to think. Nelson Thornes,
Cheltenham.
Hitlin, S., & Piliavin, J.A. 2004. Values: Reviving a Dormant
Concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 359-393
Katz. D. 1965. Nationalism and strategies of international
conflict resolution. In H.C. Kelman (Ed.), International
behavior: A social-psychological anlysis (pp356-390).
Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.
Misra, G. 2006. Psychology and Societal Development:
Paradigmatic and Social Concerns. Concept Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
Rokeach. M. 1973. The Nature of Human Values. Free Press,
New York.
Rokeach. M. (Ed.) 1979. Understanding Human Values:
Individual and Societal. Free Press, New York.
268
Schwartz, S. H. 1996. Value Priorities and Behaviour: Applying

of Theory of Integrated Value Systems. In C. Seligman, J.
M. Olson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The Psychology of Values:
The Ontario Symposium, Vol. 8 (pp. 1–24). Erlbaum,
Hillsdale, NJ.
Seshadri, C. 2005. An Approach to Value Orientation of
Teachers’ Education. Journal of Value Education, 5,
9-17.
Smith, D.E. 1963. India as a secular state. Princeton University
Press, New Jersey.
Srivastava, H.S. 2004. Indian Core Values of Peace and
Harmony. In Zhou Nan-Zhao & Teasdale (eds.) Teaching
Asia-Pacific Core Values of Peace and Harmony: A
Sourcebook for Teachers (229-243). UNESCO Asia and
Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, Thailand.
Vosniadou, S. 2004. Extending the conceptual change
approach to mathematics learning and teaching. Special
Issue on Concept Change. Learning and Instruction. 14,
445-451.
Wells, N.M. and Evans, G.W. 2003. Nearby nature: A buffer
of life stress among rural children. Environment and
Behavior, 35, 311 -330
269
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Basics in Education

Textbook for B.Ed. Course

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OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION

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1. Concept and Meaning of Education 1

3. Processes and Modes of Education 71

4. Knowledge: Meaning and Facets 91

5. Process of Knowing 112

6. Organisation of Knowledge in Schools 135

7. Teacher Autonomy and Accountability 160

8. Learner Autonomy 185

9. Values: Concept and Context 202

10. Education and Values 225

11. Values in the Emerging Social Context 246

Concept and Meaning

that education aims to provide a nourishing environment that

Narrow And Broader Meanings Of Education

Narrow Meaning of Education

Education in the narrow sense does not include

— Thomas Raymont (1906)

Broader Meaning of Education

Whatever broadens our horizon, deepens our insight,

It is really life that educates us.

Education as Process and Product

Concept And Meaning Of Education According

to the purpose and the nature of education imparted in the

even the beginning. It is only the means by which men and

Mahatma Gandhi was a strong advocate of providing

same manner as we assess the value of land or of shares in

physical health, because a sound mind resides in a sound

vital, psychic and spiritual aspects of the human personality.

the challenges of living at a profound level, and they do so at a

about life and the highest form of knowledge to be attainted

Western Views On Education

and eighteenth centuries which was the beginning of

According to John Dewey (1916), “Education is

Analytical Concept of Education

is not a simple unitary concept and it does not refer to any

In sum, from various interpretations and views on education

Whether Education Is Natural or Social

perceptions, skills, attitudes and values undergo a change.

Education is a natural process carried out by the

We have come to this world to accept it, not merely

EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL PROCESS

process. This is also derived from the philosophy that child

Whether Education is Intentional or

produce something different from the activity he is engaged

Though education is intentional, it is not a single aimed

What Does Education Comprise of?

of. According to R.S.Peters (1967), education comprises of

THE NORMATIVE ASPECT OF ‘EDUCATION’

THE COGNITIVE ASPECT OF EDUCATION

knowing the evidence based on certain assumptions, but

Criteria of educative process

(iii) Education must be carried out through

a skill. For example, a person who wants to play music on

Instruction and Learning by Experience

No part of this publication may be reproduced,