WORK, ENERGY, POWER, HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Defining Work

Sometimes we work hard. Sometimes we're slackers. But, right now, are you doing work? And
what do we mean by work?

Work -- the process of moving an object by applying a force

In order for a force to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a displacement
and the force must cause the displacement.

Let's try an exercise: Which of the following are examples of work being done?

1. Sandy struggles to push her stalled car, but can't make it move.
2. Jeeves the butler carries a tray above his head by one arm across the room at a
constant velocity.

3. A missile streaks through the upper atmosphere.

Each of these examples help us better understand the definition of work. In example 1, even
though Sandy pushes her car, with all her might, the car doesn't move, therefore no work is
done.

Example 2 is a very tricky situation. In this scenario, Jeeves applies a force upward with his
arm, but the tray moves horizontally. From this perspective, the force of the butler's arm isn't
causing the displacement, therefore you could say no work is done by his arm. However,
Jeeves' legs are pushing him forward, and therefore the tray moves horizontally, so you could
say from this perspective he is doing work on the tray. (In actuality, the situation is even more
complex than this as we pull friction and normal forces into the equation, but for the sake of
clarity, let's move on...)

In example 3, the missile's engines are applying a force causing it to move. But what is doing
the work? The hot expanding gas is pushed backward out of the missile's engine... so, using
Newton's 3rd Law, we observe the reactionary force of the gas pushing the missile forward,
causing a displacement. Therefore, the expanding exhausted gas is doing work on the missile!

Calculating Work

Mathematically, work can be expressed by the following equation:

Where W is the work done, F is the force applied, in Newtons, and d is the object's
displacement, in meters.

The units of work can be found by a unit analysis of the work formula. If work is force multiplied
by distance, the units must be the units of force multiplied by the units of distance, or newtons
multiplied by meters. A newton-meter is also known as a Joule (J).

1
It's important to note that when using this equation, only the force applied in the direction of the
object's displacement counts! This means that if the force and displacement vectors aren't in
exactly the same direction, you need to take the component of force in the direction of the
object's displacement. To do this, line up the force and displacement vectors tail-to-tail and
measure the angle between them. Since this component of force can be calculated by
multiplying the force times the cosine of the angle between the force and displacement vectors,
we can re-write our work equation as:

Let's examine a few more examples:

Question: An appliance salesman pushes a refrigerator 2 meters across the floor by applying a
force of 200N. Find the work done.

Answer: Since the force and displacement are in the same direction, the angle between them is
0: .

Question: A friend's car is stuck on the ice. You push down on the car to provide more friction
for the tires (by way of increasing the normal force), allowing the car's tires to propel it forward
5m onto less slippery ground. How much work did you do?

Answer: You applied a downward force, yet the car's displacement was sideways. Therefore,
the angle between the force and displacement vectors is 90°, so:
.

Question: You push a crate up a ramp with a force of 10N. Despite your pushing, however, the
crate slides down the ramp a distance of 4m. How much work did you do?

Answer: Since the direction of the force you applied is opposite the direction of the crate's
displacement, the angle between the two vectors is 180°.

Question: How much work is done in lifting an 8-kg box from the floor to a height of 2m above
the floor?

Answer: It's easy to see the displacement is 2m, and the force must be applied in the direction
of the displacement, but what is the force? To lift the box we must match and overcome the
force of gravity on the box. Therefore, the force we must apply is equal to the gravitational force,

or weight, of the box:

Question:Barry, John, and Sidney pull a 30-kg wagon with a force of 500N a distance of 20m.
The force acts at a 30° angle to the horizontal. Calculate the work done.

2
Answer:

Force vs. Displacement Graphs

The area under a force vs. displacement graph is the work done by the force. Consider the
situation of a block being pulled across a table with a constant force of 5 Newtons over a
displacement of 5 meters, then the force gradually tapers off over the next 5 meters.

The work done by the force moving the block can be calculated by taking the area under the
force vs. displacement graph (a combination of a rectangle and triangle) as follows:

Defining Power

Power is a term used quite regularly in all aspects of life. We talk about how powerful the new
boat motor is, the power of positive thinking, and even the power company's latest bill. All of
these uses of the term power relate to how much work can be done in some amount of time.

In physics, work is the process of moving an object by applying a force. The rate at which the
force does work is known as power (P). The units of power are the units of work divided by
time, or Joules per second, known as a watt (W).

P=W⁄t

Since power is the rate at which work is done, it is possible to have the same amount of work
done but with different supplied power, if the time is different.

Question: Jennifer pushes a sofa 3 meters across the floor by applying a force of 200N. If it
takes her 6 seconds to push the sofa, what amount of power did she supply?

3
Answer:

Question: Kevin pushes the same sofa 3 meters across the floor by applying a force of 200N.
Kevin, however, takes 12 seconds to push the sofa. What amount of power did Kevin supply?

Answer:

As you can see, although Jennifer and Kevin both did 600J of work in pushing the softa,
Jennifer supplied twice the power of Kevin because she did the same work in half the time!

Calculating Power

There's more to the story, however. Since power is defined as work over time, we can write the
equation for power as:

And because work is equal to force (in the direction of the displacement) multiplied by
displacement, we can replace work in the equation with F*d:

Looking carefully at this equation, you can observe a displacement divided by time. Since
displacement divided by time is the definition of average velocity, we can replace d/t with v in
the equation to obtain:

So, not only is power equal to work done divided by the time required, it's also equal to the force
applied (in the direction of the displacement) multiplied by the velocity of the object.

Question: Motor A lifts a 5000N steel crossbar upward at a constant 2 m/s. Motor B lifts a
4000N steel support upward at a constant 3 m/s. Which motor is supplying more power?

4
Answer: Motor B supplies more power, as shown below:

Types of Energy

In physics, energy is the ability or capacity to do work. And as we've mentioned previously,
work is the process of moving an object. So, if we combine our definitions, energy is the ability
or capacity to move an object. And so far this year we've been studying kinetic energy, or
energy of motion. So... kinetic energy must be the ability or capacity of a moving object to move
another object!

Mathematically, kinetic energy is calculated using the formula:

Units of energy are the same as units of work, the joule (J). By dimensional analysis, we can
observe that the units of KE (kg*m2/s2) must be equal to the units of work (N*m):

Of course, there are more types of energy than just kinetic. Energy comes in a tremendous
variety of forms, which we can classify as kinetic (energy of motion) or potential (stored) to
various degrees: solar energy, thermal energy, gravitational potential energy, nuclear energy,
chemical potential energy, sound energy, electrical energy, elastic potential energy, light
energy, and so on. In all cases, energy can be transformed from one type to another, and you
can transfer energy from one object to another by doing work.

Gravitational Potential Energy

5
Potential energy is energy an object possesses due to its position or condition. Gravitational
potential energy, then, is the energy an object possesses because of its position in a
gravitational field (height).

Let's assume we have a 10 kg box on the floor. Let's arbitrarily call its current potential energy
zero, just to give us a reference point. If we do work to lift the box one meter off the floor, we
need to overcome the force of gravity on the box (its weight) over a distance of one meter.
Therefore, the work we do on the box can be obtained from:

So, to raise the box to a height of 1m, the must do 98.1 Joules of work on the box. The work
done in lifting the box is equal to the change in potential energy of the box, so the box's
gravitational potential energy must be 98.1J.

When we performed work on the box, we transferred some of our stored energy to the box.
Along the way, it just so happens that we derived the formula for the gravitational potential
energy of an object. The change in the object's potential energy, ∆PE, is equal to the force of
gravity on the box multiplied by its change in height, mg∆h. This formula can be found on the
reference table:

We can use this formula to solve a variety of problems involving the potential energy of an
object

Work-Energy Theorem

Of course, there are many, many different kinds of energy which we haven't mentioned
specifically. And energy can be converted among its many different forms, such as mechanical
(which is kinetic, gravitational potential, and elastic potential), electromagnetic, nuclear, and
thermal (or internal) energy.

When a force does work on a system, the work done changes the system's energy. If the work
done increases motion, there is an increase in the system's kinetic energy. If the work done
increases the object's height, there is an increase in the system's gravitational potential energy.
If the work done compresses a spring, there is an increase in the system's elastic potential
energy. If the work is done against friction, however, where does the energy go? In this case,
the energy isn't lost, but instead increases the rate at which molecules in the object vibrate,
increasing the object's temperature, or internal energy.

The understanding that the work done on a system by an external force changes the energy of
the system is known as the Work-Energy Theorem. If an external force does positive work on
the system, the system's total energy increases. If, instead, the system does work, the system's
total energy decreases. Put another way, you add energy to a system by doing work on it, and
take energy from a system when the system does the work (much like you add value to your
bank account by making a deposit, and take value from your account by writing a check).

This relationship shows the formula for work as equal to the force times the displacement (F*d),

as well as the change in total energy (∆E): .

Law of Conservation of Energy

"Energy cannot be created or destroyed... it can only be changed."

6
Chances are you've heard that phrase before. it's one of the most important concepts in all of
physics. It doesn't mean that an object can't lose energy or gain energy... what it means is that
energy can be changed into different forms, and transferred from system to system, but it never
magically disappears or reappears.

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

As we've learned previously, mechanical energy is the sum of an object's kinetic energy as well
as its gravitational potential and elastic potential energies. Non-mechanical energy forms
include chemical potential, nuclear, and thermal.

Total energy is always conserved in any system, which is the law of conservation of energy.
Confining ourselves to just the mechanical forms of energy, however, if we neglect the effects of
friction we can also state that total mechanical energy is constant in any system.

Let's take the example of an F/A-18 Hornet jet fighter with a mass of 20,000 kg flying at an
altitude of 10,000 meters above the surface of the earth with a velocity of 250 m/s. In this
scenario, we can calculate the total mechanical energy of the jet fighter as follows:

Now, let's assume the Hornet dives down to an altitude of 2,000 meters above the surface of
the Earth. Total mechanical energy remains constant, and the gravitational potential energy of
the fighter decreases, therefore the kinetic energy of the fighter must increase. The fighter's
velocity goes up as a result of flying closer to the Earth! For this reason, a key concept in
successful dogfighting taught to military pilots is that of energy conservation!

We can even calculate the new velocity of the fighter jet since we know its new height and its
total mechanical energy must remain constant. Solving for velocity at right, we find that the
Hornet has almost doubled its speed by "trading in" 8000m of altitude!

If instead we had been told that some of the mechanical energy of the jet was lost to air
resistance (friction), we could also account for that by stating that the total mechanical energy of

7
the system is equal to the gravitational potential energy, the kinetic energy, and the change in
internal energy of the system (Q). This conservation of mechanical energy relationship can be
written as:

Free Fall Using Energy

Let's take another look at free fall, only this time, let's analyze our falling object using the law of
conservation of energy

The problem: An object falls from a height of 10m above the ground. Neglecting air resistance,
find its velocity the moment before the object strikes the ground.

Conservation of Energy Approach

The energy of the object at its highest point must equal the energy of the object at its lowest
point, therefore:

QUESTIONS

Part A: Forced Choice Questions

1. Which of the following statements are true about work? Include all that apply.

a. Work is a form of energy.

b. A Watt is the standard metric unit of work.
c. Units of work would be equivalent to a Newton times a meter.
d. A kg•m2/s2would be a unit of work.
e. Work is a time-based quantity; it is dependent upon how fast a force
displaces an object.
f. Superman applies a force on a truck to prevent it from moving down a hill.
This is an example of work being done.
g. An upward force is applied to a bucket as it is carried 20 m across the yard.
This is an example of work being done.
h. A force is applied by a chain to a roller coaster car to carry it up the hill of the
first drop of the Shockwave ride. This is an example of work being done.
i. The force of friction acts upon a softball player as she makes a headfirst dive
into third base. This is an example of work being done.
j. An eraser is tied to a string; a person holds the string and applies a tension
force as the eraser is moved in a circle at constant speed. This is an example of work
being done.

8
 k. A force acts upon an object to push the object along a surface at constant
speed. By itself, this force must NOT be doing any work upon the object.
l. A force acts upon an object at a 90-degree angle to the direction that it is
moving. This force is doing negative work upon the object.
m. An individual force does NOT do positive work upon an object if the object is
moving at constant speed.
n. An object is moving to the right. A force acts leftward upon it. This force is
doing negative work.

2.Which of the following statements are true about power? Include all that apply.

a. Power is a time-based quantity.

b. Power refers to how fast work is done upon an object.
c. Powerful people or powerful machines are simply people or machines which
always do a lot of work.
d. A force is exerted on an object to move it at a constant speed. The power
delivered by this force is the magnitude of the force multiplied by the speed of the
object.
e. The standard metric unit of power is the Watt.
f. If person A and person B do the same job but person B does it faster, then
person A does more work but person B has more power.
g. The Newton•meter is a unit of power.
h. A 60-kg boy runs up a 2.0 meter staircase in 1.5 seconds. His power is
approximately 80 Watt.
i. A 300-Newton force is applied to a skier to drag her up a ski hill at a constant
speed of 1.5 m/s. The power delivered by the toe rope is 450 Watts.

. Consider the following physical situations. Identify whether the indicated force (inboldface
type) does positive work, negative work or no work.

a. Positive Work b. Negative Work c. No Work

3.-Description of Physical Situation +, -, or no Work

_______________
a. A cable is attached to a bucket and the force of tensionis used to pull the
bucket out of a well.
_______________
b. Rusty Nales uses a hammer to exert an applied forceupon a stubborn nail
to drive it into the wall.
_______________
c. Near the end of the Shockwave ride, a braking system exerts an applied
forceupon the coaster car to bring it to a stop.
_______________
d. The force of friction acts upon a baseball player as he slides into third
base.
_______________
e. A busy spider hangs motionless from a silk thread, supported by the
tensionin the thread.
_______________
f. In baseball, the catcher exerts an abrupt applied force upon the ball to
stop it in the catcher's mitt.

9
 _______________
g. In a physics lab, an applied force is exerted parallel to a plane inclined at
30-degrees in order to displace a cart up the incline.
_______________
h. A pendulum bob swings from its highest position to its lowest position
under the influence of the force of gravity.

4 .Which of the following statements are true about kinetic energy? Include all that apply.

a. Kinetic energy is the form of mechanical energy which depends upon the
position of an object.
b. If an object is at rest, then it does not have any kinetic energy.
c. If an object is on the ground, then it does not have any kinetic energy.
d. The kinetic energy of an object is dependent upon the weight and the speed
of an object.
e. Faster moving objects always have a greater kinetic energy.
f. More massive objects always have a greater kinetic energy.
g. Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity.
h. An object has a kinetic energy of 40 J. If its mass were twice as much, then
its kinetic energy would be 80 J.
i. An object has a kinetic energy of 40 J. If its speed were twice as much, then
its kinetic energy would be 80 J.
j. Object A has a mass of 1 kg and a speed of 2 m/s. Object B has a mass of 2
kg and a speed of 1 m/s. Objects A and B have the same kinetic energy.
k. An object can never have a negative kinetic energy.
l. A falling object always gains kinetic energy as it falls.
m. A 1-kg object is accelerated from rest to a speed of 2.0 m/s. This object gains
4.0 Joules of kinetic energy.

5. Which of the following statements are true about potential energy? Include all that apply.

a. Moving objects cannot have potential energy.

b. Potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its position.
c. Both gravitational and elastic potential energy are dependent upon the mass
of an object.
d. The gravitational potential energy of an object is dependent upon the mass of
the object.
e. If the mass of an elevated object is doubled, then its gravitational potential
energy will be doubled as well.
f. Gravitational potential energy is lost as objects free-fall to the ground.
g. The higher that an object is, the more potential energy which it will have.
h. The unit of measurement for potential energy is the Joule.
i. A 1-kg mass at a height of 1 meter has a potential energy of 1 Joule.
j. A 1-kg object falls from a height of 10 m to a height of 6 m. The final potential
energy of the object is approximately 40 J.

6. Which of the following statements are true about mechanical energy? Include all that apply.

a. The total amount of mechanical energy of an object is the sum of its potential
energy and the kinetic energy.

10
 b. Heat is a form of mechanical energy.
c. The mechanical energy of an object is always conserved.
d. When non-conservative forces do work, energy is transformed from kinetic to
potential (or vice versa), but the total mechanical energy is conserved.
e. A bowling ball is mounted from a ceiling by way of a strong cable. It is drawn
back and released, allowed to swing as a pendulum. As it swings from its highest
position to its lowest position, the total mechanical energy is mostly conserved.
f. When a friction force does work on an object , the total mechanical energy of
that object is changed.

7. Approximate the work required lift a 2.5-kg object to a height of 6.0 meters. PSYW

8. Eddy, whose mass is 65-kg, climbs up the 1.6-meter high stairs in 1.2 s. Approximate Eddy's
power rating.PSYW

9. A 51.7-kg hiker ascends a 43.2-meter high hill at a constant speed of 1.20 m/s. If it takes 384
s to climb the hill, then determine ... . PSYW

a. kinetic energy change of the hiker.

b. the potential energy change of the hiker.
c. the work done upon the hiker.
d. the power delivered by the hiker.
10. An 878-kg car skids to a stop across a horizontal surface over a distance of 45.2 m. The
average force acting upon the car is 7160 N. Determine ... . PSYW

a. the work done upon the car.

b. the initial kinetic energy of the car.
c. the acceleration of the car.
d. the initial velocity of the car.
11. Use the work-energy theorem to determine the force required to stop a 988-kg car moving at
a speed of 21.2 m/s if there is a distance of 45.7 m in which to stop it. PSYW

12 On a recent adventure trip, Anita Break went rock-climbing. Anita was able to steadily lift her
80.0-kg body 20.0 meters in 100 seconds. Determine Anita 's power rating during this portion of
the climb. PSYW

13.- An elevator motor lifts 715 kg of mass to the height of the fourth floor of an office building
(11.0meters above ground level) at a constant speed in 9.35 seconds. Determine the power
rating of the motor. PSYW

14. A wrecking ball is raised above its highest point (State A), possessing 6000 J of PE relative
to itslowest location (State B). The wrecking ball strikes a building and comes to a resting
position (StateC). Determine the kinetic energy of the wrecking ball at state B.
__________________ Determinethe work done on the wrecking ball in going from State B to
State C. __________________.

11
15.-A box with mass m is sliding along on a frictionfree surface at 9.87 m/s at a height of 1.81
m. Ittravels down the hill and then up another hill.

a. Find the speed at the bottom of the hill.

b. Find the maximum vertical height to which the box will rise on the opposite hill.

16. A sledder starts from rest atop a 5.0-migh hill (A). She sleds to the bottom and up to the top
of the adjacent 3.0-m high hill. How fast is the sledder going at point B? Ignore friction.

17. An unknown force is applied to a 12 kg mass. The force acts at an angle of 30 degrees
above thehorizontal. Determine the force acting if the force acts for a horizontal displacement of
22 metersand increases the 12 kg mass's speed from 11 m/s to 26 m/s.

WHAT IS HEAT?

Heat is the thermal energy of the particles in a substance due to the kinetic energy of the
particles moving
When heat, (i. e., energy), goes into a substance one of two things can happen:

1. The substance can experience a raise in temperature. That is, the heat can be used to speed
up the molecules of the substance. Since Kelvin temperature is directly proportional to the
average kinetic energy of molecules in a substance, an factor increase in temperature causes
an equal factor increase in the average kinetic energy of the molecules. And if the kinetic energy
of the molecules increase, the speed of the molecules will increase, although these increases
are not directly proportional. The kinetic energy of a body is proportional to the square of the
speed of the body.

2. The substance can change state. For example, if the substance is ice, it can melt into water.
Perhaps surprisingly, this change does not cause a raise in temperature. The moment before
melting the average kinetic energy of the ice molecules is the same as the average kinetic
energy of the water molecules a moment after melting. Although heat is absorbed by this
change of state, the absorbed energy is not used to speed up the molecules. The energy is
used to change the bonding between the molecules. Changing the manner in which the
molecules bond to one another constitutes a change in potential energy. Heat comes in and
there is an increase in the potential energy of the molecules. Their kinetic energy remains
unchanged.

So, when heat comes into a substance, energy comes into a substance. That energy can be
used to increase the kinetic energy of the molecules, which would cause an increase in

12
temperature. Or that heat could be used to increase the potential energy of the molecules
causing a change in state that is not accompanied by an increase in temperature

WHAT IS TEMPERATURE?
In a qualitative manner, we can describe the temperature of an object as that which determines
the sensation of warmth or coldness felt from contact with it.

It is easy to demonstrate that when two objects of the same material are placed together
(physicists say when they are put in thermal contact), the object with the higher temperature
cools while the cooler object becomes warmer until a point is reached after which no more
change occurs, and to our senses, they feel the same. When the thermal changes have
stopped, we say that the two objects (physicists define them more rigorously as systems) are in
thermal equilibrium . We can then define the temperature of the system by saying that the
temperature is that quantity which is the same for both systems when they are in thermal
equilibrium

What is a Thermometer?
A thermometer is an instrument that measures the temperature of a system in a quantitative
way. The easiest way to do this is to find a substance having a property that changes in a
regular way with its temperature. The most direct 'regular' way is a linear one:

t(x) = ax + b,

where t is the temperature of the substance and changes as the property x of the substance
changes. The constants a and b depend on the substance used and may be evaluated by
specifying two temperature points on the scale, such as 32° for the freezing point of water and
212° for its boiling point.

For example, the element mercury is liquid in the temperature range of -38.9° C to 356.7° C
(we'll discuss the Celsius ° C scale later). As a liquid, mercury expands as it gets warmer, its
expansion rate is linear and can be accurately calibrated.

The mercury-in-glass thermometer illustrated in the above figure contains a bulb filled with
mercury that is allowed to expand into a capillary. Its rate of expansion is calibrated on the glass
scale.

The Development of Thermometers and Temperature Scales

It was in 1724 that Gabriel Fahrenheit, an instrument maker of Däanzig and Amsterdam, used
mercury as the thermometric liquid. Mercury's thermal expansion is large and fairly uniform, it
does not adhere to the glass, and it remains a liquid over a wide range of temperatures. Its
silvery appearance makes it easy to read.

On this scale, Fahrenheit measured the boiling point of water to be 212. Later he adjusted the
freezing point of water to 32 so that the interval between the boiling and freezing points of water
could be represented by the more rational number 180. Temperatures measured on this scale
are designated as degrees Fahrenheit (° F).

Anders Celsius (1701-1744) described a scale in which the freezing point of water was zero,
and the boiling point 100, making it a centigrade (one hundred steps) scale.

13
To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: multiply by 1.8 and add 32.

° F = 1.8° C + 32
the Kelvin temperature scale, which is the standard metric system of temperature
measurement and perhaps the most widely used temperature scale used among scientists. The
Kelvin temperature scale is similar to the Celsius temperature scale in the sense that there are
100 equal degree increments between the normal freezing point and the normal boiling point of
water. However, the zero-degree mark on the Kelvin temperature scale is 273.15 units cooler
than it is on the Celsius scale. So a temperature of 0 Kelvin is equivalent to a temperature of
-273.15 °C. Observe that the degree symbol is not used with this system

Conversions between Celsius temperatures and Kelvin temperatures (and vice versa) can be
performed using one of the two equations below.

°C = K - 273.15°
K = °C + 273.15
The zero point on the Kelvin scale is known as absolute zero. It is the lowest temperature that
can be achieved.
Relating Temperature to Energy Transfer
The feeling associated with temperature differences results from energy transfer. For example,
when you hold an ice cube, the molecules in the ice are moving slower than the molecules in
your hand. The faster moving molecules of your hand transfer energy to the slower moving
molecules in the ice causing those molecules to speed up and their kinetic energy to increase.
This causes the ice to melt.
Temperature changes indicate an energy transfer. Heat is the energy transferred between
objects that are at different temperatures. The transfer of energy always takes place from a
substance of higher temperature to lower temperature till the temperature of both
substances is the same (THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM). You can use temperature to predict
which way energy transfer is occurring.

. YMETHODS OF ENERGY TRANSFER

1. Conduction is the transfer of energy as heat through a material. Conduction takes place
when two objects that are in contact are at unequal temperatures
2. Convection is the movement of matter due to differences in density that are caused by
temperature variations. Convection results from the movement of warm fluids, including air. The
heated fluid expands and rises about the cooler fluid. Heated fluids have convection currents.
Convection currents are the vertical movement of air currents due to temperature variations
3. Radiation is the energy that is transferred as electromagnetic waves, such as visible light
and infrared waves. Radiation does not require physical contact between objects. Radiation
differs from conduction and convection in that it does not involve the movement of matter.
Radiation is the only method of energy transfer that can take place in a vacuum, such as outer
space. Much of the energy we receive from the sun is transferred by radiation.

MEASURING HEAT

An early theory assumed that heat was a fluid, like water, that existed between the particles of
matter, and that heat fluid (or caloric, from the Latin word calor, meaning heat) could be
absorbed by or squeezed out of matter, much like water and a sponge. However, an American-
born Englishman, Count Rumford, showed that the behavior of matter did not match the
predictions of caloric theory. However, James Prescot Joule, through careful experimentation in
the mid-1800s, was able to demonstrate that work could be converted into heat, suggesting that
heat was a form of energy.

The science of heat measurement is called calorimetry. The amount of heat (q) needed to
cause a measured change in the temperature of a body (ΔT) is proportional to the mass (m) of
material being heated and also the nature of the material (c):

14
 Q = m c ΔT

The property of the material denoted by c is called the specific heat of the material

In the 18th century the Scottish scientist Joseph Black noticed that equal masses of different
substances needed different amounts of heat transferred to raise their temperature by the same
amount. For example, it takes far more heat to raise the temperature of a gram of water by one
degree than it does to raise a gram of mercury by one degree. From his observations, Black
founded the concept of specific heat. The specific heat of a substance is the amount of energy
required to raise a unit mass of a substance through a specified temperature interval, usually
one degree. The value for specific heat varies widely for different substances.

In the metric system the unit of SPECIFIC HEAT is the calorie. It is defined as the amount
of heat that is required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14.5° C to
15.5° C. The specific heat of water is set at 1.000 calorie per gram. All other values are based
on this unit. (The calorie used to measure specific heat is not the same as the unit used in
nutrition. The “calorie” used to measure how much energy the body can get from foods is
actually the kilocalorie, which is equal to 1,000 calories.)

The result of Joule’s experiments was to demonstrate the conversion of mechanical energy into
the form of heat, and he measured the mechanical equivalent of heat. In SI units of energy,
Joule showed that 1 calorie = 4.184 J, so the specific heat of water is 4.184 J/KgK

Specific latent heat

A specific latent heat (L) expresses the amount of energy in the form of heat (Q) required
to completely effect a phase change of a unit of mass (m), usually 1kg, of a substance

From this definition, the latent heat for a given mass of a substance is calculated by

Q is the amount of energy released or absorbed during the change of phase of the
substance (in kJ),
m is the mass of the substance (in kg), and
L is the specific latent heat for a particular substance (kJ-kg m−1 ), either Lf for fusion, or
Lv for vaporization

Question: A half-carot diamond (0.0001 kg) absorbs five Joules of heat. How much does the
temperature of the diamond increase?

Answer:

A CALORIMETER is a device for measuring the heat developed during a mechanical,

electrical, or chemical reaction, and for calculating the heat capacity of materials.Calorimeters
have been designed in great variety. One type in widespread use, called a bomb calorimeter,
basically consists of an enclosure in which the reaction takes place, surrounded by a liquid,
such as water, that absorbs the heat of the reaction and thus increases in temperature.

15
Measurement of this temperature rise and a knowledge of the weight and heat characteristics of
the container and liquid permits the total amount of heat generated to be calculated .

EXERCISES

1.-Calculate the number of calories given off by 500 grams of water cooling from 50°C to20°C.

2-. A 30-gram piece of iron is heated to 100°C and then dropped into cool water where the iron’s
temperature drops to 30°C. How many calories does it lose to the water?
(The specific heat capacity of iron is 0.11 cal/g°C.)

3.-. Suppose a 30-gram piece of iron is dropped into a container of water and gives off 165
calories in cooling. Calculate the iron’s temperature change.

4.-What mass of water will give up 240 calories when its temperature drops from 80°C to 68°C?

5.-In the old days, on a cold winter night it was common to bring a hot object to bed with you.
Which would be better—a 10-kilogram iron brick or a 10-kilogram jug of hot water at the same
temperature? Explain.

6.-Why does adding the same amount of heat to two different objects not necessarily produce
the same increase in temperature

7.-A 5 kilogram lead sphere falls from a 100 meter high building and lands on a hard concrete
sidewalk. If all the heat energy created at impact is assumed to be retained by the sphere,
answer the following questions_a. How much heat is generated at the impact?

b. What is the final temperature of the lead if its initial temperature was 22øC?(Specific heat of
lead = .13 J/gmøC).

8.-People in the pioneering days placed hot potatoes in their pockets on cold winter days to
keep their hands warm. Assuming that a potato is mostly water, Andrew calculates 24,000

16
calories of heat are released by a 350-g potato that cools from 85°C to 15°C.Alexis calculates
that 102,000 joules of heat are released. Whose answer do you agree with, and why

hay q buscar la equivalencia entre caloría y

julio
 1 caloría termoquímica = 4,184 julios
Luego 24500cal x 4,184 = 102.000 j
9.-What would be the final temperature of the mixture of 50 g of 20°C water and 50 g of 40°C
water?
The amount of heat lost by the hotter sample = The amount of heat gained by the
cooler water sample

Hence, the final temperature of a mixture of 50g of water at 20°C temperature

and 50g of water at 40°C temperature would be 30°C.

10.-What will be the final temperature of 100 g of 20°C water when 100 g of 40°C iron nails are
submerged in it? (The specific heat of iron is 0.12 cal/g°C.)

Antes hay q poner

Heat gained = Heat loss
Q1=Q2
Q1 ES CALOR ABSORBIDO y Q2 ES CALOR CEDIDO ( PORQUE EL IRON NAILS ESTÁ A
MÁS TEMPERATURA)

Y HAY Q PONER LA FÓRMULA

Y añadir uniddes , por ej. , 1 cal/(g ºC)

17
??????????????????????????????? en la masa iron nails en la solución porque pone 40 y el
enunciado 100g LUEGO HAY Q CAMBIARLO

11.-How much heat is needed to turn 2 Kg of Ice at -10 degrees celcius into steam at 110
degrees celsius?( Ce H20(S)= 2.01 KJ/KgC; Hf=334 KJ/Kg; ce H2O(l)= 4.19 KJ/KgC; Hv= 2260
KJ/Kg; CeH2O(V)=2.05 KJ/KgC

EN PAPEL HECHO

18