Thermodynamic Processes: E233 - Thermofluids

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E233 – Thermofluids

P05
Thermodynamic Processes

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Reversibility
Consider a process of expanding a gas in a cylinder as [Figure (a), path AB]. The gas
passes through a continuous series of equilibrium states. If the changes in state at any
instant during the expanding process are known, then the initial and final states of the
process can be represented by a continuous line on any property diagrams [shown here is
the pV diagram]. If the process is reversed, that is the gas is compressed [Figure (b), path
BA], and the gas can be restored to its original state at A in equilibrium with its surroundings,
then the processes are called reversible processes. The foregoing discussion can be
summarised as: When a fluid undergoes a reversible process, both the fluid and its
surroundings can always be
restored to their original state.
Due to friction and changes in
pressure and temperature, no
real process is truly reversible.
However, in practice, as a close
approximation, reversibility is
often assumed for real processes.
What is irreversibility then?. . (b) (a)

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Irreversibility
A porcelain cup falling off a table and onto a hard floor will break.

Reversibility would mean the broken cup will reassemble and


rise up and finally land on the table. This is not possible as the
process is irreversible.

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Non-Flow Processes
Any process that does not involve mass transfer across its
boundary is known as a non-flow process. An example is the
expansion or compression of a gas inside a piston-cylinder
assembly shown below. There can be, however, changes in
pressure, volume and temperature; and interaction between
heat, work and internal energy.


p2, v2, T2
p1, v1, T1

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Reversible and Non-flow Processes
The following processes to be discussed will be
treated as reversible and non-flow processes:
1. Constant volume or isochoric process
2. Constant pressure or isobaric process
3. Constant temperature or isothermal process
4. Adiabatic process
5. Polytropic process
6. Cyclic process

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Sign Conventions for Work
• When the gas is compressed
• Vf < Vi ⇒ ΔV is negative
• The work done on the gas is negative
• When the gas is allowed to expand
• Vf > Vi ⇒ ΔV is positive
• The work done by the gas is positive
• When the volume remains constant
• Vf = Vi ⇒ ΔV is zero
• No work is done on the gas
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
Sign Conventions for Heat
• When heat is added to the gas
• Tf > Ti ⇒ ΔT is positive
• The heat transfer is positive
• When heat rejected from the gas
• Tf < Ti ⇒ ΔT is negative
• The heat transfer is negative
• When there is no heat flow
• Tf = Ti ⇒ ΔT is zero
• Heat transfer is zero
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
Sign Conventions for Heat & Work

-ve W done on system +ve W done by system

-ve Q rejected by system

+ve Q added to system


E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
Sign Conventions - Summary
Quantity +ve sign -ve sign
Heat flows into (added Heat flows out of
Q to) the system (rejected by) the
system
Work done on the Work done by the
W
system system
Internal energy Internal energy
U
increases decreases

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Constant volume or isochoric process
A constant volume process and its corresponding p-v diagram are
shown. The fluid is contained in a rigid cylinder. Boundaries of the
system are immovable. No work can be done on or by the system. The
fluid is heated from low pressure (p1) to high pressure (p2) such that
v1=v2 and the temperature increases from T1 to T2. Process path 
is a vertical line upward.


 

Q
 p1, v1, T1 p2, v1, T2

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Constant volume process (cont’d)
2
From W =  pdV, it is zero work done since
1
dV = 0. From the non - flow energy equation
Q - W = U2 - U1, giving Q=U2 - U1 since W=0.
That is, the heat supplied is used to increase
the internal energy. The heat supplied can
also be expressed as Q=mc v  T2 -T1  since
U=mc v T

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Constant Volume Process – Worked Example
Air in a closed vessel of fixed volume, 0.14 m3, air exerts a pressure of
1000 kPa at 250oC. If the vessel is cooled so that the pressure falls to
350 kPa, and using R=0.287 kJ/kgK and cv=0.718 kJ/kgK, calculate (a)
the final temperature and (b) the heat transferred, stating its direction.

p1V1 p2 V2 p2 350
(a) =  T2 = T1 = 523 = 183.05 K
T1 T2 p1 1000
p1V1 1000  0.14
(b) p1V1 = mRT1  m = = = 0.933 kg
RT1  0.287  523
Q = mc v (T2 - T1 ) = 0.933  0.718 183.05 - 523 
= -227.73 kJ, heat is rejected by the air.

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Constant pressure or isobaric process
A constant pressure process and its corresponding p-v diagram are
shown. In a constant volume process, pressure rises when heat is
added. For the constant pressure process, boundary of the system
must move to increase the volume from v1 to v2 such that the pressure
is kept constant. Work is done by the system (working fluid) on the
surrounding (piston). Process path  is a horizontal line.

 


Q
p1, v2, T2
p1, v1, T1

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Constant pressure process (cont’d)
The work done is,
W =  pdv =p  V2 -V1  , since p=constant
V2

V1

=shaded area in the pV diagram.


From the non - flow energy equation,
Q - W = U2  U1
Q= U2  U1  +p  V2 -V1   U2 +pV2   U2 +pV2 
=H2 -H1, since H=U+pV
=mc p  T2 -T1  since H=mc p T for ideal gas
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
Constant Pressure Process – Worked Example
0.2 kg of air initially at a temperature of 165oC, expands reversibly at a constant
pressure of 700 kPa until the volume is doubled. Using R=0.287 kJ/kgK and cp=1.005
kJ/kgK, calculate (a) the final temperature, (b) the work done, (c) the heat transferred
and (d) the change in internal energy.

mRT1 0.2  0.287  438


(a) p1V1 = mRT1  V1 = = = 0.0359 m3
p1  700 
p1V1 p2 V2 V2
V2 = 2V1 = 0.0718 m ; = 3
 T2 = T1 = 438  2  = 876 K
T1 T2 V1
(b) W = p  V2 - V1  =  700  0.0359  = 25.13 kJ
(c) Q = mc p (T2 - T1 ) = 0.2 1.005  876 - 438  = 88.038 kJ
(d) Q - W = U2 - U1  =  88.038 - 25.13  = 62.908 J

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Constant temperature or isothermal process
A constant temperature process and its corresponding pV diagram are
shown. When the fluid expands from high pressure (p1) to low pressure
(p2), its temperature falls. Heat must be added to keep the temperature
the same. Process path  is on the Isotherm (constant
temperature line) and T2 = T1

 (T1)


(T2=T1) Q
 p2, v2, T1
p1, v1, T1

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Constant temperature process (cont’d)
pV = mRT = constant, giving p1V1=p 2 V2 .
dV  V2 
=c ln V V =c ln  
V2 V2
W =  pdV = c
V2
V1 V1 V 1
 V1 
 V2   V2   p1   p1 
=p1V1ln    p2 V2ln    p1V1ln    p2 V2ln  
 V1   V1   p2   p2 
 p1   p1 
=mRT1ln   =mRT2ln  
 p2   p2 
From the non - flow energy equation,
Q - W = U2  U1  gives Q=W, since U2 -U1=0

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Constant Temperature Process – Worked Example
0.03 m3 of nitrogen contained in a cylinder behind a piston is initially at 15oC and 105
kPa. The gas is compressed reversibly and isothermally until the pressure is 420 kPa.
Using R=0.297 kJ/kgK, calculate (a) the mass of nitrogen, (b) the change of internal
energy, (c) the work done and (d) the heat transferred.
pV1 105  0.03
(a) p1V1 = mRT1  m = = = 0.0368 kg
RT1  0.297  288
(b) U2 - U1  = 0

 p1   105 
(c) W = p1V1ln   = 105  0.03ln   = -4.367 kJ
 p2   420 
(d) Q - W = U2 - U1  ; Q = W = -4.367 kJ (direction of heat?)
0

  Can other equations be used?

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Adiabatic process
Cylinder is perfectly insulated thermally. No heat is transferred to or
from the fluid during an adiabatic process. Fluid is expanded from high
pressure (p1) to low pressure (p2) while the temperature decreases from
T1 to T2 and the volume increases from V1 to V2. Process path is
described by pV=constant

p1 

pv =constant


p2
 p1, v1, T1
p2, v2, T2

v1 v2
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
Adiabatic process (cont’d)
The non - flow energy equation Q + W = U2  U1
becomes W=U2  U1 since Q=0. That is, work
is done by the fluid at the expense of reduction
in the internal energy. Note that T2 <T1. From

pV =constant and pV=mRT, the following
equations can be derived:
 -1
  -1
p1  V2  T1  V2  T1  p1  
=  ; =  ; = 
p2  V1  T2  V1  T2  p2 

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Adiabatic process (cont’d)
Work done in an adiabatic process is,
Q-W= U2 -U1  =mc v  T2 -T1 
mR  T1 -T2  R
W= ; since c v = and Q=0
 -1  -1
p1V1 - p2 V2
= ; since pV=mRT
 -1
The above equation can also be derived from
V2 c
W= pdV where p= 
V1 V
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
Adiabatic Process – Worked Example
1 kg of a certain gas expands adiabatically in a closed system until its pressure is
halved. During the expansion the gas does 67 kJ of work and its temperature falls from
240oC to 145oC. Calculate the value of the adiabatic index () and the characteristic
constant (R).  -1
T2  p2    -1  1   418 
=   ln   = ln  
T1  p1   2  513 
 -1
 = 0.2954   = 1.421

Q - W = U2 - U1   -67x103 = 1 c v  418 - 513 
 c v = 705.3 J/kgK
cp R
From c p - c v = R and =  ,   -1 =
cv cv
 R = 705.3 1.421-1 = 296.7 J/kgK

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Polytropic processes
Many processes in practice approximate to a polytropic process,
pVn=constant, where the index 0<n<. Fluid is compressed from low
pressure (p1) to high pressure (p2) while the temperature increases
from T1 to T2 and the volume decreases from V1 to V2. Heat is removed
during the process.


p1, v1, T1
Q
p2, v2, T2

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Polytropic processes (cont’d)
Similar to an adiabatic process, from pV n =constant
and pV=mRT, the following equations can be derived:
n-1
n n-1
p1  V2  T1  V2  T1  p1  n
=  ; =  ; = 
p2  V1  T2  V1  T2  p2 
Work done on the system is:
V2
V2 V2 dV  V  1-n
W= pdV=c 
n n
n
=c   ; c = p1V1 = p1V2
V1 V1 V  1-n  V 1

p1V1 - p2 V2 mR  T1 -T2 
= = ; since pV=mRT
n-1 n-1

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Polytropic processes (cont’d)
p1V1 -p2 V2 mR  T1 -T2 
W= = ; since pV=mRT
n-1 n-1
The non-flow equation is,
mR  T1 -T2 
Q= U2 -U1  +W=mc v  T2 -T1  
n-1
mR mR  T1 -T2  R
=  T2 -T1  - ; since c v =
 -1 n-1  -1
 n -   mR  T1 -T2    - n 
=   W
  -1  n-1   -1
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
Polytropic Processes – Worked example
1 m3 of air, initially at 110 kN/m2 and 15oC, is compressed according to pv1.3=constant
in a cylinder to a final pressure of 1.4 MN/m2. Using R=287 J/kgK, cp=1005 J/kgK and
cv=718 J/kgK, calculate:
(a) The volume & temperature of the air at the end of the compression
(b) The work done in compressing the air
(c) The change in internal energy
(d) The heat exchange through the cylinder walls, stating the direction of heat flow
1
 p1 
0.77
 110 
1.3
(a) p1V1 = p2 V2  V2 = V1   = 1
1.3 1.3 3
 = 0.141 m
 p2   1400 
p1V1 p2 V2 p V 1400 0.141
=  T2 = T1 2 2 = 288 = 517 K
T1 T2 p1 V1 110 1
p1V1 - p2 V2 110 1- 1400  0.141
(b) W = = = -291.3 kJ
n -1 1.3 -1

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Polytropic Processes – Worked example

 p1V1 
(c) U2 - U1 = mc v  T2 - T1  =   c v  T2 - T1 
 RT1 
 110x1 
=  0.718  517 - 288  = 218.8 kJ
 0.287x288 
(d) Q - W = U2 - U1  = -291.3 + 218.8 = -72.5 kJ;
(heat is rejected from the air through the cylinder)
  -n   1.4 -1.3 
[Check : Q =  W =   -291.3  = -72.8 kJ]
  -1   1.4 -1 

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Special Polytropic Processes
Index n p-v equations Processes
1A, n=0 pv0=constantp=constant Constant pressure or isobaric
1B, n= pv=constantv=constant Constant volume or isochoric
1C, n=1 pv1=constantT=constant, Constant temperature or
since (pv)/T=constant isothermal
1D, n= pv=constant Reversible adiabatic
P C D
B

n=
A n=0 n=0 A’
1
B’
n=

C’
D’ v

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Identify the Processes A, B, C & D

Identify processes A, B, C and D


Process
A
B
C
D

A Constant-volume (isochoric) cooling process


B Click here to find
Adiabatic expansion
C Constant-temperature (isothermal) expansion
out the answers
D Constant-pressure (isobaric) expansion

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Summary of Q-W-U relationships

Note that for a constant pressure process, mcv(T2 –T1)+p(V2 –V1)= mcp(T2 –T1)

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Cyclic Process
• A process that originates and ends at
the same point
• The final state is the same as the initial
state
• Change of net internal energy is zero,
Unet=0
• The net work output is equal to the net
heat input, Wnet=Qnet

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Cyclic Processes - Examples
• Otto cycle for petrol engines
• Diesel cycle for slow-speed diesel
engines
• Dual-combustion cycle for high-speed
diesel engines
• Joule or Brayton cycle for closed-cycle
gas turbine engines.

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Cyclic Process – An Example
The p-V diagram shown for a cycle involves 3 kg mass flow of air and is made up of
the following processes:
a. Polytropic compression from 1 to 2 where p1=150 kPa, p2=750 kPa, T1=360 K and
n=1.2
b. Constant-pressure cooling from 2 to 3
c. Constant-temperature heating from 3 to 1
Use R=0.287 kJ/kgK, cv=0.718 kJ/kgK and cp=1.005 kJ/kgK
3  0.287  360
  State 1, p1V1 = mRT1  V1 = = 2.066 m3
p2=p3 150
n-1 0.2
T2  p2  n  750 1.2
Process 1- 2, =    T2 = 360   = 470.7K
T1  p1   150 
3  0.287  470.7
p2 V2 = mRT2  V2 = = 0.540 m3
750
p1  Process 2- 3, p3 = p2 = 750 kPa & T3 = T1 = 360K

V3 V2 V1 3  0.287  360
p3 V3 = mRT3  V3 = = 0.413 m3
750
E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering
Cyclic Process – An Example (cont’d)
The Q and W can now be calculated for each process.
mR  T1 - T2  3  0.287  360 - 470.7 
W12 = = = -476.6 kJ
n-1 0.2
U12 = mc v  T2 - T1  = 3  0.718  470.7 - 360  = 238.4 kJ
Q12 - W12 = U12  Q12 = W12 + U12 = -476.6+ 238.4 = -238.2 kJ
Q23 = m h3 -h2  = mc p  T3 - T2  = 3 1.005  360 - 470.7  = -333.8 kJ
U23 = mc v  T3 - T2  = 3  0.718 360 - 470.7  = -238.4 kJ
Q23 - W23 = U23  W23 = Q23 - U23 = -333.8 -  -238.4  = -95.4 kJ
 V1   V1   2.066 
V  V  
Q31 = p3 V3ln   = mRT3ln   = 3 0.287 360ln  
0.413  = 499.8 kJ
 3  3  
Q31 - W31 = U31, for process 3 -1, W31 = Q31 = 499.8 kJ, since U31 = 0
ΣQ = Q12 +Q23 +Q31 = -238.2- 333.8+ 499.8 = -72.2 kJ
ΣW = W12 + W23 + W31 = -476.6 - 95.4+ 499.8 = -72.2 kJ
-ve W indicates that the cycle requires a net amout of work to operate.
Note that for a cyclic process, Ucycle = 0 and therefore ΣQ =ΣW

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


Cyclic Process – An Example, Summary of Results
 
p2=p3

p1 

V3 V2 V1

Process Q, kJ W, kJ U, kJ
1-2 -238.2 -476.6 238.4
2-3 -333.8 -95.4 -238.4
3-1 499.8 499.8 0
Net value Q=-72.2 W=-72.2 U=0

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering


What have you learned?
1.Reversibility & irreversibility
2.Reversible & non-flow processes
• Isochoric process, V=0
• Isobaric process, p=0
• Isothermal process, T=0
• Adiabatic process, Qboundary=0
• Polytropic process
3. Cyclic process

E233 Thermofluid, School of Engineering

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