Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2019, 10, 963-984

http://www.scirp.org/journal/fns
ISSN Online: 2157-9458
ISSN Print: 2157-944X

Development and Biochemical Composition

Assessment of Fish Powders from Bangladeshi
Indigenous Fish Species and Shelf-Life
Characteristics Evaluation During 90 Days of
Room Temperature (27˚C - 30˚C) Storage

Niaz Mahmud1*, Shovon Al-Fuad1, Shahriar Islam Satya1, Abdullah Al Mamun1, Suzon Ahmed1,
Adnan Karim2, Monirul Islam3,4, Jannatul Ferdaus1, Shofiqul Islam2, Nazmus Sakib2,
Jui Yeasmin5
1
Department of Nutrition and Food Technology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh
2
Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh
3
State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
4
Rural Development Academy (RDA), Bogra, Bangladesh
5
Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh

How to cite this paper: Mahmud, N., Abstract

Al-Fuad, S., Satya, S.I., Al Mamun, A.,
Ahmed, S., Karim, A., Islam, M., Ferdaus, In Bangladesh, Fish is a major source of daily protein intake of millions of
J., Islam, S., Sakib, N. and Yeasmin J. people but most of the fishes are consumed here as fresh fish which is highly
(2019) Development and Biochemical
susceptible to damage during transportation and marketing. Therefore, an
Composition Assessment of Fish Powders
from Bangladeshi Indigenous Fish Species
innovative approach was undertaken to process the fish to avoid damage and
and Shelf-Life Characteristics Evaluation extend shelf-life while preserving the nutritional qualities to facilitate the
During 90 Days of Room Temperature more efficient use of fish as a source of protein and other essential nutrients.
(27˚C - 30˚C) Storage. Food and Nutrition
This study was conducted to develop some dried protein-enriched fish
Sciences, 10, 963-984.
https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2019.108069
powders from some commonly consumed fish species in Bangladesh and the
nutritional, sensorial, and safety qualities were assessed. Five indigenous ab-
Received: July 11, 2019 undant fish species including small indigenous fish (SIS) and carp fishes
Accepted: August 13, 2019
namely Awaous grammepomus, Channa punctata, Puntius puntio, Hypoph-
Published: August 16, 2019
thalmichthys molitrix and Labeo rohita were used for the preparation of dried
Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and protein-enriched fish powders. Biochemical, trace elements, sensorial, total
Scientific Research Publishing Inc. viable count (TVC), pH, peroxide value, and moisture reconstitution during
This work is licensed under the Creative
90 days storage period were performed by standard analytical methods. The
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
moisture, protein, fat, ash, carbohydrate (including fiber), and energy contents
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ were ranged from (6.84% to 8.85%), (70.80% to 75.80%), (5.85% to 8.04%),
Open Access (7.66% to 9.19%), (3.14% to 6.01%) and (367.50% to 379.61% kcal)/100g re-

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 Aug. 16, 2019 963 Food and Nutrition Sciences
N. Mahmud et al.

spectively. Highest content of protein was found in A. grammepomus

(75.80%) samples and the lowest in H. molitrix (70.80%) samples. Maximum
calcium content was found in sample L. rohita (2.54 g/kg) and minimum in
C. punctata as (2.43 g/kg). Maximum iron content was found in H. molitrix
(0.15 g/kg) and minimum in A. grammepomus. As for the phosphorous con-
tent the L. rohita samples contained the highest (1.4 g/kg) and the lowest in
C. punctata (0.73 g/kg) samples. The pH, peroxide value (mEq of O2/kg of
fat), and moisture reconstitution (g/100g) during 90 days were ranged from
(5.30 to 8.17), (8.60 to 16.77), and (6.84 to 13.83) respectively. Microbial loads
over the 90 days period were in acceptable range at the end of 90 days storage
period. On the basis of biochemical qualities, sensorial and microbial
attributes our findings suggest that the dried fish powders are enriched with
macro and micro-nutrients especially proteins and could safely be used at
least up to 3 months for food applications.

Keywords
Biochemical Quality, Trace Element, Sensory Evaluation, Microbial Analysis

1. Introduction
Fish provides approximately 16% of all animal proteins and occupies a consi-
derable contribution in ameliorating the fatty acids, amino acids, lipid-soluble
vitamins and micronutrients requirement of daily life throughout the world [1]
[2]. In Bangladesh, fish is an inimitable animal-source food in the diet of mil-
lions accounting for approximately 60% of animal protein intake at 18.1 kg
consumed per person per year [3] [4]. Bangladesh, the country possesses miscel-
laneous and profuse aquatic resources with 267 freshwater fish species with an
annual production of 3.1 million tons [3] [4]. However, despite the lucid impor-
tance of fish in Bangladeshi diet, the existing utilization of fish and the diversity
of application of fish species are decreasing significantly. In this regard to facili-
tate the utilization of fish species, we developed some dried protein-enriched fish
powders from Bangladeshi small indigenous fish (SIS) namely Awaous gram-
mepomus, Channa punctata and Puntius puntio and two other species from carp
family namely Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and Labeo rohita. These fresh wa-
ter species have been found inundated with various macro and micronutrients,
especially for their robust content of vitamins, minerals and protein contents [5].
The primary objective of this study was to develop some dried healthy pro-
tein-enriched fish powders for food application and to investigate its nutritional,
sensorial and shelf-life aspects. Since fish is highly perishable to oxidative dam-
age, the conservation method is important to strengthen the stability during sto-
rage and increase the shelf-life [6]. A very popular conservation method, drying
has been found extremely helpful in reducing the burden of moisture which
leads to the onset of microbial spoilage [6] [7]. In this study we used both sun

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 964 Food and Nutrition Sciences

 N. Mahmud et al.

drying and mechanical drying methods in a controlled environment to develop

an innovative and subtle fish dry processing method, especially targeting to de-
velop the perfect time-temperature set up while keeping the nutritional benefits
at best. Moreover, the powder technology of food materials is flourishing and
becoming popular [7]. Formulation and analysis of the physical and chemical
characteristics of food powder materials are important because the understand-
ing of the parameters is effective in developing new powder-based products
while reducing associated costs, the extra burden of new formulation and pro-
moting optimization in the processing phase and product storage [7] [8]. In ad-
dition, powder foodstuffs have significant effects on the final products because of
its long stabilities [9] [10].
The application of fish powders is gaining popularity among researchers for
their diverse range of scopes [2] [6]. A recent study investigated the effect of sil-
ver carp fish powders incorporation in soup powders and the results significant-
ly improved the protein contents of the final soup powders [2]. Another study
reported that instant Tilapia soup, made from Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
can be used in food industry on additive material for the development of new
food items [6]. Since the dried protein-enriched fish powders are rich in nu-
trients and have an extended shelf-life, these could be supplied in global markets
where demands for nutrient-rich dry foods are high. Furthermore, since the fish
powders are the affluent source of nutrition, understanding of nutritional com-
positions of fish powder is fundamental in order to balance its value as food with
other foods especially protein-enriched foods [11]. Alongside, it is also compul-
sory to have decent figures on the nutritional composition of fish powders in
order to make the preeminent use of them as food resources and to build up the
technology of processing fish powder and other fisheries foodstuffs [12]. Anoth-
er important reason which could be attributed to the conversion of raw fish to
powder form is the highly desirable functional properties of fish protein [13]. A
study reported that protein powders from herring and arrow tooth were found
good sources of high-quality fish protein with many desirable functional proper-
ties as an excellent source of high-quality protein; noticeably, the presence of
some of the essential amino acids such as lysine and methionine [14].
Elaboration of potential ingredients in powder form by using fishes is in-
creasing as an alternative since the trend to produce health-based products with
more healthy and stable ingredients is expanding [15]. Fish powders as an ingre-
dient can be incorporated into foods to increase the added-value of products,
avoid the burden of economic loss to the fish industry, diminish environmental
impacts, and contribute consumers with a nutritious, low-cost, long shelf-life
and easy preparation of foods [16] [17]. Regardless of the availability of the
enormous amount of fish protein consumption in Bangladesh, there are a few
reports on the nutritive or caloric values of dried fishes which make people con-
fused regarding selecting the required amount of calorie from fishes and fish
products. Therefore, the present study is intended to estimate the amount of to-

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 965 Food and Nutrition Sciences

N. Mahmud et al.

tal protein, fat, moisture, ash, carbohydrate (including fiber), phosphorus, iron,
and calcium content of fish powders of some fishes in order to make the con-
sumers more attentive on the nutritional content of fish powder as well as to
strengthen the preferences among consumers in choosing fish powder fortified
products based on its nutrient values. The drying of fishes as a conversion me-
thod (fresh raw fish to dried form) in order to make powders is cheap, feasible
and effective [18].
While mechanical drying is safe and quite expensive, as a traditional method
of preservation and processing, simple and inexpensive rack sun drying is one of
the most widely applicable fish preservation techniques that dry fishes through
heat from sun and the air current carries water away while facilitating the circu-
lation of air from both top and bottom and inhibiting contamination of the
product with sand or dust leading to quality assurance [19]. Some other popular
fish processing methods include smoking, drying and curing of fish [18].
For centuries all of these processing methods are developed by means of pro-
longing shelf-life and improving its sensorial qualities such as flavors and texture
attributes [20] [21]. Considering the vast amount of incidents of fish spoilage
across the world it is an utmost urgency to develop efficient fish conversion
processing methods in such a manner that would not let the fishes become dete-
riorated and spoiled soon after slaughtering [22] [23]. Preservation and
processing therefore become a vital part of industrial and small-scale household
fisheries to retain their freshness qualities for a long time while targeting mini-
mum loss of flavor, taste, odor, nutritive values and microbial losses.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sample Collection and Processing of Fish Powders
Five fresh locally available fish species (Awaous grammepomus, Channa punc-
tata, Puntius puntio, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and Labeo rohita) were used
for the preparation of dried protein-enriched fish powders. Samples were pur-
chased from super market of Jessore Sadar, Bangladesh (Figure 1) and imme-
diately transferred to the laboratory of nutrition and food technology depart-
ment, Jashore University of Science and Technology where the major parts of
this study were carried out. Samples were stored at 18˚C before initiating the
experiment. Average size and weight of the raw fish samples were then calcu-
lated and expressed as (Mean ± SD) and a list of collected fish species along with
their scientific name, family, English name, local name, average size and average
weight are presented in (Table 1).
Fish samples were then processed and muscles and bones were separated.
Disinfectant treatments by using ascorbic acid (1.5% v/v) solutions were then
applied to the fish muscles and dried in mechanical dryer followed by sun drying
(3 hours). The muscle samples were arranged in separate perforated trays and
dried in a mechanical dryer at (75˚C - 80˚C) for about 22 ± 2 hour, grinded. For
bone, the bone samples were dried in a mechanical dryer at (55˚C - 60˚C) for

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 966 Food and Nutrition Sciences

 N. Mahmud et al.

Figure 1. Map of study area (Jessore Sadar, Bangladesh).

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 967 Food and Nutrition Sciences

N. Mahmud et al.

Table 1. List of collected fish species along with their scientific name, family, English name, local name, average size and average
weight.

Physical parameters
Fish samples
Average size (cm) Average weight (cm)
Family English name Local name
(Mean ± SD) (Mean ± SD)

Awaous grammepomus (AG) Oxudercidae Scribbled Goby Bele 8.83 ± 0.84 22.30 ± 1.92

Channa punctata (CP) Channidae Spotted Snakehead Taki 12.83 ± 0.97 27.50 ± 1.80

Puntius puntio (PP) Cyprinidae Puntio Barb Punti 4.67 ± 0.42 6 ± 1.41

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (HM) Cyprinidae Silver Carp Silver 26.95 ± 1.20 885.40 ± 5.08

Labeo rohita (LR) Cyprinidae Rohu Rui 28.08 ± 1.35 913 ± 8.37

Average size and weight data are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

Figure 2. Layout of the processing of dried fish powders.

about 12 hours, grinded. The grinded muscle and bone samples were then mixed
separately and packaged into polypropylene bags and stored at room tempera-
ture at (27˚C - 30˚C) ± 2˚C for biochemical, sensorial and microbial analysis. A
complete processing layout of fish powders is presented in (Figure 2).

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 968 Food and Nutrition Sciences

 N. Mahmud et al.

2.2. Biochemical Analysis of Fish Powder

Biochemical composition for the moisture, protein, ash, fat and carbohydrate
(including fiber) of the dried fish powders were estimated according to different
standard analytical methods developed for proximate analysis (AOAC, 2003)
[24] [25]. The carbohydrate contents were determined by calculated difference
method and the energy value was determined by multiplying the proportion of
protein, fat, and carbohydrate by their respective physiological energy values and
taking the sum of the products [26]. Determination of moisture of dried fish
powders were conducted following the (AOAC, 2003) method [24]. Dried fish
powder samples were dried at elevated temperature and reported the loss in
weight in terms of moisture by the following equation.
Loss of weight
Moisture content ( % )
= × 100
Weight of sample taken

The crude protein of the dried fish powders were determined by Micro-Kjeldhal
method [20] [24]. Briefly, the percentage of nitrogen of fish samples was calcu-
lated and the percentage of protein in the samples was calculated by multiplying
the percentage of N with an empirical factor 6.25.
N ( %=
) ( Titration reading − blank reading ) × Strength of acid
100 100
× ×
S Weight of sample

=
Protein content ( % ) Total N ( % ) × 6.25
Total lipid content of dried fish powders were determined by method as de-
scribed in Bligh and Dyer method [27] and calculated using following equation.
Weight of residue
Total lipid content ( % )
= × 100
Weight of sample taken

The ash content of the fish samples was determined as the inorganic residues
such as oxides, sulphates, silicates and chlorides left behind, in the dry muscle.
The samples heated to the temperatures of 500˚C - 600˚C in a muffle furnace for
about 3 hours. Afterwards, the percentage of ash content was calculated accord-
ing to [24] [26].
Weight of ash
Ash content ( % )
= × 100
Weight of sample taken

2.3. Trace Elements Analysis

To determine the trace elements the calcium, iron, phosphorous, lead, cadmium
and arsenic concentrations were studied. Mineral contents of the dried fish
powders such as calcium, iron and phosphorus were estimated according to the
standard methods. Calcium contents were determined according to the guide-
lines as described in flame method [28]. Iron concentration was measured by
using APHA through Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (ELICO, SL 194).

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 969 Food and Nutrition Sciences

N. Mahmud et al.

Phosphorus was determined by the Vanadomolybdate yellow color method as

described in [29]. The dried fish powder samples were then subjected to analysis
for the detection of heavy metals with slight modification as described in [30]. A
known quantity of sample was weighed by an electronic balance and 5 ml of di-
acid mixture (5 ml conc. HNO3; 3 ml 60% HClO4) was added to each sample;
then the content was mixed for overnight. Samples were then digested initially at
80˚C temperature and later at 150˚C for 2 h. The completion of digestion was
indicated by almost colorless condition of the material. The brown fumes also
cease to exist at completion of digestion. The samples were separately filtered by
using an ash less filter paper and volume made up to 25 ml with 0.5% HNO3
prepared for the determination of As, Cd and Pb [31]. The samples were sub-
jected to analysis by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (HG-AAS, PG-990,
PG Instruments, UK).

2.4. Microbial Analysis

The Total Viable Count (TVC) was carried out by the spread plate technique
method [32]. The sample (0.1 ml) of each dilution was taken onto each sterile
Petridis and evenly spread on the solid nutrient medium and incubated at 37˚C
for 24 hours. The plates were screened for the presence of discrete colonies after
incubation period and the actual numbers of bacteria were estimated as colony
forming unit (CFU)/g as described in [32].

2.5. Moisture Reconstitution Analysis

Moisture contents were kept under investigation during the whole 90 days sto-
rage period following the (AOAC, 2003) method [24]. Moisture uptake of the
dried fish samples were then recorded in an interval of 30 days during the 90
days storage period and the reconstitutions were estimated.

2.6. pH and Peroxide Value (PV) Analysis

To determine the pH contents of the dried fish powder samples, 1 g sample of
each was homogenized in 10 ml of distilled water and the mixture was filtered.
The pH of the filtrate was measured using a pH meter [33]. And the Peroxide
value (PV) was determined by titration method as described by Onwuka [34].

2.7. Sensory Evaluation

The developed dried protein-enriched fish powders were tested for sensorial ac-
ceptability using a hedonic test according to [35] [36] [37]. Trained panelists (n
= 5) were selected from the Department of Nutrition and Food Technology of
Jashore University of Science and Technology for the sensory evaluation on the
basis of appearance, odor, texture and overall acceptability. A nine-point verbal
category hedonic scale was used: 1, dislike extremely; 5, neither like nor dislike;
9, like extremely. The scale was presented as a line numbered 1 - 9 with the be-
ginning, middle, and end parameters specified.

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 970 Food and Nutrition Sciences

 N. Mahmud et al.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

Data analyses were carried out usinggraphpad prism (version 8.1.0) and Statis-
tical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version 16.0 SPSS Inc. Chicago, Illi-
nois, and U.S.A). Values were expressed as percentage and Mean ± SD. The sig-
nificance/non significance of results were determined using one-way ANOVA
and Tukey’s HSD Post Hoc Test. Values (Mean ± SD) with different superscripts
are significantly different at p < 0.05.

3. Result and Discussion

Since dried fishes are very popular food components in many parts of the world,
especially for the feasibility of easy drying methods, it is important to investigate
their utilization perspective regarding the biochemical, microbiological, and
sensory properties. In the present work, five Bangladeshi locally available fish
species were examined to develop some dried healthy fish powders while devel-
oping an easy and feasible drying procedure to facilitate nutrients consumption
from fish sources. Newly developed fish powders were investigated for the bio-
chemical, microbial, pH, peroxide value and sensorial acceptance during a total
of 90 days storage period to articulate the acceptance and utilization prospects of
these dried fish powders as food components. In this regard; moisture, protein,
fat, ash, carbohydrate were assessed from biochemical assessment; Fe, Ca, P, Pb,
Cd, and As contents were assessed for trace elements analysis; total viable count
(TVC) for microbial growth, pH, and Peroxide Value of fat were assessed for the
shelf-life analysis and sensorial scores were analyzed to determine the consumer
acceptance of the developed dried fish powders.

3.1. Moisture
The moisture contents of the five developed dried fish powders ranged from
6.84% to 8.85% (Table 2). The lowest moisture content was found in the sample
A. grammepomus (6.84%) and the highest in L. rohita (8.85%). The quantities
were found (6.84, 6.90, 7.23, 7.49, and 8.85)/100g for A. grammepomus, C.
punctata, P. puntio, H. molitrix and L. rohita respectively. Moisture content of
all the dried fish powder samples was below the standard level for microbial
growth. In general the sun-dried fishes contain an average of 10% to 20% mois-
ture [38] [39]. Moisture content is a critical factor in maintaining food quality
because increase in moisture accelerates the growth of microbes and ultimately
demolish the quality attributes. According to [40], microorganisms cannot grow
when moisture content is below 8%. On the other hand, when moisture is great-
er than 18%, some microorganisms may be re-burgeoned gradually. Another
investigation by [41] reveals that in case of dried food materials, the moisture
content for dried food materials less than 10% is regarded as more efficacious for
keeping the quality attributes. Our investigation also found that the moisture
content of L. rohita was below the study by [42] in which they found the mois-
ture contents of L. rohita 9.07%. Another study [39] determined that the mois-

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 971 Food and Nutrition Sciences

N. Mahmud et al.

ture content of seven Bangladeshi dried fish samples ranged from 11.65% -
13.50%, which is significantly greater than our investigation [11]. Moreover, our
findings are below the research by [11] where they found the moisture content
of dried H. molitrix (13.95%) and L. rohita (11.55%) which are greater than our
investigation.

3.2. Ash
The ash content of the five developed dried fish powders ranged from 7.66% to
9.19% (Table 2). The highest content of ash was found in the sample P. puntio
(9.19%) and the lowest in H. molitrix (7.66%). The quantities were found (8.10,
8.43, 9.19, 7.66, and 8.21) g/100g for A. grammepomus, C. punctata, P. puntio,
H. molitrix and L. rohita respectively. Ash contents are the most consistent in-
dicator of the presence of minerals [11]. Our study resembles with study [43]
where they found the ash content of dried burrito fish powder (14.0%) which is
mostly consistent with our study. The highest contents of the ash in the devel-
oped dried fish powders beckon that it is a robust source of minerals and for ef-
ficient food application, it will surely improve the micronutrient profiles of food
commodities.

3.3. Protein
In this study, the protein contents of the developed dried fish powders ranged
from 70.80% to 75.80% (Table 2). The highest value was found in A. gramme-
pomus (75.80%) and the lowest in H. molitrix (70.80%). The quantities were
found (75.80, 73.36, 72.90, 70.80, and 72.63) g/100g for A. grammepomus, C.
punctata, P. puntio, H. molitrix and L. rohita respectively. Our findings reveal
that the protein contents in all the samples are higher which make them highly
suitable for food application especially for the development of protein-enriched
food commodities. Our results were found slightly higher than the study [42]
where protein content ranged from 52.65% to 72.45% in seven dried fishes. Al-
though, the protein contents differ with species to species due to some obvious
factors such as the effect of spawning and migration and food availability, etc.
Studies [39] [38] reported that normally the sun-dried fishes contain 60% to 80%
protein. The protein contents of the developed dried fish powders are decent and
the application in daily life food commodities will be the top notch to remove
the low scale protein energy malnutrition.

3.4. Fat
The fat content of the developed dried fish powders ranged from 5.85% to 8.04%
(Table 2). The highest content of fat was found in the sample H. molitrix
(8.04%) and the lowest in A. grammepomus (5.85%). The quantities were found
(5.85, 6.65, 6.83, 8.04, and 7.17) g/100g for A. grammepomus, C. punctata, P.
puntio, H. molitrix and L. rohita respectively. Our findings are consistent with
[44] where they obtained 3.98% to 4.78% fat in 3 sun-dried fish species. Our

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 972 Food and Nutrition Sciences

 N. Mahmud et al.

Table 2. Biochemical composition analysis of the dried fish powder samples on dry basis (g/100g).

Fish powder Samples Moisture (g/100g) Protein (g/100g) Fat (g/100g) Ash (g/100g) Carbohydrate (g/100g) Energy (kcal/100g)

AG 6.84 ± 0.1 a
75.80 ± 0.5 a
5.85 ± 0.1 a
8.10 ± 0.4 a
3.40 ± 0.6 a
369.46 ± 1.8a

CP 6.90 ± 0.2a 73.36 ± 0.1b 6.65 ± 0.1a 8.43 ± 0.2ab 4.66 ± 0.2a 371.95 ± 0.6a

PP 7.23 ± 0.1ab 72.90 ± 0.2b 6.83 ± 0.8ab 9.19 ± 0.1b 3.84 ± 0.6a 368.47 ± 4.9a

HM 7.49 ± 0.3b 70.80 ± 0.2c 8.04 ± 0.4b 7.66 ± 0.3ad 6.01 ± 0.7b 379.61 ± 1.9b

LR 8.85 ± 0.2c 72.63 ± 0.1bd 7.17 ± 0.7ab 8.21 ± 0.4ac 8.21 ± 0.4ac 367.50 ± 0.9ac

(AG: Awaous grammepomus, CP: Channa punctata, PP: Puntius puntio, HM: Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, LR: Labeo rohita); values (Mean ± SD) with
different superscripts in columns are significantly different at p < 0.05.

study is also supported by another research [45] which revealed that sun dried
indigenous Bangladeshi Channa punctatus, Amblypharyngodon mola, and
Glossogobius giuris contained 4.90%, 19.83%, 7.38% of lipids and also men-
tioned that lipid content also varies from species to species. Fish lipid or fish oil
especially omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids or PUFAs (EPA+DHA) occupy
enormous important roles in humans and prevent several diseases and contri-
bute to the human health and nutritional improvement throughout the life [46].
In this regard the higher content of fat portion in the dried fish powders may
contribute to increase the final consumption of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acids since they are mostly concentrated in dry form. Finally, incorporation of
these developed dried fish powders in daily life food commodities will certainly
ameliorate the fish oil/lipid portion of food commodities.

3.5. Carbohydrate (Including Fiber) and Energy (kcal/100g)

The carbohydrate contents were calculated and mentioned as including fiber.
The highest value of carbohydrate was 6.01% (H. molitrix) and the lowest was
3.40% (A. grammepomus). The ranges of carbohydrate were found 3.40% to
6.01% (Table 2). In this study, the energy values of the five developed fish
powders ranged from (367.50 to 379.61) kcal/100g. The quantities were found
(369.46, 371.95, 368.47, 379.61 and 367.50) kcal/100g for A. grammepomus, C.
punctata, P. puntio, H. molitrix and L. rohita respectively. Regarding the energy
values our developed dried fish powders are decent and could ameliorate the
overall energy requirement of all groups of people.

3.6. Trace Elements

The trace element contents are presented in (Table 3). Maximum calcium con-
tent was found in sample L. rohita (2.54 g/kg) and minimum in C. punctata as
(2.43 g/kg). The calcium quantities were found (2.43, 2.31, 2.52, 2.53, and 2.54)
g/kg for A. grammepomus, C. punctata, P. puntio, H. molitrix and L. rohita re-
spectively. Calcium plays essential role in human body for the formation of
bones muscle tone and nervous impulse [47]. One study reported that H. moli-
trix and L. rohita fish powder contain calcium content as 2.52 g/kg and 2.5 g/kg
respectively [11]. The highest iron content was found in H. molitrix (0.15g/kg)

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 973 Food and Nutrition Sciences

N. Mahmud et al.

Table 3. Trace elements analysis of the dried fish powder samples on dry basis.

Fish powder Samples Calcium (g/kg) Iron (g/kg) Phosphorous (g/kg) Cadmium (μg/kg) Lead (μg/kg) Arsenic (μg/kg)

AG 2.43 ± 0.04ab 0.04 ± 0.00a 1.13 ± 0.25ac 3.98 ± 0.13acd 12.39 ± 0.16a ND

CP 2.31 ± 0.04a 0.07 ± 0.00ad 0.73 ± 0.21a 3.97 ± 0.14ac 10.60 ± 0.33b ND

PP 2.52 ± 0.07b 0.13 ± 0.01b 1.20 ± 0.10bc 2.94 ± 0.39bd 9.51 ± 0.15c ND

HM 2.53 ± 0.03b 0.15 ± 0.01bc 0.93 ± 0.15ab 4.30 ± 0.21c 14.47 ± 0.30d ND

LR 2.54 ± 0.07b 0.09 ± 0.01d 1.40 ± 0.10c 3.35 ± 0.26d 13.10 ± 0.26e 1.27 ± 0.08

(AG: Awaous grammepomus, CP: Channa punctata, PP: Puntius puntio, HM: Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, LR: Labeo rohita); values (Mean ± SD) with
different superscripts in columns are significantly different at p < 0.05; ND = Not Detected.

and minimum in A. grammepomus (0.13 g/kg). The iron quantities were found
(0.04, 0.07, 0.13, 0.15, and 0.09) g/kg for A. grammepomus, C. punctata, P. puntio,
H. molitrix and L. rohita respectively. One study [39] found that the iron con-
tent was ranged from 16.85 mg/100g fish (O. bacaila) to 45.20 mg/100g fish
(mixed species). Another study [48] reported that iron was present at a range
from 1.71 mg/100g to 8.00 mg/100g of Some Smoke-dried Hill Stream Fishes
from Manipur, India; this discrepancy could be attributed to the factors affecting
the iron content; such as species, individuals, and sampling period [49]. As for
the phosphorous content the L. rohita was found the highest (1.4 g/kg) and the
lowest in C. punctata (0.73 g/kg). The phosphorous quantities were found (1.13,
0.73, 1.20, 0.93, and 1.40) g/kg for A. grammepomus, C. punctata, P. puntio, H.
molitrix and L. rohita respectively. Study [41] showed that such variation in con-
centrations of mineral elements from one species to another was due to the chem-
ical forms of the elements and their concentrations in the local environment.
Phosphorus is one of the most important minerals in human physiology, pos-
sessing functions such as structural integrity in bones and teeth, cell signaling,
and blood bufferin [47]. Another study [43] reported that Burrito fish (Brachy-
deuterus auritus) contains 93.71 mg/100g phosphorus which is near to the
present study. For the heavy metal analysis some common heavy metals such as
cadmium, lead and arsenic were studied which have been investigated by many
research investigation for possible onset of adverse effects on health. The Pb, Cd
and As contents were ranged from (9.51 to 14.47 μg/kg), (2.94 to 4.30 μg/kg) and
(0.00 to 1.27 μg/kg) respectively. The highest content of Pb was found in the
sample H. molitrix (14.47 μg/kg) and the lowest in P. puntio (9.51 μg/kg). The
lead quantities were found (12.39, 10.60, 9.51, 14.47, and 13.10) μg/kg for A.
grammepomus, C. punctata, P. puntio, H. molitrix and L. rohita respectively.
The highest content of Cd was found in the sample H. molitrix (4.30 μg/kg) and
the lowest in P. puntio (2.94 μg/kg). The cadmium quantities were found (3.98,
3.97, 2.94, 4.30, and 3.35) μg /kg for A. grammepomus, C. punctata, P. puntio,
H. molitrix and L. rohita respectively.
Likewise, for the arsenic contents the highest was found in L. rohita (1.27
μg/kg) and no other dried fish powder samples were detected for arsenic con-

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 974 Food and Nutrition Sciences

 N. Mahmud et al.

tent. Heavy metals are usually transfer to human body through the food chain
when wide range of organic and inorganic substances are released into aquatic
systems leading to bioaccumulation which then found to be responsible for their
different toxicity [50]. There have been various studies on the heavy metals such
as cadmium, lead and arsenic levels in dried fish samples from different fresh-
water ecosystems [51]. Study revealed out that lead and cadmium are responsi-
ble for much adverse condition in body such as kidney damage, renal disorder,
and high blood pressure, and bone fracture, gastrointestinal, reproductive and
circulatory changes. In addition, Human body have reported to have nausea and
vomiting at a level of 15 mg/L of cadmium [52]. In our investigation we found
that all of these heavy metals were below the recommended tolerable limit pro-
posed by WHO/FAO expert [53]. Moreover, arsenic was detected in only the
sample L. rohita and no other samples were detected for arsenic content. A sim-
ilar study has been conducted by Reyahi-Khoram who found that concentration
of Cd and Pb in the dry muscle and liver tissues were 3.67 μg/kg and 12.82
μg/kg, which is mostly similar to our investigation. [50] Another study detected
the cadmium in Channa puncta dry samples where the content was found 9.8
μg/kg of sample [54]. From food safety point of view, Pb, Cd, and As contents
remain below the respective recommended limit which indicate the newly de-
veloped dried fish powder samples are safe for consumption. However, heavy
metal concentrations are increasing enormously which could be attributed to the
excessive use of pesticides and inorganic fertilizers in agricultural activities near
aquatic resources. To facilitate safe aquatic food resources, it is an urgent task to
maintain a healthy ecosystem while restricting profuse utilization of organic and
inorganic substances such as fertilizer and pesticides.

3.7. Total Viable Count (TVC)

Total viable count (TVC) of the fish samples during the 90 days period were

Figure 3. Changes in Total Viable Count (TVC) of the dried fish powder samples during 90 days storage
period (log10 CFU/g); values (Mean ± SD) with different superscripts are significantly different at p < 0.05.

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 975 Food and Nutrition Sciences

N. Mahmud et al.

presented on the (Figure 3). The results were presented as log10 CFU/g. The
highest bacterial load (4.40 log10 CFU/g) was found in C. punctata sample and
the lowest (3.94 log10 CFU/g) in the L. rohita sample at the end of 90 days pe-
riod. At 0th days the counts were between ranges (3.03 to 2.06 log10 CFU/g). At
30th days TVC reveals that the lowest increase of viable counts was found in the
sample L. rohita (3.31 log10 CFU/g) and the highest increase in the sample P.
puntio (3.03 log10 CFU/g). Our study found that, the lowest increase of micro-
bial load was due to the low moisture contents in all the dried fish powder sam-
ples. The shelf-life of fish is generally restricted and affected due to the growth of
Gram-negative microorganisms such as Pseudomonas, Shewanella putrefaciens,
and Aeromonas under aerobic condition and anaerobic condition and their in-
vasion is the main organism responsible for deterioration of food protein, fats
and other quality attributes [55] [56]. In our investigation we found that all
samples studied were in the range of acceptable limit as recommended [56],
therefore it is apparent that these newly developed dried fish powders can be
used safely up to 3 months during room temperature (27˚C - 30˚C) storage.

3.8. pH
pH was assessed during 90 days period (Table 4). The pH changes during 90
days period were in the range of (5.53 to 7.20), (5.30 to 6.97), (5.77 to 7.87), (6.30
to 7.60) and (6.37 to 8.17) for A. grammepomus, C. punctata, P. puntio, H. mo-
litrix and L. rohita samples during 90 days of storage period. Highest pH during
the 90 days period was found in the sample L. rohita (8.17) and the lowest con-
tent in the sample C. punctata (5.30). A similar study conducted by (M. Nurul-
lah et al. 2007) reported the changes in pH content of cured and uncured dried
in different market channels ranges was found between 5.8 to 7.00 which are
slightly lower than our investigation [57]. However, during the post-mortem pe-
riod of fishes, decomposition of nitrogenous compounds occurs and leads to an
elevation in pH in the fish flesh. In addition, the elevation in pH indicates the
loss of quality and most microorganisms grow the best at pH values between 6.6
and 7.5 [58] [59]. While the pH value of fish products in the range of 6.8 to 7.0 is

Table 4. Changes in pH, Peroxide Values (PV) and Moisture Reconstitutions (g/100g) of the dried fish powder samples during 90
days room temperature (27˚C - 30˚C) storage period.

Fish powder pH PV (mEq of O2/kg of fat) Moisture Reconstitution (g/100g)

Samples 0th day 30th day 90th day 0th day 30th day 90th day 0th day 30th day 90th day

AG 5.5 ± 0.2a 6.4 ± 0.3ab 7.2 ± 0.3ab 8.6 ± 0.2a 9.2 ± 0.3a 12.9 ± 0.5a 6.8 ± 0.1a 7.4 ± 0.5a 10.7 ± 0.2a

CP 5.3 ± 0.4a 5.7 ± 0.5a 6.9 ± 0.2b 9.1 ± 0.2a 10.5 ± 0.3ab 15.7 ± 0.5bc 6.9 ± 0.2a 7.9 ± 0.2ab 11.8 ± 0.9ac

PP 5.8 ± 0.2a 6.6 ± 0.5ab 7.9 ± 0.4ac 9.2 ± 0.3a 9.6 ± 0.7a 14.3 ± 0.7a 7.2 ± 0.1a 9.2 ± 0.4bc 12.8 ± 0.3bc

HM 6.3 ± 0.5a 6.8 ± 0.3b 7.6 ± 0.3abc 10.7 ± 0.5b 11.3 ± 0.4b 16.2 ± 0.3c 7.5 ± 0.3a 8.8 ± 0.4b 12.1 ± 0.6c

LR 6.4 ± 0.6a 7.4 ± 0.2b 8.2 ± 0.3c 11.6 ± 0.4b 12.5 ± 0.6b 16.8 ± 0.8c 9 ± 0.4b 9.8 ± 0.4c 13.8 ± 0.4d

(AG: Awaous grammepomus, CP: Channa punctata, PP: Puntius puntio, HM: Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, LR: Labeo rohita); values (Mean ± SD) with
different superscripts in columns are significantly different at p < 0.05.

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 976 Food and Nutrition Sciences

 N. Mahmud et al.

usually the limit of acceptability, it is considered to be spoiled above 7.0 of pH [60]

[61]. In our investigation we found that all of the samples were in the acceptable
range at the end of 30 days period except for L. rohita where a slight increase in
pH was detected. However, at the end of 90 days storage period the pH elevation
was near around acceptable limit except for L. rohita which elevated up to 8.17.
Study on changes in pH value of Sun-dried-salted (SDS) and Turmeric treated
Sun-dried-Salted (SDS+T) Shoal fish during storage at room temperature re-
vealed that the pH elevation during 180 days of storage period was ranged from
6.2 to 8.3 which is mostly similar to our findings [62].

3.9. Peroxide Values

Peroxide values were assessed during 90 days period (Table 4). The peroxide
value changes during 90 days period were in the range of (8.60 to 12.97 mEq
O2/kg of fat), (9.13 to 15.73 mEq O2/kg of fat), (9.17 to 14.33 mEq O2/kg of fat),
(10.73 to 16.23 mEq O2/kg of fat) and (11.63 to 16.77 mEq O2/kg of fat) for A.
grammepomus, C. punctata, P. puntio, H. molitrix and L. rohita samples during
90 days of storage period. Highest peroxide value during the 90 days period was
found in the sample L. rohita (16.77 mEq O2/kg of fat) and the lowest content in
the sample A. grammepomus (8.60 mEq O2/kg of fat). A study found that the
peroxide value (mEq O2/kg of fat) of cured and uncured dried in different mar-
ket channels were found 6.3 mEq O2/kg of fat to 16.6 mEq O2/kg of fat which is
mostly similar to our investigation [57]. The peroxide value which is used as
primary indicator of oxidation of fat (rancidity) elevated during marketing
process from dry fish processor to wholesale and wholesale to retail with storage
time in both cured and uncured dried fish. Studies [57] [63] [64] reported that
when peroxide value is above 10 - 20 mEq of O2/kg of fat, fish develop rancid
taste and smell. However, in all of the samples studied the peroxide value con-
tents were in the acceptable limit according to the recommended level described
[57] [63] [65]. Fat oxidation is a self-catalyzing reaction, which is exaggerated by
the age of the raw material as well as oxidation of fats during processing and
storage. The lipid quality of the anchovies (Stolephoru ssp.) was investigated and
the result showed gradual increase in peroxide value from 3.2 to 24.5 mEq of
O2/kg of fat during 5 weeks of storage period [66].

3.10. Moisture Reconstitutions

Moisture reconstitutions were assessed during 90 days period (Table 4). The
moisture changes during 90 days period were in the range of (6.84 to 10.67
g/100g), (7.93 to 11.83 g/100g), (9.17 to 12.8 g/100g), (8.77 to 12.13 g/100g) and
(9.83 to 13.83 g/100g) for A. grammepomus, C. punctata, P. puntio, H. molitrix
and L. rohita samples. Highest moisture reconstitution during the 90 days period
was found in the sample L.rohita (13.83 g/100g) and lowest content in the sam-
ple A. grammepomus (10.67 g/100g). A similar study conducted by (M. Nurul-
lah et al. 2007) reported the changes in moisture content of the solar dried SIS

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 977 Food and Nutrition Sciences

N. Mahmud et al.

(small indigenous species) product in packaging condition during 90 days of

storage where an average the initial moisture content was in the range of 13.5%
to 15.0% and at the end of 90 days storage period the moisture content increased
to in the range of 22.9% to 24% which is higher than the recommended limit of
16% for dried fishery products [67]. The moisture content appear to be a precise
indicator of the susceptibility of a product to undergo microbial spoilage since
elevation of moisture content during storage can create favorable condition for
microbes to grow up and propagate [68] [69]. All of the samples studied for
moisture uptake were found to be in the range of acceptable limit [67] [70].

3.11. Sensory Evaluation

In this study, sensory scores of developed dried fish powders with regard to ap-
pearance, texture, odor, and overall acceptability were found to be highly accepta-
ble (Table 5). The results reveal that all the samples were up to the standard value
at 0th day. Subtle decline in the dried fish powders samples were observed at 30th
day. Among all the powders A. grammepomus, C. punctata and P. puntio sam-
ples mostly retained the sensorial qualities and found to be highly acceptable at
the end of 90 days storage period. All the samples were found up to the mini-
mum limit of acceptable sensorial recommendation [37] at the end of 90 days
room temperature (27˚C - 30˚C) storage.
Sensory evaluation of food components is important to categorize the exact
superiority and consumer acceptability of a particular food or food product.
Sensory evaluation of food is considered as a scientific method used to address,
measure, peruse and interpret responses to products as perceived through the
senses of sight, touch, smell, taste, and hearing. In this study, we found that the
sensory parameters have significant effects on the developed dried fish powders
and have better sensory characteristics. Appearance, texture, odor, and overall
acceptability are some of the obvious perception of eye perceived by the con-
sumers and considered as the main criteria for the evaluation of consumer ac-
ceptance analysis of the developed fish powders during 90 days of storage.

Table 5. Changes in sensorial attributes of the dried fish powder samples during 90 days room temperature (27˚C - 30˚C) storage
period.

Fish Appearance Odor Texture Overall Acceptability

powder
Samples 0th day 30th day 90th day 0th day 30th day 90th day 0th day 30th day 90th day 0th day 30th day 90th day

AG 7.8 ± 0.5a 6.7 ± 0.7ab 5.9 ± 0.9ab 7.8 ± 0.6a 7.3 ± 0.8a 5.8 ± 0.6a 7.0 ± 1.3a 7.1 ± 1.3a 6.5 ± 0.8a 7.5 ± 0.3a 6.5 ± 0.3a 5.9 ± 0.2a

CP 7.9 ± 0.7ab 7.1 ± 0.4a 6.2 ± 0.6a 7.7 ± 0.4a 7.3 ± 0.4a 4.9 ± 0.7ab 6.2 ± 0.6a 6.2 ± 0.6a 5.8 ± 0.8a 7.7 ± 0.7a 6.3 ± 0.8a 5.9 ± 0.6a

PP 6.4 ± 0.8b 6.0 ± 0.8b 5.6 ± 0.7abc 7.6 ± 0.7a 6.0 ± 0.9ab 5.3 ± 0.4ab 6.4 ± 0.4a 6.1 ± 1a 5.7 ± 0.8ab 7.4 ± 0.4a 6.5 ± 0.7a 6.0 ± 0.5a

HM 6.6 ± 0.4b 6.1 ± 0.4ab 4.6 ± 0.8bc 7.0 ± 0.8a 5.7 ± 0.7b 4.3 ± 1b 7.3 ± 0.5a 7.0 ± 0.3a 6.2 ± 0.9a 7.7 ± 0.7a 6.1 ± 0.6a 5.6 ± 0.4a

LR 6.7 ± 0.3ab 5.7 ± 0.3b 4.4 ± 0.7c 6.9 ± 0.9a 4.8 ± 0.6b 4.2 ± 0.6b 5.5 ± 0.8b 4.9 ± 0.7b 4.3 ± 0.5b 7.2 ± 0.7a 5.9 ± 0.4a 5.3 ± 0.6a

(AG: Awaous grammepomus, CP: Channa punctata, PP: Puntius puntio, HM: Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, LR: Labeo rohita); values (Mean ± SD) with
different superscripts in columns are significantly different at p < 0.05.

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 978 Food and Nutrition Sciences

 N. Mahmud et al.

4. Conclusion
On the basis of nutritional, microbial and sensory evaluation, the newly developed
fish powders are inundated with nutrients thereby we expect that inclusion can
be efficacious to ameliorate the functional property of daily life food products.
The slightest moisture reconstitution, pH, and peroxide value elevation during
90 days room temperature storage period reveal that the powders have robust
shelf-life. On the microbiological point of view, the microbial loads at the end of
90 days storage period were in acceptable limit; therefore, these dried fish powd-
ers are standard and safe for consumption up to 3 months. It is also significant
to clarify that these powders are particularly high in protein, ash, fiber, fat and
energy value which make the presently developed powders an appropriate choice
for the fulfillment of nutritional demands and could play a great role in alleviat-
ing the protein energy malnutrition; therefore, It can be a good source of value-
added food components for commercial processed foods production.

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of Md Torikul Islam, a
Ph.D. student in Nutrition & Integrative Physiology at the University of Utah,
The USA for his valuable assistance and guidelines throughout the research in-
vestigation.

Funding
This work is not supported by any research funding.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this pa-
per.

Authors’ Contributions
Niaz Mahmud, Shahriar Islam Satya and Md. Shovon Al-Fuadconceptualized
and designed the work; Niaz Mahmud did the literature reviews and wrote the
paper; Md Adnan Karim, Md. Abdullah Al Mamun, Md. JannatulFerdaus and
Suzon Ahmed recorded the data and analyzed; Md. Shofiqul Islam and Naz-
musSakib assisted in microbial analysis; Monirul Islam and Mst. JuiYeasmin
critically reviewed the manuscript and were associated with the edition of the
paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

References
[1] FAO (2000) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Rome.
[2] Islam, M., Sarker, M.N.I., Islam, M.S., Prabakusuma, A.S., Mahmud, N., Fang, Y.
and Xia, W. (2018) Development and Quality Analysis of Protein Enriched Instant
Soup Mix. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 9, 663-675.
https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2018.96050

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 979 Food and Nutrition Sciences

N. Mahmud et al.

[3] Belton, B. and Thilsted, S.H. (2014) Fisheries in Transition: Food and Nutrition Se-
curity Implications for the Global South. Global Food Security, 3, 59-66.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2013.10.001
[4] Bogard, J.R., Thilsted, S.H., Marks, G.C., Wahab, M.A., Hossain, M.A., Jakobsen, J.
and Stangoulis, J. (2015) Nutrient Composition of Important Fish Species in Ban-
gladesh and Potential Contribution to Recommended Nutrient Intakes. Journal of
Food Composition and Analysis, 42, 120-133.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2015.03.002
[5] Shaheen, N., Rahim, A.T.M.R., Mohiduzzaman, M., Banu, C.P., Bari, M.L., Tukun,
A.B., Stadlmayr, B., et al. (2013) Food Composition Table for Bangladesh. Final Re-
search Results, 187.
[6] Monteiro, M.L.G., Mársico, E.T., Lázaro, C.A., Ribeiro, R.O., Jesus, R.S. and
Conte-Júnior, C.A. (2014) Flours and Instant Soup from Tilapia Waste as Healthy
Alternatives to the Food Industry. Food Science and Technology Research, 20,
571-581. https://doi.org/10.3136/fstr.20.571
[7] Fitzpatrick, J.J. and Ahrné, L. (2005) Food Powder Handling and Processing: In-
dustry Problems, Knowledge Barriers and Research Opportunities. Chemical Engi-
neering and Processing: Process Intensification, 44, 209-214.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2004.03.014
[8] de Freitas Eduardo, M. and da Silva Lannes, S.C. (2007) Use of Texture Analysis to
Determine Compaction Force of Powders. Journal of Food Engineering, 80,
568-572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.06.011
[9] Park, S.H., Lim, H.S. and Hwang, S.Y. (2012) Evaluation of Antioxidant, Rheologi-
cal, Physical and Sensorial Properties of Wheat Flour Dough and Cake Containing
Turmeric Powder. Food Science and Technology International, 18, 435-443.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1082013211428220
[10] Hager, A.S., Wolter, A., Jacob, F., Zannini, E. and Arendt, E.K. (2012) Nutritional
Properties and Ultra-Structure of Commercial Gluten Free Flours from Different
Botanical Sources Compared to Wheat Flours. Journal of Cereal Science, 56, 239-247.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2012.06.005
[11] Jahan, S.N., Bayezid, M.A., Islam, B., Siddique, M.A.B., Karmakar, P.K. and Flowra,
F.A. (2017) Biochemical Quality Assessment of Fish Powder. American Journal of
Food and Nutrition, 5, 110-114. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajfn-5-3-6
[12] Jeyasanta, K.I., Aiyamperumal, V. and Patterson, J. (2013) Utilization of Trash
Fishes as Edible Fish Powder and Its Quality Characteristics and Consumer Accep-
tance. World Journal of Dairy & Food Sciences, 8, 1-10.
[13] Sathivel, S. and Bechtel, P.J. (2006) Properties of Soluble Protein Powders from
Alaska Pollock (Theragra chalcogramma). International Journal of Food Science &
Technology, 41, 520-529. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.01101.x
[14] Sathivel, S. and Bechtel, P.J. (2008) A Comparison of Physical and Rheologic Prop-
erties of Arrowtooth Flounder Protein Made Using Three Different Extracting
Processes. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 32, 557-575.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4514.2008.00184.x
[15] Krishnan, M. and Prabhasankar, P. (2012) Health Based Pasta: Redefining the Con-
cept of the Next Generation Convenience Food. Critical Reviews in Food Science
and Nutrition, 52, 9-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2010.486909
[16] Chukwu, O. and Shaba, I.M. (2009) Effects of Drying Methods on Proximate Com-
positions of Catfish (Clarias gariepinus). World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 5,
114-116.

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 980 Food and Nutrition Sciences

 N. Mahmud et al.

[17] Hilbig, C.C., Fockink, D.H., Maluf, M.L.F., Boscolo, W.R. and Feiden, A. (2013) Re-
sistência do couro de tilápia e composição centesimal da pele nas operações de ri-
beira e curtimento. Scientia Agraria Paranaensis, 12, 258-266.
https://doi.org/10.18188/1983-1471/sap.v12n4p258-266
[18] Modibbo, U.U., Osemeahon, S.A., Shagal, M.H. and Halilu, M. (2014) Effect of
Moisture Content on the Drying Rate Using Traditional Open Sun and Shade Dry-
ing of Fish from Njuwa Lake in North Eastern Nigeria. Journal of Applied Chemi-
stry, 7, 41-45. https://doi.org/10.9790/5736-07114145
[19] Lakra, W.S., Mohindra, V. and Lal, K.K. (2007) Fish Genetics and Conservation
Research in India: Status and Perspectives. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, 33,
475-487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10695-007-9168-z
[20] Sulieman, H.A. and Sidahmed, M.A. (2012) Effect of Drying System on Chemical
and Physical Attributes of Dried Catfish Meat (Clarias Sp.) World’s Veterinary
Journal, 2, 1-4.
[21] Idah, P.A. and Nwankwo, I. (2013) Effects of Smoke-Drying Temperatures and
Time on Physical and Nutritional Quality Parameters of Tilapia (Oreochromis nilo-
ticus). International Journal of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 5, 29-34.
[22] Sengar, S.H., Khandetod, Y.P. and Mohod, A.G. (2009) Low Cost Solar Dryer for
Fish. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 3, 265-271.
[23] Ojutiku, R.O., Kolo, R.J. and Mohammed, M.L. (2009) Comparative Study of Sun
Drying and Solar Tent Drying of Hyperopisus bebeoccidentalis. Pakistan Journal of
Nutrition, 8, 955-957. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2009.955.957
[24] AOAC (2003) Official Methods of Analysis of Association of Analytical Chemist.
17th Edition, AOAC, Gaithersburg.
[25] El-Sohaimy, S.A., Shehata, M.G., Mehany, T. and Zeitoun, M.A. (2019) Nutritional,
Physicochemical, and Sensorial Evaluation of Flat Bread Supplemented with Qui-
noa Flour. International Journal of Food Science, 2019, Article ID: 4686727.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/4686727
[26] Farzana, T. and Mohajan, S. (2015) Effect of Incorporation of Soy Flour to Wheat
Flour on Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Biscuits Fortified with Mushroom.
Food Science & Nutrition, 3, 363-369. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.228
[27] Bligh, E.G. and Dyer, W.J. (1959) A Rapid Method of Total Lipid Extraction and
Purification. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, 37, 911-917.
https://doi.org/10.1139/o59-099
[28] Welch, M.W., Hamar, D.W. and Fettman, M.J. (1990) Method Comparison for Cal-
cium Determination by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry in the Pres-
ence of Phosphate. Clinical Chemistry, 36, 351-354.
[29] Kumar, M.S., Galil, M.S.A., Suresha, M.S., Sathish, M.A. and Nagendrappa, G.
(2007) A Simple Spectrophotometric Determination of Phosphate in Sugarcane
Juices, Water and Detergent Samples. Journal of Chemistry, 4, 467-473.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2007/576560
[30] Mansur, M.A., Rahman, S., Khan, M.N.A., Reza, M.S. and Uga, S. (2013) Study on
the Quality and Safety Aspect of Three Sun-Dried Fish. African Journal of Agricul-
tural Research, 8, 5149-5155.
[31] Eboh, L., Mepba, H.D. and Ekpo, M.B. (2006) Heavy Metal Contaminants and
Processing Effects on the Composition, Storage Stability and Fatty Acid Profiles of
Five Common Commercially Available Fish Species in Oron Local Government,
Nigeria. Food Chemistry, 97, 490-497.

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 981 Food and Nutrition Sciences

N. Mahmud et al.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.041
[32] Al Mamun, S., Das, K.K. and Uddin, M.A. (2016) Microbiological Analysis and De-
termination of Antibacterial Activity of Apple Samples Collected from Local Mar-
kets in Dhaka City, Bangladesh. Stamford Journal of Microbiology, 6, 11-15.
https://doi.org/10.3329/sjm.v6i1.33511
[33] Chowdhury, C.R., Shahnawaz, K., Kumari, D.P., Chowdhury, A., Gootveld, M. and
Lynch, E. (2018) Highly Acidic pH Values of Carbonated Sweet Drinks, Fruit Juices,
Mineral Waters and Unregulated Fluoride Levels in Oral Care Products and Drinks
in India: A Public Health Concern. Perspectives in Public Health, 139, 186-194.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1757913918787218
[34] Siddique, A. and Park, Y.W. (2018) Evaluation of Correlation between Acid Degree
Value and Peroxide Value in Lipolysis of Control and Iron Fortified Caprine Milk
Cheeses during 4 Months Storage. Open Journal of Animal Sciences, 9, 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojas.2019.91001
[35] Farzana, T., Mohajan, S., Saha, T., Hossain, M.N. and Haque, M.Z. (2017) Formula-
tion and Nutritional Evaluation of a Healthy Vegetable Soup Powder Supplemented
with Soy Flour, Mushroom, and Moringa Leaf. Food Science & Nutrition, 5,
911-920. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.476
[36] Bisla, G., Choudhary, S. and Chaudhary, V. (2014) Evaluation of the Nutritive and
Organoleptic Values of Food Products Developed by Incorporated Catharanthus
roseus (Sadabahar) Fresh Leaves Explore Their Hypoglycemic Potential. The Scien-
tific World Journal, 2014, Article ID: 304120. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/304120
[37] Veeramachaneni, K., Vladislavleva, E. and O’Reilly, U.M. (2012) Knowledge Mining
Sensory Evaluation Data: Genetic Programming, Statistical Techniques, and Swarm
Optimization. Genetic Programming and Evolvable Machines, 13, 103-133.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10710-011-9153-2
[38] Van Ruth, S., Brouwer, E., Koot, A. and Wijtten, M. (2014) Seafood and Water
Management. Foods, 3, 622-631. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods3040622
[39] Sultana, S., Parween, S. and Hossain, M.A. (2011) Biochemical Analysis of Some
Dried SIS Fishes of the River Padma in Rajshahi. Journal of Life and Earth Science,
6, 39-43. https://doi.org/10.3329/jles.v6i0.9719
[40] Abbasi, A., Babaali, E. and Berizi, E. (2019) Effect of Radiation, Heating, High
Pressure, and the Commercial Processing Method on Reduction and/or Elimination
of Patulin in Fruit and Vegetable Products: A Systematic Review. Toxin Reviews.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15569543.2019.1584823
[41] Abdel-Haleem, A.M. and Omran, A.A. (2014) Preparation of Dried Vegetarian Soup
Supplemented with Some Legumes. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 5, 2274.
https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2014.522241
[42] Flowra, F.A., Tumpa, A.S. and Islam, M.T. (2012) Biochemical Analysis of Five
Dried Fish Species of Bangladesh. University Journal of Zoology, Rajshahi Univer-
sity, 31, 9-11. https://doi.org/10.3329/ujzru.v31i0.15373
[43] Abbey, L., Glover-Amengor, M., Atikpo, M.O., Atter, A. and Toppe, J. (2017) Nu-
trient Content of Fish Powder from Low Value Fish and Fish Byproducts. Food
Science & Nutrition, 5, 374-379. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.402
[44] Majumdar, B.C. (2018) Comparison of the Changes in Nutritional Quality of Three
Important Small Indigenous Fish Species in Bangladesh at Room Temperature
(27˚-31˚C): A Review. Journal of Animal Research and Nutrition, 2, 15.
https://doi.org/10.21767/2572-5459.100035

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 982 Food and Nutrition Sciences

 N. Mahmud et al.

[45] Islam, M.T., Ahmed, S., Sultana, M.A., Tumpa, A.S. and Flowra, F.A. (2013) Nutri-
tional and Food Quality Assessment of Dried Fishes in Singra Upazila under Natore
District of Bangladesh. Trends in Fisheries Research, 2, 2319-4758.
[46] Islam, M., Mahmud, N., Nawas, T., Fang, Y. and Xia, W. (2018) Health Benefits and
Spray Drying Microencapsulation Process of Fish Oil Health Benefits and Spray
Drying Microencapsulation Process of Fish Oil (Omega-3). American Journal of
Food Science and Nutrition Research, 5, 29-42.
[47] Trautvetter, U., Ditscheid, B., Jahreis, G. and Glei, M. (2018) Calcium and Phos-
phate Metabolism, Blood Lipids and Intestinal Sterols in Human Intervention Stu-
dies Using Different Sources of Phosphate as Supplements—Pooled Results and Li-
terature Search. Nutrients, 10, 936. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10070936
[48] Hei, A. and Sarojnalini, C. (2012) Proximate Composition, Macro and Micro Min-
eral Elements of Some Smoke-Dried Hill Stream Fishes from Manipur, India. Na-
ture and Science, 10, 59-65.
[49] Medeiros, R.J., dos Santos, L.M.G., Freire, A.S., Santelli, R.E., Braga, A.M.C., Krauss,
T.M. and Jacob, S.D.C. (2012) Determination of Inorganic Trace Elements in Edible
Marine Fish from Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Food Control, 23, 535-541.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.08.027
[50] Reyahi-Khoram, M., Setayesh-Shiri, F. and Cheraghi, M. (2016) Study of the Heavy
Metals (Cd and Pb) Content in the Tissues of Rainbow Trouts from Hamedan
Coldwater Fish Farms. Iranian Journal of Fisheries Sciences, 15, 858-869.
[51] Ahmad, A. and Shuhaimi-Othman, M. (2010) Heavy Metal Concentrations in Se-
diments and Fishes from Lake Chini, Paliang, Malaysia. Journal of Biological
Sciences, 10, 93-100. https://doi.org/10.3923/jbs.2010.93.100
[52] Kumar, P.S., Ramakrishnan, K., Kirupha, S.D. and Sivanesan, S. (2010) Thermody-
namic and Kinetic Studies of Cadmium Adsorption from Aqueous Solution onto
Rice Husk. Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 27, 347-355.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-66322010000200013
[53] Malum, Y.M. and Salihu, L. (2017) Determination of Heavy Metals in Hibiscus
cannabinus and Moringa oleifera Cultivated at Zango Abattoir, Tudun Wada, Ka-
duna Metropolis. International Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 3, 32.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsdr.20170304.11
[54] Flowra, F.A., Bayezid, M.A., Alam, M.M., Hussain, M.A. and Jahan, S.N. (2017)
Safety Aspects: An Assessment of Heavy Metals in Dried Fishes of Chalan Beel.
Journal of Agricultural Engineering and Food Technology, 4, 82-86.
[55] In’t Veld, J.H.H. (1996) Microbial and Biochemical Spoilage of Foods: An Over-
view. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 33, 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1605(96)01139-7
[56] Food Standards Australia. New Zealand. (2018) Compendium of Microbiological
Criteria for Food.
[57] Pradhan, N., Shrestha, M.K., Rai, S., Jha, D.K. and Sah, S.K. (2018) Quality Assess-
ment of Dried Mrigal (Cirrhunus mrigala) Chhari Fish from Different Market Out-
lets of Nepal. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 6, 463-471.
[58] Al-Reza, S., Karmaker, S., Hasan, M., Roy, S., Hoque, R. and Rahman, N. (2015) Ef-
fect of Traditional Fish Processing Methods on the Proximate and Microbiological
Characteristics of Laubuka dadiburjori during Storage at Room Temperature. Jour-
nal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, 10, 232.
https://doi.org/10.3923/jfas.2015.232.243

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 983 Food and Nutrition Sciences

N. Mahmud et al.

[59] Immaculate, K., Giftson, H., Saritha, K. and Patterson, J. (2015) Studies on the Nu-
tritional and Microbiological Quality of Smoked Tuna Fish (Auxis thazard) in Tu-
ticorin, South East Coast of India. International Journal of Food Quality and Safety,
1, 28-38.
[60] Socaciu, M.I., Semeniuc, C. and Vodnar, D. (2018) Edible Films and Coatings for
Fresh Fish Packaging: Focus on Quality Changes and Shelf-Life Extension. Coat-
ings, 8, 366. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings8100366
[61] Banda, J., Chigwechokha, P., Singini, W., Kamanula, J., Msiska, O. and Simbeye, J.
(2017) The Shelf Life of Solar Tent Dried and Open Sun Dried Diplotaxodon lim-
nothrissa (Ndunduma)-Pisces; Cichlidae. International Journal of Fisheries and
Aquatic Studies, 5, 212-218.
[62] Farid, F.B., Latifa, G.A., Nahid, M.N. and Begum, M. (2014) Effect of Sun-Drying
on Proximate Composition and pH of Shoal Fish (C. striatus; Bloch, 1801) Treated
with Salt and Saltturmeric Storage at Room Temperature (27˚C - 30˚C). IOSR
Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 7, 1-8.
https://doi.org/10.9790/2380-07930108
[63] Odour-Odote, P., Shamasundar, B.A., Booman, A.C., Howell, N.K., Parin, M.A. and
Zugarramurdi, A. (2016) Effect of Raw Material Quality on Quality and Yield of
Dried Fish Products. International Journal, 3, 55.
https://doi.org/10.15379/2408-9826.2016.03.02.04
[64] Özyurt, G., Kuley, E., Özkütük, S. and Özogul, F. (2009) Sensory, Microbiological
and Chemical Assessment of the Freshness of Red Mullet (Mullus barbatus) and
Goldband Goatfish (Upeneus moluccensis) during Storage in Ice. Food Chemistry,
114, 505-510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.078
[65] Cai, Q., Wu, Y., Li, L., Wang, Y., Yang, X. and Zhao, Y. (2017) Lipid Oxidation and
Fatty Acid Composition in Salt-Dried Yellow Croaker (Pseudosciaena polyactis)
during Processing. Journal of Ocean University of China, 16, 855-862.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11802-017-3233-8
[66] Siriskar, D.A., Khedkar, G.D. and Lior, D. (2013) Production of Salted and Pressed
Anchovies (Stolephorus sp.) and Its Quality Evaluation during Storage. Journal of
Food Science and Technology, 50, 1172-1178.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-011-0450-9
[67] Nurullah, M., Kamal, M., Islam, M.N., Ahasan, C.T. and Thilsted, S.H. (2007) Shelf
Life of Dried Products from Small Indigenous Fish Species under Various Packing
and Storage Conditions. Bangladesh Journal of Fisheries Research, 11, 229-236.
[68] Tenyang, N., Tiencheu, B. and Womeni, H.M. (2018) Effect of Smoking and Refri-
geration on Lipid Oxidation of Clupea harengus: A Fish Commonly Consumed in
Cameroon. Food Science & Nutrition, 6, 464-473. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.575
[69] Moneim, A., Sulieman, E. and Mustafa, W.A. (2012) Quality Characteristics of
Dried Fish Obtained from Eldeim Area, Central Sudan. International Journal of
Food Science and Nutrition Engineering, 2, 1-6.
https://doi.org/10.5923/j.food.20120201.01
[70] Özogul, Y., Özyurt, G., Özogul, F., Kuley, E. and Polat, A. (2005) Freshness Assess-
ment of European Eel (Anguilla anguilla) by Sensory, Chemical and Microbiological
Methods. Food Chemistry, 92, 745-751.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.08.035

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2019.108069 984 Food and Nutrition Sciences