Transportation Engineering II

COMPONENTS OF A RAILWAY TRACK

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND WATER ENGINEERING
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
TCW3208
Components of a Railway Track

• Rails
• Sleepers (ties)
• Fasteners
• Ballast (slab track)
• Formation (Subgrade)

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Components of a Railway Track

 Each component of the track has a specific function to perform

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Components of a Railway Track- section

A track consists of two parallel rails fastened to sleepers with a

specified distance between them.

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Components of a Railway Track- Section

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Components of a Railway Track- Track defined

The track or permanent way is the railroad on which

trains run. It consists of two parallel rails fastened to
sleepers with a specified distance between them. The
sleepers are embedded in a layer of ballast of specified
thickness spread over level ground known as
formation. The ballast provides a uniform level surface
and drainage, and transfers the load to a larger area of
the formation. The sleepers are spaced at a specified
distance and are held in position by the ballast.

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RAILWAY TRACK- Examples

A railway track is a permanent way or railroad on which trains travel.

Single-track railway

Double-track railway Quadruple-track railway

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RAILWAY TRACK- GAUGE

Rail gauge is the clear min distance between the inner sides of the two
parallel rails that make up a single railway line (track)

Some countries measure the gauge at a point 14mm below the top of
the rail.
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RAILWAY TRACK- GAUGES ON WORLD RAILWAYS

Historical and other considerations influence the choice of

gauge for any country.

GAUGE TYPE SIZE (mm)

BROAD GAUGE (BG) 1676; 1524

STANDARD GAUGE (SG) 1435; 1451
METER GAUGE (MG) 1067; 1000
NARROW GAUGE (NG) 762; 610

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RAILWAY TRACK- GAUGES ON WORLD RAILWAYS

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RAILWAY TRACK- Gauge tolerance on tracks

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RAILWAY TRACK- FACTORS AFFECTING GAUGE CHOICE

• Cost
• Traffic
• Physical features of a country
• Uniformity of gauge (e.g SADC adopts one gauge size)

Discuss how these factors influence the choice!!!!

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RAILWAY TRACK- Problems due to multiple gauge system

• Inconvenience to passengers
 Passengers have to change trains mid-journey with their
luggage, Delays
• Difficulty in Trans-shipment of Goods
 Damage of goods in changing trains
 Delay in receipt of goods at destination
 Theft or misplacement of goods during trans-shipment
 Requires more labour to shift goods during trans-shipment
• Inefficient Use of Rolling Stock
 Ideal wagons of one gauge
• Additional Facilities at Stations and Yards
 Costly additional facilities need to be provided for handling
the large volume of goods at trans-shipment points 13
RAILWAY TRACK- Benefits of a uni-gauge policy

• No Transport Bottlenecks
 Efficient transport and fast movement of goods and people
• No Trans-shipment Hazards
 No delays, no damage to goods, no inconvenience to
passengers due to moving from one train to the other.
• Provisions of Alternate Routes
 Reduced pressure on some networks, non-interference to
movement of goods and people during maintenance works.
• Better Turnround of wagons and locomotives
• No Multiple Tracking Works
 eliminate the need for certain traffic facilities and multiple
tracking works
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RAILWAY TRACK- Requirements of a good track

• A permanent way or track should provide a

comfortable and safe ride at the maximum
permissible speed with minimum maintenance
cost

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RAILWAY TRACK- Characteristics of a good track

• The gauge should be correct and uniform

• The rails should have perfect cross levels. In curves, the outer rail should
have a proper superelevation to take into account the centrifugal force.
• The alignment should be straight and free of kinks. In the case of curves, a
proper transition should be provided between the straight track and the curve.
• The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible. The change of
gradient should be followed by a proper vertical curve to provide a smooth
ride.
• The track should be resilient and elastic to absorb the shocks and vibrations
of trains.
• The track should have a good drainage system to ensure soil stability
• There should be provisions for easy replacement and renewal of track
components.
• The track should have such a structure that not only is its initial cost low, but
also its maintenance cost is minimum
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RAILWAY TRACK- GAUGE MEASUREMENT

A track gauge tool (like a caliper) is used to measure track gauge

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RAILS

• A rail is an Iron Beam that act as girders to transmit the wheel

load of trains to the sleepers.
• These are members of the track laid in two parallel lines to provide
a continuous and land surface for the movement of trains.

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RAILS- FUNCTIONS OF RAILS

• To provide a mosteconomical, smooth and

continuous level surface for the smooth passage of
heavily loaded vehicles at great speeds
• Provide a pathway which is smooth and less friction
• Rails also serve as a lateral guide for the running of
the wheels.
• Transfers load to formation through sleepers and
ballast on a wider area.
• Rails bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads
transmitted to them through axles and wheels of rolling
stock as well as due to braking and thermal forces.
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RAILS- LENGTHS

 The longer the rail, the lesser the number of joints and
fittings required and the lesser the cost of construction
and maintenance.
 Longer rails are economical and provide smooth and
comfortable rides.

 Broad Gauge (BG)= 13m (26m in other countries)

 Meter Gauge (MG)= 12m
 Narrow Gauge (NG)= varies but 9m is common
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RAILS- FACTORS INFLUENCING LENGTHS

 Lack of facilities for transport of longer rails

 Difficulties in manufacturing very long rails.
 Difficulties in acquiring lots expansion joints for long
rails.
 Heavy internal thermal stresses in long rails.
 Difficulties in Lifting and handling operations

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RAILS- Types of Sections

• Double Headed Rail

• Bull headed Rail
• Flat Footed Rail

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RAILS- CLASSIFICATION

• Double Headed Rail

 It is of I section or Dumb-bell section
 Such rails have to be supported in chairs which rest on
sleepers

 The idea was that when the head of the rail was worn
out during the period of service, the rail could be
inverted. Later, it was found that during the service
period, the bottom table of the rail was dented by the
long and continuous contact with the chair to an extent
that it was impossible to reuse it. This led to its rejection
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RAILS- CLASSIFICATION

• Double Headed Rail

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RAILS- CLASSIFICATION

• Bull Headed Rail

 It is similar in shape to the double headed rail with the
only difference that in bull headed rail, more metal is
added to the head to allow for the greater wear and
tear.
 The lower head or table was kept of just sufficient size
to be able to withstand the stresses to be induced by
moving loads
 This rails also requires chairs for fixing it to the sleepers

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RAILS- CLASSIFICATION

• Bull Headed Rail

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RAILS- CLASSIFICATION

• Flat Footed Rail

 It is an inverted T-shaped rail
 Have greater stability
 Developed by Charles Vignoles in 1836

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RAILS- CLASSIFICATION

• Flat Footed Rail

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RAILS- ideal rail section

• A rail primarily consists of a head, a web, and a foot,

and there should be an economical and balanced
distribution of metal in its various components.
• The rail should have the most economical section
consistent with strength, stiffness and durability.
• The centre of gravity of the rail section should preferably
be very close to the mid-height of the rail so that the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.

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RAILS- ideal rail section

• Head: The head of the rail should have adequate depth to allow for
vertical wear. The rail head should also be sufficiently wide so that
not only is a wider running surface available, but also the rail has
the desired lateral stiffness.
• Web: The web should be sufficiently thick so as to withstand the
stresses arising due to the loads bone by it, after allowing for
normal corrosion.
• Foot: The foot should be of sufficient thickness to be able to
withstand vertical and horizontal forces after allowing for loss due to
corrosion. The foot should be wide enough for stability against
overturning. The design of the foot should be such that it can be
economically and efficiently rolled.
• Height of the rail: The height of the rail should be adequate so
that the rail has sufficient vertical stiffness and strength as a beam.
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RAILS- Typical sizes of Sections

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RAILS- Standard rail section

• The rail is designated by its weight per unit length.

– Eg 52kg/m; 60kg/m
• The weight of a rail and its section is decided after considerations
such as the following:
(a) Heaviest axle load
(b) Maximum permissible speed
(c) Depth of ballast cushion
(d) Type and spacing of sleepers

Maximum axle load = 560 × sectional weight of rail in (kg per metre)

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RAILS- Permissible variations in dimensions

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RAILS- TESTS

• The following tests are conducted to

determine the serviceability of a rail
section.

Falling weight or tup test

Tensile test
Hammer test
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RAILS- TESTS: FALLING WEIGHT TEST

• A rail piece of 1.5m is cut.

• The rail is supported between the bearers at a
prescribed distance.
• A tup of specified weight (e.g 1000 kg) is dropped from
a height of 7.2m on the centre of the test piece. The
specimen should withstand the blow without any
fracture.
• NB: The weight of the tup, distance between the
centres of the bearings and the height of the drop for
different rail sections are pre-set standards for different
rail sections.
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RAILS- TESTS: FALLING WEIGHT TEST

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RAILS- TESTS: TENSILE TEST

• A test piece is taken from the head of a rail section and

subjected to the tensile test.
 The tensile strength of the rail should not be less than
72kg/mm2 with a minimum elongation of 14% for
medium manganese rails and 12% for carbon quality
rails.

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RAILS- TESTS: TENSILE TEST

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RAILS- TESTS: HAMMER TEST

• The foot of the test rail piece is rigidly gripped in a

vertical position and the head of the rail is struck with a
4.5kg hammer.
• Sufficient number of blows are given till the web bends
and the dimensional value of A (prescribed depending on
rail section) is achieved. No fracture should occur or a
lap be disclosed.

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Due to the passage of moving loads and friction between the rail
and the wheel, the rail head gets worn out in the course of service.
The impact of moving loads, the effect of the forces of acceleration,
deceleration, and braking of wheels, the abrasion due to rail–wheel
interaction, the effects of weather conditions such as changes in
temperature, snow, and rains, the presence of materials such as
sand, the standard of maintenance of the track, and such allied
factors cause considerable wear and tear of the vertical and lateral
planes of the rail head. Lateral wear occurs more on curves because
of the lateral thrust exerted on the outer rail by centrifugal force. A
lot of the metal of the rail head gets worn out, causing the weight
of the rail to decrease.

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear on head of rail (vertical wear)

• Wear on ends of rail (battering of rail ends)
• Wear of rail sides on curve (lateral wear)

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear on head of rail

 Wear on head of rail is due to abrasion on moving rails
 Due to grinding action of sand or dust between the rails
and wheels of the train
 When the train starts or applies brakes, the wheel just
slides on the rails causing wear on the head

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

Wear on head of rail

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear on ends of rail

 Results due to the blows (hammering action) which the
rail receive when the wheel jumps the space between
the rail ends and the ends are battered by such blows.
 The contact surface between the sleepers and the rail is
worn as the as the effect of these blows increased.
 The ballast under the sleepers will loosen due to
increase in the intensity of vibrations, also he sleeper will
depressed due the displacement of ballast, also the fish
plates will get loose under the constant impact of
increasing vibrations
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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear on ends of rail

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear on ends of rail

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear on ends of rail- hogged rails

 A hogged rail is one with its end or ends bent in vertical direction.
Caused due to battering action of wheels

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear on ends of rail- hogged rails

 Due to loose packing under the joints and loose fish plates.
 Preventing steps
 Hogged rails are removed and replaced by new rails.
 Deflected ends can be brought in to their original shape and size by
welding
 The deflected ends of the rails are cut off and fresh holes drilled for
fixing the fish plates.
 The bent or deflected ends of rails can be straightened

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear on ends of rail- hogged rails

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear of rail sides on curve

 On the curve the wear of the rail takes place in both
inner and outer rails.
 On the curve, the outer wheel has to move through
greater distance than the inner wheel. And the inner
wheel has to slide over the inner rail.
 As a result of this sliding wear of the inner rail occur
because the metal in the rail head is burnt.
 The flange may also become in contact with the rail
hence the sides of the rails are affected
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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear of rail on curve

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Wear of rail on curve

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RAILS- RAIL DEFECTS

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Special locations of track were wear occurs

 on sharp curves, due to centrifugal forces

 on steep gradients, due to the extra force applied by
the engine
 on approaches to railway stations, possibly due to
acceleration and deceleration
 in tunnels and coastal areas, due to humidity and
weather effects

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Measurement of Wear

 By weighing the rail

 By profiling the rail section with the help of lead strips
 By profiling the rail section with the help of needles
 By using special instruments designed to measure the
profile of the rail and record it simultaneously on graph
paper

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RAILS- WEAR OF RAILS

• Methods to reduce Wear

 Better maintenance of the track to ensure good packing

as well as proper alignment and use of the correct gauge
 Reduction in the number of joints by welding
 Use of heavier and higher UTS rails, which are more
wear resistant
 Use of bearing plates and proper adzing in case of
wooden sleepers
 Lubricating the gauge face of the outer rail on curves
 Providing check rails for sharp curves
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RAILS- Other rail defects

 Hogging of rails- Rail ends get hogged due to poor maintenance

of the rail joint, yielding formation, loose and faulty fastenings, and
other such reasons.
 Scabbing of rails- The scabbing of rails occurs due to the falling of
patches or chunks of metal from the rail table
 Wheel burns- Wheel burns are caused by the slipping of the
driving wheel of locomotives on the rail surface. As a consequence,
extra heat is generated and the surface of the rail gets affected,
resulting in a depression on the rail table.
 Shelling and black spots- Shelling is the progressive horizontal
separation of metal that occurs on the gauge side
 Corrugation of Rails- consists of minute depressions on the
surface of rails, varying in shape and size and occurring at irregular
intervals
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RAILS- FAILURE

• A rail is said to have failed if it is considered

necessary to remove it immediately from the
track on account of the defects noticed on it.
Majority of rail failures originate from the fatigue
cracks caused due to alternating stresses
created in the rail section on account of the
passage of loads.

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RAILS- CAUSES OF RAIL FAILURE

• Inherent defects in the manufacturing process-e.g faulty chemical

composition,
• Defects due to fault of the rolling stock and abnormal traffic- e.g flat spots
in tyres, engine burns, skidding of wheels, severe braking, etc.
• Excessive corrosion of rails- due to weather conditions, presence of
corrosive salts and constant exposure of the rails to moisture and humidity
in locations near water.
• Badly maintained joints- Poor maintenance of joints such as improper
packing of joint sleepers and loose fittings.
• Defects in welding of joints- These defects arise either because of improper
composition of the thermit weld metal or because of a defective welding
technique.
• Improper maintenance of track- Ineffective or careless maintenance of the
track
• Derailments Damages caused to the rails during derailment.
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RAILS- RAIL FAILURE DETECTION

• A defect in a rail which will ultimately lead to the fracture or breakage of

the rail.

 Visual examination of rail ends- In this method, the joint is first opened
after removing the fish plates. The rail ends are then cleaned using
kerosene oil and visually examined in detail with the help of a magnifying
glass for any hair crack.
 Ultrasonic rail flaw detectors (non-destructive test)- Vibration waves
having the property of being able to pass through materials and following
the normal principles of light waves of refraction, reflection and
transmission. Whenever there is a change of medium, some of the
ultrasonic energy gets reflected and the rest gets transmitted. However, if a
discontinuity exists in the rail metal due to some flaw, the ultrasonic waves
get reflected back from the location of the flaw, which can be picked up
and the defect located.
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RAILS- RAIL FAILURE DETECTION

Portable Ultrasonic rail defect testing trolley

 2-3km of rail/day

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RAILS- RAIL FAILURE DETECTION

Ultrasonic Test cars

 Test at a speed
of 30km/hr
 100–200 km
per day

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RAILS- CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS

• IMR defects- remove rail immediately after detection (serious in

nature)

• REM defects- early removal of rail from the track (not so

immediate in nature)

• OBS defects- not so serious in nature

 The rail need not be removed in such cases but should be kept
under observation

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RAILS- BENDING OF RAILS

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RAILS- BENDING OF RAILS

• On curves the rail is bent true to the curvature of the

curve. In flat curves less than 3 degrees, the rails need
no bending as they are retained in curve position by the
sleepers.
• With curves more than 3 degrees, it is desirable to bend
the rails before fixing them with sleepers.

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RAILS- BENDING OF RAILS

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SLEEPERS

• Are the transverse support ties that are laid to support

the rails.
• The sleepers hold the rails in their proper positions,
provide a correct gauge with the help of fittings and
fastenings, and transfer the load to the ballast.

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SLEEPERS- LOAD DISTRIBUTION

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SLEEPERS- TRANSVERSE SLEEPERS

• Also knows as cross sleepers.

• Placed at right angles under the rails.
• Eliminated the inconvenience of longitudinal sleepers

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SLEEPERS- LONGITUDINAL SLEEPERS

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SLEEPERS- FUNCTIONS

• Holds the rails to correct gauge alignment

• Give a firm and even support to the rails
• Distributed the axle load over a sufficiently large area of the ballast
• To act as elastic medium between the rails and ballast to absorb vibration
• To maintain the alignment of the track
• To provide insulation for electrified tracks
• Transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast
• To hold the rails t proper gauge in all situations. i.e. exact gauge along straights and flat curves,
slightly loose on sharp curves and slightly tight in diamond crossings.
• To support the rails firmly and evenly throughout.
• To distribute the load transmitted through rails over large area of ballast underneath or to the
bridge girders as the case may be.
• To hold the rails to proper level in turnouts and crossovers, and at 1 in 20 in ward slope along
straight tracks.
• To provide and elastic medium between the rails and ballast and also to absorb the vibrations
caused due to moving axle loads.
• To maintain proper alignment of the track. On curves proper cant is provided by raising the outer
rail and tamping he required quantity of ballast bellow thrails.
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SLEEPERS- FUNCTIONS

• To provide the general stability of the permanent way

throughout.
• To provide the insulation of track for the electrified for
signaling.
• To provide easy replacement of the rail fastenings
without any serious traffic disturbances
• Holding rails to correct gauge and alignment.
• Firm and even support to rails.
• Transferring the load evenly from rails to wider area of
ballast.
• Elastic medium between rails and ballast.
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• Providing longitudinal and lateral stability
SLEEPERS- CLASSIFICATION

• Wooden (timber) sleepers

 Hard woods e.g Sal, Teak
 Soft woods e.g deodar, chir
• Steel sleepers
• Cast iron sleepers
• Concrete sleepers
 RC
 pre-stressed concrete

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SLEEPERS- wooden sleepers

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SLEEPERS- wooden sleepers

ADVANTAGES
(1) They have proved very useful for heavy loads and high-
speed trains.
(2) They are cheap and easy to manufacture.
(3) Easy handling without any damage.
(4) Alignment can be easily corrected.
(5) They are most suitable for track circuiting.
(6) They can be used with or without stone ballast.
(7) They can be used for gauntleted tracks.
(8) Suitable in the areas having yielding formations.
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SLEEPERS- wooden sleepers

DISADVANTAGES
 Lesser life due to wear, decay and attack by vermin
 They do not maintain the gauge accurately.
 They easily develop cracks with beater packing.
 They require the highest maintenance cost as compared to other
types of sleepers.
 They get easily disturbed from their positions under heavy loads.
 They need special treatment for fire protection.
 Their scrap value is low.

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SLEEPERS- wooden sleepers

Students to research on:

1. Timber seasoning (to reduce moisture content)
Artificial seasoning in kiln
Boulton or boiling under vacuum process
Air seasoning
2. Treatment of sleepers
Fuel Cell (Bethell) process
Empty Cell (Rueping) process
Empty Cell (Lowry) process 77
SLEEPERS- wooden sleepers
DESCRIPTION OF WOODEN SLEEPERS

 The depth of a sleeper governs its stiffness as a

beam
 The length and width control the necessary
bearing area.
GAUGE SIZE (mm) Bearing area (m2)

BG 2750x250x130 ??
MG 1800x200x115 ??
NG 1500x180x115 ??

Thicker sections (e.g 250x150 or 250x180) are required at

bridges and crossings. 78
SLEEPERS- wooden sleepers

ADZING OF WOODEN SLEEPERS

 In order to enable the rails to be slightly tilted inwards at a cant of 1
in 20, wooden sleepers are required to be cut to this slope at the
rail seat before laying. This process of cutting the wooden sleeper at
a slope of 1 in 20 is known as ‘adzing of the wooden sleeper’

79
SLEEPERS- Steel sleepers

They are in the form of steel trough on which rails are fixed
by keys or nuts or bolts

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SLEEPERS- Steel sleepers

ADVANTAGES
 Long life than other sleepers
 Good lateral rigidity
 They are manufactured by a simple operation.
 Less damage during handling and transport.
 They are not attacked by vermin’s.
 They are not susceptible to fire hazards.
 Very good scrap value
 The maintenance and adjustment of gauge are easy as
compared to the other of sleepers.
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SLEEPERS- Steel sleepers

DISADVANTAGES
(1) Liable to corrossion
(2) They develop cracks at rail seats or near lugs.
(3) Their lugs get broken easily.
(4) The steel sleepers do not provide effective track circuiting
(5) The steel sleepers can only be for the type of rails for which theses
are manufactured.
(6) These develop the tendency to become center bound because of
slope at both ends.
(7) The overall cost of steel sleepers is more than that of timber
sleepers.

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SLEEPERS- Cast Iron sleepers

a. Pot type sleepers

 Consists of two hollow pots of circular or elliptical shape placed
inverted on the ballast section.
 Two pots are connected by the tie bars of section 5cm X 1.25cm,
 Each pot has two hoes for ballast packing and inspection, the rail is
placed on the top of the pot in a rail seat

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SLEEPERS- Cast Iron sleepers

b. Plate type sleepers

 Consist of rectangular plates of size about 86cm X 30.5cm, with
projecting ribs under the plates for their lateral stability.
 The tie bars can be fixed to the plate keys, gibs, cotter keys and
distance piece etc.
 It also provide an effective bearing area on BG

84
SLEEPERS- Cast Iron sleepers

b. Plate type sleepers

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SLEEPERS- Cast Iron sleepers

ADVANTAGES
 Long life up to 50-60 years
 High scrape value as they can be remoulded
 Can be manufactured locally
 Provided sufficient bearing area
 Much stronger at the rail seat
 Prevent and check creep of rail
 They are not attacked by vermin
 Less liable to corrosion
 Less probability of cracking at rail seat
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SLEEPERS- Cast Iron sleepers

DISADVANTAGES
 They are prone to corrosion and cannot be used in salty
formations and coastal areas
 Not suitable for track circuited portions of railways
 Can badly damage under derailment
 Difficult to maintain the gauge as the two pots are
independent
 Require a large number of fastening materials
 Difficult to handle and may be easily damaged
 Lack of good shock absorber
 They are expensive 87
SLEEPERS- Concrete sleepers

 R.C.C and pre-stressed concrete sleepers are now

replacing all other types of sleepers except to some
special circumstances such as crossing bridges etc here
timber sleepers are used.
 They were first of all used in France round about in 1914
but are common since 1950.
 They may be a twin block sleepers joined by an angle
iron.
 It may be a single block pre-stressed type.
 Concrete sleepers are much heavier than wooden ones,
so they resist movement better.
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SLEEPERS- Concrete sleepers

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SLEEPERS- Concrete sleepers

PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE SLEEPERS

 The concrete is put under a very high initial

compression.
 All the disadvantages of RC sleepers have been
eliminated by pre stressing sleepers
 Two types of pre stressed sleepers (i) Pre-tensioned
sleeper (ii) Post tensioned sleeper

Whats the difference between pre-tensioning and post-

tensioning??? 90
SLEEPERS- Concrete sleepers

PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE SLEEPERS

91
SLEEPERS- Concrete sleepers

ADVANTAGES
 Durable with life range from 40-50 years
 They can be produced on large quantities locally by installing a plant
 Heavier than all other types thus giving better lateral stability to the track
 Good insulators and thus suitable for use in track circuited lines
 Efficient in controlling creep
 They are not attacked by corrosion
 Free from attacks of vermin and decay, suitable for all types of soils
 Most suitable for welded tracks
 Prevent buckling more efficiently
 Initial cost is high but proves to be economical in long run
 Effectively and strongly hold the track to gauge
 Inflammable and fire resistant
92
SLEEPERS- Concrete sleepers

DISADVANTAGES
 Difficult to be handled
 Difficult to be manufactured in different sizes thus cannot be used in
bridges and crossing
 Can be damaged easily while loading and unloading

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SLEEPERS- REQUIREMENTS

• Should provide easy means of maintainability

• Handling of rails, sleeper and fastening should be easy
• Quick restoration after accident is possible
• Material and design is available
• It should have anti-theft and anti-sabotage quality
• Cheap to obtain and maintain
• The initial cost and the maintenance cost of the sleepers should be low.
• The fittings required for fixing the rails on to the sleepers, should be simple which
can be easily adjusted during the maintenance.
• The crushing strength of the sleepers should be more with moderate weight.
• They should be able to maintain a perfect alignment, gauge and levels of the rails
and should afford efficient adjustment and maintenance.
• They should provide sufficient bearing area to hold the rail seats and for the ballast
to be supported on, to resist the crushing due to movement of heavy axle loads.

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SLEEPERS- REQUIREMENTS

• The sleeper spacing should be such as t remove and replace the ballast
during regular maintenance operation.
• They should be capable to resist the shocks and vibrations caused due to
fast moving vehicles at high speeds.
• They should provide insulation facilities for track circuiting in the electrified
sections.
• The sleepers should be strong enough to withstand the pressure during
packing process.
• The sleepers should be of such a design that they remain in their positions
and do not get disturbed due t moving trains.
• The material used for the sleeper be such that it does not attract the
sabotage and the theft qualities.

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SLEEPERS- LONGITUDINAL SLEEPERS

• These are earlier forms of sleepers which are not in use nowadays.
• Consists of slabs or pieces of timber placed parallel to the rails.
• To maintain the correct gauge cross pieces were provided.
• These sleepers were costly
• Noise created by the track is considerable

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SLEEPERS DENSITY (SD)

• SD- Is the number of sleepers per unit rail length.

• Specified as M+x or N+x
• Minimum Density
 MKS: Minimum sleeper density= M+7
 FPS: Minimum sleeper density= M+3
 M or N-Length of the rail (m)
 x is a number that varies according to the following factors

• Factors affecting spacing/density

• Axle load and speed
• Type and section of rails
• Type and strength of sleepers
• Type of ballast and ballast cushion
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• Nature of the Formation
SLEEPERS DENSITY (SD)

Determine the sleeper density on a Broad Gauge (BG)

route??
Answer= 20 sleepers per rail length (13m)

Assumptions
 Sleeper density = M + 7
 M for BG= rail length = 13m
NB: the number of sleepers in a track can be specified as the
number of sleepers per kilometer. In this case, 1539 sleepers/km
NB: Sleeper spacing is fixed on the sleeper density. However, this
spacing is not kept uniform throughout the rail length. It is closer
near the joints due to joint weakness and impact of moving loads
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SLEEPERS DENSITY (SD)
Spacing of sleepers (Minimum sleeper spacing)

Examples

• Wooden sleepers- 300mm (BG), 250mm

(MG).
• Metal sleepers- 380mm (BG), 330mm
(MG)

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SLEEPERS DENSITY (SD)
Spacing of sleepers (Indian Design Manual example)

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SLEEPERS DENSITY (SD)
Spacing of sleepers (Indian Design Manual example)

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BALLAST

• Is the layer of broken stone, gravel or any other suitable material

placed under and around the sleepers for distributing the load from
the sleepers to the formation
• Is the material used as an elastic cushion between the sleeper and
the top of the formation.
• The load on the sleeper is transferred through the medium of the
ballast to the formation

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BALLAST

103
BALLAST- TYPES

• Keeping in view the availability, workability, durability, strength and

drainage property of the ballast, different materials have been used
as ballast. The most important types of ballast materials used in.

 Brocken stone
 Gravel
 Cinders or ashes
 Sand
 Brick
 Moorum- decomposed laterite rocks
 e.t.c

NB: Ballast type is also influenced by sleeper type and traffic density.
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BALLAST- FUNCTIONS

• It provides a suitable foundation for the sleepers

• It transfers and distributes loads from the sleepers to a larger area of
formation
• It provides effective drainage of the track
• It helps protecting the top surface of the formation
• It provides a hard and level bed for the sleepers.
• It holds the sleepers in proper position during the passage of moving trains.
• It provides to some extent an elastic bed for the track.
• It transmits and distributes the moving load of the trains from the sleepers to
the formation uniformly.
• It protects the formation surface from direct exposure to sun, rain and frost.
• It provides a proper drainage to the track, keeping the sleepers in dry
condition.
• Provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the
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track.
BALLAST- FUNCTIONS

• It obstructs the growth of vegetations at the track formation.

• It provides proper super elevation to the outer rail on curves.
• It provides an easy means for correcting the unevenness of the track.
• It provides the lateral and longitudinal stability to the track
• It protects the sleepers from capillary moisture of formation.
• It provides a media for absorption of all impacts caused by rolling stock.

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BALLAST- requirements

• It should be hard and tough

• It should be wear resistant and durable
• It should be non-porous and non-absorbent of water
• It should be cheaper and easily available
• It should not be brittle
• It should not allow rain water to accumulate
• It should resist crushing under dynamic loads.
• The designed depth of the ballast should be able to distribute the weight of passing trains on the
formation underneath uniformly.
• It should not make the track dusty due to powder formation under dynamic wheel loads.
• It should be reasonably elastic.
• It should have resistance to abrasion and weathering
• It should be non-porous to provide durability to the ballast.
• It should hold the sleepers laterally and longitudinally under all conditions traffic, especially on
the curves.
• It should be able to facilitate easy drainage to rain water

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BALLAST- MATERIAL SIZE

• Ideally 50mm for flat bottom sleepers

(concrete and wood) and 40mm for metal
sleepers
• However practically, 50mm ballasts are
universally used in both cases for
uniformity.

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BALLAST- DESIGN

• WHAT IS TO DESIGN???

Determination of the depth of the ballast

cushion below the sleeper and its profile
(shape and gradients).

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BALLAST- DESIGN

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BALLAST- DESIGN

• Each load (from sleeper) dispersion is

assumed to be roughly 45° to the vertical.
• For the load to be transferred evenly on
the formation, the depth of the ballast
should be such that the dispersion lines
from each sleeper do not overlap each
other.

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BALLAST- DESIGN (Depth Formula)

112
BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS

• Lab tests done to check the physical properties

of Ballast.

1. Aggregate Abrasion Value

2. Aggregate Impact value
3. Flakiness Index
4. Specific gravity and water absorption
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BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Aggregate Abrasion Value (ABV)

• Sample of 10kg (A) clean ballast is randomly picked from

the stack and sieved to conform to the below standard:
 Passing the 50-mm sieve and retained on the 40-mm
square mesh sieve: 5000g
 Passing the 40-mm and retained on the 25-mm square
mesh sieve: 5000g
• The sample and an abrasive charge are placed in a
machine that is rotated at 30-33rpm for 1000 revolutions
• The sample is sieved and material courser than 1.7mm
sieve is washed, dried and weighed (B).
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BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Aggregate Abrasion Value (ABV)

115
BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Aggregate Abrasion Value (ABV)

116
BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)

• A ballast sample (passing 12.5mm sieve and retained on

10mm sieve) is oven dried.
• Samples are placed in a cylindrical metal container with
75mm dia and 50mm depth in three layers and
tampering with a 10mm tampering rod for 25 strokes.
The mass of the samples is recorded as A.
• Remove the samples and put into an impact mould in
three layers tampering for 25 strokes.
• Fix the impact mould firmly onto the impact machine.
• The test hammer weighing about 14kg is raised 380mm
above the upper surface of the cup and dropped.
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BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)

118
BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)

119
BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Flakiness Index (FI)

• The FI of an aggregate is the %ge by weight of the

particles with a least dimension (thickness) less than
three-fifths of their mean dimension.
 Track ballast sample (mass A) of sufficient quantity is
taken to provide a minimum of 200 pieces.
 The sample is sieved in a series of sieves.
 The flaky material is separated and weighed (B).

120
BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Flakiness Index (FI)

121
BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Flakiness Index (FI)

122
BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Specific gravity (SG) and Water absorption (WA)

• A sample consisting of at least 2000g of aggregate is

washed thoroughly to remove finer particles and dust.
• The whole material is then drained, placed in a wire
basket, and immersed in distilled water at a temperature
between 22°C and 32°C
• The sample is shaken, jolted, and dried as per specific
procedure.
• The sample is finally placed in an oven in a shallow tray
at a temperature of 100°C to 110°C
• The sample is then removed from the oven, cooled in
the container, and weighed (weight C).
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BALLAST- TESTS ON MATERIALS
Specific gravity (SG) and Water absorption (WA)

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FORMATION

• The naturally occurring surface prepared to receive the

ballast, sleepers, rails for construction of the rail track.
• The formation takes the total load of the entire track
structure as well as of the trains moving on it.

• Functions
 Provides a smooth and uniform bed on which the track is
laid
 It bears the entire load transmitted from the moving
loads to it through the ballast
 It provides drainage facilities
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 It provides stability of the track
FORMATION

• Formation can either be a embankment or cutting.

 Embankment- formation is in the shape of a raised bank
constructed above the natural ground (providing
additional earthwork over the existing ground)

 Cutting- formation at a level below the natural ground

(excavation made through a hilly or natural ground for
providing the railway line at the required level below the
ground level)

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FORMATION- DESIGN ASPECTS

• WIDTH- depends on
 Number of tracks to be laid over it
 Gauge of the track
 Width of the ballast layer
 Width of drains provided

• HEIGHT- depends on
 Topography of the alignment
 Gradients adopted

• SIDE SLOPES (usually 2:1 for embankment & 1:1 or 0.5:1 for cuts)
 Soil characteristics (shear strength, angle of repose, etc)
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Questions…

THANK YOU!
ASANTE SANA! 128