Chapter Three

Performance Equations and Engine Characteristics

Measurement and testing, Performance parameters, Efficiencies, Engine performance characteristics

3.1 Measurement and Testing

Testing of Internal Combustion Engines

There are a wide variety of engine tests, starting from simple fuel and air- flow measurements to taking
of complicated injector needle lift diagram, swirl patterns and photographs of the combustion process,
etc…Here only certain basic tests and measurement will be considered.

1-Measurement of speed
A wide variety of speed measuring devices are available they range from a mechanical tachometer to
digital and triggered electrical tachometers. The best method of measurement is to count the number of
revolution in a given time.
The electrical tachometer has a three-phase permanent-magnet alternator to which a voltmeter is
attached. The output of the alternator is a linear function of the speed and is directly indicated on the
voltmeter dial.
Both electrical and mechanical types of tachometers are affected by the temperature variations and are
not very accurate. For accurate and continuous measurement of speed a magnetic pick-up placed near a
toothed wheel coupled to the engine shaft can be used. The magnetic pick-up will produce a pulse for
every revolution and a pulse counter will accurately measure the speed.

2-Fuel consumption measurement

Fuel consumption is measured in two ways:
(a) By determining the volume flow in a given time interval and multiplying it by the specific gravity
of the fuel which should be measured occasionally to get an accurate value(Volumetric type).
(b) By measuring the time required for consumption of a given mass of fuel (Gravimetric type).
Volumetric type flow meter includes burette method, automatic burrette flow meter and turbine flow
meter.
There are three types of gravimetric type systems which are commercially available include Actual
weighing of fuel consumed, four Orifice flow meter, etc.
3-Air consumption measurement
The measurement of the air flow in the engine intake is not an easy task, because of the cyclic nature of
the engine which causes a pulsating air flow.

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 a) Air box method
In this method the intake air is drawn from a large surge tank, and measurement of air flow into surge
tank is performed using a calibrated orifice or a flow nozzle.

Figure 3.1:Air box method for measuring air

b) Positive displacement meters

A positive displacement meter is a type of flow meter that requires fluid to mechanically displace
components in the meter in order for flow measurement. Positive displacement (PD) flow meters measure
the volumetric flow rate of a moving fluid or gas by dividing the media into fixed, metered volumes.
These devices consist of a chamber(s) that obstructs the media flow and a rotating or reciprocating
mechanism that allows the passage of fixed-volume amounts. The number of parcels that pass through the
chamber determines the media volume. The rate of revolution or reciprocation determines the flow rate.
Positive displacement meters are very accurate, their working principle is shown in the figure, as the
impellers rotate, a fixed volume of air is alternately trapped between each impeller and the casing. This
occurs four times for each complete revolution of both impellers.

Figure 3.2: Rotary positive displacement meter

c) Viscous flow air meter

It uses an element where viscous resistance is the principal source of pressure loss and kinetic effects
are small. With the air box the flow is proportional to the square root of the pressure difference, while
the viscous resistance is directly proportional to the air velocity and is measured by means of an

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inclined manometer. Felt pads are fitted in the manometer connections to damp out fluctuations, an
additional damping vessel is fitted between the meter and the engine to increase the accuracy by
reducing the effect of pulsations

Figure 3.3: Viscous flow air meter

4-Measurement of engine torque and power:

Any apparatus that permits the measurement of torque and power of the engine is called a
"dynamometer".

Dynamometers are used to measure torque and power over the engine operating ranges of speed and
load. They do this by using various methods to absorb the energy output of the engine, all of which
eventually ends up as heat.
Some dynamometers absorb energy in a mechanical friction brake (prony brake). These are the
simplest dynamometers but are not as flexible and accurate as others at higher energy levels.
There are many types of dynamometers; all operate on the principle illustrated in fig. (6-5). Here the
rotor, driven by the engine to be tested, is coupled (electrically, magnetically, hydraulically or by
friction) to the stator. In one revolution of the shaft, the peripheral of the rotor moves through a
distance( 2πr )

Figure 3.4: The dynamometer principle

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 The external moment, which is the product of the reading p of the scale (could be a beam balance or
weights) and the arm R, must just balance the turning moment, which is r × f;

a) Fluid Dynamometers (hydraulic dynamometers): absorb engine energy in water or oil pumped
through orifices or dissipated with viscous losses in a rotor-stator combination. Large amounts of
energy can be absorbed in this manner, making this an attractive type of dynamometer for the largest of
engines. Fluid brakes fall into two classes; the “friction" and the “agitator" type. In the friction type
the coupling force arises from the viscous shearing of fluid between the rotor and stator, while
in the agitator type the coupling force arises from the change in momentum of fluid as it is transported
from rotor vanes to the stator vanes and back again.
Figure (6-6) illustrates Heenan – Froude hydraulic dynamometer. Here, the vanes of the rotor direct
the water outward toward the stator vanes which redirect it back into the rotor. This highly turbulent
process repeats itself again and again. The change of momentum experienced by the water as it
changes direction is manifested as a reaction force on the stator housing.

Figure 3.5: Hydraulic dynamometer

b. The eddy current Dynamometer: use a disk, driven by the engine being tested, rotating in a
magnetic field of controlled strength. The rotating disk acts as an electrical conductor cutting the lines
of magnetic flux and producing eddy currents in the disk. With no external circuit, the energy from the
induced currents is absorbed in the disk.

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 Figure 3.6: Eddy current dynamometer
c. The electric dynamometer: One of the best types of dynamometers is the electric dynamometer,
which absorbs energy with electrical output from a connected generator. In addition to having an
accurate way of measuring the energy absorbed, the load is easily varied by changing the amount of
resistance in the circuit connected to the generator output. Many electric dynamometers can also be
operated in reverse, with the generator used as a motor to drive (or motor) an unfired engine. This
allows the engine to be tested for mechanical friction losses and air pumping losses, quantities that are
hard to measure on a running fired engine.
6-Measurment of engine indicated power
Indicated power is the rate of work done by the gas on the piston.
There are two methods of finding the indicated power of an engine:
i-By taking the indicator diagram with the help of an indicator.
ii-By measuring b.p and f.p separately and adding the two.
i) Indicator Diagram
The device which measures the variation of the pressure in the cylinder over the cycle is called an
indicator and the plot (diagram) of such information obtained is called indicator diagram.
There are two types of indicator diagrams which can be taken from various indicators, these are:
1- Pressure – volume (p–v) plot.
2- Pressure – crank angle (p– θ ) plot.
The commonly used indicators are a) Piston indicator b) Balance Diaphragm (Farnborough balanced
engine) indicator, and c) Transducers and electronic indicators.

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 Figure 3.7: Piston indicator
Transducers and electronic indicators
In general, a transducer is any device which converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical
signal. Examples of quantities which can be converted to electrical signals are; displacement, velocity,
acceleration, and force. The electrical properties of many materials change when the material is
subjected to a mechanical deformation. This is the characteristics upon which all pressure transducers
depend. Resistive (strain– gauge), capacitive, or piezoelectric elements are the most common types of
pressure pickups for engine work.

7-Measurement of friction power (f.p):

The friction power is nearly constant at a given engine speed. Friction has a dominating effect on the
performance of the engine. Frictional losses are dissipated to the cooling system as they appear in the
form of heat.
Measurement of friction power is important for having better understanding on how the engine output
can be increased. Methods of measuring the friction power are as follows:
I-Measurement of the i.p. and b.p.
f.p=i.p-b.p
II-Motoring test
In this test; the engine is first run to measure the b.p at a given speed, then the fuel supply (or the
spark) is cut-off and the dynamometer is converted to run as motor to drive the engine (motoring) at
the same speed and keeping other parameters the same. The power supplied to the motor is measured
which is a measure of the friction power (f.p).

III-Morse test
This test is only applicable to multi-cylinder engines. The engine is run at the required speed and
the torque is measured. One cylinder is cut out, the speed falls because of the loss of power with one
cylinder cut out, but is restored by reducing the load. The torque is measured again when the speed has
reached its original value.

IV-William’s line
In this method gross fuel consumption versus b.p at a constant speed is plotted. The graph drawn is
called the "William’s line" and extrapolated back to cut the b.p axis at the point A. OA represent the
power loss of the engine at this speed. The fuel consumption at zero b.p is given by OB; this would be
equivalent to the power loss OA. This test is applicable to C.I. engines only.

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 Figure 3.7: William’s line
8 Heat balance of Engine
The main components of the heat balance are:
1- Heat equivalent to the b.p of the engine.
2- Heat rejected to the cooling medium.
3- Heat carried away from the engine with the exhaust gases.
4- Unaccounted losses.

The following table gives the approximate percentage value of various losses in SI and CI engines

3.2 Performance parameters

Engine performance parameters are indicators of the degree of success with which the engine does the
assigned task.
In order to evaluate the performance of an engine certain basic parameters have to be chosen and the
effects of various operating conditions are studied.

The basic performance parameters are:

1. Power and Mechanical efficiency.

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 2. Mean effective pressure and Torque.

3. Specific output.

4. Specific weight.

5. Volumetric efficiency.

6. Fuel-air ratio.

7. Specific fuel consumption.

8. Efficiencies, Power flow diagram and Heat balance sheet.

1. Power and Mechanical efficiency

Pi  pim  a  s  n  z
i) Indicated Power (Pi):- is the power available to drive the piston during the
combustion process.

Pi is the indicated power (i.p.)

pim is the indicated mean effective pressure (imep)

a is the cylinder cross-sectional area
s is the stroke
z is the number of cylinders
n is the number of cycles
Note:- In the absence of an ‘engine indicator’, one can approximately determine the indicated power
(Pi) using ‘Morse (power balance) Test’.

ii) Brake Power (Pb):- is the power available at the output shaft.
2 π  N  Tb
Pb 
60

The ratio of Pb to Pi is called the mechanical efficiency (hm).

P
m  b
Pi

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2. Mean effective pressure (mep) and Torque

The mean effective pressure is defined as a hypothetical pressure which is assumed to be acting on the
piston throughout the power stroke.

• If it is based on Pi, it is called indicated mean effective pressure (pim or imep).

• If it is based on Pb, it is called brake mean effective pressure (pbm or bmep).

• If it is based on Pf, it is called friction mean effective pressure (pfm or fmep).

Pf  Pi  Pb and fmep  imep  bmep

Engine Performance Curves

1. imep

2. Brake Torque and bmep

3. Indicated Power

4. Brake Power

5. Indicated thermal efficiency

6. Brake thermal efficiency

7. Brake specific fuel

consumption (bsfc)

Figure 3.8: Engine performance curves

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3. Specific output (so)

The specific output is defined as the ratio of total brake power (Pb) to the engine capacity (Ec). It is
another indicator of the relative performance of different engines.
Pb P
so   b
Ec Vs  z

4. Specific weight (sw)

The specific weight is defined as the ratio of the weight (w) of the engine to the total brake power (Pb).
This is a measure of how bulky the engine is.
w
sw 
Pb

5. Volumetric efficiency (hv)

Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual mass flow rate of the charge drawn in during the
intake (induction) stroke per cylinder to the swept volume of the piston.

m a
v  The average value of  v is  70 to 80 %.
 a  Vs  n
For a Turbochage d engine it may be more than 100 %.

6. Fuel-air ratio (F/A)

Fuel-air ratio is the ratio of the mass (mass flow rate) of fuel to the mass (mass flow rate) of air in the
mixture.
F m f

A m a

7. Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc)

Brake specific fuel consumption is the ratio of the total fuel consumed by the engine in ‘g/h’ to the
total brake power of the engine in ‘kW’.
m f sfc
bsfc  
Pb Pb

8. Efficiencies, Power flow diagram and Heat balance sheet

Engine efficiencies are given as a ratio and in percentage.

Indicated thermal efficiency (hi,th) Þ

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 Pi Pi
i ,th    100 %
Pin m f  Q LHV   c

• Brake thermal efficiency (hb,th) Þ

Pb Pb
 b,th    100 %
Pin m f  Q LHV   c

The performance of an engine is also given by a power flow diagram and a heat balance sheet.

Power flow diagram

Heat balance sheet in ‘minute’ basis

Heat supplied kJ/min % Heat distributed kJ/min %

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Heat supplied by fuel 6000 100 1. Heat in exhaust 2040 34

2. Heat in coolant 2100 35

3. Heat lost due to friction, pumping, etc. 180 3

4. Heat in brake power 1500 25

5. Heat unaccounted 180 3

Total 6000 100 6000 100

Engine Performance Map

An engine performance map shows the relationship among: Pb, Tb and bsfc with engine speed (N). The
contours are constant bsfc lines.

Figure 3.8: Engine performance map

3.3 Efficiencies

The time available for the combustion process of an engine cycle is very brief, and not all fuel
molecules may find an oxygen molecule with which to combine, or the local temperature may not
favor a reaction. Consequently, a small fraction of fuel does not react and exits with the exhaust flow.
Combustion efficiency is defined to account for the fraction of fuel which burns. Combustion
efficiency typically has values in the range 0.95 to 0.98 when an engine is operating properly. For one
engine cycle in one cylinder, the heat added is:

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 Q¿ =mf QHV η c
For steady flow

Q́¿ =ḿf QHV η c

And thermal efficiency is

ηth =W /Q ¿ =Ẃ / Q́ ¿ =Ẃ / ḿf Q HV ηc =η f /ηc

Thermal efficiency can be given as indicated or brake, depending on whether indicated power or brake
power is used. It follows that engine mechanical efficiency
ηm =( ηt )b / ( ηt )i

Engines can have indicated thermal efficiencies in the range of 50% to 60%, with brake thermal
efficiency usually about 30%. Some large slow CI engines can have brake thermal efficiencies greater
than 50%.
Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as
ηf =W /m f Q HV =Ẃ / ḿf Q HV

ηf =1/ ( sfc ) QHV

Volumetric Efficiency
One of the most important processes that govern how much power and performance can be obtained
from an engine is getting the maximum amount of air into the cylinder during each cycle. More air
means more fuel can be burned and more energy can be converted to output power. Getting the
relatively small volume of liquid fuel into the cylinder is much easier than getting the large volume of
gaseous air needed to react with the fuel. Ideally, a mass of air equal to the density of atmospheric air
times the displacement volume of the cylinder should be ingested for each cycle. However, because of
the short cycle time available and the flow restrictions presented by the air cleaner, carburetor (if any),
intake manifold, and intake valve(s), less than this ideal amount of air enters the cylinder. Volumetric
efficiency is defined as:
m a
v 
 a  Vs  n

3.4 Engine performance characteristics

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The modern I.C engines have; higher ratios of power /weight than earlier types, increased values of
(bmep) and thermal efficiency, and lower (s.f.c). At present time in the automotive field; the petrol
engine is highly developed and flexible, but there is an increasing competition from the diesel engine.
Brake thermal efficiencies of 25 to 35% are usual with S.I. engines and may reach 50% in diesel
engines.
For comparing the performance of engines, a number of standards are available:
1-Specific fuel consumption (kg/kW.h).
2-Brake mean effective pressure, bmep (kPa).
3-Specific weight (Weight of engine per kW, kg/kW)
4-Output per unit displacement kW per m3) Most of the performance factors are directly
related to atmospheric conditions, so comparison between engines should be performed at
similar atmospheric conditions.

The tests on I.C. engines can be divided into two types: 1-Variable-speed test. 2-Constant - speed test.

1-Variable – speed test:

Variable speed tests can be divided into full load tests, where maximum power and minimum
s.f.c at each different speed are the objectives, and part load tests to determine variation in the s.f.c.

a) Full – load test with SI engine:

The throttle is fully opened and the lowest desired speed is maintained by brake load adjustment. The
spark is adjusted to give maximum power at this speed. The test is started by the watch governing the
fuel consumption, the test ended at the time the fuel- consumption test has been completed. During
this interval of time, the average speed, brake load, temperatures, fuel weight … etc., are recorded,
then load is adjusted for the next run at different speed.

After the completion of the test, the required results are calculated, and performance curves are drawn
and a typical example is shown in fig. below.

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b) Part – load test: To run a part load test at variable speed, say 1/2 load, power reading of half the
maximum power at each speed are obtained by varying the throttle and brake setting.
2-Constant – speed test:
Constant speed test is run with variable throttle from no load to full load in suitable steps of load to
give smooth curves. Starting at zero loads, the throttle is opened to give the desired speed. Then a load
is put on the engine and the throttle is opened wider to maintain the same constant speed as before, and
the second run is ready to start. The last run of the test is made at wide-open throttle. In a CI-engine
test the last run would show smoke in the exhaust gas.

3-Consumption loop test: This test is carried out at constant speed, constant throttle opening, and
constant ignition setting. The specific fuel consumption is plotted to a base of “bmep" and a "hook
curve" is obtained.

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