Gas Turbine Packaging Options and Features Klaus Brun, Ph.D. Marybeth G. Nored

Proceedings of the Second Middle East Turbomachinery Symposium
17 – 20 March, 2013, Doha, Qatar
GAS TURBINE PACKAGING OPTIONS AND FEATURES
Klaus Brun, Ph.D. Marybeth G. Nored

Manager Production Engineer
Southwest Research Institute® Apache, Inc.
San Antonio, Texas, USA Houston, Texas, USA
Rainer Kurz, Ph.D.

Manager
Solar Turbines, Inc.
San Diego, California, USA
Dr. Klaus Brun is the Director of the Bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering from the
Machinery Program at Southwest Research University of Texas at Austin and her Master’s degree in M.E.
Institute. His experience includes positions in from Georgia Tech.
engineering, project management, and
management at Solar Turbines, General ABSTRACT
Electric, and Alstom. He holds four patents, This tutorial provides an overview of typical packaging
authored over 100 papers, and published a options for gas turbines in industrial applications. Applicable
textbook on gas turbines. Dr. Brun won an R&D 100 award in standards are discussed. The requirements for different systems,
2007 for his Semi-Active Valve invention and ASME Oil Gas such as air filtration, and fuel systems are explained. Off shore
Committee Best Paper awards in 1998, 2000, 2005, 2009, requirements, especially on floating systems are highlighted.
2010, and 2012. He was chosen to the "40 under 40" by the San
Antonio Business Journal. He is the chair of the ASME-IGTI INTRODUCTION
Board of Directors and the past Chairman of the ASME Oil & Industrial and aeroderivative gas turbines are commonly
Gas Applications Committee. He is also a member of the API employed in oil and gas applications where high power to
616 Task Forces, the Fan Conference Advisory Committee, and weight ratio, low emissions, and high availability requirements
the Latin American Turbomachinery Conference Advisory are very advantageous compared to other drivers. Industrial gas
Committee. Dr. Brun is an editor of Global Gas Turbine News, turbines are frequently used as mechanical drivers for natural
Executive Correspondent of Turbomachinery International gas centrifugal compressors. Due to their operational flexibility,
Magazine, and an Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Gas low maintenance requirements, and good speed match with the
Turbines for Power. driven equipment, they are ideally suited for this service. As
Rainer Kurz is the Manager, Systems Analysis, with any machinery, gas turbines require a significant number
at Solar Turbines Incorporated in San Diego, of on-skid and off-skid (also known as ancillary and auxiliary)
California. His organization is responsible for equipment, such as lube oil systems, controls and
analyzing compression requirements, predicting instrumentation, fire-detection and suppression systems, fuel
compressor and gas turbine performance, for forwarding and filtration systems, starter and crank motors, and
conducting application studies, and for field inlet/exhaust systems for their safe and efficient operation.
performance testing. Dr. Kurz attended the Given a specific application, an optimal set of ancillary and
Universitaet der Bundeswehr in Hamburg, Germany, where he auxiliary equipment options must be selected. This selection is
received the degree of a Dr.-Ing. in 1991. He has authored not just based on the type of application and utilities available
numerous publications about turbomachinery related topics, is at the site, but the operator’s requirements for operating profile,
an ASME fellow, and a member of the Turbomachinery reliability, and/or availability, and the environmental conditions
Symposium Advisory Committee. at the site must also be considered.
Ms. Marybeth Nored is a member of the gas For many compression applications, gas turbines are
monetization team at Apache Corporation. She located in unmanned stations with limited service access and
provides machinery engineering support and are required to operate over wide ranges of loads and speeds
natural gas metering/ allocation expertise for while providing high availability and reliability. Air, fuel, and
Apache downstream projects including two lube oil quality maintenance and monitoring are very important,
ongoing LNG developments in Western but can be a challenge for these applications. The proper
Australia and British Columbia. Previously, selection of ancillary/auxiliary equipment is critical to assure
Ms. Nored worked as a manager of the Fluid Machinery operation within the required operating parameters of output
Systems group at Southwest Research Institute. While at SwRI, power, efficiency, reliability, availability, and emissions.
she supported the rotating machinery, pipeline station design, This paper will describe the standard ancillary/auxiliary
and flow measurement groups. Ms. Nored obtained her equipment options for gas turbine driven compressor systems
Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

and their relative advantages and disadvantages in pipeline • Inlet system
applications. Some discussion on API standards and how they o Air-filter (self-cleaning, barrier, inertial, demister,
relate to packaging options is also provided. screen)
o Silencer
OVERVIEW o Inlet fogger/cooler
The packaging of gas turbine driven compressors for oil • Exhaust system
and gas applications presents some very special challenges, and o Silencer
gas turbine manufacturers have developed specialized o Stack
packaging options for these different types of services. • Lube oil cooler (water, air)
Fundamentally, the package systems are designed to provide • Fuel filter/control valve skid
the gas turbine with its utility requirements (air, fuel, oil, and • Off skid control system
water), control the operation of the unit and process, and assure • Motor control center
safety. The gas turbine, the gas compressor, and, if necessary, • Switchgear, neutral ground resistor
the gearbox are usually mounted on a skid, together with most
• Yard valves (load, recycle, anti-surge)
of the systems described below. Thus, the primary gas turbine
• Turbine cleaning system (on-line, on-crank)
package systems are:
• Documentation
• Starting
The different package components are described in more
• Lube oil
detail below. Also, because of the significance of filtration of
• Fuel the different utility streams (air, fuel, lube oil, and water) in a
• Seal gas (if dry gas seals are utilized) gas turbine package, this topic is discussed in additional detail
• Fire/gas detection and fire fighting below.
• Inlet and exhaust air
• Enclosure API STANDARDS
• Control and instrumentation The American Petroleum Institute (API) is the primary
Each of these package systems has a number of subsystems trade organization for the U.S. petroleum industry. API has
and components. Generally, package systems are classified into over 400 member companies that cover all aspects of the oil
on-skid and off-skid systems. On-skid classification generally and gas production. API 616 is the principal industry standard
corresponds to all equipment inside the gas turbine enclosure, for gas turbines in oil and gas services and provides detailed
while off-skid or outside the package refers to equipment requirements in Chapter 4 (mostly on-skid and core engine
connecting to the gas turbine package, such as ancillaries and direct ancillaries) and Chapter 5 (off-skid) for gas turbine
auxiliaries. The main turbo compressor’s ancillary equipment, package systems. Other API standards that are relevant for gas
classified by this definition, is listed below: turbines in pipeline service are API 614 (lube oil systems), 617
(centrifugal compressors), 670 (machinery protection), 671
On-Skid – Inside the Package (couplings), and 677 (gears). Similar standards have been
• Fuel system and spark igniter developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO),
o Natural gas (control valves, filter) but these are not as frequently used. API provides definitions
o Liquid (pumps, valves) and sets minimum functionality, materials, construction,
• Bearing lube oil system 1,2 testing, and machinery controls requirements. Consequently,
o Tank (integral) API 616 has become a critical purchase contract document for
o Filter (simple, duplex) gas turbines operators.
o Pumps (main, pre/post, backup)
Oil and gas applications of gas turbines have requirements
• Accessory gears 3 that are inherently different than those of the electric power
• Fire/gas detection system industry, and customers require:
• Starter/helper drive
• Pneumatic, hydraulic, or variable speed AC starter motor • High availability/reliability
• Controls and instrumentation (on-skid, off-skid) • Ruggedness
• Seal gas/seal oil system (compressors) • Low maintenance requirements and ease of maintenance
Because of these requirements, many operators insist on
Off-Skid – Outside the Package compliance with API codes and are willing to accept the
• Enclosure with lifting devices and fire protection system 4 associated increase in package costs. Within API, there are
o Enclosure ventilation standards that address each engine and packaging systems;
however, the focus of most API specifications is on packaging
1 and ancillaries rather than on gas turbine core components. For
Some packages have two separate lube oil systems. example, API 616 covers the design of the gas turbine inlet,
2
Lube oil systems/lube oil tanks can also be separate skids. exhaust, enclosure, interface connections, instrumentation,
3
The accessory gear is used by the starter but can also drive the base-skid, lube oil system, and fuel system in significant detail,
main lube oil pump and hydraulic pumps. whereas the core engine design specifications are generally
4
Enclosures can be mounted on the skid, or they can be of the broad and allow more manufacturing flexibility.
drop-over type.

API 617 covers the requirements for axial and centrifugal steel, and all tubing is 316L stainless steel with 316 stainless
compressors, single-shaft and integrally geared process steel fittings.
centrifugal compressors, and expander-compressor for use in
The following items are usually not made from stainless
the petroleum, chemical, and gas industry services that handle
steel, unless specifically requested by the purchaser:
air or gas. As with all other API codes, the equipment vendor
may offer alternative designs, if these designs improve the • Valve bodies and system functional components
safety or performance of the equipment. • Pipe support brackets
• Oil tank cover assemblies with connection piping and fittings
STANDARD PACKAGE OPTIONS welded in place
The basic package options for a typical gas turbine driven • Sliding lube oil drain couplings and plates
compressor train are described below. Obviously, not all • Pipe flexible couplings
options and features that are provided by different • Filter housings
manufacturers are included, and the focus here is simply a
• Lube oil tank
description of the most commonly utilized packaging
equipment. For completeness sake, a brief description of the Electrical System
core engine (gas generator and power turbine) is also provided: Most North American applications require that the
equipment meets National Electric Code (NEC) requirements.
Gas Turbine Package Unit
Details of these requirements can be found in the NEC National
Most gas turbine units, as delivered by the manufacturer,
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70 code. In many parts of
consist of a completely integrated, fully operational package
the world, Cenelec requirements, or local electric codes may
including driven equipment. They are equipped with all
apply.
accessories and auxiliary systems necessary for normal
operation when connected to suitable compressor station On-skid electrical equipment is in accordance with NEC
facilities. NFPA 70 requirements for electrical equipment installed in
Class I, Group D, Division 2 hazardous locations. This means
A gas turbine driven compressor package set, thus, usually
that all wire runs are made in copper-free aluminum conduit for
includes:
physical protection and isolated from combustible atmospheres.
• Two-shaft industrial or aeroderivative gas turbine engine When supplied, the turbine control console, variable frequency
• Engine air inlet and exhaust collectors drives, and battery charger are non-explosion-proof and must
• Centrifugal gas compressor (driven equipment) be installed in a nonhazardous location.
• Gear box Core Engine
• Turbine/compressor control system The core gas turbine engine is a self-contained, completely
• Start system integrated prime mover of two-shaft, axial-flow, dry emissions
• Fuel system control design. The gas producer and power turbines have
• Lubricating oil system separate shafts and are mechanically independent. Figure 1
• Piping and manifolds (usually stainless steel) shows a typical gas turbine core engine.
• Seal system (dry gas seal system or seal oil system)
• Base gas turbine skid with integrated lube-oil tank and drip
pans
• On-skid electrical wiring
• On-skid digital display
The gas turbine engine and compressor constitute the
major elements of the package. These elements are installed on
separate heavy-steel base frames in an in-line arrangement. The
base frames are structural steel assemblies with beam sections
and cross members welded together to form a rigid foundation. Figure 1. Gas Turbine Core Engine
Once connected together, the total package may be suitable for
three-point mounting, depending on the driven equipment The engine assembly consists of:
configuration. Mechanical interface connection points for fuel, • Accessory drive assembly
air, and water are conveniently located on the outer skid edge. • Air inlet collector
Electrical connection points are made in on-skid junction boxes • Axial-flow compressor with variable geometry on the inlet
and terminal strips. guide vanes and first four rows of stators
Typically, all package piping and manifolds are 316L • Combustor – Depending on the manufacturer, this is either
stainless steel material. This applies to all package piping an annular, can-annular, single-can, or multi-can design.
systems, including the start, fuel, lube oil, and wet/dry seal Almost all new gas turbines installed in the North American
systems, as well as the supply, drain, and vent lines up to and and European markets utilize lean-premixed combustion for
including four inches in diameter. In addition, the associated nitrous oxides emission control.
flange assembly hardware is 316 stainless steel or equivalent. • Gas producer turbine assembly
Piping sizes six inches in diameter or larger are usually carbon • Power turbine assembly

• Turbine exhaust collector casings.
The components of the gas turbine engine are maintained Dry Gas Seal System
in accurate alignment by mating flanges with pilot surfaces and The dry gas seal system is standard on most gas
are bolted together to form a rigid assembly. compressors and is composed of two closely interrelated
systems: the buffer air system and the seal gas system. The
The gas turbine has four principal components: buffer or separation air system maintains separation of the
compressor, combustor, gas producer turbine, and power compressor bearing lube oil and the dry gas seals. The seal gas
turbine. Air is drawn into the air inlet of the gas turbine and is system maintains a barrier between the process gas in the
compressed by the axial-flow compressor. The compressed air compressor and the compressor dry gas seals. The seal gas is
is directed into the combustion chamber in a steady flow. A normally taken from the compressor discharge and is cleaned,
portion of the air is premixed with fuel. This premixed fuel/air sometimes cooled, heated, or dried (depending on the gas
mixture is injected within the annular combustion chamber. quality) before it is fed to the seal system. Since the dry gas
During the turbine start cycle, this fuel/air mixture is ignited, seals both on the suction and on the discharge side of the
and continuous burning is maintained as long as there is compressor are exposed to compressor suction pressure, the
adequate flow of pressurized air and fuel. The hot pressurized pressure differential between discharge pressure and suction
gas from the combustion chamber expands through the two pressure pushes the seal gas through the filters in the seal gas
stages of the gas producer turbine to provide power to the axial system. When the compressor is started, and no pressure
compressor. Gases leaving the gas producer turbine then flow differential between suction and discharge side exists,
through the power turbine where the remaining energy of the additional gas boosters can boost the seal gas pressure. The
gas stream is absorbed by the power turbine and is transferred standard package components that form part of the seal gas
to the output shaft. For lean premix combustion, the gas turbine system are rated for pressures in accordance with the discharge
requires approximately one-half of the total air it compresses. pressure levels.
Lean premix combustion requires a higher air-to-fuel ratio than
conventional stoichiometric combustion resulting in lower Gas Turbine Start System
maximum flame temperature, which reduces pollutant The start system provides torque to initiate rotation and
formation. The excess air is used to further cool the combustion assist the engine to self-sustaining speed. At self-sustaining
chamber and mixes with the combustion products to reduce the speed, the start system disengages and the engine continues to
gas temperature at the inlet to the first turbine stage. The accelerate under its power to loading speed. These are the most
cooling air keeps metal temperatures in the combustion common gas turbine start system options:
chamber and turbine section at design levels consistent with
Pneumatic Starter
component service life objectives.
The pneumatic start system can use either compressed air
Driven Equipment Centrifugal Compressor or natural gas as a power source. The engine start system
Typical centrifugal compressor standard features include: incorporates a pneumatic motor to initiate engine rotation.
Starting power to the engine is transmitted through an
• Radial vibration monitoring, X and Y proximity probes overrunning clutch and shaft.
• Keyphasor probe
• Axial position monitoring The pneumatic start system includes the following primary
• Thrust bearing temperature monitoring components:
• Journal bearing temperature monitoring • Air or gas, rotary, positive-displacement, helical-lobe,
• Rigid modular rotor construction lubricated screw-type expansion motor
• Vertically split barrel-type construction • Pilot gas shutoff valve
• Overcompensating balance piston • Pilot gas filter
• Tilting-pad journal bearings • Inlet gas strainer
• Rotor trim balancing
The supply gas may be delivered from a common source
Compressor Centrifugal Impellers with the fuel system gas using an external manifold. If a
Impeller alloys can be selected to be in general separate source of compressed air or service gas is used, a
conformance (chemical composition and hardness) with NACE quick-acting manual shutoff valve and a strainer must be
(National Association Corrosion Engineers) standards for sour installed at the gas inlet.
gas. Compressor impellers are made from investment castings
or machined and are designed to conservative stress levels. Direct-Drive AC Motor Starter
The direct-drive AC start system consists of a squirrel-cage
Compressor Casings 3-phase AC induction motor with a solid-state variable
The pressure-containing outer casings of a compressor frequency drive (VFD). The start motor is specifically designed
comprise of an assembly of three components: the suction and to provide high breakaway starting torque and acceleration
discharge end caps that contain the bearing and seal assemblies, from standstill to starter dropout speed. The motor is of
and the center body, which holds the rotor and stator assembly. explosion-proof/flame-proof construction and standard motor
This is considered a vertically split “barrel” design. The end frame size. The motor has integral overtemperature protection
caps contain all the service ports for oil and gas. Alternatively, thermostats that must be connected to the unit control system
some manufacturers provide horizontally split compressor for hazardous area motor certification and protection. The

motor usually includes a space heater suitable for 115/230-volt, operating pressure and temperatures that meet the specific
single-phase power connection. Separate cable/conduit entries application. It must also have a significant turndown ratio
are provided for power connections, thermal protection wiring, (greater than 200:1). Response time is usually less than
and the space heater wiring. Starting power is transferred to the 100 msec from 10 to 90 percent stroke. Fail-safe operation
engine via the accessory drive gearbox and overrunning clutch ensures bubble tight valve closing in case of loss of either the
and shaft assembly. command signal or the control power. The valve body is
fabricated either from aluminum or stainless steel.
The VFD provides a pulse-width modulated variable
frequency/variable voltage to the start motor. The VFD usually
GAS FUELS
requires a supply of 3-phase AC power from 380 to 600 Vac
Gas fuels for gas turbines are combustible gases or
±5% and 50 to 60 Hz ±2 Hz. If supply voltage is greater than
mixtures of combustible and inert gases with a variety of
600 ±5%, the use of a step-down power transformer is
compositions covering a wide range of heating values and
suggested. The VFD regulates the voltage and frequency to the
densities. The combustible components can consist of methane
start motor as required to initiate engine rotation, accelerate to
and other low molecular weight hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and
purge speed, and then accelerate to ignition and starter dropout
carbon monoxide. The major inert components are nitrogen,
speed as commanded by the unit control system. The system
carbon dioxide, and water vapor. It is generally accepted that
should be capable of performing multiple start attempts per
this type of fuel has to be completely gaseous at the entry to the
hour, as well as extended purge cycles for heat recovery unit
fuel gas system and at all points downstream to the fuel nozzle
applications and engine water or detergent wash cycles.
(Kurz, 2004; Elliott, et al. 2004).
The VFD cabinet is usually shipped loose for installation
Gaseous fuels can vary from poor quality wellhead gas to
off-skid in a nonhazardous location and provides for direct
high quality consumer or “pipeline” gas. In many systems, the
across-the-line starting control of the motor.
gas composition and quality may be subject to variations
Power Wiring and Control System Wiring (Newbound, et al. 2003). Typically, the major sources of
Off-skid wiring between starter motor, battery systems, contaminants within these fuels are:
instrumentation, and the control systems is usually not provided
by the manufacturer and must be performed by an electrical • Solids
contractor. The manufacturer provides drawings and • Water
specifications that detail these wiring requirements. It is beyond • Heavy gases present as liquids
the scope of this paper to discuss the multitude of off-skid wire • Oils typical of compressor oils
connections required. All on-skid wiring is usually completed • Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
by the manufacturer and tested prior to shipping. • Hydrogen (H2)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
Fuel Supply System
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
The fuel system, in conjunction with the electrical control
• Siloxanes
system, includes all necessary components to control ignition
and fuel flow during all modes of operation. Gas, liquid, or Other factors that will affect turbine or combustion system
dual-fuel options are usually available for the fuel supply life and performance include lower heating value (LHV),
system. For natural gas compression, most gas turbines are specific gravity (SG), fuel temperature, and ambient
provided with gas-only fuel systems, but some applications temperature.
make use of the capability to switch from gas to liquid fuel.
This system can be made NACE compliant, if the fuel gas Some of these issues may co-exist and be interrelated. For
composition requires this. The natural gas fuel system includes: instance, water, heavy gases present as liquids, and leakage of
machinery lubricating oils may be a problem for turbine
• Supply pressure transmitter operators at the end of a distribution or branch line or at a low
• Pilot air operated primary fuel shutoff valve point in a fuel supply line.
• Pilot air operated secondary fuel shutoff valve Water in the gas may combine with other small molecules
• Pilot air operated gas vent valve to produce a hydrate – a solid with an ice-like appearance.
• Pilot air valves Hydrate production is influenced, in turn, by gas composition,
• Torch with associated shutoff valve and regulators gas temperature, gas pressure, and pressure drops in the gas
• Electrically activated fuel control valve fuel system. Liquid water in the presence of H2Sor CO2 will
• Main fuel manifold form acids that can attack fuel supply lines and components.
• Engine fuel injector assemblies Free water can also cause turbine flameouts or operating
• Piping, manifolds, and tubing (usually 316 stainless steel) instability, if ingested in the combustor or fuel control
• Inlet gas filter loose shipped for field installation components.
The gas fuel control valve is electrically operated and Heavy hydrocarbon gases present as liquids provide many
electronically controlled by means of an integral DC powered times the heating value per unit volume than they would as a
actuator that incorporates a brushless DC servo motor, a linear gas. Since turbine fuel systems meter the fuel based on the fuel
ball screw drive, a digital controller for precise motor control, being a gas, this creates a safety problem, especially during the
and a resolver for position feedback. The valve is rated for engine startup sequence when the supply line to the turbine still

may be cold. Hydrocarbon liquids can cause: Protection against heavy gases and water present as liquids
can be achieved by heating the fuel downstream of knockout
• Turbine overfueling, which can cause an explosion or severe drums and coalescing filters (Figure 3). The idea is to have a
turbine damage) saturated gas at the exit of the knockout drum and filters and
• Fuel control stability problems, because the system gain will then to raise the temperature to the necessary superheat to
vary as liquid slugs or droplets move through the control prevent subsequent liquid dropout. The system shown in
system Figure 3 is typical for fuel systems on oil or gas platforms,
• Combustor hot streaks and subsequent engine hot section where the gas produced is usually wet. For dry gas of well-
damage known composition, such as from gas plants or for pipeline
• Overfueling the bottom section of the combustor when applications, a less complex system may be appropriate
liquids gravitate towards the bottom of the manifold (Figure 4).
• Internal injector blockage over time, when trapped liquids Pressure feedback
pyrolyze in the hot gas passages

Pressure Purge/
Liquid carryover is a known cause for rapid degradation of Regulator
Filter warm up
line
the hot gas path components in a turbine (Anderson 1980;

Meher-Homji, et al. 1998; Newbound and Wagiealla 2003, and Coalescer
Newbound and Al-Showiman 2004). Heater

Production
Separator To engine
The condition of the combustor components also has a
strong influence, and fuel nozzles that have accumulated Purchaser
specified gas
pipeline contaminants that block internal passageways will Coalescer composition
above required
probably be more likely to miss desired performance or Liquid Liquid temperature
Drop out Drop out
emission targets. Thus, it follows that more maintenance
attention may be necessary to assure that combustion Figure 3. Schematic of Typical Oil or Gas Platform Fuel
components are in premium condition. This may require that Conditioning System
fuel nozzles be inspected and cleaned at more regular intervals
or that improved fuel filtration components be installed.
Pressure feedback
With a known gas composition, it is possible to predict
dew point temperatures for water and hydrocarbons. However, Pressure
the prediction methods for dew points may not always be Regulator
accurate. In fact, it is known that different equations of state

will yield different calculated dew points under otherwise
identical conditions. Furthermore, the temperature in an To engine
unheated fuel line will drop, because the pressure drop due to Pipeline
valves and orifices in the fuel line causes a temperature drop in

the gas (Figure 2). This effect is known as the Joule-Thompson Purchaser
specified gas
effect. Most fuel gases (except hydrogen) will exhibit a composition above
required
reduction in temperature during an adiabatic throttling. temperature
Hydrogen, on the other hand, actually shows an increased

temperature when the pressure drops, which is a potential
explosion hazard.
Figure 4. Schematic of Gas Pipeline Fuel Delivery System
with Gas at Greater than Minimum Superheat
Fuel
Spec Insurance manifold
A
gas at Filter
req'd Coalescer Figure 4 illustrates the necessity for a superheat of about
temp skid
B
220 50°F (28 K) over the dew point to ensure that no liquid dropout
A C
200 appears in the fuel system components downstream of the
Pressure Fuel
D
B regulator control 180 heater. A superheating requirement of 50°F (28 K) is currently
valve
acknowledged as an industry standard. The heat input yielded
Gas temp deg F
160
C D
140 by a specific gas fuel is determined by the gas composition
120
(including the moisture content), its mass flow, and its heating
Gas dew point
100
value. Performance representations for gas turbines are usually
10 degF superheat gas
50 deg F superheat gas
80
based on the lower heating value of the fuel gas, because the
810 760 710 660 610 560 510 460 410 360 310 260
60
exhaust temperatures are always high enough to keep the water
Gas pressure psia
vapor in the exhaust from condensing.
Figure 2: Schematic of a Gas Fuel System Showing the A gas analysis alone may not be entirely sufficient for the
Pressure Drop in Various Devices. If the Gas is not detection of heavy hydrocarbons, because it may only include
Superheated Sufficiently, its Temperature Will Eventually the gases but not the liquids in the stream. Also, it is common
Fall Below the Dewpoint Temperature. practice to lump all hydrocarbons from Hexane and heavier into

one number. While this is perfectly acceptable for the to be heat traced to keep the gas fuel supply above the gas dew
calculation of the lower heating value as long as the Hexane point during periods when the engine is not operating. Low
and heavier hydrocarbons constitute a minute fraction of the point drains are also recommended, if liquids may be present in
gas, it will lead to a wrong estimate of the dew point. C14H30, the gas fuel. This precludes burying the gas fuel supply lines
even in parts-per-million amounts has a significant impact on underground when liquids may be present.
the dew point of the gas mixture, as we will show later.
Gas turbines can be designed to operate on both liquid and
Certainly, a gas analysis has to be used in the project stage to
gaseous fuels. Many systems allow the switch from gas fuel to
allow for equipment sizing. Also, fuel systems usually limit the
liquid fuel and vice versa, under load. Liquid fuel
gas supply temperature due to temperature limits of its
contamination is an important concern, since even liquid fuel
components. If the necessary superheat temperature exceeds the
that meets the fuel specification can become contaminated
fuel system temperature limits, additional gas treatment may be
during transport and storage. Fuel centrifuges and day tanks
necessary.
help to avoid liquid fuel problems.
Lower Heating Value, Specific Gravity, Fuel Temperature,
Lube Oil System
and Ambient Temperature are important parameters since they
The package lube oil system consists of a complete system
influence the energy of the fuel flowing in the system. From the
suitable for operation with purchaser-supplied lube oil but must
lower heating value (LHV) in Btu/scf [kJ/Nm3] and the specific
conform to the manufacturer’s fuel specifications. The
gravity (SG), the Wobbe Index (WI) of the gas can be
lubrication system circulates oil under pressure to the various
calculated as:
working parts of the drive train rotating elements. The system is
LHV supplied from the lube oil tank located in the driver steel base
WI = frame. Proper oil temperatures are maintained by a thermostatic
SG
control valve and an optional oil cooler. A typical lubrication
Because the fuel supply temperature, Tf, has an impact on system incorporates the following components:
the actual volumetric fuel flow, a temperature corrected Wobbe
• Oil tank
Index is often used, where the reference Temperature, Tref, is
• Engine-driven, rotary screw type, primary pump
usually 520°R or 288K:
• Motor-driven auxiliary pumps, including AC pre/post and
LHV Tref 120-VDC backup post-lube pump
WI = ⋅ • Duplex oil filters with replaceable elements
SG Tf
• Off-skid oil cooler
If two different fuel gas compositions have the same • Oil level, pressure, and temperature indication including
Wobbe Index, the pressure drop in a given fuel system will be engine oil drain temperature
the same for both gases. The Wobbe Index is, thus, an • Pressure and temperature regulators
indication of energy flow in the system at the same gas • Strainers
pressures and pressure drops. • Oil tank vent separator
• Oil tank vent flame trap
A standard fuel system may, for example, be designed for a
Wobbe Index of 1220 ±10% Btu/scf (48,031 ±10% kJ/Nm3) The filters are supplied with a transfer valve with
based on the LHV of the fuel. Different gas compositions can differential pressure indication and alarm. The system includes
yield the same Wobbe Index, but they will have widely all supply and drain piping and manifolds internal to the skid.
different hydrocarbon dew points. Minimum engine flameout The interconnect piping between the skid edge connection and
fuel flows will also vary, if the fuel contains high percentages the off-skid-mounted oil cooler is not supplied as part of this
of noncombustible gases. In addition, high fuel gas or ambient system. The lube oil filter canisters, tank, covers, and transfer
temperatures can cause problems, if the temperature valve are often fabricated from carbon steel and painted, or
capabilities of elastomeric seals, electrical devices or other optionally, manufacturers offer these items in stainless steel.
system components are exceeded. Low fuel gas or ambient Also, an electric lube oil tank heater is often provided to ensure
temperatures can cause water or heavy hydrocarbon that lube oil temperature remains sufficiently warm for starting
condensation. in cold ambient conditions. Because of its significance, lube oil
filtration is discussed in more detail below.
Protection against these factors includes analyzing the
variations in the fuel composition, fuel temperature, and Unit Control System
ambient temperature so that the required modifications to the The gas turbine package control system provides for
fuel treatment system and turbine fuel system can be made. A automatic starting, acceleration to operating speed, sequencing
turbine expected to operate with gaseous fuels exhibiting a control, engine and driven equipment monitoring during
wide Wobbe Index range will need to be configured differently operation, and normal and malfunction shutdown. The unit
than one that will only operate with a small variance in Wobbe control also acts as the primary machinery protection system.
Index. The fuel supply contract should include the allowable This is discussed in additional detail below in the section on
variations in composition and temperature. The probability of machinery protection.
upset conditions needs to be evaluated, and fuel treatment During operation, the control system, by means of
systems and turbine fuel systems need to be designed for the automatic warning and shutdown devices, protects the turbine
upset conditions. Gas fuel supply and package lines may need

engine and driven equipment from possible damage resulting • Operation Summary – Overview of key operation
from hazards, such as turbine overspeed, high engine parameters.
temperature or vibration, low lubricating oil pressure, and • Temperature Summary – Display of all monitored
excessive oil temperature. temperatures.
The control processor (controller) performs proportional • Vibration Summary – Display of all vibration readings.
control, startup, operation and shutdown sequencing, and • Alarm Summary – Display of all malfunctions with date and
protection functions, as well as detection and annunciation of time stamping.
abnormal operating conditions. Control for these functions • First Out– Display of unacknowledged malfunctions in high
comes from signals the controller receives from solid-state resolution sequence.
devices, control switches, speed, pressure and temperature • Event Log – Display of date and time stamped sequence of
transmitters, relays, solenoids, and vibration sensors. These events with sorting and filtering functions.
components provide the controller with the data necessary to • Historical Data – Stores data surrounding specified events.
control and maintain desired process conditions, while Data can be played back using the Strip Chart feature.
maintaining engine speed and temperature at safe levels. • Strip Chart – Display of real-time data for selected analog
signals in strip chart format. Configurable with legend,
In the event of an abnormal condition or malfunction, the
cursor and zoom features.
control system indicates the nature of the malfunction. When an
• Program Constants – Password protected display and
alarm or shutdown is displayed, a sequence of appropriate
modification of controls constant values.
operations begins in response to the detected condition. In the
event of a control system failure, the backup relay system • Unit Valve Mimic – Status indication and manual operation
initiates a shutdown while operating the lubricating oil system of unit valves (compressor sets).
and other subsystems, as required, to avoid engine and driven Off-skid Control System
equipment damage during shutdown. In this case, the control system is mounted in a free-
Vibration and Temperature Monitoring standing console for installation in a nonhazardous area. The
Most standard control systems include vibration monitor console contains the same key elements as described above for
and associated vibration sensing devices. The system is usually the on-skid system, but usually more graphic displays,
physically and functionally integrated with the control system. monitoring, and control functionality is available.
The vibration data values are displayed on the vibration Data Storage and Display
monitor and on a dedicated control system vibration summary Data can be viewed in a strip chart format in real time,
screen. trended, analyzed on-line, or exported for off-line viewing. All
Most turbine engines incorporate the following standard logs are self-describing repositories containing site information,
vibration and temperature monitoring: tag information, and the historical data itself. The data can be
viewed on-line using the Historical Trend Display. The
• X and Y proximity probes at each of the five engine bearings objective of historical data monitoring is to provide information
and one accessory drive gearbox velocity transducer of a type and in a format that allows informed decisions to be
• Axial position probes at both the gas producer and power made in the areas of operation, maintenance, and optimization
turbine rotors of the turbomachinery and associated equipment. The
• RTDs at both the gas producer and power turbine thrust information is collected for on-line viewing and analysis, it or
bearings may be exported for storage and off-line analysis.
• Gas producer and power turbine key phasors to provide Typical data include:
vibration diagnostic capability with the use of externally
applied diagnostic equipment • Driven equipment status
• RTDs at all turbine lube oil drain lines • Gas producer turbine speed
• Power turbine speed
The control system can either be mounted off-skid in a
• Turbine control temperature (e.g., T5, power turbine inlet)
remote control room or on-skid directly on the package
enclosure. These options are described below: • Lube oil header pressure
• Lube oil temperature
On-skid Control System • Ambient temperature
The control system components are mounted in one or • All alarms and shutdowns
more panels located on the package skid. These panels contain • All panel light status
the key elements of the system, including the control processor,
the I/O modules, the vibration monitoring system, and the Supervisory control signals include:
display unit. The operator interface includes lighted switches • Start
for Start/Starting, Normal Stop/Stopping and Backup System
• Stop
Active/Reset and switches for Speed Increase/ Decrease,
• Acknowledge/Reset
Off/Local/Aux, Horn Silence, Acknowledge, Reset and
Emergency Stop. The Display System provides the following • Remote Speed/Load Set Point
key features: Engine and Compressor Performance Map Display
The engine performance map displays real-time turbine

performance corrected to standard conditions. This is a specified by the manufacturer. At this flow, the inlet pressure
calculated performance based on package instrumentation loss should be as low as practical consistent with requirements
readings. These maps are essentially for reference and are used for cost, air filtration, and acoustical attenuation. Because of its
to monitor trends in engine performance and operating point. significance, air inlet filtration is discussed in more detail
The compressor map displays real-time compressor nominal below.
head-versus-cfm performance map and shows the position of
Exhaust System
the actual operating point.
The turbine exhaust system typically consists of all
Compressor Surge Control components downstream of the engine exhaust flexible section
Anti-surge control is provided to protect the compressor that are necessary to ensure a smooth flow of exhaust from the
from surge. The system monitors the operating point of the turbine. The turbine exhaust system should be capable of
compressor in relation to its surge line and, if conditions handling the required gas flow as specified by the
require, takes automatic corrective action by opening an anti- manufacturer. Pressure losses should be minimized as
surge recycle valve. The system operates based on the position additional back pressure results in a decrease of available
of the operating point and on the rate of change of position. turbine horsepower. The system usually includes attaching
Additional backup protection is provided through an integral hardware (bolts, nuts, washers, and gaskets) for the inlet flange
surge detection system that will alarm and, if necessary, shut of each component. The turbomachinery package includes
the equipment down, if multiple surge events are detected. The attaching hardware for connection of the turbine engine exhaust
system usually also includes: flexible section to the first exhaust system component.
• On-screen, real-time graphic display and control parameter Gas Turbine and Driven Equipment Enclosure
setting Although some compressors sets are sold without
• Suction flow differential pressure transmitter enclosures (i.e., only skid-mounted) and installed inside a
• Suction and discharge pressure transmitters compressor station building, most are delivered with a full
• Discharge gas temperature RTD sound and weather enclosure for outdoor installation. These all-
steel enclosure housings are completely self-contained,
Beyond the simple surge control functionality, most unit weatherproof, insulated, and sound-attenuated enclosure
control systems can also be utilized for process control of yard assembled on the turbine package skid base. Figure 5 shows a
valves and other process equipment. pipeline compressor installation with a fully enclosed gas
Control and Accessory Power Supply turbine and compressor.
The control and accessory battery system supplies power
for the unit control system, electric fuel valves, engine bleed
valve and variable guide vane actuators, and the backup post-
lube oil pump. This system is always designed for indoor
installation in a nonhazardous area.
Axial Compressor Cleaning Systems
Most modern gas turbines are supplied with both on-line
and off-line washing systems. The systems are independent of
each other and include separate distribution manifolds with
pressure atomizing spray nozzles in the engine air inlet
collector and associated on-skid piping, filter, and solenoid
operated shutoff valves to deliver water or approved cleaning
fluid to the manifold. Both systems facilitate periodic cleaning
of the turbine compressor and are designed for use in salt-laden
Figure 5. Fully Enclosed Gas Turbine Installation
or dusty atmospheres or where compressor contamination from
hydrocarbon vapors is possible. The on-line cleaning system is
The enclosure sides and roof include panels and access
operable between 90 and 100 percent gas producer speed with
doors supported on a heavy-duty frame. The side and roof
or without load, with the water/cleaning solution flow activated
panels are easily removed individually for complete access to
from the operator interface panel. This system is intended to
the major components for inspection and maintenance and for
supplement the on-crank system by increasing the time
component removal by forklift and overhead crane. The panels
intervals between periodic on-crank water, detergent, or fluid
are treated with fiberglass material for noise attenuation and
cleaning, depending on site-specific contamination. The on-
thermal insulation, and weather stripping is installed between
crank (off-line system) is operated with the gas turbine
all panels for sealing and sound attenuation. The enclosure is
shutdown, and the rotor being cranked by the starting motor.
constructed to support adequate roof load (usually 50 lb/sqft)
Air Inlet System and to withstand a wind load of 120 mph (or more, if
The gas turbine’s air inlet system typically consists of all specified).
components upstream of the engine inlet collector that are
The following standard features are usually included in a
necessary to supply a clean, smooth flow of air to the turbine.
basic enclosure:
The inlet air system components, silencers, ducting, and air
inlet filter are designed to accommodate the required flow, as

• Inlet and exhaust ventilation silencers: The enclosure shore applications. Now, however, it is becoming more of a
ventilation openings are equipped with vent silencers with requirement. We will focus on the application of this tool for
weather louvers. the acoustic enclosures. The CFD tool is used to apply the
• Single fan ventilation system: Enclosure ventilation is surface temperature to the turbine, understand the temperature
provided by a single motor-driven fan. This motor is distribution within the enclosure, and determine the required
typically 3-phase AC, high efficiency, with Class F flow distribution and proper size of the ventilation fans and
insulation. The fan is sized to provide the airflow required to motors. Understanding the flow distribution within the
ensure that the internal air temperature around the enclosed enclosure allows the optimization of the package design to
equipment remains within acceptable limits. Sometimes, for minimize stagnant volumes where gas, if present, could be
additional ventilation or certification requirements, a dual fan trapped, as well as position package components away from
ventilation system may be required. identified hot areas so the component temperature limits are not
• Pressurization system: The enclosure is positive pressurized exceeded. Figure 6 shows the results of a CFD analysis in a
to prevent the ingress of external hazardous atmospheres sub-scaled test rig. The test rig is used to match the analysis
through the enclosure seams. A differential pressure with actual test data to validate the accuracy of the CFD tool.
transmitter is provided for enclosure low pressure alarm and The colored streamlines represent airflow velocity throughout
shutdown. the enclosure with dark blue representing the lowest velocity
• AC lighting: 110-VAC or 220-VAC lights are provided to flow and the light blue, green, and yellow representing
illuminate the enclosure interior, with on/off switches located progressively higher velocities. This CFD model represents a
at the interface panel. full size package with all of the major components. The dashed
• Trolleys: Internal movable trolley rails located over the lines represent the flow direction. Again, the dark blue color
turbine for turbine maintenance and removal are included. being the lower velocity air; while green, yellow, and red
• Door Hardware: All enclosure doors are equipped with a represent increasing velocities.
heavy duty stainless steel door locking mechanism, including Beyond the above described features, manufacturers often
handles, hinges, latching mechanism, internal lock override provide the following options for the enclosure:
release, restraining device, and attaching hardware. The
enclosure doors are equipped with door position switches to Sound Attenuation
initiate an alarm whenever any of the enclosure doors are not The sound-attenuated enclosure is intended for use with
securely closed. suitable turbine air inlet and exhaust silencing systems in
environments where low noise levels are a requirement.
Ventilation openings are equipped with suitable silencers to
achieve maximum sound attenuation. Sound levels at a specific
site will depend on existing walls, barriers, equipment in close
proximity, multiple units, and other installation considerations.
Enclosure Barrier Filter
The enclosure ventilation inlet is equipped with a single-
stage, disposable, barrier-type filter unit equipped with a delta-
P alarm switch. The ventilation exhaust opening is equipped
with back-draft dampers to prevent ingress of dust when the
unit is not running.
Fire and Gas Detection and Monitoring System
Usually, an automatic, electronically controlled fire and
combustible gas detection and monitoring system is installed in
the enclosure. A typical system description is provided below:
The primary fire detection system uses multi-spectrum
infrared (MIR) detectors. The system includes an automatic
optical integrity feature to provide a continuous check of the
optical surfaces, detector sensitivity and electronic circuitry of
the detector-controller system, and automatic fault
identification with digital display of system status in numerical
code. The secondary fire detection system consists of rate-
compensated thermal detectors. The two detection methods act
independently in detecting and reporting a fire.
Figure 6. Analysis of the Air Flow in a Gas Turbine The fire and gas system control panel provides system
Enclosure supervision (for open circuit, ground fault, or loss of integrity),
initiates alarm, release of fire suppression agent, and visual
Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) tools are used in display of system status. The suppression system agent release
both on- and off-shore applications to validate design criteria. is activated automatically with release solenoids located on the
Previously, this data was only occasionally requested for off- fire suppression skid. The suppression system can also be

activated by an electrical push button on the turbine enclosure rapid fluctuation in flow can take a compressor into surge,
or manually at the suppression skid. If a fire is detected, the causing catastrophic damage. Clearly, a number of external
detectors transmit an electrical signal to the fire and gas system events can lead to damage to the turbocompressor.
control panel to activate the fire alarm and suppression system.
Thus, the gas turbine’s unit control system principal design
The enclosure is equipped with two gas detectors: one at function is to protect the turbocompressor from these types of
the turbine enclosure ventilation air inlet and one at the upsets. However, the unit control system relies on auxiliary
ventilation exhaust to provide continuous monitoring for measurements (flow, temperature, and pressure) for reaching
combustible gases at the enclosure ventilation inlet and outlet. set alarm points and/or shutdown levels. The unit’s control
The detectors are diffusion-based, point-type infrared devices system initiates auxiliary automatic valves (surge, loading,
that provide continuous monitoring of combustible isolation, blowdown, etc.) action to avoid or mitigate a flow
hydrocarbon gas concentrations. The turbine start signal is upset condition. An off-skid backup battery rack and a battery
interlocked with the fire and gas monitoring system to ensure charger are employed to bring the unit to a safe shutdown upon
the atmosphere is safe prior to initiating turbine engine start. a significant operational upset. Pressure relief valves are
intended to avoid any equipment (and piping) overpressure
Most commonly, the enclosure is equipped with a CO2 fire
situation.
suppression system consisting of a primary total flooding
distribution system and a secondary metered distribution If this auxiliary equipment (meters, chargers, batteries, and
system. In the United States, the system is designed in valves) is not regularly tested, maintained, and calibrated, the
accordance with the U.S. National Fire Protection unit control system cannot protect the unit. Machinery
Association Code 12. protection also includes maintaining the air, oil, and fuel flow
into the machine to prevent contamination of critical internal
On detection of fire, the detectors transmit an electrical parts (bearings, seals, and fuel nozzles). This is accomplished
signal via the fire control panel to activate the fire suppression with (self-cleaning) inlet air filters, duplex oil filters, and fuel
system release solenoids located on the fire suppression skid. gas treatment skids (scrubbers, separators, and filters).
On receipt of this signal, the solenoid actuated control heads
activate the discharge valves on the primary and extended The control system of a gas turbine driven compressor, at a
extinguishing cylinders, releasing the extinguishing agent into minimum, must provide the following functions through the use
the enclosure. CO2 pressure actuates the pressure trip operated of a Human Machine Interface (HMI):
dampers that close all vent openings. CO2 release control heads • Machinery Monitoring and Protection
are also provided with manual release levers. o Equipment startup, shutdown and protective sequencing
Additionally, a weatherproof fire suppressant cylinder o Stable equipment operation
cabinet is sized to house the CO2 extinguishant cylinders and is o Alarm, shutdown logic
equipped with doors for servicing. The manual pull levers are o Backup (relay) shutdown
routed, by cable, to break glass pull stations on the exterior wall
• Driven load regulation
of the cabinet. CO2 cylinders are mounted on a weight scale
o Fuel/speed control
with a preset alarm. Another frequently used fire suppression
o Process control
system uses water mist.
o Surge control
Equipment Handling System o Communication (SCADA) interface
An equipment handling system is provided, consisting of
external trolley beams and movable chain-fall hoists for FILTRATION
removal of major equipment from the package. A trolley beam There are usually only three or four utility fluids whose
extension allows turbine removal through the side of the quality can affect a gas turbine's life and performance. These
enclosure. One end of the beam extension attaches to the inside are the lube oil, the combustion fuel, the inlet air, or possible
trolley rails; the other end is a floor-standing A-frame. The gas water used for washing or performance enhancement. Thus, on
turbine or other heavy equipment is then removed through the gas turbines, a number of streams must be filtered to protect the
enclosure side and placed on a truck bed or cart. machine: air inlet flow, lube oil supply, and fuel gas supply.
The above discussion provided typical package features Inlet Air Filters
found on most gas turbines in compression applications. The selection of an inlet filtration system for a new or
existing gas turbine installation is often underappreciated and
MACHINERY PROTECTION handled as one of the low priority decisions in the overall
As turbocompressors are complex mechanical devices, equipment purchasing process. Considering that the inlet
they require electronic and mechanic controls as well as system only constitutes a small fraction of the total purchase
instrumentation. A compression station’s most expensive assets price for a gas turbine package, this may appear appropriate.
are the gas turbine, centrifugal compressor, and/or turbo pump.
However, the proper selection of the inlet filtration system
This valuable equipment must be protected from station
can have a substantial impact on the overall life cycle cost of
operational upsets and process excursions. For example, if the
the gas turbine installation. While many operators only consider
fuel constituents into the gas turbine combustion system vary
the filter replacement and sometimes the gas turbine’s output
significantly from the design point, liquids may form in the fuel
power loss associated with the inlet pressure drop in their cost
system and combustor damage will likely result. Similarly, a

analysis, other factors that can also affect the overall operation Depending on the environmental conditions (arctic, offshore,
and maintenance cost of a plant include downtime associated marine, desert, tropical, urban, or industrial), the filter selection
with off-line water-washing, reduced time-between-overhaul, must be customized appropriately for the installation site. This
and startup reliability. All of these can be directly attributed to is best done by evaluating the site's local air quality, wind
the filter selection. conditions (through air sample testing), upset conditions (such
as dust during harvest season in an agricultural area), and
A normal mid-size (10 MW) gas turbine ingests about 100
defining the desired gas turbine operating profile (including
million cubic feet (3 million cubic meters) of air per day. At
desired uninterrupted operating hours; for instance time
that rate, even 100 ppb of foulant, such as dirt, oils, or minerals,
between off-line water-wash, filter replacement, and time
contained in the airflow, will result in almost one pound of
between overhauls).
foulant entering the gas turbine per day. Axial compressor
fouling due to blade dirt deposits, leading/trailing edge erosion, Once the application and site conditions are understood,
or surface corrosion, can reduce a gas turbine’s output power filter system design can begin. A broad range of filter system
and efficiency by up to 20 percent. design considerations, such as number of stages, types of filter
stages (barrier, inertial, coalescing, etc.), and inlet filter ducting
layout, prevailing inlet orientation, downtime schedules, duty
cycles, and more should be reviewed as options are developed.
Other, more intrinsic filter properties, such as particulate
removal efficiency, loading characteristics, water permeability,
and face velocities (high versus low speed), must be considered
and analyzed to determine an optimal filter selection. Of special
consideration should also be the rain and snow/ice protection
design of the inlet filter (usually weather louvers or vane
separators or both and inlet heating, if necessary) in order to
avoid wetting or icing of the filter surface and subsequent
mineral and dirt penetration of the filter screen. Figure 7 shows
a typical gas turbine inlet filter housing.
Gas turbines ingest a large amount of ambient air during
operation. Because of this, the quality of the air entering the
turbine is a significant factor in the performance and life of the
gas turbine. A filtration system is used to control the quality of
the air by removing harmful contaminants that are present. The
selection of the filtration system can be a daunting task,
because there are many factors to consider. The system should
be selected based on the operational philosophy and goals for
the turbine, the contaminants present in the ambient air, and the
expected changes in the contaminants in the future due to
temporary emission sources or seasonal changes. This tutorial
outlines the primary considerations for selecting and installing
a gas turbine inlet filtration system. First, the consequences that
can occur due to improper inlet filtration are reviewed, then the
different characteristics are discussed; after this, the
components of a filtration system and considerations for the
operating environment are outlined; and lastly, a procedure for
quantitatively comparing inlet filtration system options is
provided.
CONSEQUENCES OF POOR INLET FILTRATION

When the quality of the air entering the gas turbine is not
well controlled, there are several consequences which can
occur. Some of the most common degradation mechanicals are
reviewed below, including erosion, fouling, and corrosion. We
emphasize the different mechanisms as they directly relate to
air filtration.
Erosion
Figure 7. Gas Turbine Filter House Erosion occurs when solid or liquid particles
approximately 10 microns and larger impact rotating or
It is important to realize that there is no universal gas stationary surfaces in the gas turbine. The particles will impact
turbine inlet filtration system that is optimal for all applications. the surface and remove tiny particles of metal, which
eventually lead to changes in the geometry of the surface. This

change in geometry causes deviations in the air flow path, caused by the diffusion of sulfur from the molten sodium
roughening of smooth surfaces, alteration of clearances, and sulfate into the metal substrate which prevents the formation of
reduction of cross-sectional areas, possibly in high stressed the protective oxidation film and results in rapid removal of
regions. Erosion is a non-reversible process; therefore, the gas surface metal. One should note that for hot corrosion to occur,
turbine components must be replaced in order to regain their both sulfur and salt (e.g., sodium chloride, potassium chloride,
original condition. However, particles of 10 microns and larger or chloride) have to be present in the very hot gas stream in and
are easily removed by commercial filters downstream of the combustor. Sulfur and salt can come from
the inlet air, from the fuel, or water (if water is injected).
Fouling
Fouling of compressor blades is an important mechanism Corrosion is a non-reversible degradation mechanism.
leading to performance deterioration in gas turbines over time. Therefore, corroded components must be replaced in order to
Fouling is caused by the adherence of particles to airfoils and regain the original gas turbine performance. Corrosion also
annulus surfaces. Particles that cause fouling are typically initiates or advances other damage mechanisms in the gas
smaller than 2 to 10 μm. Smoke, oil mists, carbon, and sea salts turbine. For example, corrosion can intrude into cracks or other
are common examples. Fouling can be controlled by an material defects and accelerates crack propagation
appropriate air filtration system, and often reversed to some
degree by detergent washing of components. The adherence is FILTRATION CHARACTERISTICS
impacted by oil or water mists. The result is a buildup of
Filtration Mechanisms
material that causes increased surface roughness and, to some
Filters in the filtration system use many different
degree, changes the shape of the airfoil (if the material build up
mechanisms to remove particles from the air. The filter media,
forms thicker layers of deposits).Fouling occurs and, in turn,
fiber size, packing density of the media, particle size, and
causes a decrease in the performance of the gas turbine.
electrostatic charge influence how the filter removes particles.
Commercial filters can remove the majority of particles Each filter typically has various different mechanisms working
which cause fouling. But, there are several submicron particles, together to remove the particles. Four filtration mechanisms are
which are difficult to remove from the flow stream. The shown in Figure 8.
buildup of particles not removed by the inlet filtration system is
removed with the use of compressor washing. This process
recovers a larger portion of the compressor performance, but Flow Stream
Inertial Impaction
cannot bring the gas turbine back to its original condition Particle Filter Fiber
(Wilcox and Kurz 2011)
Corrosion
When chemically reactive particles adhere to surfaces in Particle
the gas turbine, corrosion can occur. Corrosion that occurs in Diffusion
Flow Stream
the compressor section is referred to as “cold corrosion” and is Filter Fiber

due to wet deposits of salts, acid, and aggressive gases, such as
chlorine and sulfides. Corrosion in the combustor and turbine Particle
sections is called “hot corrosion.” Also, called high temperature
corrosion, hot corrosion requires the interaction of the metal Flow Stream
surface with another chemical substance at elevated Interception
temperatures. Hot corrosion is a form of accelerated oxidation Filter Fiber
that is produced by the chemical reaction between a component

and molten salts deposited on its surface. Hot corrosion Filter Fiber
comprises a complex series of chemical reactions, making
corrosion rates very difficult to predict. It is the accelerated Sieving Particle
oxidation of alloys caused by the deposit of salts (e.g., Na2SO4). Flow Stream
Type 1, or high temperature hot corrosion, occurs at a
Filter Fiber
temperature range of 730 to 950°C (1345 to 1740°F). Type 2,
or low temperature hot corrosion, occurs at a temperature range Figure 8. Common Filtration Mechanism
of 550 to 730°C (1020 to 1345°F). Some of the more common (Kurz and Brun, 2007)
forms of hot corrosion are sulfidation, nitridation, chlorination,
carburization, vanadium, potassium, and lead hot corrosion. The first filtration mechanism is inertial impaction. This
Sulfidation Hot Corrosion requires the interaction of the type of filtration is applicable to particles larger than 1 micron
metal surface with sodium sulfate or potassium sulfate, salts in diameter. The inertia of the large heavy particles in the flow
that can form in gas turbines from the reaction of sulfur oxides, stream causes the particles to continue on a straight path as the
water, and sodium chloride (table salt) or potassium chloride, flow stream moves around a filter fiber. The particulate then
respectively. It is usually divided into Type 1 and Type 2 hot impacts and is attached to the filter media and held in place, as
corrosion, and Type 1 hot corrosion takes place above the shown in the top picture of Figure 8. This type of filtration
melting temperature of sodium sulfate (884°C or 1,623°F), mechanism is effective in high velocity filtration systems.
while Type 2 occurs below this temperature. Hot corrosion is The next filtration mechanism, diffusion, is effective for

very small particles, typically less than 0.5 micron in size. Filter Efficiency and Classification
Effectiveness increases with lower flow velocities. Small Filter efficiency is a broad term. In general, the filter
particles interact with nearby particles and gas molecules. efficiency is the ratio of the weight, volume, area, or number of
Especially in turbulent flow, the path of small particles particles entering the filter to the weight, volume, area, or
fluctuates randomly about the main stream flow. As these number of the particles captured in the filter and ratings,
particles diffuse in the flow stream, they collide with the fiber respectively. A general efficiency calculation is shown in below
and are captured. The smaller a particle and the lower the flow equation, where W is the variable for which efficiency is being
rate through the filter media, the higher probability that the calculated. The efficiency can be expressed in several ways:
particle will be captured. maximum, minimum, or average lifetime value. Many filters
have poor performance against small particles at the beginning
The next two filtration mechanisms are the most well-
of their lives, but as the filter media becomes loaded with
known; interception and sieving. Interception occurs with
particles, it is able to catch smaller particles. In this case, the
medium-sized particles that are not large enough to leave the
average efficiency would actually be higher than the initial
flow path due to inertia or not small enough to diffuse. The
efficiency. Some of the filters will never reach the quoted
particles will follow the flow stream where they will touch a
maximum efficiency before they are replaced.
fiber in the filter media and be trapped and held. Sieving is the
situation where the space between the filter fibers is smaller Wentering − Wleaving
than the particle itself, which causes the particle to be captured η= *100%
Wentering
and contained.
When a new filter looses the charge Filter efficiency is a trade-off against the pressure loss
mechanism, the efficiency drops down across the filter. Normally, the filtration system pressure loss
significantly (dashed line)
will increase with an increase in filtration efficiency. As filters
become more efficient, less dust penetrates through them. Also,
100
the air flow path is more constricted with higher efficiency
Total Efficiency
80
filters. This leads to higher pressure loss. Filter engineers must
Efficiency (%)
Interception determine the acceptable pressure loss and efficiency for their
60 application. Studies have shown that a higher pressure loss due
Diffusion to using a high efficiency filter has a lower effect on gas turbine
40 power degradation than poor inlet air quality.
Inertial Impaction
Electrostatic The efficiency of a filter cannot be stated as a general
20
characteristic. The filter efficiencies vary with particle size,
typically being lower for small particles and higher for large
0 0.1 1 10 particles. They also vary with operational velocity. Filters
Particle Size (micron) designed for medium and low velocities will have a poor
performance at higher velocities and vice versa. Therefore, a
Figure 9. Combination of Filtration Mechanisms to Obtain particle size range and flow velocity must be associated with
Filter Efficiency at Various Particle Sizes the stated efficiency. For example, a filter may have 95 percent
(Kurz and Brun, 2007) filtration efficiency for particles greater than 5 microns at a
volumetric flow rate of 3,000 cfm, but the efficiency could be
Another mechanism not shown in Figure 8 is electrostatic reduced to less than 70 percent for particles less than 5 microns
charge. This type of filtration is effective for particles in the or at a volumetric flow rate of 4,000 cfm.
0.01 to 2 micron size range (Figure 9). The filter works through
Filters are rated for performance based on standards
the attraction of particles to a charged filter. In gas turbine
established in the United States of America and Europe. These
applications, this charge is applied to the filter before
filter ratings are based on the results of standard performance
installation as a result of the manufacturing process. Filters
tests. In the United States, ASHRAE standard 52.2-2007
always lose their electrostatic charge over time because the
outlines the requirements for performance tests and the
particles captured on their surface occupy charged sites,
methodology to calculate the efficiencies. In this standard, the
therefore, neutralizing their electrostatic charge. As the charge
efficiencies are determined for various ranges of particles sizes.
is lost, the filter efficiency for small particles will decrease. On
The filter is given a Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value
the other hand, as the filter is loaded, the filtration efficiency
(MERV) rating based on its performance on the particle size
increases, thus, counteracting the effect of the lost charge to
ranges (particle count efficiency) and the weight arrestance
some extent. This will offset some of the loss of filtration
(weight efficiency). The weight arrestance is a comparison of
efficiency due to the lost charge. Figure 9 shows a comparison
the weight of the dust penetrating the filter to the dust feed into
of a filter’s total efficiency based on the various filtration
the flow stream. In this standard, a filter with a MERV of 10
mechanisms that are applied. The figure shows the difference
will have 50 to 65 percent minimum efficiency for particles 1–3
between the filter’s efficiency curve before and after the charge
microns in size and greater than 85 percent for particles 3–10
is lost. The performance of the filter should be based on the
microns in size.
discharged condition.
The European standards used to determine performance are
EN 779:2002 and EN 1822:2009. The EN 779:2002 is used to

rate coarse and fine efficiency filters. The EN 1822:2009 more efficient filter due to air flow restrictions. Pressure loss
presents a methodology for determining the performance of has a direct impact on the gas turbine performance, as it causes
high efficiency filters: Efficient Particulate Air filter (EPA), a reduction in compressor inlet pressure. For the compressor to
High Efficiency Particulate Air filter (HEPA), and Ultra Low overcome the inlet system losses, the gas turbine will consume
Particle Air filter (ULPA). In EN 779:2002, the performance is more fuel, and it also has a reduced power output. As the
found with average separation efficiency, which is an average pressure loss increases, the power decreases and the heat rate
of the removal efficiency of 0.3 micron particles at four test increases linearly. A 50 Pa (0.2 inH2O) reduction of pressure
flow rates (particle count efficiency) for fine filters and with an loss can result in a 0.1 percent improvement in power output.
average arrestance (weight efficiency) for coarse particle filters. Typical pressure losses on inlet filtration systems can range
This standard rates the filters with a letter and number from 2 to 6 inH2O
designation: G1–G4 (coarse filters) and F5–F9 (fine filters).
The filter’s performance needs to be assessed for the full
Filter performance is determined by the Most Penetrating
pressure loss range over its life, not just when it is new. The
Particle Size efficiency (MPPS) in EN 1822:2009. The MPPS
pressure loss will increase over the lifetime of the filter.
is defined as the particle size, which has the minimum filtration
Therefore, one can expect a lower gas turbine performance over
efficiency or maximum penetration during the filter testing. The
the life of the filter, or filters have to be changed or cleaned
particle sizes tested range from 0.15 to 0.3 microns. The filter
periodically in order to maintain a low pressure loss. The
efficiency is calculated based on particle count. These filters
change of pressure loss over time is highly dependent upon the
are given a rating of E10–E12 for EPA type filters, H13–H14
filter selection and the type and amount of contaminants
for HEPA type filters, and U15–U17 for ULPA filters. Table 1
experienced.
gives a general overview of the efficiencies for each filter
rating and a comparison of the filter ratings between American Filter Loading (Surface or Depth)
and European standards. During operation, as the filter collects particles, it is slowly
loaded until it reaches a “full” state. This state is usually
Table 1. Summary of Filter Classification for ASHRAE defined as the filter reaching a specified pressure loss or at the
52.2:2007, EN 779:2002, and EN 1822:2009 end of maintenance interval. Filters are loaded in two different
ways: surface and depth loading.
Depth loading is the type of filtration where the particles
are captured inside of the filter material. To regain the original
pressure loss or condition, the filter must be replaced.
The other type of filter is a surface loaded filter. With this
type of loading, the particles collect on the surface of the filter.
Few of the particles may penetrate the fiber material, but not
enough to call for a replacement of the filter. Surface loaded
filters are most commonly used in, but not restricted to, self-
cleaning systems, because the dust can easily be removed with
pulses of air once the filter differential pressure reaches a
certain level. Once the filter is cleaned, the pressure loss across
the filter will be close to its original condition. The surface
loaded filter’s efficiency actually increases as the surface is
loaded with dust, because a dust cake develops on the surface
If an engine ingests 100 kg/year of contaminants, if there of the media, creating an additional filtration layer and also
were no filtration system in a typical off-shore application, an decreases the amount of available flow area in the filter media
F5 5 filter would reduce this to about 21 kg/year, an F61 filter to
6 kg/year, an F7/H101 filter system to 0.2 kg/year and an Face Velocity
F7/F9/H101 system to as little as 0.05 kg/year. Filtration systems are distinctively classified as high,
medium, or low velocity systems. The velocity of the filtration
This indicates two conclusions: system is defined as the actual volumetric air flow divided by
the total filter face area. Low velocity systems have air flow at
• While large particles have a significant impact on fouling
less than 500 fpm (feet per minute) (2.54 m/s) at the filter face.
degradation, a significant amount is due to the finer particles.
Medium velocities are in the range of 610 to 680 fpm (3.1 to
• The overall contaminant ingestion can be influenced by 3.45 m/s). High velocity systems have air flows at the filter face
several orders of magnitude by using an appropriate air in excess of 780 fpm (4 m/s).
filtration system. Also, with filtration systems of this type,
there are virtually no particles larger than a few microns High Velocity Systems
entering the engine Historically, high velocity systems are used on marine
vessels and off-shore platforms where space and weight are
Filter Pressure Loss premiums. However, currently, low, medium, and high velocity
As mentioned above, a higher pressure loss occurs with a systems are found on marine and off-shore applications. High
velocity systems have the advantages of reduced size (cross-
5 sectional area), weight, and initial cost. Filter efficiencies for
Per EN 779

small particles are significantly lower than those of lower Gas turbine manufacturers usually recommend stringent criteria
velocity systems, and dust holding capacities are lower. on the amount of salt that can be allowed to enter the gas
turbine (less than 0.01 ppm). In coastal environments, the
High velocity systems typically use vane separators
airborne salt can easily range from 0.05 to 0.5 ppm on a typical
upstream and, often, also downstream of the filter media to
day. If the filtration system is not equipped to handle the salt, it
remove water from the air stream. For the vanes to work
can enter the compressor and the hot section of the gas turbine.
effectively, higher flow velocities are necessary.
Salt is present in the air either as salt dust or dissolved in
Ultimately, this type of system requires more filter seawater and contains sodium chloride, magnesium chloride,
replacements when compared to the lower velocity system of and calcium sulfate. Salt may also come from localized sources,
similar performance. such as a dry salt bed. The salt on compressor blades must be
removed through water washing methods or direct scrubbing of
Low Velocity Systems
the blades.
Low velocity systems are the standard on land-based
applications; however, high velocity systems are also used in
COMPONENTS OF A FILTRATION SYSTEM
some coastal applications. The low velocity systems are
In order to protect the gas turbine from the variety of
characterized by large inlet surface areas, large filter housings,
contaminants present in the ambient air, several filtration
and usually multiple stages of filters. The two- or three-stage
devices are used. Each of the devices used in modern filtration
filters provide an advantage over high velocity systems,
systems are discussed below (Wilcox et al, 2011).
because they have a high efficiency filter stage as the final
stage to remove many small particles (especially salt) below Weather Protection and Trash Screens
1 micron. Recently, developed filter media can also keep water Weather louvers, or hoods, and trash screens are the most
from penetrating the media and, thus, entering the gas turbine. simplistic of the filtration mechanisms, but they are important
The lower velocity also provides a lower pressure loss or higher in order to reduce the amount of moisture and particles that
filtration efficiency. Using pre-filters to remove the majority of enter the main filtration system. These are not classified as
the particles, the life of the high efficiency filters is extended. filters, but they are part of the filtration system and provide
Overall, low velocity systems can be more effective at reducing assistance in removal of large objects or particles carried in the
the mass of contaminants which enter a system, thus, extending flow stream.
the water wash intervals for the engine.
Weather hoods are sheet metal coverings on the entrance
Water and Salt Effects of the filtration system (see Figure 11). The opening of the
Many environments where gas turbines operate will have hood is pointed downward so the ambient air must turn
wet ambient conditions. This could be in a tropical environment upwards to flow into the inlet filtration system. The turning of
where it rains a significant amount of time or a coastal location the air is effective at minimizing rain and snow penetration.
with ocean or lake mist. The difference between filter operation Weather hoods and louvers are used on the majority of inlet
in wet and dry conditions can be significant. In some cases, the filtration systems, and they are essential for systems in areas
pressure loss across a filter can increase significantly, even with with large amounts of rainfall or snow. Weather hoods, or
a little moisture. This is true for cellulose fiber filters, which another comparable weather protection system, are strongly
swell when they are wet. These filters will also retain the recommended for all systems with high efficiency filter.
moisture, which can lead to long periods of time when the
pressure loss across the filter is elevated.
Figure 10. Comparison of Fractional Efficiency for Filter

Elements from Different Suppliers and Different Face
Velocities in New and Dirty Conditions Figure 11. Weather Hood on inlet Filtration System
(Kurz and Brun, 2012)
Next to the weather hood is a series of turning vanes called
Salt can have a direct effect on the life of a gas turbine, if weather louvers that redirect the air so that it must turn. The
not removed properly. It is often carried into the engine weather louvers are also effective at minimizing water and
dissolved in water spray. Salt can lead to fouling and corrosion. snow penetration. Also next to the weather hood, or louver, is a

trash or insect screen. Trash screens capture large pieces of down the filter or be released back into the flow stream. If the
paper, cardboard, bags, and other objects. The screens deflect larger drops are released, then they are captured downstream by
birds, leaves, and insects. Screens that are installed specifically a separator. Figure 13 shows an example of how the droplet
for preventing insects from entering the filtration system are size distribution changes across the coalescer that releases the
referred to as insect screens. These screens will have a finer droplets.
grid than trash screens. Weather hoods, louvers, trash screens,
and insect screens are used on the majority of filtration systems 25
due to their inexpensive cost and construction, and negligible Upstream
pressure loss.
20 Downstream
Anti-Icing Protection
Distribution (%)
Anti-icing protection is used in climates with freezing
weather. Freezing climates with rain or snow can cause icing of 15
inlet components that can result in physical damage to inlet
ducts or to the gas turbine compressor. This ice can also affect
the performance of the gas turbine. If ice forms on filter 10
elements, then ice on those filters will be blocking the flow
path, which will cause the velocity at the other filters to
increase. This causes a decrease in filtration efficiency. Also, 5
the filter elements with ice can be damaged. Figure 12 shows
an example of ice formation on filters due to cooling tower
drift. Heaters or compressor bleed air are often used in the inlet 0
system in frigid environments to prevent the moisture in the air
from freezing on the inlet bell mouth or filter elements. 0 10 20 30
Particle Size (micron)
Figure 13. Coalescer Droplet Formation Distribution
(Wilcox et al, 2011)
Prefilters
The air has a mixture of large and small particles. If a one-
stage high efficiency filter is used, the buildup of large and
small solid particles can quickly lead to increased pressure loss
and filter loading. Prefilters are used to increase the life of the
downstream high efficiency filter by capturing the larger solid
particles. Therefore, the high efficiency filter only has to
remove the smaller particles from the air stream, which
increases the filter life. Prefilters normally capture solid
particles greater than 10 microns, but some prefilters will also
Figure 12. Cartridge Filters with Frost Buildup Due to capture the solid particles in the 2–5 micron size range. These
Cooling Tower Drift filters usually consist of a large diameter synthetic fiber in a
disposable frame structure. Bag filters are also commonly used
Inertial Separators for prefilters. These offer a higher surface area, which reduces
Inertial separation takes advantage of the physical the pressure loss across the filter. In many installations, the
principles of momentum, gravity, centrifugal forces, and prefilters can be exchanged without having to shut the engine
impingement, and the physical difference between phases to down.
cause particles to be moved out of the gas stream in such a way High Efficiency Filters
that they can be carried off or drained. The higher momentum As discussed above, there are filters for removing larger
of the dust or water particles contained in the air stream causes solid particles that prevent erosion and FOD. Smaller particles,
them to travel forward, while the air can be diverted to side which lead to corrosion, fouling, and cooling passage plugging,
ports and exit by a different path than the dust. There are many are removed with high efficiency filters. These types of filters
types of inertial separators, but the ones commonly used with have average separations greater than 80 percent. Three
gas turbine inlet filtration are vane and cyclone separators common types of high efficiency filters are EPA, HEPA and
Moisture Coalescers ULPA. EPA and HEPA filters are defined as having a
In environments with high concentration of liquid moisture minimum efficiency of 85 percent and 99.95 percent,
in the air, coalescers are required in order to remove the liquid respectively, for all particles greater than or equal to
moisture. The coalescer works by catching the small water 0.3 microns. ULPA filters have a minimum efficiency of
droplets in its fibers. As the particles are captured, they 99.9995 percent for particles the same size or larger than
combine with other particles to make larger water droplets. 0.12 microns. Often, these names are used loosely with the
Coalescers are designed to allow the droplets to either drain discussion of high efficiency filtration. However, the majority

of the high efficiency filters used in gas turbine inlet filtration discussed in the next section.
does not meet these requirements.
The high efficiency filters used with gas turbines have
pleated media, which increases the surface area. In order to
achieve the high filtration efficiency, the flow through the filter
fiber is highly restricted, which creates a high pressure loss,
unless the face velocity is kept low. The pleats help reduce this
pressure loss. Initial pressure loss on high efficiency filters can
be up to 1 inH2O with a final pressure loss in the range of View of Pleats in Cartridge Filter
2.5 inH2O for rectangular filters and 4 inH2O for cartridge
filters. The life of the filters is highly influenced by other forms
of filtration upstream. If there are stages of filtration to remove High Efficiency Cartridge Filters
larger solid articles and liquid moisture, then these filters will
have a longer life. Minimal filtration before high efficiency Figure 15. High Efficiency Cartridge Filters
filters will lead to more frequent replacement or cleaning. High
efficiency filters are rated under various standards. The Self-Cleaning Filters
majority of filters used in gas turbines are not classified as All of the filters with fiber type media previously discussed
EPA, HEPA, or ULPA. The filters used in gas turbines are are required to be replaced once they reach the end of their
rated with ASHRAE 52.2:2007 and EN 779:2002. usable life. In some environments, the amount of particles can
be excessive to the point where the filters previously discussed
There are many different constructions of high efficiency would have to be replaced frequently to meet the filtration
type filters: rectangular, cylindrical/cartridge, and bag filters. demand. A prime example of one of these environments is a
The rectangular high efficiency filters are constructed by desert with sand storms. In the 1970s, the self-cleaning
folding a continuous sheet of media into closely spaced pleats filtration system was developed for the Middle East where gas
in a rectangular rigid frame. Rectangular filters are depth turbines are subject to frequent stand storms. Since then, this
loaded; therefore, once they reach the maximum allowable system has been continually developed and utilized for gas
pressure loss, they should be replaced. Two examples of turbine inlet air filtration.
rectangular high efficiency filters are shown in Figure 14. High
efficiency filters can also be made from media that does not The self-cleaning system operates primarily with surface
allow water to seep through the filter media. loaded high efficiency cartridge filters. The surface loading
allows for easy removal of the dust that has accumulated with
reverse pulses of air (Figure 15). The pressure loss across each
filter is continuously monitored. Once the pressure loss reaches
a certain level, the filter is cleaned with air pulses. The pressure
of the air pulses ranges from 80 to 100 psig. The reverse jet of
compressed air (or pulse) occurs for a length of time between
100 and 200 ms. To avoid disturbing the flow and to limit the
need for compressed air, the system typically only pulses 10
percent of the elements at a given time. With this type of
cleaning (see Figure 16), the filter can be brought back to near
the original condition
Pulsed Air
Filtered Air
Figure 14. Rectangular High Efficiency Filters
Cartridge filters are also made up of closely spaced pleats,

but they are in a circular fashion (Figure 15). Air flows radially
into the cartridge. They are installed in a horizontal or vertical
fashion (hanging downward). These types of filters can be
depth or surface loaded. The surface loaded filters are
commonly used with a self-cleaning system, but not all of them
are designed for self-cleaning. Cartridge filters used in self-
cleaning systems require a more robust structural design in Filter Cartridge
order to protect the filter fiber media during the reverse air
Unfiltered
pulses. The more common structural support is a wire cage
around the pleated media on the inside and outside of the filter. Ambient Air
The filters shown in Figure 15 are not designed for a self-
cleaning system since there are no structural supports on the Figure 16. Example of Operation of an Updraft Self-
outside of the filter. Self-cleaning filtration systems are Cleaning Filters

Staged Filtration fuel heating system can be employed. A fuel heating system
Any gas turbine application typically needs more than one should be directly interfaced with either the unit control system
type of filter, and there are no “universal filters” that will serve or the station control system to maintain the fuel gas
all needs. Therefore, two-stage or three-stage filtration systems temperature constant above the dew point and to be
are used. In these designs, a prefilter, or weather louver, can be automatically activated during significant fuel quality swings.
used first to remove erosive particles, rain, and snow. The Also, electric heat tracing of the fuel supply lines, rather than
second may be a low to medium performance filter selected for natural gas burners, is a safer and more controllable means to
the type of finer-sized particles present or a coalescer to remove maintain the fuel gas temperature.
liquids. The third filter is usually a high-performance filter to
remove smaller particles less than 2 microns in size from the MOTOR CONTROL CENTER
air. Figure 17 shows a generalized view of a filtration Motor Control Centers (MCC) provide the best method for
arrangement. This arrangement is not correct for all cases due grouping motor control, associated control, and distribution
to the fact that the filter stages are highly influenced by the equipment. They provide a convenient, centralized means of
environment they are operating in. protecting and controlling all of a facility’s motor loads. Motor
control centers can be outfitted with a large number of
Weather Protection Prefilter
Snow, rain, birds, large electrical devices including solid state reduced voltage starters,
Particles 2-5 microns High Efficiency
debris AC adjustable speed drives, meters, programmable logic
Air In Filter Gas Turbine
Inertial Separator Coalescer Particles < 2 microns controllers, control relays, TVSS devices, lighting panel boards,
Particles > 10 microns Remove moisture
distribution panel boards, distribution transformers, power
management control systems, equipment ground fault
Figure 17. Multi-Stage Filtration System protection, and spectra RMS circuit breakers.
Lube Oil Filtration PACKAGE UTILITY REQUIREMENTS

Contamination, such as particles, water, and process fluids For a typical mid-size gas turbine driven compressor set
in lubricant streams can lead to increased maintenance costs (7 MW), a list of the package utility requirements are provided
and reduce equipment service life on lubrication systems, such in Table 2. It is important to understand that these utilities must
as the turbine bearing lube and hydraulic control systems. Gas usually be provided by the operator.
turbine manufacturers have very strict guidelines for lube oil
quality, and failure to maintain the lube oil to these standards is Table 2. Typical Set of Package Utility Requirements
often sufficient reason for manufacturers to disclaim their
warranty obligations. Device Requirement
Most modern gas turbines employ duplex lube oil filters Starter Motor Drive AC
with a continuous flow transfer valve. The media inside these Pre/Post Lube Oil AC
filters can range from paper cardboard to synthetic matrix Pump
fibers. Multi-layer filter cartridges with a high flow, high
efficiency media are typically provided by the manufacturer Lube Oil Cooler Motor AC
when the units are shipped. Special care should be taken to
Enclosure Ventilation AC
follow the manufacturer’s recommendations when replacing the
System
original filters with third-party filters. Differential pressure
transducers to monitor the pressure drop across the filter media Lube Oil Tank AC
should also be mounted with electronic signals and alarms to Immersion Heater
the unit control system for trending purposes.
Enclosure Lighting AC
FUEL GAS HEATING Battery Charger AC
Fuel gas heating is generally employed to ensure that the
fuel that enters the gas turbine is in entirely the gaseous state. Space Heaters AC
To ensure that the fuel gas does not develop liquid drop-out as Back Up Lube Oil DC
a result of the ubiquitous pressure drop in the fuel system, it has Pump
to be superheated to (typically) 28°C (50°F) above its dew
point. However, the natural gas’ dew point is a strong function Gas Fuel Control Valve DC
of its hydrocarbon composition; the higher the percentage of Bleed Valve and Guide DC
heavy hydrocarbons in the fuel, the higher the dew point. Vane Actuators
Consequently, swings in the composition of the natural gas
supplied from the producer fields can easily move the average Control System/Control DC
dew point of the gas significantly. If the fuel constituents into Console
the gas turbine combustion system vary significantly from the
Air Inlet Self Cleaning Compressed Air
design point, liquids may form in the gas turbine’s fuel system
Filter
and combustor damage will rapidly result.
To ensure that a gas turbine’s fuel is free from liquids, a

Clearly, this list of utility supply requirement varies international, national, and local rules and regulations that must
significantly depending on the application, operation, and also be satisfied. These other rules and regulations are
equipment utilized. Additionally, the unit will also require a fill represented by two groupings of authority. International
of the lube oil tank (typically between 1,000–2,000 gallons Authority, represented by an International Class Society, may
depending on the unit and driven equipment design) and may represent a country’s government’s interest and also have the
require clean water for inlet fogging, compressor water-wash, capability to enforce the laws. Additionally, each country may
or combustor injection. have a local authority. In the United States, the USCG Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR) serves this function. Each Class
Off-shore Applications
Society has individually developed rules for building and
Gas turbines are preferred prime movers for power
classification of vessels. Depending on the type of machinery,
generation, as well as drivers for compressors and pumps for
and its usage, several options are available.
off-shore installations. Many off-shore projects, especially in
deep waters, use Floating Production Storage and Offloading These rules will play a significant role in verifying the
systems (FPSO) as the equipment platform (see Figure 18). motion criteria to be used in the design effort. There are two
This type of system, as well as semi-submersible platforms, major classifications for off-shore machinery: the “Main &
SPAR’s, and TLP’s, exhibit significant deck movement as a Auxiliary Classification” applies to equipment that is essential
result of wave and wind action, as well as possible deck to propulsion, vessel safety, utilities for deck support
deflections. This requires specific design considerations for the equipment and direct operation of the vessel, while the
turbomachinery packages employed to achieve the highest “Emergency Service Classification” applies to equipment used
possible availability and reliability. There are various types of as a separate source of power for emergency duty. The support
structures used for oil and gas exploration and production, of the steering gear and fire-fighting equipment are two such
either bottom supported structures and vertically moored examples. Generator sets fall into both classifications; however,
structures [Fixed Leg Platform (FLP), Compliant Tower (CT), Solar supplies only Main & Auxiliary generators that can only
Tension Leg Platform (TLP) and Mini Tension Leg Platform be used for Oil and Gas process electrical power. For example,
(Mini TLP)] and the Floating Production and Sub-Sea category using the “DNV Rules for Classification of Ships,” each of
consisting of Spar, Semi-Submersible (SS) and Floating Solar’s gas turbines used in Oil and Gas applications, are
Production Storage and Off-loading (FPSO). supported by a DNV Type Approval Certificate. Renewed
every 4 years through a detailed design assessment and type
Off-shore platforms and Floating Production Systems
testing, the Type Approval provides documentation that all of
perform complex operations in a compact space. As a result,
the applicable codes, regulations, and rules have been met. A
there is a high value placed on the installed size of off-shore
secondary benefit to receiving a Class Society Type Approval
equipment. In addition to the installed footprint, successful
is the acknowledgement by that Class Society that the
design for operation in off-shore applications must address a
manufacturer is committed to quality and has a proven Quality
variety of load cases. A prime initiator of many of these load
System.
cases is the environment. Wind and its resulting effects are key
contributors to sea conditions causing wide variations from the When designing to meet code requirements, an internal
relatively calm condition to the very severe condition as process known as a Task Risk Assessment, or TRA, may be
evidenced, for example, in the Gulf of Mexico during hurricane performed. The TRA identifies potential effects of the
Katrina. At one stage, a Category 5 hurricane, Katrina requirement, so appropriate action can be taken if required.
ultimately made landfall in Louisiana and Mississippi, at With this overview of the types of vessels, the environment,
Category 4 strength. and the need to satisfy applicable codes and standards, we can
now move into a discussion of designing packages to meet
these challenges.
Figure 19. Degrees-of-Freedom for Dynamic Movement and

Figure 18. Gas Turbine Installation on an FPSO Static Displacement
In addition to considering the effects of the environment, Package Requirements
code compliance to assure safe, reliable equipment, also has a Each of the criteria plays an important role in off-shore
role to play. The framework of directives and standards, such as design and, as such, cannot be addressed independently of one
ATEX and CSA, are one piece of the puzzle. There are other another. Unlike a land-based application, all six degrees-of-

freedom are considered when designing the machinery for being transmitted to the package, this is generally considered to
floating applications (Figure 19). It is critical to understand the be the preferred arrangement for off -shore applications.
applicable class requirement, the type of vessel, the expected
Understanding the benefit of three-point mounting is only
deck deflection, and where the equipment will be located on the
one aspect. The success of three-point mounting the equipment
vessel.
is dependent on what is used to connect the package to the
This information is then translated into the design deck. There are two common mounting methods of
conditions of: transitioning from the turbine package to the deck. One method
is using an Anti-Vibration Mount, commonly referred to as an
• Type of mounting method used to attach the package to the AVM. The AVM is located between the package and the deck
deck in sets of three. The AVMs are positioned to most effectively
• Acceleration for structural analysis carry the package operational load requirements. The AVM
• Static and dynamic angles for fluid management affords a level of protection to the package and drive train
Wind and Wave action causes stresses and deflections in alignment from deck movement, but less than that provided by
the Floating Production System, resulting in hogging, sagging a gimbal design. AVMs are used when there is a need to isolate
and twisting of the vessel’s hull. Apart from the external the turbomachinery package from deck vibration, or, when
connections between the package and site interfaces, the installation near onboard living quarters mandates a level that
machine’s drive train alignment requires close attention. cannot be achieved without them. AVM selection is project
specific and depends on the package weight, center of gravity
Figure 20a helps illustrate how, if not properly addressed, location, and application (i.e., moderate or severe duty).
the effect of the deck deflection can translate through the base-
plate and compromise the machinery’s alignment. The second method commonly used is the gimbal mount.
The gimbal mount is also located between the package and the
deck in sets of three. Like the AVM, the gimbal mounts are
positioned on the package to most effectively carry the package
operational load requirements. A gimbal is designed with a
spherical bearing that allows the two mounting surfaces to
move independent of one another. This, in effect, isolates the
package and the drive train alignment from the deck’s constant
movement. The gimbal is chosen when the package will be
exposed to excessive deck deflection, or the deck deflection
data is not available. Although three-point mounting decouples
the turbomachinery from the vessel’s structural deflections, it
does not alleviate the requirement to react to the dynamic
forces applied to the components supported by the package
structure. Structural requirements, transportation needs, and
handling all play a role in the design of the base-plate resulting
in three basic methods (Figure 21):
Figure 20(a). Deck Deflections and (b) Their Impact on a

Turbomachinery Package for 4-Point and 3-Point Mounts
Not enough stiffness in the machinery’s supporting

structure, or improper attachment to the deck, can result in
unwanted vibration levels. Illustrated in Figure 20b are two
Figure 21. Base-Plate Design
methods of attaching a turbine package to a vessel’s deck. The
four-point tie-down graphic on the left does not decouple the
• Single-piece minimizes the number of on-site connections,
vessel’s structural deflections from the package. Although
but depending on factory needs and/or transportability to site,
acceptable under certain conditions, in this mounting
this is not always a practical solution.
arrangement, the package will see more of an effect from deck
twist. On the other hand, the three-point tie-down graphic on • Two-piece is an appropriate solution when transportability,
the right allows the vessel’s structural deflections to become manufacturing, and non-operational requirements take
decoupled from the package. With less effect from deck twist precedence. This allows the machine to be easily moved and

transported in smaller modules, and then assembled either oil back to the oil tank efficiently. There are two scenarios that
dock-side for single lift or assembled on the deck. can drive the need for a package scavenge system. These are
• Two-piece with a sub-base is appropriate for large machines defined by not only the magnitude of movement but also the
with long drive trains. More easily managed in the factory package length: Where the package length is such that even
and during transport to site in smaller modules, these long slight inclinations cause the lube oil drains to no longer slope
base-plates alone do not provide enough structural rigidity downwards back to the tank, a second tank system is added to
for the severe environmental conditions of an FPS. As a the driven base-plate. This is dedicated to ensure effective
result, a sub-base structure under the entire machine, bearing drainage of the driven equipment. When the
designed to maintain the power train alignment, is required. inclinations seen by the package are significant, a completely
separate oil tank system located beneath the package may be
To develop and predict how the machinery will respond to
required. Locating the tank system below the package provides
the various load cases, finite element models are used to
the additional insurance that, regardless of inclination, the
evaluate the base-plate designs. With the environmental loads
drains will always have a downward slope to the tank.
applied to the model, deflection and stresses can be determined.
Using this information, structural design of the base-plate can Other environmental considerations taken into account that
be compared with established design criteria to ensure it meets are vital to the longevity of the machinery are: corrosion due to
the application requirements. In addition to the base-plate chemical reactions with oxygen, water and sulfur; erosion as a
analysis performed in the as-installed condition, analysis is also result of wind, sand and salt; electrolysis, resulting from contact
performed for the off-shore lift scenarios. In off-shore of dissimilar materials. These elements are addressed with the
applications, the engine handling kits are designed with an type of attachments, consideration for galvanic bonding,
integrated braking system for safety. A chain is welded along material selection, and coatings.
the underside of the beams, and a sprocket is incorporated into
the hoist.
In the same way that the base-plates are analyzed using
finite element analysis, the enclosure and ancillary structures
are also evaluated using 3-D beam analysis.
Fluid management is another important aspect of ensuring
successful operation of the equipment. A key data point here, is
knowing the installed package orientation relative to the vessel
centerline. Installation perpendicular to the vessel centerline is
a structurally simpler design but is not as prevalent on FPSs.
This is because perpendicular orientation provides a level of
difficulty in designing for fluid management of the lube oil
system. By far the most common and recommended installation
option is parallel with the vessel’s centerline. While this option
presents difficulty in structural design, it is the simplest
orientation when considering fluid management of the package
lube oil system. CFD tools are also used to assist the engineer
in efficiently addressing fluid management within the package.
Regardless of the location of the equipment, accurately
monitoring the nominal oil level is critical to successful
operation. With the constant motion of the lube oil within the
tank, monitoring the lube oil level within the tank must be
handled differently than in a non-floating application. Installing
the level indicator inside a stilling tube to dampen the effect of
the oil movement can assist in accomplishing this vital
operational feature. Due to the constant motion off-shore, if
such a simple feature is not incorporated, even the most
efficient placement of baffles within the oil tank can cause false
low and/or high level alarms to be sounded.
As mentioned earlier, the severity of the dynamic or static
inclinations experienced may exceed the baffle and gate valve Figure 22.(a)Variation in Oil Production and Power
capability, and/or cause the lube oil drain lines to no longer Demand in an Off-Shore Application
slope downwards. In these instances, a scavenge system is (b). Dependency of Compressor Suction Pressure on Well
required. To ensure oil is drawn out of the turbine bearing Yield. Typical Wellhead Performance, Showing the Well
cavity regardless of the inclination, the addition of a dedicated Yield as a Function of Pressure. The Lower the Compressor
scavenge pump and drain line to return lube oil back to the tank Can Draw the Tubing Pressure, the Higher the Flow.
may be the only turbine modification required. The package
scavenge system ensures that all other lube oil drain lines return Off-shore applications also impose specific requirements

on the turbomachinery (gas turbines or compressors) employed Both the electrified approach and all gas turbine approach
regarding flexibility, maintainability, and reliability in an can meet the paramount requirement of flexibility for off-shore
environment characterized by ever-changing operating platforms. However, the electrified approach does add
conditions on all time scales (Figure 22), a salt laden considerable additional scope of electrical equipment resulting
atmosphere, and opportunity fuels. Compressors need to lend in a more complex solution.
themselves to easy restaging to adapt the driven equipment to
Availability is driven not only by the frequency of
changing operating conditions (Figure 23).
machinery failure, but more so by the time it requires to repair
the problem. There are large differences between different
manufacturers and different service arrangements.
Sparing of equipment improves equipment uptime. The
loss of a certain percentage of power does not necessarily
equate to an equal percentage of production flow reduction.
The actual production impact due to turbomachinery downtime
is application dependent.
AIR INLET SYSTEMS

The off-shore environment imposes challenges on the
treatment and conditioning of gas turbine combustion air, as
well as the fuel, and water used. To help protect the internals of
the turbine from the elements mentioned, a stainless steel
Figure 23. Centrifugal Compressors for Re-Injection Duty turbine air inlet filter designed for off-shore applications is
at 240 bar (3,500 psi) Discharge Pressure used. The design is specific to mitigating water, salt, and dust
from entering the turbine. Off-shore filters have to be capable
Particular attention needs to be given to the dynamic of removing water (as droplets or mist) and with it the salt that
behavior of the equipment during load changes, as well as may be dissolved in it, from the air stream. They also have to
during transients. An important aspect of surge avoidance lies be efficient, especially in dry environments, to remove small,
in the design of the compressor module and, in particular, the dry dust, and salt particles.
piping upstream and downstream of the compressor. Most anti-
surge systems are perfectly capable of avoiding surge during The inlet air filtration system has to minimize the amount
normal operating conditions. Good control systems, with of solid particles and liquid, salt laden droplets entering the gas
properly sized recycle valves and appropriate control turbine. Besides the choice of filter concepts, an important
algorithms are capable of allowing compressor package to consideration is the arrangement of the filter system on the
operate from design flows, down to full station recycle without deck. Considerations include avoidance of excessive sea water
upsetting the process. However, unplanned emergency spray into the air inlet, but also ingestions of exhaust gases
shutdowns present a significant challenge, and surge avoidance from other processes. Maintenance of the air filter system by
in these cases depends to a large degree on the dynamic appropriate cleaning or exchange of filter elements help to limit
behavior of the station, including driving equipment inertia, the pressure drop from the inlet system as well as the
valve dynamics, and the stored pressure energy in the pipe contamination of the turbine (Figure 24).
volume downstream of the compressor. Furthermore, the
concepts used in the anti-surge system (valves, piping, coolers)
also impact the startup of the installation, or of individual units
of the installation (White and Kurz 2006).
Another topic is the decision to use gas turbines as the
drivers for compressors, or electric motor drives. Results of
studies (e.g., Kurz and Sheya 2005) point out that the decision
of which scenario to use, an all-turbine approach versus an
electrified approach, is a complex one; dependent on numerous
factors including life-cycle costs, emissions, reliability,
availability, flexibility and design simplicity. Installations,
where the compressors are driven by electric motors, while the
Figure 24. Air Filtration Trade-Off
electric power is generated by gas turbine driven generators,
will always require larger overall amounts of installed power
than a solution where gas turbines drive the compressors, too. FUEL
Gaseous fuels can vary from poor quality wellhead gas to
The all-electric solution requires a higher efficiency for the
high quality consumer or “pipeline” gas (Kurz 2004).
generator sets to break even to the all-turbine approach on
Typically, the major sources of contaminants within these fuels
system efficiency. This break-even point is mandated by the
are: solids, water, heavy gases present as liquids, oils typical of
power ratio between the compression and electrical loads
required. compressor oils, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydrogen (H2), carbon
monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2).Other factors that

will affect turbine or combustion system life and performance that promote hot corrosion of the engine hot section
include lower heating value (LHV), specific gravity (SG), fuel components. Appropriate air filter selection, good placement of
temperature, and ambient temperature. Some of these issues the air inlet, proper fuel handling, and fuel treatment, where
may co-exist and be interrelated. For instance, water, heavy necessary, can prevent these problems.
gases present as liquids, and presence of H2Sor CO2 may be a
problem for turbine operators using associated gas as fuel gas. SUMMARY
Water in the gas may combine with other small molecules to Industrial and aeroderivative gas turbines are commonly
produce a hydrate – a solid with an ice-like appearance. employed in applications where high power-to-weight ratio,
Hydrate production is influenced, in turn, by gas composition, low emissions, and high availability requirements prohibit the
gas temperature, gas pressure and pressure drops in the gas fuel use of other mechanical drivers. Industrial gas turbines are
system. Liquid water in the presence of H2S or CO2 will form frequently used as mechanical drivers for natural gas
acids that can attack fuel supply lines and components. Free centrifugal compressors. Due to their operational flexibility,
water can also cause turbine flameouts or operating instability, low maintenance requirements, and speed match with the
if ingested in the combustor or fuel control components. driven equipment, they are ideally suited for this service. As
any machinery, gas turbines require a significant number of on-
Heavy hydrocarbon gases present as liquids provide many
skid and off-skid equipment – such as lube oil systems, controls
times the heating value per unit volume than they would as a
and instrumentation, fire-detection and suppression systems,
gas. Since turbine fuel systems meter the fuel based on the fuel
fuel forwarding and filtration systems, starter and crank motors,
being a gas, this creates a safety problem, especially during the
and inlet/exhaust systems for their safe and efficient operation.
engine startup sequence when the supply line to the turbine still
Given a specific application, an optimal set of ancillary and
may be cold. Hydrocarbon liquids can cause:
auxiliary equipment options must be selected. This selection is
• Turbine overfueling, which can cause an explosion or severe not just based on the type of application and utilities available
turbine damage at the site, but the operator’s requirements for operating profile,
• Fuel control stability problems, because the system gain will reliability, and/or availability. The environmental conditions at
vary as liquid slugs or droplets move through the control the site must also be considered. This paper discussed
system packaging equipment selection options for a typical gas turbine
• Combustor hot streaks and subsequent engine hot section driven compressor unit. API considerations were discussed.
damage Because of their special significance, filtration, machinery
• Overfueling of the bottom section of the combustor when protection, and utility requirements were also covered in
liquids gravitate towards the bottom of the manifold additional detail.
• Internal injector blockage over time, when trapped liquids
pyrolyze in the hot gas passages ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper would not have been possible without the
Liquid carryover is a known cause for rapid degradation of contributions of numerous people from the authors’ companies.
the hot gas path components in a turbine. With a known gas We want to particularly acknowledge the contributions of Jon
composition, it is possible to predict dew point temperatures for Windt, Solar Turbines Incorporated, to this paper, since a large
water and hydrocarbons. However, the prediction methods for part of the section on off shore requirements is based on his
dew points may not always be accurate. In fact, it is known that work.
different equations of state will yield different calculated dew
points under otherwise identical conditions. Furthermore, the REFERENCES
temperature in an unheated fuel line will drop, because the Anderson, A.W., 1980, “Sawyers Turbomachinery
pressure drop due to valves and orifices in the fuel line causes a Maintenance Handbook”, Vol.1, Turbomachinery Intl
temperature drop in the gas. This effect is known as the Joule- Publications, Norwalk, CT.
Thompson effect. Most fuel gases (except hydrogen) will
exhibit a reduction in temperature during an adiabatic Elliott, F. G., Kurz, R., Etheridge, C., and O’Connell, J .P.,
throttling. Hydrogen, on the other hand, actually shows an 2004, “Fuel System Suitability Considerations for Industrial
increased temperature when the pressure drops, which is a Gas Turbines”, TransASME Journal of Engineering for Gas
potential explosion hazard. Protection against heavy gases and Turbines and Power, Vol. 126, pp119-126.
water present as liquids can be achieved by heating the fuel Kurz, R., 2004, “Gas Fuel Considerations”, Gas Machinery
downstream of knockout drums and coalescing filters (Figure Conference
3). The idea is to have a saturated gas at the exit of the
knockout drum and filters and then to raise the temperature to Kurz, R. and Brun, K., “Gas Turbine Tutorial – Maintenance
the necessary superheat to prevent subsequent liquid dropout. and Operating Practices Effects on Degradation and Life,”
The system shown in Figure 3 is typical for fuel systems on oil Proceedings of 36th Turbomachinery Symposium, 2007.
or gas platforms, where the gas produced is usually wet. Kurz, R. and Brun, K., 2012, “Fouling Mechanisms in Axial
Liquid fuels are often used during the startup phase, or as Compressors”, Trans ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas
backup fuel. Proper storage and handling of this fuel is Turbines and Power, Vol. 134, 0323401.
important. Transporting liquid fuel in open barges can cause Kurz, R. and Sheya, C., 2005, “Gas Turbines or Electric Drives
contamination with salt water. Hydrogen sulfide, or any type of in Offshore Applications”, ASME GT2005-68003.
sulfur, can form salts in the presence of sodium or potassium

Meher-Homji, C. B. and Gabriles, G. A., 1998, “Gas Turbine
Blade Failures-Causes, Avoidance and Troubleshooting”, Proc.
27th Texas A&M Turbomachinery Symposium
Newbound, T. D. and Wagiealla, W., 2003, “On-Line
Hydrocarbon Dew Point Monitoring in Fuel Gas”, ASME
GT2003-38868
Newbound, T. D. and Al-Showiman, K. S., 2004, “Tuning
Your Fuel-Gas Delivery System”, ASME GT2004-53298.
Wilcox, M. and Kurz, R., 2011, “Successful Selection and
Operation of Gas Turbine Inlet Filtration Systems”,
Turbomachinery Symposium, Houston, TX.
White, R. C. and Kurz, R., 2006, “Surge Avoidance for Gas
Compressor Systems”, Turbosymposium, Houston, TX.

Gas Turbine Packaging Options and Features Klaus Brun, Ph.D. Marybeth G. Nored

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Gas Turbine Packaging Options and Features Klaus Brun, Ph.D. Marybeth G. Nored

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Gas Turbine Packaging Options and Features Klaus Brun, Ph.D. Marybeth G. Nored

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Proceedings of the Second Middle East Turbomachinery Symposium

17 – 20 March, 2013, Doha, Qatar

GAS TURBINE PACKAGING OPTIONS AND FEATURES

Klaus Brun, Ph.D. Marybeth G. Nored

Rainer Kurz, Ph.D.

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

pyrolyze in the hot gas passages

the hot gas path components in a turbine (Anderson 1980;

Newbound and Al-Showiman 2004). Heater

accurate. In fact, it is known that different equations of state

valves and orifices in the fuel line causes a temperature drop in

Hydrogen, on the other hand, actually shows an increased

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

CONSEQUENCES OF POOR INLET FILTRATION

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

the compressor section is referred to as “cold corrosion” and is Filter Fiber

that is produced by the chemical reaction between a component

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Figure 10. Comparison of Fractional Efficiency for Filter

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Cartridge filters are also made up of closely spaced pleats,

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Lube Oil Filtration PACKAGE UTILITY REQUIREMENTS

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Figure 19. Degrees-of-Freedom for Dynamic Movement and

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Figure 20(a). Deck Deflections and (b) Their Impact on a

Not enough stiffness in the machinery’s supporting

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

AIR INLET SYSTEMS

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2013 by Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University

You might also like