Elements and their uses

Atomic structure of sodium (Na)

An element is a substance made up of atoms of the same type.
It cannot be broken down into simpler substances. Different
elements have different characteristics, which are determined
by the number of subatomic particles (protons,
neutrons and electrons) they have. Scientists have found
approximately 100 natural elements so far; a further 15 or so
artificial kinds have been made by scientists in
laboratories. These elements are divided into metals, semi-metals and non-metals. An atom
is the smallest part of an element that can exist. All the elements have been arranged in a
table, called the Periodic Table, in order of their atomic numbers—the number of protons
an element has in each of its atoms. Elements in the same group on the Table have similar
properties.
Aluminium foil
Aluminium
Aluminium (chemical symbol Al; atomic number 13) is a poor
metal, also called a “post-transition metal”. Like the other poor
metals, it is soft. Aluminium has low density (is “light”) and is a
good thermal and electrical conductor. As a result, aluminium is
widely used in vehicle and planeconstruction, drinks cans
and power lines. Since aluminium bonds very easily with oxygen,
it is rarely found as a pure element. Most aluminium is obtained from bauxite ore. 

Antimony, a semi-metal
Antimony
Antimony (chemical symbol Sb; atomic number 51) is a semi-
metal, also called a metalloid. Semi-metals have properties in
between metals and non-metals. Like other semi-metals,
antimony is metallic in appearance (it is grey and shiny) but too
brittle to use on its own for construction or tools. Antimony is
often used in alloys with other metals to harden them. It is
alloyed with lead in bullets, and with tin in pewter. It is also
used in flame-retardants, electronics and some pharmaceuticals. Antimony is toxic (poisonous). 
 An argon laser
Argon
Argon (chemical symbol Ar; atomic number 18)
is a noble gas. It is odourless and colourless when
at room temperature and pressure. All the noble
gases, including helium, neon and xenon, have the
maximum number of electrons possible in the
outer shell of their atoms. This makes them stable
and non-reactive. They rarely bond with other
elements.
Argon is used for a number of purposes where its non-reactive (“inert”) nature is useful: in
fluorescent lighting tubes, where it prevents oxygen eroding the hot filament, and in graphite
electric furnaces where it prevents the graphite from burning. Argon is the third most abundant
gas in the Earth’s atmosphere.

The mineral arsenopyrite, a source of arsenic

Arsenic
Arsenic (chemical symbol As; atomic number 33) is a semi-
metal, also called a metalloid. Semi-metals have properties in
between metals and non-metals. Like other semi-metals,
arsenic is metallic in appearance (it is grey and shiny) but too
brittle to use on its own for construction or tools. Arsenic is
commonly used in alloys with other metals such as lead or
copper. Arsenic is toxic (poisonous). In the past, its toxicity
led to its use in pesticides, but environmental and health concerns make this use rare today. 

A “barium meal” X-ray

Barium
Barium (chemical symbol Ba; atomic number 56) is one of
the alkaline earth metals. Like the other alkaline earth metals, barium
is a shiny, silvery metal at room temperature and pressure. Barium is
chemically reactive (it bonds easily with other elements) so it is never
found in nature as a pure element. It is usually extracted
from minerals such as barite and witherite. Barium metal is used in
metal alloys. Barium compounds have a wider range of uses: for
example, barium sulphate is used for getting X-ray images of the digestive system (a “barium
meal”) and barium nitrate is used in fireworks to give a green colour.
 Beryllium copper pliers
Beryllium
Beryllium (chemical symbol Be; atomic number 4) is one of the
alkaline earth metals. Like the other alkaline earth metals,
beryllium is a shiny, silvery metal at room temperature and
pressure. Beryllium does not occur naturally as a pure element,
but is found combined with other elements in more than 100
rare minerals. One of these minerals, beryl, comes in the form
of the gemstones aquamarine and emerald. Beryllium is often
used in alloys with other metals such as aluminium and copper because of its strength, low
density (“lightness”) and stability over a wide range of temperatures.

Borosilicate glassware
Boron
Boron (chemical symbol B; atomic number 5) is a semi-metal, also called a
metalloid. Semi-metals have properties in between metals and non-metals.
Like other semi-metals, boron is metallic in appearance (it is grey and
shiny) but too brittle to use on its own for construction or tools. Boron
metal is found in meteoroids—small lumps of rock in space, once parts
of comets or asteroids—but does not occur naturally on Earth. Boron is
extracted from rocks containing boron compound minerals, such as borax
(sodium borate) and kernite (sodium borate hydroxide). Boron compounds are used
in fibreglass, polymers,ceramics, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and insecticides. 

An ampoule containing bromine

Bromine
Bromine (chemical symbol Br; atomic number 35) is a halogen. The
halogens are non-metallic elements that are highly reactive (they bond
easily with other elements) because they are missing an electron in
their atoms' outer shells (they have seven). When bonded with most
metals, the halogens form salts—halogen means “salt former”. The
elements in the halogen group may be gas, solid or liquid at room
temperature. With a melting point of -7.2°C (19°F), bromine is one of
only two elements (mercury is the other) that are liquid at room temperature. Liquid bromine is
red-brown and evaporates easily, creating an orange vapour with an unpleasant smell. 
Bromine is toxic (poisonous) and corrosive (burns). Bromine does not occur naturally in
elemental form, but can be found as bromide salts (compounds containing bromine) in rocks and
seawater. Bromine compounds are used in flame retardants, plastics and pharmaceuticals.
 The mineral greenockite
Cadmium
Cadmium (chemical symbol Cd; atomic number 48) is a dense,
shiny metal that is a good electrical conductor. Cadmium is
bluish-silver. It is easily shaped and is resistant to corrosion
(decay caused by reactions to oxygen or water), which makes it
useful as a protective layer for other metals. However, cadmium is
toxic (poisonous) so its usage has fallen, although the compound
cadmium telluride is today often used for photovoltaic panels.
Cadmium is usually obtained from rocks containing the mineral greenockite (cadmium sulphide),
which is rare.
Caesium exploding in cold water
Caesium
Caesium (chemical symbol Cs; atomic number 55) is one of
the alkali metals. Alkali metals react with water to form
alkaline solutions. They are generally soft, shiny and a pale
silvery colour. Caesium has a very low melting point (28.5°C
/ 83.3°F) for a metal, making it one of only five metals to be
liquid near room temperature—the others are mercury,
francium, gallium and rubidium. It is the softest of all
elements. Caesium is hazardous, as it ignites in air and explodes on contact with water. 
Caesium may be stable (non-radioactive) or unstable (radioactive)—a radioactive isotope(form)
of caesium is caesium-137, which is formed by nuclear fission. The compound caesium formate
is commonly used as a “drilling fluid” to help in oil extraction, lubricating drills and maintaining
pressure during drilling. The isotope caesium-133 is used in atomic clocks. Caesium is usually
obtained by mining the rare mineral pollucite. 
Calcium carbonate deposits
Calcium
Calcium (chemical symbol Ca; atomic number 20) is one of the alkaline
earth metals. Like the others, calcium is a shiny, silvery metal at room
temperature and pressure. Calcium is so soft it can be cut with a knife.
Vital to living organisms, including humans, it helps build
strong bones,teeth and shells. While calcium is the fifth most abundant
element in the Earth’s crust, it is found in minerals such as calcite
(calcium carbonate) rather than as a pure element. Calcium metal is used
in metal alloys and cement. Calcium compounds have a variety of uses: calcium sulphate is
blackboard chalk; calcium hypochlorite is used in disinfectants and deodorants; calcium
gluconate is a food additive.
 Charcoal briquettes made from sawdust
Carbon
Carbon (chemical symbol C; atomic number 6) is a non-metal
that is solid at room temperature. Unlike most elements, carbon
occurs as several allotropes (allotropes are different forms of an
element, caused by the atoms bonding together differently).
Well-known carbon allotropes are: diamond, which is
transparent and extremely hard; graphite, which is black and
soft; and amorphous carbon—coal is mostly amorphous carbon.
Carbon is the fourth most common element in the Universe and makes up one-fifth of the human
body. 
Atoms of carbon bond easily with other atoms, forming more than 10 million known compounds,
more than any other element. Common carbon compounds include carbon dioxide in the air,
hydrocarbons (such as fossil fuels, petrochemicals and plastics), carbonate rocks (such
as limestone and marble), carbohydrates (such as sugars and starches) and DNA.
Hypochlorous acid is added to swimming pools
Chlorine
Chlorine (chemical symbol Cl; atomic number 17) is a halogen, a group of
non-metallic elements. At room temperature and pressure, chlorine is a
yellow-green gas. The halogens are highly reactive because they are missing
an electron in their outer shells (they have seven). They bond easily with most
metals to form salts. The most common compound of chlorine is sodium
chloride: table salt. Pure chlorine is rare on Earth: it is usually extracted from
saltwater. 
Chlorine is a common oxidizing agent, meaning it readily accepts electrons from other atoms or
molecules. Oxidation can kill microbes or whiten a substance, so for this reason, chlorine is
commonly used as a bleach and disinfectant. It is also used in the chemical industry to cause
reactions and form useful compounds, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC). 
Cobalt
Chinese dish painted with cobalt blue
Cobalt (chemical symbol Co; atomic number 27)
is a transition metal. These metals are usually
dense, shiny and make good electrical conductors.
Along with iron and nickel, cobalt is one of three
naturally occurring metals that are magnetic at
room temperature. Cobalt is not found naturally in
elemental form but can be produced
from smelting various minerals. Cobalt metal is used to produce very hard alloys, used for
products such as jet engines, drill bits and prosthetic joints. 
For thousands of years, the naturally-occurring compounds cobalt aluminate and cobalt silicate
have been used for their blue colour—called cobalt blue—for colouring
ceramics,glass and paints.
The Statue of Liberty is coated with copper
Copper
Copper (chemical symbol Cu; atomic number 29) is a transition metal. It is
orangey in colour, soft and easily shaped. It is also a very good conductor
of heat and electricity. Copper slowly turns greenish when exposed to
oxygen in the air, but this layer of copper oxide protects the copper below
from damage—unlike the rust formed on iron. 
Copper is widely used as a pure metal, most commonly in electrical wires
and devices, construction and machinery. It is also often combined with
other metals to form alloys, such as brass (with zinc), bronze (with tin) and
cupronickel (with nickel, widely used for coins). Copper is mined from the Earth’s crust and can
also be extracted from minerals such as chalcopyrite.
 
Fluorine
Fluoride tooth treatmentFluorine (chemical symbol F;
atomic number 9) is a halogen. The halogens are non-
metallic elements that are highly reactive (bonding
easily with other elements) because they are missing an
electron in their atoms' outer shells (they have seven).
Fluorine forms compounds with nearly all the other
elements. Fluorine does not occur naturally in
elemental form, but can be extracted from minerals,
such as fluorite. The elements in the halogen group may be gases, solids or liquids at room
temperature: fluorine is a pale yellow gas. 
Fluoride, a form of fluorine, is often added to drinking water and toothpaste to prevent tooth
decay by strengthening tooth enamel. Compounds of fluorine are widely used in steel-making,
aluminium-refining, the chemical industry and pharmaceuticals.
Making a gold bangle
Gold
Gold (chemical symbol Au; atomic number 79) is a transition metal.
It is yellow, shiny, soft and easily shaped. It is a good conductor of
electricity and slow to corrode (be destroyed by chemical action). It is
one of the least reactive elements and is found in its elemental state in
rocks and sediments. It also occurs naturally as an alloy with silver,
copper and palladium. For millennia, gold’s useful and attractive
properties (as well as its rarity) have led to its being highly valued as a material for jewellery, art
and coins. Today, it is no longer used for coinage, although gold bullion (bars and ingots) is
often kept as an investment. A common industrial use of gold is as an electrical connector. 
A helium-filled airship
Helium
Helium (chemical symbol He; atomic number 2) is a noble gas. The noble
gases are sometimes called “inert” or “unreactive” gases because they do not
easily form compounds with other elements. Helium has the lowest boiling
point (-268.9°C / -452°F) of all the elements, so it is a gas except for in
exceptionally cold conditions—or extremely hot conditions, when it
becomes plasma. Helium gas is colourless, tasteless and odourless. Helium
is the second most abundant element in the Universe, after hydrogen,
although it is rare in the Earth's atmosphere. 
Most helium for commercial use is extracted fromnatural gas. The best-known use of helium is
in balloons and airships, but it is chiefly used in cryogenics (creating very low temperatures) and
in various industrial processes.
The Sun
Hydrogen
Hydrogen (chemical symbol H; atomic number 1) is the simplest and lightest
element: its atom has just two subatomic particles: one proton and one electron.
At room temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless,
non-toxic (not poisonous), highly combustible (quick to catch fire) gas. The most
abundant element in the Universe, hydrogen forms the bulk of the Sun and most
other stars. 
Hydrogen easily forms covalent bonds—chemical bonds in which pairs of
electrons are shared between atoms—with most non-metallic elements. As a
result, the majority of hydrogen found on Earth is in compounds, most commonly in water
(joined to oxygen to form H2O), as well as hydrocarbons (joined to carbon to form fuels) and
carbohydrates (joined to carbon and oxygen to form sugars and starches). 
In 1781, it was discovered that hydrogen produces water when burned, for which it was given the
name hydrogen (from the Greek hydro, meaning “water”, and genes, meaning creator).
Iodine is used as a disinfectant.
Iodine
Iodine (chemical symbol I; atomic number 53) is a halogen. The
halogens are non-metallic elements that are highly reactive (they
bond easily with other elements) because they are missing an
electron in their atoms' outer shell (they have seven). Iodine is a
blue-black solid that becomes a purple gas at room temperature
(iodine comes from the Greekiodes, meaning “violet”). Iodine is
rare on Earth, but iodine compounds, in the form of salts, are found in seawater. We need iodine
for the correct working of the thyroid gland, so iodine compounds are often given as dietary
supplements. Iodine is also used in the chemicals industry.
An iron meteorite
Iron
Iron (chemical symbol Fe; atomic number 26) is a transition
metal. These metals are usually dense, shiny and make good
electrical conductors. Along with nickel and cobalt, iron is one of
three naturally occurring metals that are magnetic at room
temperature. Iron is the fourth most common element in the
Earth’s crust, but it reacts easily with oxygen, so it is most often
found as iron oxide minerals. Iron is obtained from these ores by
heating them until they melt, a process called smelting.
Ironwork at Liverpool Street Station, London
Essential to construction, machinery and chemical industries,
iron is the most widely used metal of all. Because of its tendency to rust
(it oxidizes in air), it is often painted or coated. Iron is usually mixed
with other metals in alloys to make it stronger or more resistant to
rusting or both. Alloys include cast iron (with carbon) and steel (with
carbon and elements such as manganese, phosphorus, sulphur and
silicon). 
Iron is also an important element in the bodies of all living things. If
humans lack iron in their diet, they may suffer from the iron-deficiency
condition, anaemia. 

Wearing a lead apron for an X-ray

Lead
Lead (chemical symbol Pb; atomic number 82) is a poor metal, also called
a “post-transition metal”. Like the other poor metals, lead is soft. It is shiny
silver-blue but quickly reacts with oxygen in air to become dull grey.
Elemental lead is rare on Earth: lead is most often obtained from lead
compound minerals, such as galena (lead sulphide). 
Lead is the heaviest non-radioactive element. Its density makes it useful as
a shield from X-raysand gamma rays—for example, in lead aprons worn to
protect other parts of the body during X-rays. Lead is also used in bullets,
car batteries, ballast and weights, construction and electronics. Lead is poisonous to humans and
animals, and so is no longer used in pipes and paints.
 Lithium floating in oil
Lithium
Lithium (chemical symbol Li; atomic number 3) is an alkali metal. These
metals react with water to form alkaline solutions. At room temperature and
pressure, alkali metals are generally soft, shiny and pale grey. Lithium is the
lightest metal and the least dense solid element of all. It is a good conductor
of heat and electricity. Like all alkali metals, lithium is flammable and highly
reactive. It bonds so easily with other elements that lithium metal is never
found in nature, but is obtained from compound minerals and salts in
seawater, rocks and clay. 
Lithium and its compounds are used in lithiumbatteries (as anodes, through which electrical
charge flows), in light but strong metal alloys, such as with aluminium, in heat-resistant glass
and ceramics and in mood stabilizing medications (lithium salts affect the nervous system).
Magnesium emergency fire starter kit
Magnesium
Magnesium (chemical symbol Mg; atomic number 12) is an
alkaline earth metal. Like the other alkaline earth metals,
magnesium is a shiny, silvery metal at room temperature and
pressure. However, it tarnishes quickly on being exposed to
air. Magnesium is chemically very reactive (it bonds easily
with other elements) so it is never found in nature in elemental
form, but it can be obtained by from magnesium salts
dissolved in seawater. It burns with a brilliant white light,
making it useful for emergency flares and firework sparklers. 

Magnesium's low density makes it good for lightweight alloys, particularly with aluminium, for
construction, vehicles and electronics. Magnesium is also used in pharmaceuticals—for example,
in products that combat stomach acid or constipation.  
Liquid mercury
Mercury
Mercury (chemical symbol Hg; atomic number 80) is a transition
metal. Mercury is rare in the Earth’s crust but can be extracted from ores
such as cinnabar (mercury sulphide). Mercury has the lowest melting
point of any metal (-38.8°C / -37.9°F), making it liquid at room
temperature. It is used in some thermometers although concerns about its
toxicity have reduced this use. Mercury can dissolve many other metals
—apart from iron, platinum and a few others—to form amalgams; silver,
tin and copper amalgams are used for dental fillings. 
Mercury vapour is used in fluorescent lights. A tube coated with phosphor is filled with mercury
vapour. When electricity passes through the vapour, it produces ultraviolet light, which makes
the phosphor fluoresce.  

Neon signs in Shanghai, China

Neon
Neon (chemical symbol Ne; atomic number 10) is a noble gas, also
called an “inert” or “inactive” gas. Like the other noble gases, it is
an odourless, colourless gas when at room temperature and
pressure. The noble gases all have the maximum number of
electrons possible in the outer shell of their atoms. This makes them
stable and non-reactive—they rarely bond with other elements.
Neon is the fifth most common element in the Universe (after
hydrogen, helium, oxygen and carbon) but makes up only a tiny
portion of Earth’s atmosphere. Neon can only be obtained from the
distillation of liquid air, making it expensive. 

Neon's most well-known use is in neon signs. Electricity is passed through a sealed glass tube
filled with neon gas. The neon atoms become excited and give off photons (elementary particles)
of red light. A mixture of different noble gases can make different colours. 

A cupronickel coin
Nickel
Nickel (chemical symbol Ni; atomic number 28) is a transition metal.
These metals are usually dense, shiny and make good electrical
conductors. Along with iron and cobalt, nickel is one of three naturally-
occurring metals that are magnetic at room temperature. Nickel is hard,
easily shaped and silvery-gold coloured. 
Nickel is slow to react with oxygen so it is often used for corrosion-
resistant coatings and alloys, such as stainless steel. The alloy cupronickel
is often used in coins. It is also used in the chemical industry as
a catalyst (a substance that speeds up a reaction) in hydrogenation. Nickel
is obtained from ores such as pentlandite, an iron-nickel sulphide.
 Freezing materials in liquid nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen (chemical symbol N; atomic number 7) is a non-metal that
is a gas at room temperature. Colourless, odourless and tasteless,
nitrogen makes up more than three-quarters of the Earth’s
atmosphere. Nitrogen is produced industrially by the distillation of
liquid air. At room temperature, nitrogen combines with very few
other elements, but nitrogen compounds are essential to living
organisms (in proteins and nucleic acids). 

Nitrogen is widely used in the chemical industry: for

example, ammonia, a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, is used in fertilizers, cleaners and
pharmaceuticals. At a very low temperature (-196°C / -321°F), nitrogen becomes a liquid and
can be used to rapidly freeze materials. 
Fighter pilot wearing an oxygen mask
Oxygen
Oxygen (chemical symbol O; atomic number 8) is a non-metallic element
that is a gas at room temperature. Colourless, odourless and tasteless,
oxygen is one of the commonest elements on Earth. It makes up one-fifth
of the atmosphere and is found in most minerals in the Earth’s crust.
Bonded with hydrogen, it forms water. Oxygen bonds easily with many
other elements to form compounds called oxides in a chemical reaction
called oxidation. Sometimes this is a slow process, as when iron turns to
rust (iron oxide) in damp air. But if oxygen reacts very quickly,
combustion (burning) takes place, with flames, light and heat given off. 

Oxygen is essential for all living things (except for a few specialized types of microbes): they
must take in oxygen to stay alive. This is because oxygen is a vital part of chemical changes
inside each microscopic living cell, which break apart food substances to obtain the energy for
life.

Striking a safety match

Phosphorus
Phosphorus (chemical symbol P; atomic number 15) is a non-metallic
element. Solid at room temperature, it has several different allotropes
(forms), including white, red, violet and black phosphorus. White
phosphorus glows when exposed to oxygen. As a component of DNA
andcell membranes, phosphorus is essential to all living things.  
Phosphorus is highly reactive (it bonds easily with other elements) so it is found only as
compounds in phosphate minerals. These are used to produce fertilizers, detergents and
matches. When a safety match is struck against the surface of its box—which is coated with red
phosphorus and ground glass—the friction produces enough heat to turn the very small amount
of red phosphorus on the match head into white phosphorus, which catches fire on contact with
air.

Nugget of platinum from a Russian mine

Platinum
Platinum (chemical symbol Pt; atomic number 78) is a
transition metal. It is shiny, grey, dense and easily
shaped. It is very rare in the Earth’s crust and is
considered a precious metal. Platinum is the least
reactive metal, and so is useful for electronic parts,
dentistry equipment and the catalyst in catalytic
converters (which convert toxic pollutants in vehicle
exhaust gas to less toxic ones). Platinum is very slow to
corrode, which makes it popular for jewellery. 

A ring of plutonium
Plutonium
Plutonium (chemical symbol Pu; atomic number 94) is an
actinide, a group of radioactive metals. The atoms of a
radioactive element are unstable: they are likely to break up.
Radioactivity, also called radioactive decay, is the process by
which the nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting
particles or rays. Radioactivity harms living things, but under
controlled conditions it is very useful for generating energy.
Tiny quantities of plutonium exist in nature, but nearly all
plutonium is usually produced in nuclear reactors, in which the nuclear fission process converts
uranium to plutonium. 
There are 15 to 20 isotopes of plutonium (isotopes are forms of an element that have the same
number of protons in the atom but a different number of neutrons). Two isotopes of plutonium,
plutonium-239 and plutonium-249, are fissile—the energy from their atoms can be harnessed for
nuclear chain reactions to take place—and so are used in nuclear reactors and weapons. 
 Potassium reacting with water
Potassium
Potassium (chemical symbol K; atomic number 19) is an alkali
metal. At room temperature and pressure, these metals are
generally soft, shiny and a pale silvery colour. Potassium reacts
violently with water, making enough heat to ignite the hydrogen
emitted in the reaction, which burns with a lilac flame. Potassium
also reacts strongly to oxygen in air, forming potassium peroxide,
turning the metal dull grey. Potassium is so reactive that the metal
is never found in nature; it is obtained instead from compound minerals and salts in seawater and
rocks. 
Potassium is a vital mineral needed for the human body's cells (and those of all living things) to
function. It accumulates in the cells of plants, so fresh fruit and vegetables are a good source of
it. Potassium used to be extracted from the ashes of plants, giving the name of its salts:
"potash". Crops growing in field rapidly deplete the soil of potassium, hence the need for
fertilizers containing potassium compounds. Potassium nitrate, one of the main ingredients of
gunpowder, is used in rocket propellants and gunpowder as well as fertilizers.

The Curies experimenting with radium

Radium
Radium (chemical symbol Ra; atomic number 88) is one of the alkaline
earth metals. Marie and Pierre Curie discovered radium in 1898. Radium
is silvery-white but it quickly reacts with nitrogen in the air to form
a black layer of radium nitride. Radium has 33 isotopes (isotopes are
forms of the element that have the same number of protons in the atom
but a different number of neutrons). All of them are radioactive, which
means that their atoms are unstable and likely to break up. As they do so,
the nuclei lose energy by emitting particles or rays. Radium is so radioactive that it kills living
cells, and its use is confined to checking for flaws in metallic parts of machines or structures.
Radium is present in tiny quantities in uranium ores.

Integrated circuit
Silicon
Silicon (chemical symbol Si; atomic number 14) is a semi-metal, also
called a metalloid. Semi-metals have properties in between metals and
non-metals. Like other semi-metals, silicon is metallic in appearance (it
is grey and shiny) but too brittle to use on its own for construction or
tools. Silicon is not found in nature, but over 90% of the Earth’s crust
is made up of silicate minerals (compounds that contain silicon).
Silicate minerals are used widely in gravel, cement, glass and ceramics. Silicones—used for
cookware, adhesives and contact lenses—are rubber-like polymers (large molecules) consisting
of silicon, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Silicon is central to theelectronics industry,
because of its use as a semiconducting material in integrated circuits.

Silver mirrors used to generate solar power

Silver
Silver (chemical symbol Ag; atomic number 47) is a transition
metal. It is soft, grey-white and shiny. It is the most reflective
element and also has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity
of any metal. These properties make it extremely useful for a range
of purposes, from jewellery and utensils to electrical conductors,
mirrors and solar panels. Silver compounds are used
in photographic film, medical instruments and disinfectants. Silver
is found in the Earth’s crust in its pure form, alloyed with other
metals and in minerals such as argentite.

Crystals of sodium chloride: “salt”

Sodium
Sodium (chemical symbol Na; atomic number 11) is an alkali metal.
These metals react with water to form alkaline solutions. They are
generally soft, shiny and a pale silvery colour. Sodium is never
found in its metallic form in nature, but sodium compounds are very
common in the Earth’s crust and in seawater. Some sodium
compounds are extremely useful. Sodium chloride (common salt) is
the salt most responsible for the “saltiness” of the oceans. It is used
to de-ice streets and pavements, in the chemical industry and in food
(some sodium is needed in the diet to regulate blood pressure).
Sodium hydroxide, known as lye, is used to make soaps, paper and
textiles. Sodium carbonate is used in glassmaking, water-softening and
dyeing. 
Strontium gives fireworks a red colour
Strontium
Strontium (chemical symbol Sr; atomic number 38) is one of the
alkaline earth metals. Like the other alkaline earth metals, strontium is
a shiny, silvery metal at room temperature and pressure. Strontium
reacts strongly with both oxygen and water, so it is never found in
nature in its elemental form, but can be extracted from minerals such
as celestine and strontianite. 
Strontium was used for producing glass
forcathode ray
tubes in televisions and computer monitors,
because it prevents the emission of X-rays, but other
types of display screens are now used. Several
radioactive isotopes (forms) of strontium are
produced by nuclear fission. They have uses both
in the

treatment of cancer and as power sources.

Strontium salts are used in fireworks to give a
deep red colour.
 Sulphur
Sulphur around a fumaroleSulphur (chemical
symbol S; atomic number 16) is a non-metal. It is
one of five non-metallic elements (along with
carbon, iodine, phosphorus and selenium) that are
solid at room temperature. Sulphur is soft and bright yellow, with a slight odour. It is common in
the Earth’s crust in its elemental form—sometimes found on the surface, particularly
aroundvolcanoes—as well as in compound minerals. 
Sulphur is essential for living things: it is found in vitamins, enzymes and proteins as well as in
fuel for processes carried out by cells. Industrial uses of sulphur include the production of
fertilizers, rubber, food preservatives, matches, antibiotics and pesticides.

Tin-plated steel lantern

Tin
Tin (chemical symbol Sn; atomic number 50) is a poor metal, also called
a “post-transition metal”. Like other poor metals, tin is soft. It is silver-
coloured, easily shaped and does not react quickly to oxygen or water, so
it is slow to corrode. This makes tin useful as a protective coating for
other metals. Tin is also less toxic (poisonous) than many metals, so it is
often used for coating the inside of steel food cans. 

Tin alloys include bronze (with copper), pewter (with copper, antimony
and bismuth) and niobium-tin (used for superconducting wire). Tin’s relatively low melting point
makes the metal, on its own or alloyed with other metals, useful for solders to fuse together
metal pieces with higher melting points. Metallic tin does not occur in nature, but the element
can be extracted from tin-containing minerals, such as cassiterite. 
A magnified image of a ballpoint pen tip
Tungsten
Tungsten, also known as wolfram (chemical symbol W; atomic number 74), is a transition metal.
These metals are usually dense, shiny and make good electrical conductors. Tungsten has the
highest melting point of all elements, at 3422°C (6192°F). It also has the highest tensile strength
of all metals, meaning that it can be stretched to an extreme degree without breaking. 
The very hard man-made compound, tungsten carbide (containing tungsten and carbon), is used
for industrial cutting tools, ammunition and the rotating balls in the tips of ballpoint pens.
Tungsten alloys are used for the filaments in light bulbs, electrodes and radiation shields.
Metallic tungsten does not occur in nature, but the element can be extracted from minerals such
as wolframite.

Uraninite ore
Uranium
Uranium (chemical symbol U; atomic number 92) is one of the actinides, a group of radioactive
metals. Uranium is the heaviest naturally occurring element available in large amounts. The
atoms of a radioactive element are unstable: they are likely to break up. Radioactivity, also called
radioactive decay, is the process by which the nucleus of an
unstable atom loses energy by emitting particles or rays. Uranium
is extracted from uranium-containing minerals such as uraninite.

The major use of uranium is in nuclear power plants, where its

atoms undergo “fission”. This means that the nuclei of the atoms
are split apart when hit by a neutron, causing them to break up
other atoms' nuclei—a chain reaction. The energy released in this
process, nuclear energy, is used to generate electricity. 

Xenon arc lamp used in an IMAX cinema projector

Xenon
 Xenon (chemical symbol Xe; atomic number 54) is a
noble gas. Tiny amounts of xenon are present in the
atmosphere. The gas is produced industrially by the
distillation of liquid air. Like the other noble gases,
xenon is an odourless, colourless gas when at room
temperature and pressure. The noble gases all have the
maximum number of electrons possible in the outer
shell of their atoms. This makes them stable and non-
reactive—they rarely bond with other elements. 

Xenon can, however, form a few compounds, such as xenon difluoride, which is used to etch (cut
into) silicon for use in electronic devices. Other uses of xenon include xenon arc lamps (in which
light is produced by passing electricity through the gas), plasma displays (xenon and neon are
converted into plasma by electrodes), excimer lasers (used in eye surgery) and general
anaesthetics (xenon affects the nervous system). 
 

Zinc
Galvanized steel (zinc-coated) handrailZinc (chemical symbol Zn; atomic number 30) is a
transition metal. Like most transition metals, zinc
is dense, shiny and a good electrical conductor.
Zinc is key to the working of the human body,
where it plays an essential role in the
nervous reproductive systems. After iron,
aluminium and copper, zinc is the world’s most
commonly used metal. It is extracted from ores
such as sphalerite (zinc sulphide). 

Zinc’s major use is to “galvanize” steel and iron: to form a coating to protect them from
corrosion (rust). As the zinc coating corrodes, it forms a layer of zinc carbonate, which then
serves to protect the metal underneath. Zinc’s fairly low melting point (420°C / 787°F)makes it
ideal for alloying with other metals, such as aluminium, since it then makes them easier to melt
and mould. Zinc is also used as an anode in batteries, while zinc compounds are widely used in
the chemical industry for products ranging from deodorants to dietary supplements.