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 page26 page40 page54

ARCHAEOLOGY
AnOfficial oftheArchaeological
Publication 38 Number6 • November/December
InstituteofAmerica• Volume 1985

1 0 Machu Picchu: Conserving an Inca Treasure! by Lynn A. Meisch

Visitors and hikers create a seriqus threat to this important Peruvian site.

OC The Archaeology of Early Paris/ by Philippe Velato Brigitte Fischer, Dominique Morel, and Bailey Young
Nineteenth-century urban renewal reveals this city's Gallo-Roman history.

QQ Galen's Pergamm/ by Lee T. Pearcy

A tour of the Roman town in the footsteps of one of its most famous citizens.

The Manchester Mummy Project/by A.R. David

AQ
The science of paleopathology is advanced by the autopsy of Egyptian mummies.

AO The Protection of Historic Shipwrecks: A New Zealand Case Study/byJ.R. McKinlayand G J. Henderson
Comprehensive protective legislation is a worldwide problem in the field of underwater archaeology.

ARCHAEOLOGY MEWS £ FEATURES

54 Kushan Sculpture: Images from Early 62 About Photography- All New! Improved!
India/ by Stanislaw Czuma Photography 19861/ by Joe Marvullo

58 The Rumble of Distant Thunder/ 65 Passport- How to Fight Jet Lag and Win/
by James P. Delgado by Audrey Allen

60 Science Scope- Ukiyo-e Painting: An Art 78 Newsbriefs

Tradition Under Stress/by Stuart Fleming _ _ _ . _ . ... ...
80 The Fòrum- In Quest of Nuraghi/
by Stephanie Ocko

DEPARTMENTS ^
4 In tMs Issue át Cover:ThesiteofMachuPicchuis thesingle
6 Current Exhibitions m°sti^rtant touristattractioninPeru.Today
IH a# BOOKS theinfluxofhikersandtouriststo theNational
ÊU NOW pg^ threatensboththearchaeological and
10 About the Authors naturalresources.See MachuPicchu:Conserv-
6G The Bookshelf ingan ,ncaTreasure-byLynnA-Meisch> pQ9e18-
68 Archaeology Films
Words to Remember
74 For Further Reading

Credits:
Cover,3,byAlGiese/The StockMarketofNY; 4,courtesy Manchester
Museum; 9,byMikeMouchette,
UniversityofNewMexico; byLynneA.
18-25,
Meisch;26-32,courtesyMuseé
Carnavalet; 26,byAndréRapin,photograph
illustrations, Andrieux;
byPhilippe 28,coin(center)
courtesyMuséedesAntiquites
Nationales,Saint-Germ ; 31,courtesy
ain-en-Laye J. PaulGettyMuseum; 33-39,byLeeT.Pearcy;40,41,42(above, Manchester
leftandright),43,46,courtesy
Museum; 42(center), I. Isherwood;
courtesy 42(below), F.F.Leek;44,courtesy
courtesy theDepartmentofMedicalIllustration,
UniversityofManchester;
45,
courtesyS. Edwards;
47,courtesyA. Curry;illustrations,
49,51,byReinhardt& Cavanagh; 54,
byDirk 55-57,
Bakker; courtesyClevelandMuseum ofArt;58
byJamesP.Delgado;
(above), 60,courtesy theFreerGallery ofArt,Washington,DC;62,JoeMarvullo;
78,byThierryDelrue; maps,21,34,byJoeLeMonnier;
plan,34,byJoeLeMonnier.
November/December1985 3
 ARCHAEOLOGY
ANOFFICIAL
PUBLICATION OFTHE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL
INSTITUTEOFAMERICA
38 Number6
Volume
The of a Mummy 1985
November/December
Anatomy
Publisher/Editor
Pollak
Phyllis Katz
seem to fascinate just about everyone- from the Editor-in-Chief
little kids who press their noses against glass cases in BeaRiemschneider
Design Director
Mummiesmuseums and say "yuck!" to physicians who are endlessly Tom Cavanagh
interested in the anatomical and medical details of ancient bodies. ContributingEditor
RichardA Wertime
And thanks to Hollywood, mystery and suspense surround Egyptian Editor
Associate
mummies in particular. LoisFenichell
BookReview Editor
Scholars are not immune to this fascination with death, and their Stephen L Dyson
FilmReview Editor
curiosity has taken them one step further. All over the world, specialists PeterS Allen
have probed and x-rayed ancient mummies and mummy bundles, ProductionManager
Diane YMichel
but perhaps one of the most famous projects has been accomplished Editorial
Assistant
in Manchester, England. There, teams of researchers literally per- Suzanne Koslowsky
Administration
formed an autopsy of several Egyptian mummies, following in the David G Merrill
ArtAssistant
footsteps of the pioneering Margaret Murray (the first curator of Anthony Teta
Egyptology at Manchester University) who unwrapped a mummy Debbie Caramico
in 1908. Circulation
Director
GabrieleE Margules
Fulfillment
Assistant
EricA Weiss
Director
Advertising
LeslieCampbell
AdvertisingSales
MichaelMDillon III
AdvertisingRepresentative
Waller
Company 1166
Inc., DeKalb
Pike
PA19422
BlueBell, (215)272-6275
Editorial
Advisory Board
George F Bass
LannyBell
Bennet Bronson
LionelCasson
KC Chang
JohnL Cotter
George F Dales
AnnaMarguerite McCann
OscarWhite Muscarella
Winifred
Smeaton Thomas
Homer A Thompson
Elizabeth
LydingWill
Gordon R Willey

Author A.R. David cuts the first bandages of an Egyptian mummy.

Archaeology (ISSN-0003-8113) is published bi-
Today the advancement of medical science has enabled another monthlybytheArchaeological Institute
ofAmerica.
Box1901, Kenmore Station, Boston,MA02215. This
Manchester team, under the direction of author A.R. David, to explore established
Institute, in1879, wasincorporatedbyan
the mysteries of mummification (see page 40). Beyond that, however, ActofCongress in1906 forthepurpose ofpromoting
researchintheUnited Statesandforeign countries
the team has focused on more down-to-earth subjects- the medical bysending outexpeditions forspecial
investigation,
byaidingtheeffortsofindependent explorers,by
problems and general health of the ancient Egyptians. It turns out, publicationofarchaeological andreports
papers, of
theresultsoftheexpeditions whichtheInstitutemay
for example, that some Egyptians suffered from pneumoconiosis, undertake orpromote, andbyanyothermeans which
mayfrom timetotimebedesirable.TheArchaeological
a disease that struck as a result of inhaling quantities of stone dust. Institute
ofAmerica isa non-profit
organizationand
soleownerofArchaeology Magazine. According
These scholarly studies- a process that sometimes seems slow tofederal earnedrevenue
regulations, abovethatof
and ponderous- need not be boring or dry. In fact, the Manchester 1981-82canbeapplied totheNEHChallenge Grant
awarded totheAIA in1983.
Mummy Project so fascinated the British public that a BBC spedai Second classpostage
tionalmailing
paidatNewYork,
offices.
Subscriptions
NYandaddi-
shouldbe ad-
on the topic- also shown abroad- was rebroadcast. The media dressedto Archaeology, SubscriptionService,
P.O.Box928,Farmingdale, NY11737. $20.00per
coverage can only enhance the role of the archaeologist in the eyes volume. Singlenumbers, $3.95.Foreign subscrip-
of the public, for once people get a close-up look of research "in $25.00.
tions, Members oftheArchaeologicalInstitute
ofAmerica maychoose Archaeology asa perquisite
action" it will only lead to a greater understanding of why these studies ofmembership. Allow sixweeksforprocessing new
subscriptions.Noclaimsor refunds after90days.
are undertaken in the first place. The mummies may become less Postmaster Sendaddress changestoArchaeology,
"mysterious" as a result, but there is no doubt that they will remain as SubscriptionService,P.O.Box928,Farmingdale, NY
11737.
captivating as ever. and for
Manuscriptsbooks review should besentto15
ParkRow, NewYork, NY10038. Allmanuscripts are
reviewedbyexperts.Advertisements shouldbesentto
theAdvertising 15ParkRow,
Director, NewYork, NY
10038 (212) 732-5154
Allrightsreserved.
Editor-in-Chief Copyright ©1985bytheArchaeological Institute
of
America.

4 Archaeology
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 CURRENT EXHIBITIONS

Dogon people of Mali, West Africa. "From

EAST the TVeeWhere the Bark Grows: North
American Basket TVeasuresfrom the Pea-
body Museum" (November 29, 1985-
American Museum of Natural History, February 16, 1986), displays some of the
New York, NY: "Vijayanagara: Where finest and rarest examples of Native
Kings and Gods Meet" (October 23, 1985- American baskets from the Harvard Uni-
January 26, 1986), is a unique photo- versity collection. Primarily dating from
graphic review of this ancient city in the the 19th century, most of the 61 objects
hills of southern India. Conceivedas a cos- have never before been exhibited. "Mas-
mic city 600 years ago, Vijayanagara was terpieces of Indian Art" (through March
the center of Hindu learning in the 16th 2, 1986), is an outstanding selection of
century and was knownthroughout Europe paintings, sculpture and textiles from the
for its beauty, wealth and power.Included Museum's collection, displayed as part of
are maps and city plans, as well as period the "Festival of India."
sculpture. "Masterpieces of the American Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA: "Art
West" (November 29, 1985-February 16,
1986), exhibits 100 paintings chronicling for Indian Rulers" (November 20, 1985-
the exploration, development and growth February 9, 1986), explores Mediaeval
of the American West, including work by courtly life as expressed in Indian secular
GeorgeCatlin, Asher B. Durand and Fred- painting. Consisting of approximately 100
eric Remington. paintings of Mughal and Rajput rulers,
courtiers and genre scenes, the works de-
The Jewish Museum,NewYork,NY: "Jews pict the more intimate and unusual
of India" (through February 15, 1986), aspects of Indian life. Objects and imple-
presents a rare glimpse of three Jewish ments like those in the paintings are dis-
communities which have flourished in played to underscore the show's theme.
India for more than 1000 years. Photo- Included are small jade, metal and glass
graphs and ceremonial objects document pieces, as well as jewelry and textiles.
how Indian Jews kept the traditions of
Judaism while adapting certain customs Museum of Our National Heritage, Lex-
and art forms from the Indian culture. Part ington, MA: "Childhood TVeasures"(De-
of the "Festival of India." cember 15, 1985-May1986),examinestoys
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New that children from different periods of
York, NY: "India!" (through January 5, American history have owned,played with
1986),is a comprehensiveexhibition of the and cherished. One item is a child's trunk
art of India from the 14th to the 19th filledwith dolls, clothing, shells, and other
century. Part of the nationwide "Festival trinkets that a little girl saved and assem-
of India,"the collectionfeatures 400 works bled in the mid-19th century.
in a wide variety of media, drawn from
India's great religious and secular tradi- National Museum of Natural History,
tions. Catalogue available. "Mimbres Smithsonian Institution, Washington,DC:
Pottery: Ancient Art of the American "Gifts of Mother Earth: Ceramics in the
Southwest" (November19, 1985-February Zuni TVadition"(through Summer 1986),
2, 1986), is an outstanding collection of features 90 bowls, jars, cooking pots and
125 examples of the art of the Mimbres vessels of the Zuni people of the South-
peoplewho lived in southwest New Mexico west. Collectedfor the Smithsonian in the
betweenA.D.900through 1150.The painted 19th and early 20th century, the group
pottery bowls provide a glimpse into the features a variety of canteens,many unique
life, beliefs and artistic traditions of this and elaborately designed.
now extinct culture. "The Costumes of
Royal India" (December 16, 1985-August The NewarkMuseum, Newark,NJ: "TVeas-
31, 1986), presents court costumes, tex- ures from the Collections" (through De-
tiles, furniture, and jewelry of the 19th cember 31, 1985), highlights a variety of
and early 20th-century ruling families of objects from the Museum's collection, in-
Baroda,Jaipur, Kashmir and other princely cluding ethnographic, classical and Orien-
states. tal art and 18th and 19th-century Chinese
Montclair Art Museum, Montclair, NJ: export porcelains.
"Arctic Vision: Art of the Canadian Inuit" O.A.S. Building, Washington, DC:
(December 1-29, 1985),features 38 sculp-
tures and 37 prints by contemporary Inuit "Comalapa: TVaditionsand Textiles" (No-
artists that capture the essenceof the Inuit vember 26-December 31, 1985), features
100 handwoven textiles from the Guate-
people and their methods of survival in an malan Indian town of Comalapa, known
inhospitable climate. Ancient artifacts are for its bright red traditional blouses or
included to illustrate the strong relation-
ship between past and present. Catalogue huípiles. The exhibit is from the Ixchel
available. (See ARCHAEOLOGY, Museum in Guatemala City. Catalogue
January/ available.
February 1985).
Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Peabody Museum of Archaeology and
Design, Providence, RI: "The Art of the Ethnology, Harvard University, Cam-
Dogon: Selectionsfrom the Hans Guggen- bridge, MA: "Soft Gold: Captain Cook
heim Collection" (through November 17, Discoversthe Northwest Coast" (through
1985),features sculpture, funerary objects, December31, 1985),documents the chang-
architectural elements, and textiles of the ing fur trade relations between Northwest
Coast Native Americans and Europeans
in the 18th and 19th centuries. The fur of MIDWEST
the sea otter was called "soft gold" by the
traders. More than 125 objects, including
masks, baskets and tourist objects, are The Art Institute of Chicago,Chicago,IL:
included. "The Sculpture of India, 3000 B.C.-1300
A.D.."(through January 5, 1986),presents
Peabody Museum of Salem, Salem, MA: a survey of India's ancient sculptural her-
"China's Influence on American Life"
(through March 31, 1986),exploresthe im- itage with 110 works of stone, ivory and
bronze, ranging in size from the miniature
pact of Chinesetrade and immigration on to the colossal. This exhibition is part
American arts, thought and habit. "Yan- of the nationwide "Festival of India."
kee TYadersand Indian Merchants, 1785- "The Treasury of San Marco" (October 12,
1865" (through December 1986), reflects
the impact of Indian civilization on the 1985-January12, 1986),displaysmorethan
lives of New England traders beginning 40 major works, chiefly liturgical objects,
in the late 18th century. from the Basilica repository in Venice,
Italy. Many are Byzantine, but important
Arthur M. SacklerMuseum, Harvard Uni- Roman, Islamic and WesternEuropean ob-
versity, Cambridge, MA: "Diverse Are jects are included. Catalogue available.
Their Hues: Animals in Islamic Art" (De- The ClevelandMuseum of Art, Cleveland,
cember 14, 1985-February9, 1986),shows OH: "The TwainShall Meet" (through De-
the delight Muslim artists took in depict- cember 15, 1985),documents the flourish-
ing the animal world, with 45 objects in- ing exchange between China and the West
cluding ceramics, rugs, metalwork, and via the "Silk Routes." Included are Egyp-
miniature paintings from Egypt, Persia tian textiles, Islamic ceramics, European
and Mughal India. engravings, and Chinese lacquer, from fif-
teen centuries of contact. "Kushan Sculp-
Semitic Museum, Harvard University, ture: Images From Ancient India"
Cambridge, MA: "Mysteries, Ancient (November 13, 1985-January 5, 1986), is
Curses, and Curiosities from the Curator's devoted to the art of the Kushan dynasty
Cabinet" (through January 7, 1986), is a dating from the first through the third
selection of artifacts from the museum's century A.D.This era was the formativepe-
collection.The wide variety of objects in- riod of Buddhism and the first to produce
cludes figurines with monsters and curses human images of Buddha. "Sacred India"
fromthe Near East, Romanand Byzantine (November5, 1985-January 12, 1986),ex-
glass from the Holy Land, and objects plains Indian religious imagery - Bud-
which are no longer recognizable.Visitors dhist, Hindu and Jain - during the
are invited to guess the function of these Kushan period. Included are more than 20
mystery objects. works and photographs of monuments.
The Textile Museum, Washington, DC: Catalogue available."The Basket Makers"
"Flowers, Saints and Toads: The Textile (November 19, 1985-March 16, 1986),
Art of the Chiapas Maya" (through No- illustrates the basketry art of Native
vember 30, 1985), highlights the textile Americans,whose technical and design so-
artistry of the Maya communities of the phistication makes their work among the
central highlandsof Chiapas, Mexico.Over finest in the world. "Needles, Dye-Pots,
50 textiles are displayed, illustrating the and Looms: Textile TVaditionsin India"
design symbols of Mayan cosmology.Dat- (through Spring 1986),displays more than
ing from the 19th century to 1984, the 2 dozen 14th through 20th-century Indian
weavings link the past to the present. garments and textiles, used in daily life
and ceremonialoccasions.
The University Museum, University of Elvehjem Museum of Art, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA: "TYadi- Wisconsin, Madison, WI: "Hagia Sophia
tional Crafts of Saudi Arabia" (through Through Byzantine Eyes" (through No-
January 5, 1986), is the first comprehen- vember 23, 1985), portrays through pho-
sive exhibition in America of traditional tographs the imperial church in Istanbul,
Saudi Arabian crafts. Rugs, jewelry,cos- constructed between A.D.532 and 537 by
tumes and tent bands are a sample of the Emperor Justinian. "The Art of Storytell-
over 150 objects of daily life. Organized ing: Art of India From Wisconsin Collec-
by the Memorial Art Gallery, University tions" (through January 12, 1986),
of Rochester, NY. Circulated by SITES. examines India's narrative tradition illus-
"The Silent Language of Guatemalan Tex- trated in the visual arts. Mythological
tiles" (through January 5, 1986),illustrates events and poetic allegories are explored
new links between culture and clothing through miniature paintings, sculpture,
with an exhibit of 28 colorfulhand-woven coins, ivories and terracottas. Part of the
blouses or huípiles designed by the Maya "Festival of India."
Indians of the Guatemalanhighlands. (See Dane G. Hansen Museum, Logan, KS:
Archaeology, July/ August 1985.)"Bud- "Native Harvests: Plants in American
dhism: History and Diversity of a Great Indian Life" (November 10-December 24,
Religion"(opens December 10, 1985,per- 1985), presents a comprehensive look at
manent), is a collection of artifacts from the Native Americans' use of plant life,
India, Japan, China and other Asian coun- demonstrating their unique understand-
tries, exploring the Great TVaditionfrom ing of the environment. The more than 80
the 5th century B.C.to the present. objects, both ethnographic and contem-
Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, MA: porary, cover locations throughout the
"The Art of the European Goldsmith: Sil- United States. Circulated by Sites.
ver from the SchroderCollection"(through IndianapolisMuseum of Art, Indianapolis,
December 8, 1985), is a selection of 79 IN: "Recent Acquisitions 1982-1985"
works dating from the 13th to the 19th (November 26, 1985-January 19, 1986),
century. Circulated by the American Fed- contains 200 of the Museum's newest ac-
eration of Arts. quisitions, including ancient Chinese ce-
 ramies, textiles and ethnographic art.
"Visions From the Top of the World: The
Art of Tibet and the Himalayas" (Novem-
ber 5, 1985-January 26, 1986),explores 31
works of the sacred art of the Vajrayana
Buddhist sect, whose art and culture have
been shrouded in mystery because of their
inaccessibility and complexity.The group
consists of scroll paintings, thangkas, and
sculptural metalwork, created in the last
200 years. Catalogue available.
Miami University Art Museum, Oxford,
OH: "Gandharan Sculpture from the Per-
manent Collection"(through December13,
1985),includes30 worksof Buddhist sculp-
ture created ca. 2nd-4th century A.D. in
what is now Pakistan, India or Afghan-
istan. "Indian Miniature Paintings"
(through December 13, 1985),features 40
small paintings on paper from the 17th to
the 19th century illustrating religious
themes and activities of the royal families.
The Oriental Institute, The University of
Chicago, Chicago, IL: "The Quest for Pre-
history: The Oriental Institute and the
Origins of Civilization in the Near East"
(through December 1985),presents the re-
sults of the Prehistoric Project, concerned
with the origins of agriculture and settled
village life in the ancient Near East. The
exhibit includes the reconstruction of a
house excavated at Jarmo, a villagein Iraq
occupied 9,000 years ago.
PhilbrookArt Center,Hilsa, OK: "Objects
of Adornment: Five Thousand Years of
Jewelry from the Walters Art Gallery,Bal-
timore" (through December 8, 1985), in-
cludes approximately250 piecesof jewelry,
from stone amulets of the ancient Near
East to elaborate 20th-century creations
of Lalique and Tiffany. (See ARCHAE-
OLOGY, September/October 1984). Circu-
lated by the American Federation of Arts.
Catalogue available.
Spenser Museum of Art, University of
Kansas, Lawrence,KS: "Japanese Ghosts
and Demons: Arts of the Supernatural"
(through December22, 1985),presents ap-
proximately 100prints, scrolls, paintings,
books, netsuke and sculpture from the Edo
and Meiji periods that depict subjects of
the supernatural. Included are the ghosts
of the kabuki, the Taoist Immortals and
the Demon Queller.Catalogue available.
The Ibledo Museum of Art, Toledo, OH:
"The Amasis Painter and His World:Vase-
Painting in Sixth-Century B.C. Athens"
(November 24, 1985-January 5, 1986),
features 70 signed Attic terracotta vases
and fragments by a single artist called
the Amasis Painter, whose career spanned
from 560 to 515 B.C. The subjects of the
vases reveal the mythology and daily life
of ancient Athens. Catalogue available.

SOUTH

Birmingham Museum of Art, Birming-

ham, AL: "Southern Folk Art" (through
December 8, 1985),assembles traditional
objéets from 13 states, produced between
1743 and 1915. The diverse collection in-
cludes pottery, textiles, furniture, sculp-
ture and paintings. Circulated by the
Museum of American Folk Art, NewYork,
NY. Book available.
The Columbia Museum, Columbia, SC: Indians" (December 21, 1985-March 9,
"ChineseExport Silver: A Legacy of Lux- 1986),features the art of the Native peo-
ury" (through December 1, 1985), illus- ple of North America, encompassing the
trates the cultural exchangebetweenChina greater Mississippi Basin east to the East-
and the West with 70 objects made for ern Coastal Plain, from the Great Lakes
European markets, dating from the 18th south to the Gulf of Mexico.The 120works
through the early 20th century. include beads, pipes, bottles and masks
DallasMuseumof Art, Dallas,TX: "Maya: dating from 3000 B.C.to A.D.1500. Cata-
Treasuresof an Ancient Civilization"(De- logue available.
cember 15, 1985-February 16, 1986),fea- Charles D. Ikndy ArchaeologicalMuseum,
tures 275 Maya art objects in a variety of Southwestern Baptist Seminary campus,
media including sculpture, ceramics and Fort Worth, TX: "Timnah, City of Con-
metalworks,ranging in age from 2000B.C. flict" (permanent), features the archaeo-
to the 16th century A.D. Some artifacts logical excavation data and the history of
are made of gold, jade, wood, and shell. the biblical site of Timnah, Israel where
The serious problem of looting is ad- the 8th excavation season was concluded
dressed. Circulated by the Albuquerque in July 1985. Artifacts, maps, photo-
Museum of Art, New Mexico. Book avail- graphs, and models tell the story of the
able. (See Archaeology, March/ April town from the Middle Bronze Age to the
1985.) Persian period.
High Museum of Art, Atlanta, GA: Tbrpedo Factory Art Center, Alexandria
"Wealthof the Ancient World"(December ArchaeologyLaboratory, Alexandria, VA:
10, 1985-February9, 1986),presents over "Artifacts, Advertisements and Archaeol-
100 coins, more than 30 bronzes and 15 ogy" (through Spring 1986), focuses on
terracotta Greekvases spanning over 1000 the history of Alexandria's business
years, from the Archaic period in Greece community in the late 18th and 19th cen-
through the styles of southern Italy, to turies. Over 200 objects, including adver-
the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Or: tisements from early issues of the Gazette,
ganized by the KimbellArt Museum, Fort the country's oldest newspaper, together
Worth, TX. Catalogue available. with artifacts from the excavation of early
Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, TX: shops and residences, illustrate the evolu-
"Praise Poem: African Arts from the tion of this port city's merchants.

A sample of western North American

Indian basketry on viewat the
Katherine White Collection"(through No- MaxwellMuseum of Anthropology,
vember 24, 1985),is a selection of 50 out- Albuquerque, NM.
standing worksof Africanart, representing
a wide range of styles, functions, and geo-
graphic.origins. Included are masks from WEST
the Liberian Dan people, two harps from
Zaire carved to resemble a male and fe- Achenbach Foundation for Graphic Arts
male, and a Yorubamother and child fig- of the California Palace of the Legion of
ure from Nigeria. Catalogue available. Honor, The Fine Arts Museums of San
The Frank H. McClung Museum, Knox- Francisco, CA: "Indian Miniatures from
ville, TN: "Burial Practices in Ancient the EhrenfeldCollection"(through Decem-
Egypt" (through November 1986), ex- ber 8, 1985),presents an overview of the
plores the intriguing aspects of the an- history of Indian miniature painting with
cient philosophyof death and the afterlife. 127 examples from the 16th to the mid-
Mural-sizephotographs and original arti- 19th century. Part of "The Festival of
facts, such as funerary stelae and a finely India." Catalogue available. Circulated by
preserved mummifiedcat, are some of the the American Federation of Arts.
special features. Arizona State Museum, University of Ar-
The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX: izona, Ttacson,AZ: "Kula: A Bronislaw
"Ancient Art of the American Woodland continued on page 14

1985
November/December 9
 NEW BOOKS

Reid, Bill and Robert Bringhurst,

EUROPE NEAR EAST The Raven Steals the Light. 91 pages, 10
black-and-white plates. University of
Bradley, John, editor, VikingDublin Ex- Dani, Ahmad Hasan, Karl Jettmar, Washington Press, Seattle, WA 1985
$19.95
posed: The WoodQuay Saga. 184 pages, and VOLKER Thewalt, Zwischen
SWANTON, JOHNR., Final Report of the
85 black-and-whitephotographs, 32 text Gandhãra und Den Seidenstrassen: Fels- United States De Soto Expedition Com-
figures, 3 plans, 7 maps, notes. The bilder am Karahorum Highway. 60 pages, mission. lxxxvi, 400 pages, 2 text figures,
O'BrienPress, Dublin, Ireland 1985£11.95 frontispiece, 24 color plates, 60 black-and-
Dennell, ROBIN,European Economic white photographs, 3 maps. VerlagPhillip 10 tables, 12 maps, appendices, bibliogra-
Prehistory: A New Approach, xii, 217 Von Zabern, Mainz Am Rhein, West Ger- phies. Smithsonian Institution Press,
pages, 29 text figures, 12 tables. Academic many 1985 Washington, DC 1985$19.95paper
Press, Inc., Orlando, FL 1985$27.00 Morris, Desmond, The AH of Ancient Thomas, David Hurst, editor, The Ar-
Cyprus. 368 pages, frontispiece, 107 color chaeology of Hidden Cave, Nevada. 430
Herteig, Asbjorn E. and Arne E. photographs, 225 black-and-white photo- pages, 50 black-and-whitephotographs, 77
Christensen, The Bryggen Papers . 280 text figures, 86 tables, 2 maps, appendi-
graphs, 1300 text figures, bibliography. ces. American Museum of Natural His-
pages, 1 color photograph, 83 black-and- Phaidon Press, Oxford, England 1985
white photographs, 170 text figures, 21 £60.00 tory, New York, NY 1985$41.00paper
tables, 3 plans, bibliography.Universitets- Ullman, Kyle L., in collaboration with
forlaget, Oslo, Norway (distributed in the Oriol Pi-Sunyer, Ceramics from the
United States by Columbia University NORTH AMERICA Kramer Village Site, Ross County, Ohio.
Press, New York, NY) 1985 $25.00 paper 82 pages, 11 black-and-whitephotographs,
(Main Series, Volume1) 4 text figures, 11 tables, 1 plan, appendi-
Harris, Arthur H., Late PleistoceneVer- ces. The Kent State University Press,
Naismith, Robert J., Buildings of the tebrate Paleoecology of the West. 292 Kent, OH 1985$8.00 paper
Scottish Countryside . 224 pages, 131 pages, appendices, bibliography. Univer-
black-and-whitephotographs, 30 text fig- Zimmerman, Larry J., Peoples of Prehis-
sity of Texas Press, Austin, TX 1985 toric South Dakota, viii, 143 pages, 14
ures, 3 plans, glossary. Victor Gollancz $25.00 black-and-whitephotographs, 63 text fig-
Ltd., London, England (distributed in the Haury, EMILW.,MogollonCulture in the ures. University of Nebraska Press, Lin-
United States by David & Charles, Inc., Forestdale Valley,East-Central Arizona.
North Pomfret, VT) 1985$24.00 coln, NB 1985$16.50
xix, 454 pages, 84 black-and-whitephoto-
STEAD,I.M., Celtic Art in Britain Before graphs, 65 text figures, 12 tables, 43 plans,
the Roman Conquest. 72 pages, frontis- 7 maps, appendices.University of Arizona
Press, T'icson, AZ 1985$27.50 SOUTH & CENTRAL AMERICA
piece, 36 color photographs, 51 black-and-
white photographs,9 text figures. Harvard KlNTlGH,Keith W., Settlement , Subsis-
University Press, Cambridge, MA 1985 tence, and Society in Late Zuni Prehistory. HASSIG,ROSS,Tirade,Ih*bute, and Trans-
$6.95paper (British Museum Series) x, 132 pages, frontispiece, 11 black-and- portation: The Sixteenth-Century Politi-
white photographs, 9 text figures, 23 ta- cal Economy of the Valleyof Mexico, xvi,
Tourtellot, Jonathan B., editor, Dis- bles, 42 plans, 9 maps, appendix,references. 364 pages, 30 text figures, 20 tables. Uni-
covering Britain and Ireland. 448 pages, The University of Arizona Press, Hicson, versity of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK
frontispiece, 435 color photographs, 28 AZ 1985$14.95paper 1985$22.95
maps, glossary. National Geographic So- Knack, Martha C. and Omer C. Stewart, Hyslop, John, Inkawasi, The New Cuzco:
ciety, Washington, DC 1985$22.95 As Long As The River Shall Run: An Eth- Cañete, Lunahuaná, Peru, xii, 147 pages,
Wymer, John, The Palaeolithic Sites of nohistory of Pyramid Lake River Reser- 61 black-and-whitephotographs, 6 text fig-
East Anglia. x, 440 pages, 7 black-and- vation. xviii, 433 pages, frontispiece, 14 ures, 3 tables, 7 plans, 1 map, bibliogra-
white photographs, 117 text figures, 30 black-and-whiteplates, 5 text figures. Uni- phy. B.A.R., Oxford, England 1985£14.00
versity of California Press, Berkeley, CA paper (B.A.R. International Series 234)
maps, indexes. Geo Books, Norwich,Eng- 1985$28.50 Miller, Robert Ryal, Mexico: A His-
land 1985£29.50 cloth £19.50 paper Maxwell, Moreau S., Prehistory of the tory. xiv, 414 pages, frontispiece,70 black-
Eastern Arctic, xiv, 327 pages, 75 black- and-white photographs, 10 text figures,
and-whitephotographs, 74 text figures, 12 6 tables, appendix, glossary, bibliography.
tables, 8 plans, 5 maps. Academic Press, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman,
GREECE & ROME Inc., Orlando, FL 1985$49.00(NewWorld OK 1985$19.95
ArchaeologicalRecord) SPORES,Ronald, The Mixtees in Ancient
Johnston, Paul Forsythe, Ship and Minnis, Paul E., Social Adaptation to and Colonial Times, xiv, 263 pages, fron-
Boat Models in Ancient Greece, xiv, 187 Food Stress: A Prehistoric Southwestern tispiece, 45 black-and-whitephotographs,
pages, frontispiece, 36 black-and-white Example, x, 239 pages, 9 black-and-white 47 text figures, 9 tables, 6 plans, 2 maps,
photographs, 22 text figures, 1 map, ap- photographs, 24 text figures, 25 tables, bibliography. University of Oklahoma
pendices, notes, glossary, bibliography. appendix, bibliography.University of Chi- Press, Norman, OK 1985$27.50
Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD cago Press, Chicago, IL 1985$20.00cloth Zantwijk, Rudolph van, The Aztec
1985$28.95 $8.00 paper (Prehistoric Archaeology and Arrangement: The Social History of Pre-
Marinatos, Nannô, Art and Religion in Ecology Series) Spanish Mexico,xxvi, 345 pages, 25 black-
Thera: Reconstructing a Bronze Age So- Olsen, Nancy H„ HovenweepRock Art: and-white plates, 25 text figures, 14 ta-
ciety. 128 pages, 10 color plates, 55 color An Anasazi Visual Communication Sys- bles, 1 map, appendices. University of
photographs, 15 text figures, 4 tables, 11 tem. xvi, 153pages, frontispiece,50 black- OklahomaPress, Norman, OK 1985$29.50
plans, bibliography.D. & I. Mathioulakis, and-white photographs, 40 text figures, 9
Athens, Greece(distributed outside Greece tables, 2 maps. Institute of Archaeology,
by Wasmuth KG, West Berlin, Germany) University of California,Los Angeles, CA
198419,80DM 1985 $15.00 paper (Occasional Paper 14)
SÊFÊRIADÈS, Michel, TroieI: Matériaux Otto, John Solomon, Cannon's Point VARIOUS
Pour L'Étude des Sociétés du Nord-Est Plantation, 1794-1860:Living Conditions
Êgéen au Début du Bronze Ancien. 316 and Status Patterns in the Old South, xvii, Ferrill, Arther, The Origins of War:
pages, 24 black-and-whiteplates, 1 black- 217 pages, frontispiece, 7 black-and-white From the Stone Age to Alexander the
and-white photograph, 30 text figures, 4 photographs, 19 text figures, 33 tables, Great. 240 pages, 61 text figures, 7 maps,
tables, 25 plans, 12 maps, bibliography. appendix, bibliography. Academic Press, bibliography. Thames and Hudson, New
Associationpour la Diffusionde la Pensée Inc., Orlando, FL 1984$42.00(Studies in York, NY (distributed by WW. Norton,
Française, Paris, France 1985 111F paper Historical Archaeology) New York, NY) 1985$19.95

10 ARCHAEOLOGY
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 Green, Stanton W. and Stephen M.
Perlman, editors, The Archaeology of
Frontiers and Boundaries. xviii, 344pages,
2 black-and-whitephotographs, 38 text fig-
ures, 28 tables, 3 maps. Academic Press,
Inc., Orlando, FL 1985 (Studies in Ar-
chaeology)
Heiser, Charles B., Jr., Of Plants and
People. xiv, 237 pages, 65 black-and-white
photographs, 1 text figure, 1 table. Uni-
versity of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK
1985$24.95
JORDAN, Paul, The Face of the Past. 151
pages, 57 black-and-whiteplates. Universe
Books, New York, NY 1985$25.00
Langley, Susan B.M. and Richard W.
UNGER,editors, Nautical Archaeology:
Progress and Public Responsibility. 219
pages, 14 black-and-whitephotographs, 7
text figures, 2 tables, 3 plans, 2 maps.
B.A.R., Oxford, England 1984 £10.00
(B.A.R. International Series 220)
Lauber, Patricia, Thles Mummies Tell.
118 pages, 76 black-and-white photo-
graphs, 3 text figures. Thomas Y. Crowell,
New York, NY 1985$11.95
Olsen, Stanley J., Origins of the Do-
mestic Dog: The Fossil Record. xiv, 118
pages, frontispiece, 34 black-and-white
photographs, 4 text figures. The Univer-
sity of Arizona Press, T'icson, AZ 1985
$19.95
PlGGOTT,STUART,WilliamStukeley: An
Eighteenth-CenturyAntiquary. 191pages,
32 black-and-whiteplates, 12 text figures,
appendices. Thames and Hudson, New
York, NY (distributed by W.W. Norton,
New York, NY) 1985$19.95
Price, T. Douglas and James A. Brown,
editors, Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers: The
Emergence of Cultural Complexity, xviii,
450 pages, 20 black-and-white photo-
graphs, 55 text figures, 9 tables, 2 maps,
3 plans. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando,
FL 1985$60.00
Reese, Thomas F., editor, Studies in An-
cient American and European Art: The
CollectedEssays of GeorgeKubler. xxxvi,
449 pages, frontispiece, 408 black-and-
white plates, 11 text figures, 15 tables,
bibliographies.YaleUniversity Press, New
Haven, CT 1985$60.00
Schiffer, Michael B., editor, Advances
in ArchaeologicalMethod and Theory,xiv,
306 pages, 24 black-and-white photo-
graphs, 11 text figures, 7 tables, 2 plans.
Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, FL 1985
$49.50
SCHRIRE, CARMEL, editor, Past and Pres-
ent in Hunter Gatherer Studies, xvii, 299
pages, 3 black-and-whitephotographs, 25
text figures, 5 tables, 6 maps. Academic
Press, Inc., Orlando, FL 1984$45.00
Stein, Julie, K. and William R. Far
LAND,editors, Archaeological Sediments
in Context, xii, 147 pages, 13 black-and-
white photographs, 54 text figures, 4 ta-
bles. Center for the Study of Early Man,
Orono,ME 1985(Peoplingof the Americas,
Volume1)
Vaughan, Patrick C., Use-WearAnaly-
sis of Flaked Stone lb ols. viii, 204 pages,
170black-and-whiteplates, 22 text figures,
appendices,bibliography,glossary.Univer-
sity of Arizona Press, Hicson, AZ 1985
$49.50

1? ARTHAFm
new
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 continued from page 9
Malinowski Centennial Exhibition"
(through January 31, 1986),focuseson the
Kula complex, a traditional and ancient
trading expedition of the people of the
Trobriand Islands and the Massim area of
Papua New Guinea. The heart of the exhi-
bition is made up of artifacts from Malin-
owski's collection.
Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, The
AveryBrundage Collection,San Francisco,
CA: "Japanese Fan Paintings" (through
January 5, 1986),features 45 fans and two
screens of the Edo period, 1615-1868.Cat-
alogue available."The Art of Wine in East
Asia" (November 3, 1985-January 21,
1986),presents over 50 objects related to
wine and its uses. Included are ritual wine
vessels from the Chinese Shang dynasty
(ca. 21st-16th century B.C.),sake bottles
from Japan and storage containers from
Korea. "Kawari Kabuto: Spectacular Hel-
mets from Japan" (December 17, 1985-
February 9, 1986),displays 75 helmets of
late 16th- 19th century Japan. Part crown
and part heraldic totem, they were sym-
bols of status among the ruling military
elite. Catalogue available.
Denver Museum of Natural History, Den-
ver, CO: "Ebla to Damascus: Art and Ar-
chaeology of Ancient Syria" (November
30, 1985-February16, 1986),presents over
300 treasures from Syria, including pot-
tery, jewelry,cuneiformtablets, ivory carv-
ings and funerary monuments, which
illustrate the country's cultural heritage
from 8000 B.C. to A.D. 1700. Catalogue
available. (See ARCHAEOLOGY, Septem-
ber/October 1985.)
M.H. de Young Memorial Museum, San
Francisco, CA: "Te Maori Art from New
Zealand Collections" (through December
1, 1985), features nearly 200 sculptures
and carvings in wood, stone, bone, ivory,
and shell, dating from ca. 800 to 1900A.D.
Included are architectural elements, mu-
sical instruments, monumental sculpture,
canoe prows, weapons, and objects of
personal adornment. Circulated by the
American Federation of Arts. Catalogue
available. (See ARCHAEOLOGY, Novem-
ber/December 1984.) "Eloquent Hands:
California Indian Baskets" (through De-
cember 1, 1985), is a selection of Native
American baskets, including the variety
of designs by the Yokut people of the San
Joaquin Valley.
The Heard Museum, Phoenix,AZ: "Under
the Green Canopy: Indians of the Ama-
zon Rain Forest" (November 14, 1985-
Spring 1986),examines the adaptation to
life in the tropical rain forest environment.
Included are clothing, ceramics, basketry,
objects used for trapping and preparing
food and ceremonialmaterial.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los
Angeles, CA: "Netsuke: Japanese Sculp-
ture from the Bushell Collection"(through
January 1986), is a second exhibition of
150 netsuke, intricate Japanese carvings
used as toggles during the Edo period.
Made of wood, ivory or stag antler, net-
suke represent a wide variety of subjects,
from daily life to animal motifs and leg-
endary and imaginary figures. Reflecting
the culture and social life of the Edo pe-
riod, this collection dates from the early
18th century.
Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, The
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque,

14 ARCHAEOLOGY
NM: "From the Weaver'sView"(through are some of the finest examples of 17th to Museum" (through November 24, 1985),
March 1986), examines the complicated 20th-century folk paintings and sculpture, includes nearly 300 objects Torah adorn-
art of western Native American basketry. painted and decorated furniture, quilts, ments, synagogue furnishings, alms boxes
Over 200 baskets and 70 photographs an- toys and trinket boxes. Catalogue availa- and many other treasures from the State
alyze the subtle differences and complex ble. Circulated by the American Federa- Jewish Museum in Prague. Catalogue
cultural patterns of basketry. tion of Arts. "Northwest Coast Indian Art available. Circulated by SITES.
Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena, CA: from the Hauberg Collection" (through
"ChinaTVadeExhibition"(through Decem- March 16, 1986), demonstrates the rich-
ber 30, 1985),features paintings and ship ness and complexity of the Native Ameri- FOREIGN
modelsfrom the mid-1800s,and commem- can cultures of the Northwest,with objects
orates the Bicentennialof American-China dating from the pre-contact period to the
trade. "Chinese Jade: The Image From early 20th century. Castel San Angelo, Rome, Italy: "Vaults
Within" (through February 23, 1986),is a Southwest Museum, Los Angeles, CA: of Memory:Jewish and Christian Imagery
collectionof over 200 fine objects of jade, "People of California" (permanent), is a in the Catacombs of Rome" (November
includingpi discs used for ritual and burial new exhibition of the art and artifacts of 6-December 5, 1985),exhibits rare photo-
purposes and everydayobjects such as pa- the first Californians,emphasizingregional graphs of frescoes, epitaphs, sarcophagi,
perweightsand imperialjewelry.The pieces differences between Northern, Central, graffiti, and ritual objects displaying
date from the 3rd millennium B.C.to the Southern Coastal and Desert lifeways. Judaeo-Christian symbols recoveredfrom
18th century A.D. Included are a full-sizedPomo acorn gran- a lost Jewish catacomb in Rome. Included
San Diego Museum of Man, San Diego, ary, a rockart site facsimileand a Northern- are objects from the collections of the
CA: "Water: Liquid of Life"(through Feb- style house. Vatican Museum and other state muse-
ruary 23, 1986),documents the crucial role Frederick S. Wight Art Gallery, UCLA, ums of Italy. Catalogue available. Circu-
of water in the ritual and economic lives lated by the International Catacomb
of the native people of the Americas with Los Angeles, CA: "The Eloquent Dead:
Ancestral Sculpture from Indonesia & Society,61 BeaconSt., Boston, MA 02108,
more than 200 artifacts, photographs and (tel) 617-742-1285.
dioramas. Conch shell trumpets used to Southeast Asia" (through November 24,
call the rain gods and jade ornaments sym- 1985), explores the art and rituals that Museum of Mankind, London, England:
bolizingwater and fertility reflect the rev- placate the dead and engage them actively "The Hidden Peoples of the Amazon"
erence held for water and its bounty. "The in the events of the present. Included (through January 1986),examines the tra-
Cannon Collection" (through November, among the 180objects are figurative sculp- ditional way of life of the Indian people of
1985),features nearly 200 Kumeyaay In- tures, puppets, masks and charms in ivory the South American rainforest, whoserap-
dian baskets, donated by the heirs of Lucia and wood.Catalogue available. idly disappearing environment has pro-
M. and Walter D. Cannon. The baskets vided material necessities and spiritual
are the products of the final period of inspiration over thousands of years. The
basketmaking in southern California. CANADA collectionincludes pottery, musical instru-
Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, WA: "Amer- ments, weapons, ceremonial masks, cos-
ican FolkArt: Expressionsof a NewSpirit" tumes and smoking equipment. Featured
(through January 5, 1986),features more Royal Ontario Museum^Toronto,Ontario, is a reconstruction of a typical l'ikano
than 130 objects from the Museum of Canada: "The Precious Legacy: Judaic Indian maloca or communal house of the
American Folk Art in NewYork.Included TVeasuresfrom the Czechoslovak State Vaupes region of Colombiaand Brazil.

1985
November/December 15
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Henderson Young David

Pearcy Delgado Czuma

LYNN A. MEISCH has written articles articles on the philosophical and rhe- rator in the Department of Maritime Ar-
on the archaeology and anthropology of torical background of ancient medicine. chaeology at the Western Australian
the Andean countries for numerous pub- "Galen's Pergamm" grew out of this Museum. He has worked on excavations
lications and is author of A Traveler's research, which took him to Turkey in in Ireland, England and Africa, and has
Guide to El Dorado and the Inca Empire the summer of 1984. directed several archaeological projects
(Penguin Books, New York, NY, revised Pearcy would like to thank the Uni- in Australia. In Australia, Henderson
edition 1984). As a trekking guide on versity Research Institute, University has also developed a program of the ex-
the Inca Trail in the early 1980s she of Texas, Austin, for supporting his cavation of Colonial period shipwrecks
documented conditions on the trail first- work, and Deena Berg for help in draft- at the Western Australian Museum.
hand and took part in the Machu Picchu ing maps. STANISLAW CZUMA, Curator of
conservation effort. ROSALIE DAVID received her PhD Indian and Southeast Asian Art at The
PHILIPPE VELAY of the Musée Car- degree from the University of Liverpool, Cleveland Museum of Art, received his
navalet, a museum devoted to the his- England, in 1971, having previously BA and MA degrees in Western Art at
tory and archaeology of Paris, highlights studied Egyptology at University Col- Jagiellon University in Cracow, Poland
the early Roman years of Paris in his lege, London. Since 1972 she has curated and his PhD in Oriental Art at the Uni-
article. With his colleagues BRIGITTE the Egyptology collection in the Man- versity of Michigan. He has studied the
FISCHER, Chargée de Recherches, Cen- chester Museum at the University of history and culture of India at Calcutta
tral National de la Recherche Scien- Manchester, where she also lectures in University, Benares Hindu University
tifique, DOMINIQUE MOREL, and the Department of Comparative Re- and the Sorbonne, has published and lec-
BAILEY YOUNG, of the University of ligion. As Director of the Manchester tured on Indian and Southeast Asian art,
Lille III and the University of Paris XII, Egyptian Mummy Project since 1973 and teaches Oriental art at Case West-
Velay has worked with Patrick Perin, she has organized symposia on "Science ern Reserve University in Cleveland.
archaeological curator at the Musée in Egyptology." Her publications in- JAMES P. DELGADO, Historian for
Carnavalet, to decipher all of the archae- clude a number of articles and twelve the Golden Gate National Recreation
ological phases of the city's history. The books on aspects of Egyptology, among Area and author of several articles on
museum has been modernized and ex- them A Guide to Religious Ritual at various aspects of western and mari-
panded over the last decade, and new Abydos ( 1981); The Ancient Egyptians : time history and archaeology, is
permanent archaeological exhibits are Their Religious Beliefs and Practices completing graduate studies at East
being planned. An exhibit, which opened (1982); and Cult of the Sun: Myth and Carolina University, North Carolina, in
in 1984, highlighted Roman Paris, or Magic in Ancient Egypt (1980). She has Maritime and Underwater Research.
Lutetia, and will remain on exhibit until acted as consultant and presenter for His most recent field assignment was
the end of the year. several BBC television films about an- supervising a survey of environmen-
LEE T. PEARCY teaches Greek and cient Egypt, and has carried out many tally exposed shipwreck remains on the
Latin at the Episcopal Academy in broadcasting activities in this field, par- beaches of Cape Hatteras, North Caro-
Merion, Pennsylvania. He is the author ticularly on the subject of the Man- lina's "Graveyard of the Atlantic."
of numerous articles on Latin, Greek chester mummy research. Delgado wishes to express a debt of
and English literature and Mediated J.R. McKINLAY is Senior Archaeolo- gratitude to colleagues Edwin C. Bearss,
Muse : English Translations of Ovid, gist of the New Zealand Places TVust, Robert J. Chandler, Gordon S. Chappell,
1560-1700 (Archon Books, Hamden, called as an expert witness in the Thupo J. Edward Green, Roger E. Kelley,John
CT 1984). He has also published several case. GRAEME HENDERSON is Cu- H. Martini, and Martin T. Mayer.

16 ARCHAEOLOGY
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 Machu Picchu:

Conservine an Inca Treasure

by Lynn A. Meisch

1911 an American, Hiram Bingham, led an ex- death of the Inca Tbpac Amaru in 1572. Instead of
pedition into the Andes of southern Peru in Vilcabamba, Bingham found Machu Picchu, an
In search of Vilcabamba, the last refuge of the Incas. Inca city of exceptional beauty perched high above
From this remote region in the Cordillera Vilca- the Urubamba River. While Indian farmers were
bamba, remnants of the Inca army waged a guerrilla growing crops on the terraces, the site was never
war against the Spanish from A.D. 1537 until the reached by the Spanish and had been lost to the out-

The impressive site of Machu Picchu,

an Inca settlement dating to the fif-
teenth century , is today in danger of
destruction by the influx of tourists and
hikers. More damage has been reported
in the last ten years than in the last 500
years. The site of Wayna Picchu is in
the background.
side world for centuries. After his initial discovery, and the names of the Inca ruins along the Inca TVail
funding from Yale University and the National Geo- are all post-Conquest. There is no record of what the
graphic Society allowed Bingham to return and Incas themselves called these sites.
explore the region more thoroughly, including part In his account of his adventure, written in 1948,
of the Inca road system leading from Cuzco to Bingham noted that "this marvelous Inca sanctuary,
Machu Picchu. which was lost for three hundred years, has at last
Bingham was fully aware of the significance of become a veritable Mecca for tourists. Everyone
his find, an entire city constructed of white granite who goes to South America wants to see it." Today,
with mortarless stonework as fine as any in Cuzco. Machu Picchu is the single most important tourist
He also realized that the Spanish never reached the attraction in Peru. Located in a National Park, it
site because its int iwatana- the post to tie up the extends approximately 22 miles south along the
sun used for astronomical observations and rituals Urubamba River and five miles west, encompassing
-was intact. The Spanish destroyed as heathen any seven other major Inca ruins, ten smaller ones, the
they found. The Quechua names Macchu and Wayna Inca road system, and an extraordinary number of
Picchu (grandfather and lover peak), intiwatana, rare flora and fauna. Each year more than 100,000
visitors from around the world take the four-hour
train ride from Cuzco to the site. An additional
6,000 people make the three to five day hike over the
Inca road, beginning at the boundary of the Park.
The influx of train visitors and hikers, however, has
created a serious threat to the archaeological sites
and natural environment- including damage to
Machu Picchu itself.
In response, an international conservation effort
has been launched. Named the Machu Picchu Sanc-
tuary Project, it is led by Peruvian Alfredo Ferreros,
founder and owner of Explorandes, the largest
Peruvian adventure travel outfitter, and an Advisor
to the Special Project for Tourism Reserves, part of
the Peruvian National Parks System. Co-Director
of the Sanctuary Project, in charge of the archae-
ological aspects and organizational efforts in North
America, is Margaret MacLean, a PhD candidate
in archaeology at the University of California at
Berkeley, and a 1985-86 research fellow at Dum-
barton Oaks, Washington, DC in Precolumbian
Studies and History of Landscape Architecture. The
Sanctuary Project is attempting to reconcile the
conflicting demands of tourism with the protection
of the environment, including the archaeological
sites, which hold vital clues to the organization of
the Inca Empire.

any functions have been suggested for Machu

Picchu, some of them romantic and others mys-
terious. The truth in no way diminishes the beauty
and importance of the site. Rather than the last
refuge of the Incas, or a secret hideaway for the
Chosen Women connected to the Coricancha, the
great temple in Cuzco, Machu Picchu was one of a
chain of outposts constructed in the mountains
above the Urubamba River Valley during the reign
of the Inca Pachacuti (a.D. 1438-1463). The site
was abandoned around the time of the Spanish Con-
quest (a.D. 1532-33) although archaeologists don't
know exactly when or why.
Located just 100 miles by air northwest of the
Inca capital, Cuzco, it isn't hard to understand why
the Spanish never found Machu Picchu when one
sees the land. Cuzco is high and cold, set in a bowl
at 11,445 feet above sea level. Thirty miles to the
east the land falls off 2,000 feet to the warm, fertile
valley of the Urubamba River (called the Vilcanota
in its upper section). The Urubamba drains north-
ward into the Amazon, losing altitude rapidly in a

Nm/ûmkar
/rW^ûmKûr
1QÖR 1û
 series of white water rapids between Pisaq and coast road, for example, extended 2,500 miles from
Machu Picchu. T'imbes, Peru to Tklca, Chile, while the Andean
The Urubamba Valley, today called the Sacred road was even longer. There were numerous east-
Valley of the Incas, was important to the Incas be- west connecting links and auxiliary roads, such as
cause its warmer climate permitted the cultivation the one between Cuzco and Machu Picchu.
of maize, a sacred crop made into chicha (beer) Since the Incas had no wheeled vehicles and
which was essential for religious rituals. Many of because of the precipitous terrain, the mountain
the Incas had royal estates in the Sacred Valley at roads were meant for travel on foot or for llama
such places as Pisaq and Yucay. While some early caravans. The roads are up to four feet wide, graded,
archaeologists believed the valley towns were forti- banked and paved with flagstones, with stone gut-
fied to prevent incursions of jungle Indians, the ters to keep water off the road. Steep sections have
Urubamba is too swift and its canyons too narrow stone steps, and rivers were spanned by suspension
to permit passage upstream by boat or on foot. And bridges. Thmpus (rest houses for travelers) were
Ollantaytambo, for example, is fortified on the up- established every eight to 12 miles. As part of their
stream, not downstream, side. Any Indians attack- labor tax to the Inca state, communities along the
ing Cuzco would take the high route over the roads maintained the tampus, roads and bridges in
mountains. Here the Pachacuti Inca constructed a their vicinity and supplied chasquis , relay runners
series of secured towns, not only to prevent inva- to carry messages. Chasquis could relay news from
sions, but to control the lucrative and important Quito, Ecuador to Cuzco in five days- faster than a
trade in jungle products, including feathers, fruits, modern airmail letter. In the chaos following the
medicinal plants, and coca leaves. Spanish conquest the system of local maintenance
Trees cover the mountains beyond Ollantay- collapsed and centuries of rainy seasons, landslides
tambo. The Urubamba gorge has sheer cliffs 2,000 and earthquakes have taken their toll. It's a tribute
feet high, and the mountains have a number of to Inca engineering that so much of the road system
permanent snowcaps over 18,000 feet high. Yet the still exists.
Incas linked the towns and outposts in this region Even in Inca times the easiest route to the
and throughout their empire with a road system lower Urubamba Valley and the jungle was by an
that dazzled the Spanish and still awes visitors to- Inca road through the mountains northwest of
day. The system rivaled that of ancient Rome. The Cuzco, which joined the Urubamba River 25 miles
20 Archaeology
 (Far left) This two-story Inca
house still stands at Pancar-
cancha . (Left) Peruvians live in
the Machu Picchu area and serve
as porters for hikers on the Inca
trail. Here young Peruvians
watches hikers at the village of
Wayllabamba.

downstream from Machu Picchu. When Bingham Wayna (Growing Lover). Undoubtedly there are
found the site he followed a road that the Peruvians more ruins and roads hidden in the dense vegetation
had recently blasted through the Urubamba gorge, and just outside the boundaries of the park.
opening this stretch of the valley to traffic and pro- No one anticipated that the annual number of
viding a more direct route to the coca plantations on visitors to Machu Picchu would top 100,000. This
the lower Urubamba. Later a railroad was laid on figure is expected to double when the new interna-
the trail, extending past Machu Picchu to Quilla- tional airport is built near Cuzco. Restoration work
bamba. There is still no automobile road into the and excavations at Machu Picchu and the new sites
area. are often halted to repair damage caused by visitors.
Almost everyone enters Machu Picchu from one
entrance near the Tourist Hotel and restaurant.
Today Machu Picchu National Park is under the Vibrations from thousands of pounding feet are
joint jurisdiction of the National Institute of Culture loosening walls. Tourists venturing off the paths
(N.I.C.), the Ministry of Agriculture and the Min- erode the soil and tumble walls. In 1982 Yépez roped
istry of Industry and Tourism. Fully 50 percent of off the intiwatana to prevent tourists from climbing
the walls of Machu Picchu had fallen when Bingham on it to have their pictures taken. Tourists have
found the city. They have since been rebuilt by the even tried to carve their initials in the rocks and to
N.I.C. In 1982 Machu Picchu was again in the news chip pieces from the stonework for souvenirs. Al-
when resident archaeologist and site director Wil- though food is prohibited in the ruins and the site
fredo Yépez Valdez and his crew discovered two is cleaned daily, it isn't unusual to find garbage
more large ruins just three miles from Machu Picchu. on the ground or soft drink cans in the trapezoidal
Named Quillapata (Moon Terrace) and Chaskapata Inca niches.
(Venus Tferrace) these sites contain buildings, agri- The Inca Trail (El Camino Inca) as the road to
cultural terraces and 30 unopened Inca tombs. Machu Picchu is called, became popular with back-
Yépez hopes to have these sites open to the public in packers and organized trekking groups in the mid
the future. In 1983, an N.I.C. crew clearing vegeta- 1970s. These two kinds of hikers affect the environ-
tion from the terraces at Phuyupatamarca (Town in ment in different ways. Since there is no policing of
the Clouds) uncovered a stone staircase leading the trail, anyone who shows up can hike. Most back-
several thousand feet down the mountain to Wiñay packers take the train from Cuzco to kilometer 88
November/December
19R5 21
 and cross the Urubamba River near the remains of of Cuzco-based Apu Expeditions, has guided groups
an Inca suspension bridge at Qoriwayrachina. A on the Inca TVailsince 1971 and notes that the en-
small Park use fee is collected here. vironment has changed. There are fewer queñoa trees
The trail climbs from 8,198 feet at the river, because the porters have cut them for firewood. In
past the major Inca site of Patallacta, to 13,776 feet 1984 the owners of the major Cuzco area trekking
at Warmi Wañuska Pass, a gain of more than a mile companies agreed to provide their porters with kero-
in elevation over 12 miles- two days of solid uphill sene stoves and fuel and to discourage campfires in
hiking. This would be strenuous at sea level, but it an effort to protect the woods in the park.
is punishing for those unaccustomed to the altitude. In 1980 volunteers began to deal with the most
From Warmi Wañuska Pass there are still 23 miles immediate problem: trash. The Club Andino Peru-
to go, and there are no latrines, shelters, trash ano and the Lima-based South American Explorers
receptacles, or treated water within the Park. The Club cleaned the trail. Tom Jackson, Explorers Club
general unpreparedness of many backpackers results manager, and three other volunteers picked up ap-
in an environmental disaster. Not only do back- proximately 880 pounds of tin cans, equivalent to
packers leave behind mounds of rubbish, but they 16,000 tuna fish cans. The paper waste was burned
build fires against the walls in Inca structures, caus- and the cans hauled out. Ibm noted that the labels
ing stones to crack, use the ruins for latrines, pollute on the garbage were from virtually every country in
the streams, and even dismantle Inca walls to make the non-Communist world. The clean-ups, sponsored
shelters. by various organizations, have been repeated every
Organized treks enter the park by a number of year since 1980, and Explorandes supplied these
alternate routes, relieving pressure on the lower part groups with food and porters beginning in 1981.
of the trail, and join the main trail at Wayllabamba. Just cleaning the trail involved cutting through an
These groups dig latrines at night and pack their amazing amount of red tape since a permit was
garbage out, but they affect the environment needed just to take garbage out of the Park. Be-
through sheer size. The support team of guides, cause the Inca TYailis in a national park there is a
cooks and porters for a group of 15 trekkers can prohibition on construction, so the volunteers have
number 50 people. Until 1984 the porters gathered been thwarted in their efforts to build latrines, trash
firewood for their own cooking. Alberti Miori, owner receptacles and shelters.

22 Archaeology
 the region for centuries. The area is not as densely
inhabited as it was in Inca times, when extensive
irrigation and political organization supported a
larger population. One of the functions of archae-
ologist Ann Kendall's work at Patallacta, the Cusi-
chaca Project, was to clean and re-open the Inca
irrigation canals for use by contemporary farmers.
The prohibition on construction in the park does
not apply to residents, who have removed stones
from Inca ruins to build fences and buildings, and
have allowed their animals to graze on archaeologi-
cal sites. The competing pressures of an expanding
population and the need for tourist dollars versus
the conservation of a fragile natural environment is
not unique to Peru, and the resolution is not simple.
Ferreyros and MacLean agree that the first step
is modifying the behavior of hikers. To this end
MacLean has drawn a map of the Inca TVail, de-
signed for use as the official N.I.C. trail map with a
list of rules on the back. These include no wood fires,
no fires against Inca walls, no digging in the ruins,
no climbing on the walls or moving stones. Hikers
(Far left) The destination of every hiker on the must use areas well away from the ruins for camping
Inca Trail is Machu Picchu , pictured here in a
and latrines, and pack out all refuse.
photograph taken from Wayna Picchu. The trail
itself can be seen in the upper left corner. (Clock-
wise from above, center) Hiking the Inca Trail is
rigorous and will often include crossing bridges The attraction of the sites, both for hikers and
such as this one connecting Wiñay Wayna and archaeologists, is two-fold. First, they are pristine.
Machu Picchu. Unfortunately, some campers Almost no research has been done on the Inca ruins
leave evidence of their visit. Here (above, right) in the park. An expedition funded by Axel Wenner-
a fire-damaged wall and litter damage the site of
Gren and led by Paul Fejos entered the area in 1940-
Runcurakay. Restoration and conservation ef-
forts are underway, however,such as the newly- 42, discovered several unknown ruins, and cleared
roofed hut at Sayacmarca (left, center), which destructive vegetation from the new sites and those
was recently constructed by National Institute uncovered by Bingham 30 years earlier. Shortly after
of Culture volunteers. the Fejos expedition some work was done at Wiñay
Wayna by Peruvian archaeologists Julio Tello and
Manuel Chávez Ballon. In 1941 archaeologist John
Rowe, now at the University of California at Berke-
In 1982, Alfredo Ferreyros, owner of Explor- ley, dug small test pits at Choquesuysuy on the
andes, was appointed Advisor to the Special Project banks of the Urubamba River below Wiñay Wayna,
for Tburist Reserves, and decided to focus on the and at Sayacmarca on the Inca TVail. Other than the
Inca TVail.He began to enlist help and to look for work at Machu Picchu and the Cusichaca Project,
funding. Reports are being written on the human the ruins are unexcavated.
impact on the local ecology and one on the biological Second, the sites are part of an extraordinary
composition of the park, which includes 120 plant road system. The fact that they're so close to Cuzco
species per kilometer, many species of birds, deer, places them within the royal zone, with great impli-
viscachas (a rodent-like animal related to the chin- cations for understanding the organization and
chilla), and the rare Andean Spectacled Bear, which administration of the Inca Empire. They offer an
is being studied by Bernard Peyton of the New York exceptional opportunity for study because they're
Zoological Society. In the summer of 1983 Ferreyros not confused by pre-Inca foundations, cultural mix-
met archaeologist Margaret MacLean, who was in ing or post-Conquest habitation.
Cuzco on a grant from the American Museum of Just outside the boundaries of the park, but
Natural History to research Inca architecture and part of the same system, are a number of sites, two
landscape. Ferreyros invited MacLean to work with of which are especially impressive. At 9,100 feet in
him on the Project. She made five trips on the Inca elevation, up the Cusichaca River from Patallacta,
lYail that summer, covering various routes leading lies Paucarcancha. The well-preserved buildings sit
into the park and mapping the ruins, and ultimately on a series of terraces now used by local farmers.
documenting the ravages of uncontrolled camping. One two-storey building needs only a roof to be
Restricting tourism is not an option. Tourism habitable. In fact, the entire site gives one the im-
brings Peru an average of 460 million dollars annually, pression that the Inca families living there just
badly needed foreign exchange to pay Peru's debt stepped out for a visit with their neighbors.
to banks abroad. If anything, Peru would like to Farther up the Cusichaca River Valley is a superb
increase tourism, which means, of course, increasing example of Inca water channeling. For a distance of
visitors to Machu Picchu National Park. several miles the river passes through a dressed
Besides outside visitors, there is damage to the granite channel about six feet wide. The paved Inca
Inca sites from Peruvian farmers, who have lived in road which ran between Patallacta, Paucarcancha

Nnupmhpr/rWpmhpr
IQVS 23
 and Salcantay (a 20,564-foot snowcap considered
sacred by the Incas), follows the east bank of the
channel. A large washout on the west bank, which
occurred within the past five years, shows the force
of the runoff from Salcantay and the necessity for
maintenance.
At the town of Wayllabamba (9,000 feet), the
trail from Kilometer 88 meets the route coming in
from the south and hikers pick up the main Inca
Trail to Machu Picchu. Wayllabamba is a modern
town, with traces of Inca structure, whose men are
frequently hired as porters. Since the trekking sea-
son (May through September) coincides with the
off-season agriculturally, trekking provides a much
appreciated cash income for the porters.
The paved Inca road is visible on the ascent from
Wayllabamba to Warmi Wañuska Pass, although it
has deteriorated in some places. The road is used
not only by hikers, but by local residents and their
sheep, cattle and horses. Hikers resting at the pass
are sometimes treated to an aerial ballet by condors
soaring from the nearby peaks. Beyond the pass the
vegetation changes to that of "la ceja de la montaña"
(the eyebrow of the mountain), with thick, dense vege-
tation. The Inca stairs descending from the pass to
the Pacamayo River Valley are nearly gone because
of runoff. An alternate Inca roadway curves around
the mountain side to the south, but has fallen in
several places and is dangerous. Bernard Peyton
urges hikers not to use this route because it disrupts
the feeding patterns of the Spectacled Bear.
Hikers frequently camp in the Pacamayo Valley,
which has several tiny Inca structures nearly hidden
by vegetation. The next large site is Runcurakay,
situated at 12,464 feet halfway up the mountainside croached. At one point the trail enters a 30-foot
to the second pass. This oval structure, with rooms tunnel, with stairs leading into it carved from the
radiating from a central patio, is often used by hikers living rock. Near the tunnel is a small lookout plat-
and damage from fires against the walls increases form, but the next major ruin is Phuyupatamarca
every season. Bingham wrote of bar-holds in the (Town in the Clouds) at 11,906 feet, with a spec-
entrance for securing a gate; these have disappeared tacular view over the Urubamba River Valley and
with the collapse of walls at the doorway. The Inca the Cordillera Urubamba. The most impressive fea-
road from Runcurakay over the pass and on to ture of this site is a series of six fountains or baths,
Sayacmarca is in good condition, although a 12-foot fed by a spring in the mountainside, and still in
section fell away during the 1983 trekking season. working order. In 1983 an Explorandes crew cleaned
The next major site is Sayacmarca (Standing or the silt and vegetation clogging the channels. The
Waiting Town), set on a rocky promontory at 12,234 fountains are the only water source at the ruins, and
feet, overlooking the Aobamba River Valley. Built the lower ones are sometimes used as latrines by
of local stone, Sayacmarca is almost invisible hikers. Since the only level land is the Inca ruins,
against the surrounding hills. Some walls have fire tents pitched here and latrines dug on the terraces
damage, but as MacLean reports, erosion and vege- break the archaeological seal and sometimes damage
tation are the main problems here. Sayacmarca is walls.
large- 25 rooms, several courtyards, a large plat- Two roads lead out of Phuyupatamarca, one of
form that overlooks the valley, and a stone aqueduct which was rediscovered by the N.I.C. crew in 1983.
for the water system (no longer functioning). Bing- This first road is a stone stairway which descends
ham believed this site to be one of the important several thousand feet to Wiñay Wayna. Open to
fortified outposts subsidiary to Machu Picchu. hikers in 1984, this trail became the preferred route
In 1984 the N.I.C. sent a crew to clear vegetation for hiking. The other road goes northwest around
and rebuild Sayacmarca, causing consternation the mountain and is paved until the descent to
among the archaeologists, who hoped no reconstruc- Wiñay Wayna. There it branches out into a number
tion would be done until careful excavations and of dangerous, steep, deeply eroded paths.
studies had been carried out. At Sayacmarca the Wiñay Wayna is a beautiful site, situated almost
Inca Trail enters the high jungle, where lianas and directly below Phuyupatamarca at 8,856 feet above
bromeliads cover the trees and a profusion of wild- sea level. The ruins are built on two levels linked by
flowers can be seen. The road is paved with granite a stone stairway and a series of ten baths. The baths
flagstones and is in good repair except for spots no longer work because the terrace supporting the
where decaying vegetation and mosses have en- feeder channel has eroded, but they were reported

?A Apthafoinr.v
 vince the Peruvian government of the seriousness
of the problem, Ferreyros and MacLean organized
an Inca TVailtrek for high-level officials in July 1984.
Participants included Raul Ortiz de Zevallos, Vice
Minister of Tourism; Ernesto Paredes Arana, Direc-
tor of the Special Project for Tourist Reserves;
Ramiro Valdez, Executive Director of Copesco (the
Peruvian branch of Unesco); Roberto Zegarra
Alfaro, Chief of Works for the N.I.C./Copesco pro-
gram for the restoration of Inca and Colonial monu-
ments; Carlos Aranda, Coordinator of Apeco, the
Peruvian Conservation Organization; Nico Moscoso,
Director of Cenfor, the Ministry of Agriculture's
Division of Flora and Fauna; a reporter from El
Comercio, one of Peru's major newspapers; and
several North American and Peruvian university
students, scholars connected with the project, wives
and children.
The event began in Cuzco with a slide lecture by
Bernie Peyton on the wildlife in the Park, which is
also an official wildlife sanctuary. Supplied and
outfitted by Explorandes, the group then trekked
from Kilometer 88 to Machu Picchu to see conditions
on the trail first-hand, with talks by Ferreyros and
(Left) The most impressive feature at Machu Picchu MacLean. Because the Park has been declared part
is its fine Inca stonework . Early explorers marveled of the world's cultural patrimony by the United
at the tightly constructed structures and walls found Nations, and because foreigners are responsible for
untouched by the Spaniards. (Above) Porters and so much of the damage, Ferreyros and MacLean are
trekkers on the Inca Trail near Patallacta represent rallying international support for the project.
just one of many groups that trek the trail annually. Ferreyros conceived the idea of sponsors: people,
Although camping is allowed in the Park , such as institutions and organizations around the world
this campsite at the Inca site of Phuyupatamarca, which would contribute time, money or expertise.
campers have damaged many Inca sites.
Sponsors outside Peru include the major American
adventure travel agencies which offer treks in the
working in 1942. Here, too, there is damage from park; British archaeologist Ann Kendall, Director
careless camping. At this altitude orchids and wild- of the Cusichaca Project; the guides who lead treks
flowers proliferate, and encroaching jungle vegeta- in the park; and Fundación Jatari: Andean Educa-
tion is a major threat to archaeological sites. In tion and Research Foundation of San Francisco,
1983 the N.I.C. sent in a crew to remove the over- California, which is handling financial contributions
growth in a never-ending battle against the jungle. to the project.
A number of complexes, situated about an Several times within the past two years Ferrey-
hour's walk apart, are located off the Inca Trail be- ros made trips to the United States to meet with
tween Wiñay Wayna and Machu Picchu. These in- officials from the National Park Service, the Nature
clude agricultural terraces and the new discoveries Conservancy, the Fisheries and Wildlife Service,
of Quillapata and Chaskapata, as well as a stone and the World Wildlife Fund, all of whom offered
stairway with 52 steps, leading up to the remains of help when the project presents a final plan. In Peru
several buildings. Roughly midway is a tiny tampu, various organizations and individuals have become
or waystation, which is slowly being consumed by sponsors of the project. The government agreed that
the jungle. The trail hugs the mountainside and an emergency plan for the park was in order, under
crosses log bridges which offer glimpses of the Uru- the direction of the Ministry of Tourism. Carlos
bamba River a dizzying 2,000 feet below. Suddenly Aranda, of Apeco, volunteered to coordinate the
another flight of stairs leads to the Inti Punku, or emergency plan and present recommendations to a
Sun Door, to Machu Picchu. Although camping is government commission. In Cuzco, the trekking
illegal here, backpackers frequently pitch their tents agencies have stepped up their training of personnel.
because guards rarely make the hour climb from the For instance, Tom Hendrickson, co-owner of Peru-
main part of Machu Picchu to check the site. vian Andean TVeks, reports that all staff is informed
At the Inti Punku hikers stop to have a snack on trail ecology and watched to see that they
and look down on Machu Picchu, then wind their comply with the rules when dealing with refuse,
way down the terraces to enter the city the way bathroom pits, fires, and other related practices.
people did in Inca times, on foot, over the Inca road. Ferreyros and MacLean hope that the new trail map,
But given the damage to the ruins in the park, how listing the rules for camping, will improve the im-
many generations will have this experience? mediate situation on the Inca Trail. All the inter-
The Directors of the Machu Picchu Sanctuary national efforts, in fact, are geared for more awareness
Project agree that conservation and the impact of and better conservation efforts so that future
tourism on the environment are very new ideas in generations can marvel, too, at the ingenuity of the
Peru. Education is necessary at all levels. To con- Inca builders.

/
Nnuomhor 10QC
The of Paris
Archaeology Early
by Philippe Velay, Brigitte Fischer, Dominique morel, and Bailey Young

as we know it, is the prod- the Musée Carnavalet, one of the

uct of a complex urban evolu- major urban museums of the world.
Paris, tion beginning with Julius Indeed, it is difficult to separate the
Caesar, who in 52 b.c. used the history of Parisian archaeology
power of his legions to crush a revolt from the growth of the museum, for
among the Gauls that left Lutetia- the two go hand-in-hand. The city
ancient Paris- in burning ruins. has been the subject of great histori-
The rebuilding of the devastated cal fascination ever since the Renais-
city in the generations that followed sance, when scholars sought to
laid the foundations for the Roman locate some of the city's great an-
city at Paris which would grow, over cient monuments; but in truth the
the course of many centuries, into written record has never been very
the flourishing metropolis so famil- adequate to tell the whole story.
L iar to us today. Only when the modernization of
k How early Paris was destroyed Paris was undertaken during the
WL and subsequently refounded is reign of Napoleon III (1851-1870)
a story which is told, and did the very old city begin to come
mm has been retold for a seriously to light- and only then in
HA hundred years, now, at the form of impressive archaeologi-
cal finds. Under Napoleon Ill's
direction, wide new boulevards were
created, and all the principal streets

(Left) Reconstruction of a Gallic warrior.

His iron weapons haue been found in a
third-century B.C.grave in Rungis,
south of Paris. (Above) Model of the
city of Lutetia during the Early Empire.
(Right) "The Coopers of the Palace of
the Thermal Baths of Julian" was
painted in about 1785 by Hubert Robert
(1733-1808).

"id Arv»u*cru
AT-v
crisscrossing the ancient city were today in the Bibliothèque Historique powerful Abbey de Cluny would later
modernized. This massive undertak- de la Ville de Paris. be built. From the beginning of the
ing opened up sites where the These documents formed the nineteenth century, periodic excava-
different phases of Gallo-Roman basis of a remarkable study of tions took place here and there,
settlement and construction, as well Gallo-Roman Paris published by a notably in the Luxembourg Gardens,
as extensive cemetery areas, could young historian, Felix-George de where many Gallo-Roman objects
be observed. Pachtere, in 1902. Pachtere's work were found. But it was not until
Fortunately for Paris, there was was of great importance because the Vacquer undertook his massive ef-
a person on hand- Theodore Vac- large majority of Vacquer's papers forts that archaeological study of
quer- to observe the old building had remained unpublished. Together Paris began in earnest.
sites and to proceed with scientific with later discoveries, they also It was one thing, however, to
excavation where it was appropriate. served Paul Marie-Duval in writing save a considerable part of the city's
An engineer by training, Vacquer Paris Antique , which has become a archaeological heritage from out-
was appointed by the city in 1844 to basic reference in the use of archae- right destruction, and another to
survey the worksites opened during ological resources to reconstruct the conserve it and present it to the
modernization for material of his- past of the Roman town. general public. Through an irony of
toric interest. In essence, he served This is not to say that no schol- history, many of Vacquer's material
as municipal archaeologist, certainly arly work whatever preceded Vac- finds were buried again- in storage
the first in such a major world capi- quer's efforts. Scholars like Sauval, -and are only now beginning again
tal. For half a century until his Jaillot and especially the Abbé to see the public light. After the de-
retirement in 1889, he followed the Lebeuf sought to explain the origins struction of the old City Hall, the
transformation of Paris, sometimes of various monuments and quarters Hotel de Ville, the city authorities
excavating, and making precise and of Paris with reference to the writ- created a Museum of the History of
meticulous notes. Some of these ten sources. Renaissance writers Paris. Tb that end they chose the
invaluable records were destined to sought the locations of such monu- Hotel Carnavalet located in the old
be destroyed by fire when the Hotel ments as the "Palace of the Em- Marais district, both because it was
de Ville burned in the insurrection peror Julian," as it was called. In one of the oldest and handsomest of
of 1871; but at least 10,000 manu- reality this was the remains of a the noble mansions of the city, with
scripts survive and are conserved Roman bath, on whose site the its Renaissance façade and decor,

N.I 1 /r' 1 moc "k-ï

but also because the house had be- de Vieux Paris, founded in 1899 and
longed to that great lady of letters, still functioning today as the group
Madame de Sevignée, actually the which oversees archaeology in the
Marquise de Sevignée. Vacquer was city. But by the 1920s the cultural
named as one of the curators of the climate had changed, and the Mu-
new museum, which opened its doors seum put its archaeological collec-
to the public just over a century tions in storage to make space for
ago, in 1880. more modern exhibits. The situation
Archaeology thus has acquired remained unchanged for 50 years.
a position of prestige in the cultural Not until 1972 did these treas-
hierarchy of Paris of the Belle ures begin to come again before the
Époque. New finds were added to the public eye. In that year, Patrick
collection after Vacquer's retirement Perin was appointed archaeological
by his successors on the Commission curator of the Museum, and he made
Archaeological fieldwork in Paris plans to put this collection once
yielded a variety of artifacts including again before the public. The first
(above) a first or second-century A.D. stage of this process consisted of
glass bottle; (right) a gold stater, the temporary exhibits, each accom-
obverse of which shows the profile of panied by a thorough catalogue, and
the Gallic prince Vercingetorix. Diam- each devoted to a different historical
eter, approximately two centimeters; phase of the city's history: first
(below) white terracotta animal figu- came Mediaeval Paris in 1978; then
rines and a Venus figurine imported came Merovingian Paris in 1982;
from central Gaul during the Early and most lately came Lutetia or
Empire; an important Roman stone pil- Roman Paris in 1984-85. At the
lar monument, recently reconstructed
and standing in the Musée Carnavelet; moment an ambitious program of
(right, below) a collection of first- modernization and expansion is
century Celtic gold coins minted by the under way at the Museum.
Parisii tribe and a bronze belt pendant,
partly gilded and with niello. rJLhe Gallic peoples of Paris, the
Parisii defeated by Caesar in 52 b.c.,
were already city dwellers with a

IO Anru*rrurtrv
well-developed network of commer- Rome itself before settling down to from what it had been 200 years
cial trade routes along the rivers and dominate the rich plains of northern earlier. But it was still such that the
a much-respected currency based on Italy. Generations of warfare had name of the Celts was associated
gold. It is surprising how silent the been necessary to get them to accept with much of Europe between the
historical sources are on the Parisii, Roman tutelage, or at least accede Rhine and the Pyrenees, the Alps
because Lutetia was exceptionally to it, and even then their warlike and the English Channel- which is
well situated. The island on which cousins over the Alps gave grounds to say, much of Europe.
their city was established lay at a for nervousness. The true begin- Essentially, then, the story of
major conjunction of trade routes nings of the "conquest of Gaul" lie Gallic relations with Rome was far
between the points of confluence with the victories of the Roman from being one of unremitting hos-
where two river systems, the Marne general Sextus, who in 133 b.c. tility. For the Gauls were divided
and the Oise, pour their waters into broke the power of the Salyans and among themselves into over a hun-
the Seine. In contrast to other Gallic founded the colony of Aix-en- dred nationes or gentes , big, little
peoples and regions abundantly de- Provence at the foot of the Salyans' and middle-sized; their political
scribed by Greek and Roman writers devastated citadel, which today is relationships were dominated by
like Posidonius or Livy, we find that being re-excavated. Sextus's vic- alliances, hegemonies and client-
Caesar is the first to mention the tories succeeded in disrupting the relationships, each Gallic civitas or
Parisii at all. balance of power among the diverse tribal state being internally divided
It is clear, however, that Caesar Gallic nations, until then dominated as well by different aristocratic fac-
had developed a healthy respect for by the powerful Arverni of the tions competing for power. The sup-
the Gauls in general and the Parisii Massif Central, implacable enemies port of a powerful neighbor, then,
in particular by the time he stormed of Rome. could be worth its weight in gold,
the city in the chill pre-dawn hours We must speak then of the if not more.
of that early spring day. But who "Gauls" both in the geographic and Caesar's own first military ex-
were the Gauls and what was meant tribal, or even ethnic, sense; for the ploit in Gaul was to defeat the inva-
by "Gaul"? First, we must banish Gauls were not only an aggregate of sion of the Sueve Ariovistus from
our modern tendency to equate diverse peoples, but they must also Switzerland, a campaign which he
"Gaul" and "France." When he be- be clearly distinguished from the undertook at the request of the
gan his career as governor of the Celts. The Celtic-speaking peoples Aedui, one of the richest and most
Gallic regions subject to Rome in 59 were groups dominated by a warlike powerful of the Celtic peoples and
b.c., Caesar's "Gaul" was a vast upper caste whom we find living in long-time enemies of the Arverni.
area including the Po Valley in fortresses in Bohemia ánd southern The Aedui were linked to Rome by a
northern Italy as well as the area Germany around 500 b.c. During special treaty, and in the years after
across the Alps which he liked to the ensuing centuries, the Celts were he had saved them from invasion,
call Provincia . to spread their power in every direc- Caesar often visited or resided in
The Gauls were a people who al- tion, dominating at one time or an- their mountain stronghold at
ready inspired a healthy respect in other regions as distant as Galatia Bibracte in central Burgundy. At
the Romans generally. The Romans in modern l'irkey and Galicia in most stages of his "conquest" of
still had vivid memories of the Gallic modern Portugal. By Caesar's day, Gaul, Caesar had the active support
invaders who in 385 B.c. had burned their might was much diminished of Gallic allies only too happy to
gain glory and booty with the
Romans while striking a blow at
some rival people. Yet it would be a
mistake to overstate the case and to
maintain that a feeling of "Gauls
against Romans" did not develop at
all. By no means were the Aedui all
Caesar's friends; and as Rome
grew more powerful, some of them
changed their minds.
The broad-based revolt against
Rome which was led by Vercingetorix
resulted in the destruction of pre-
Roman Gallic Paris and was in-
spired by a growing feeling that
Gallic patriots had to unite before it
was too late. Once Vercingetorix
had been beaten, however, and the
Parisii were definitively crushed, the
vast majority of the Gauls accepted
the verdict without evident diffi-
culty ; the ranks of Caesar's army
were swelled by bands of Gallic war-

Excavation of the Arena , with an esti-

mated seating capacity of 12,000, was
carried out in the nineteenth century.

Nmmmhor/rWAmhor
1QÄR 9Q
riors who helped him, and then his us about Parisian commerce, we of Macedón, Alexander's father. The
successor Octavian Augustus, con- would have scarcely any hard evi- earliest imitations seem to date from
quer the whole Roman Empire. It dence that the commercial and around the beginning of the third
was these men, returning laden with strategic advantages of that island century b.c., and were issued by the
booty taken in the campaigns of of the Seine were appreciated at Arverni in central Gaul. The series
Egypt, Africa and Spain, who this early date. in question, however, is of mixed
turned their old tribal civitates into Gallic coins are much less well- parentage, and borrows much from
something more like the "cities" known than Greek or Roman issues. the coins of the Belgie Ambiani,
whose pleasures they had come to They betray little direct information even though Philip's stater was the
appreciate in the Mediterranean about themselves: since they are distant prototype. From the Belgie
world. They did not think of them- never dated, relative chronologies influence comes most notably the
selves as "Romans"- they were only can be derived from them, and feeling of lithe movement rendered
Aedui or Sequani or Arverni or the inscriptions they may bear are by the sweeping lines defining the
Parisii first off, and then they were often hard to interpret. Famous horse on the reverse. There is a deep
Gauls- but they knew that their lot people rarely appear on them, and significance to this duality, as we,
was thrown in with Rome's for bet- rarely do they mention the names of shall see shortly, for aesthetically
ter or for worse. places or peoples which would allow speaking it fuses Mediterranean
Many mysteries surround the us to identify them with a region or realism with the Celtic penchant for
emergence of Paris whose early his- a particular city. All the coins in this free movement. Politically and eco-
tory was relatively modest. Lutetia Parisii series observe a fair degree nomically, it implies that the Parisii
was not located near a bustling of stylistic consistency. The obverse belonged to each of the two cultural
frontier area, like Cologne, TVierand shows a head in profile looking right, spheres more or less separated by
Mainz, where the constant demands with a hairstyle composed of two the Seine- Gaul on the one hand,
of a numerous garrison and the civil rows of regular curls. S-shaped mo- Rome on the other. From their island
bureaucrats created a boom econ- tifs occur before the face in most center in the midst of this river val-
omy. TVue,it was a rather convenient cases, and the neck is decorated dif- ley, the merchants and boatmen of
stopping point on the way to Britain. ferently according to the series. On the settlement, soon to be known as
Once this island was added to the the reverse a horse is presented, Lutetia, acted as brokers between
empire and garrisoned in the middle turned to the left on all but a few of these two different worlds.
years of the first century, a natural the later coins ; he has a sinuous Colbert de Beaulieu's studies of
measure of prosperity was restored body, a mane made up of tiny dots, coinage have shown that these coins
to the city. The fact that the city of and the legs look like sticks jointed -all found within 100 kilometers of
the Parisii was indeed politically by round balls, like tinker toys. Paris, almost certain to be of Pari-
and strategically important is evi- Above his back a net, usually sian origin- can be broken down
dent from when Caesar summoned pointed, has been engraved (occa- into seven distinct groups by weight,
the tribes of Gaul to a general as- sionally replaced by a kind of wing stylistic features and gold content.
sembly on Parisian territory on the motif); between his legs is a sort of What the progression of these seven
eve of Vercingetorix's rebellion. Celt flower made up of large dots; from types tells us is a sad political tale
and Roman alike may have sensed his mouth a wavy line mounts to- of a commercially strong people,
the potential of the site; and perhaps ward the top of his head. In this scene from a 1874publication by
the virtual disappearance of Parisii Like most Gallic coins, these de- Gourdon de Genouillac, the warriors
for a generation or so after that re- rive from the stater struck by Philip swear on their weapons that they will
pression is a sign that the con- do their duty.
querors distrusted that potential.
At any rate, by the time the city re-
emerges as Roman Lutetia, it is al-
ready displaying an energy and
sense of civic pride, even if it cannot
compete with the capitals of more
favored peoples like Bordeaux or
Orange, Vienne or Autun. But the
day would come when the political,
military and economic fundamentals
would alter radically, and the change
would find the capital of the Parisii
waiting in the wings, ready to as-
sume its prestigious destiny.

Ironically, the archaeological record

of Lutetia's Celtic background is al-
most as sparse as the historical rec-
ord. There is one notable exception
and this consists of a remarkable
series of gold coins struck by the
Parisii prior to the Roman devasta-
tion, beginning about 100 b.c. Were
it not for this series and what it tells
"Vi AprwAFHi rvr;v
who for many years resist involve- in the first light of day; despite the occupied the Montagne Sainte-
ment in the political forces which savage shock the Gauls held up Genevieve, where today the Pan-
threaten their prosperity, but who valiantly under the eye of the fierce theon is located. Here the imposing
at last are drawn into the tide of old chief Camulogenus until the Forum, with extensive cryptopor-
affairs and are finally defeated Seventh Legion outflanked and en- ticoes, dominated the hill and acted
by an overwhelming force- circled them. Even then, as Caesar as the center of administration and
Caesar's Rome. informs us, they fought to the last, business. According to the laws of
The third-century b.c. coins is- the survivors fleeing to safety in the Classical urbanism, public monu-
sued by the Arverni had begun as mist-filled marshes only after the ments and private houses were built
faithful copies both iconographically Romans had routed their number within a framework dominated by
and technically of Philip's stater; and put the torch to their modest the Cardo, the main north-south
but as time went on, weight and gold island fortress. thoroughfare, which conforms to the
content began to diminish as the Yet only some 70 or 80 years present route of the Rue Saint
engravers took more and more sty- later, during the reign of Tiberius Jacques on the Left Bank and the
listic liberties. The first four of the Caesar, an impressive four-tier stone Rue Saint Martin on the Right Bank.
seven classes belong to an early pillar carrying 16 sculpted scenes North of the city, on the slopes and
phase of coin issue characterized by was raised somewhere in the center summit of Montmartre, temples and
a remarkable consistency in weight of Lutetia, as the Parisii were now well-appointed villas added their
and fine metal content; this series, proudly calling their capital in Latin. touch of elegance to the Early Im-
stretching over a considerable The devastation and following va- perial skyline. Around the city, out-
period of time, argues for political cancy had not ended the settlement side the space reserved for dwelling
stability and long-term economic on the Seine: the history of modern areas and public business by Im-
prosperity. Further, it implies a Paris had effectively begun. perial law, the domain of the dead-
period of peace during which the One of the most important of the cemeteries- developed along
Parisii reaped the benefits of active the Roman monuments, and only re- the main roads west and especially
trading. Caesar gives hints of how cently reconstructed in a convincing south from the first to the fourth
important boat traffic was on the way, this stone pillar was paid for centuries.
rivers when he indicates that Labie- by the Nautes, a corporation grow- As was usual in the cities of the
nus requisitioned some 50 vessels ing wealthy from the river-borne Roman Empire, Lutetia boasted a
to make his attack in 52 B.c. None trade stimulated by the Pax Romana variety of religious and civil monu-
of these coins, moreover, has been achieved during the time of Augus- ments-the Pillar of the Nautes be-
cut by sceptics fearful of base coins tus. The pillar proclaims the Nautes 1 ing but one of them, the Forum
coated with gold: all of their users loyalty to the emperor and to Jupiter being chief among them. For leisure
trusted implicitly to their gold Maximus, the chief of the Roman the population could flock in great
content. gods, who is depicted grasping his numbers to the Arena and its wild-
With the appearance of the wider, familiar attributes of power, the beast games, or go to the extensive
thinner coins of Class V, the gold thunderbolts. On the highest tier, public baths for sport, hygiene, re-
content diminishes, a sure sign of however, above even Jupiter, the laxation, and sociability. Tfemples
recession and a probable indication citizens of the new city placed the and memorials, raised in honor of
that the beginning of the Gallic image of their own Celtic deity- the Gallo-Roman deities, were also
wars was at hand. The large number Cernunnos- who is seated cross-
of coins found in this class indicate legged with two handsome tores This head of Julius Caesar, made of
that the Parisii needed a larger adorning his dramatically horned Pentelic marble , dates to 44 B.C.
monetary mass, but that their gold head.
supply was insufficient to sustain The other sculpted panels pre-
intrinsic value. By Class VII, the sent a similar mixture of Celtic and
signs of profound crisis become un- Roman divinities, as well as soldiers
mistakable: the gold content has bearing Celtic and Roman arms,
been halved. In 53 b.c. when Caesar dramatic proof that the two cultures
ordered that the assembly of the had found a new community of in-
Gauls be held in Parisian territory, terest based on mutual respect. First
he noted "this people dwelt next to found in the eighteenth century, this
the Senones but appeared to be un- monument was originally erected
involved in the plot." Only the next after Rome's abortive failure to con-
year did they in fact send a troop quer Germany, and helps to proclaim
of 8,000 men to aid Vercingetorix, the citizens' sense that they now be-
an enormous financial effort which long to the "civilized" world. Housed
must explain the cheaper staters. now in the place of honor in the
This poor production is indeed a sad Carnavalet Museum, the Pillar of
swan song for a people so recently the Nautes symbolizes the opening
prosperous, who had created one of of an era of unprecedented peace
the most splendid numismatic tra- and prosperity when the first urban
ditions in all Gaul. civilization of Western Europe was
to take form and flourish.
As the Roman city of Lutetia
So the end of the Parisii was des- grew, it expanded from its original
tined to be both abrupt and violent. location on the Ile de la Cité across
The attack of Caesar's troops came the Seine to the Left Bank and
a source of civic pride. vestiges of this process. But of all the ancient monu-
The people of Lutetia, who have During the Late Empire, when ments that remain of Roman Paris,
been estimated at between 6,000 and the Barbarian invasions became a only the so-called "Northern Baths,"
8,000 during the Imperial heyday, daily threat, Lutetia was a military today part of the famed Cluny Mu-
lived comfortably spread out among center of some importance. The seum, still survive partly in eleva-
their 140-odd hectares. By the first handsome old Forum was fortified tion; one of the monumental rooms
century the city was thriving: and a large rampart was built around stands today with its Roman vaults
houses built of brick and stone were the Ile de la Cité , partly with blocks intact. The residence of the powerful
roofed with tile, and might boast taken from earlier monuments. The Abbots of Cluny was built in the
rooms decorated with mosaic floors Seine river fleet was stationed there later Middle Ages alongside what
and walls brightened with gay fres- and two soldier-emperors, Julian twelfth-century sources call the
coes. Excavations have furnished us and Valentinian I, made it a regular "Palace of the Baths." For a long
with numerous objects which reveal headquarters. But neither Chris- time it was thought that this had
the everyday activities of the Lute- tianity nor the Barbarians were to been in fact a "palace" where the
tians- silver and bronze coins to be stopped. A century later, the Emperors Julian the Apostate and
spend at the market, pottery locally Parisians rallied behind their favor- Valentinian I had resided while in
made or imported from other regions ite saint, the shepherd girl, Gene- Lutetia, but we know now that this
of Gaul, bronze and terracotta fig- vieve, during the darkest days of was merely a long-lived legend.
urines which brought gods and god- the invasions. When the Franks, During the seventeenth and
desses or local heroes into people's under young King Clovis, finally eighteenth centuries, a hanging
houses. occupied the city, they too bowed to Babylonian-style garden was created
Commercial traffic converged the new faith. Converted about A.D. on these vaults, and during the
on the city along the major high- 496, Clovis made Paris the capital same centuries craftsmen were al-
ways built by Rome's engineers, but of the new Frankish kingdom and lowed to occupy structures built into
the river traffic along the Seine was began a program of church building the solid interior of the old building;
at the heart of its prosperity. Reli- continued by his successors, which in 1781, for instance, a barrel-maker
giously, the pagan traditions of the has transformed the city into the had his shop here. Only during the
Parisii were synthesized with the Christian capital that we know. nineteenth century did historical
venerated divinities of Celtic Europe Among the great finds from consciousness become acute enough
and the deities of the Classical world. this early period made a century ago to warrant rescuing the structure.
At home, the domestic cults of the during the modernization of Paris Louis XVIII cleared away the para-
Lares were a focus of devotion. are three that bear more particular site structures, put an enclosing
Among Gallo-Roman divinities, mention. These are the Arena, the wall around the structure to protect
Mercury, Mars and Venus were most Roman Baths (known for so long as the ruins, and ordered the first
frequently represented in Lutetia, "Julian's Palace"), and the great limited excavations.
on stone reliefs as well as in figures southern cemetery, which today is The large-scale operations of
of bronze or terracotta. Burial prac- in the vicinity of the Luxembourg urban renewal, begun by Napoleon
tices provide a clue to religious atti- Gardens. III and continued under the Third
tudes as well; during the early days, During the 1860s workmen cut Republic, led to the discovery of
cremation was the usual practice, a large swath through one of the old Lutetia's largest cemetery located to
with the burnt bones and ashes quarters of the Left Bank to build the south of the city, along the major
carefully buried in simple vases. But the new Rue Monge and the build- road to Lyon, where the Gobelins
during the Empire, inhumation ings fronting it. When they came quarter stands today. Countless
burial gained ground progressively upon the considerable remains of the burials came to light when the new
until it had become general by the Roman amphitheater hidden in the boulevards were built. Vacquer and
fourth century. Most often the network of later constructions, there other archaeologists were able to
bodies were buried in a simple need have been no surprise: the rescue a rich harvest of grave goods
wooden coffin, although the rich dis- memory of the Arena, which had an which provides a typological base
played fancy stone sarcophagi. estimated seating capacity of 12,000, for understanding daily life- good-
During the troubled third cen- had been preserved for centuries by quality sigillata pottery imported
tury, the Christian religion first be- the place name, and twelfth-century from other regions of Gaul and the
gan to acquire converts in the towns documents situated it. But a long plainer, local varieties, bronze jew-
of northern Gaul. In Lutetia, funer- drawn out historical preservation elry, sometimes even little figurines
ary finds as well as hagiographie battle followed. At first it went in of a Gallo-Roman or an Oriental
literature reflect the growth of a favor of the "modernizers" and large divinity. This was also one of the key
small Christian community, threat- parts of the monument were dis- sites for the development of Chris-
ened by persecutions, into a trium- mantled to serve as a quarry for new tianity, for here was built one of the
phant religion united behind its construction and to make way for a oldest churches, doubtless around
bishop on the eve of the Barbarian bus depot! Preservationists fought the grave of the fifth-century Bishop
invasions. Epitaphs decorated with back in the press and won a major Marcel whose name it bore until its
the Chrism (the sign in the sky victory in the second round with the demolition. Thus the old pagan civic
which led the emperor Constantine help of "stars" like Victor Hugo. In necropolis was transformed into
to convert), personal ornaments 1883 the city decided to save what one of the major cemeteries of
decorated with figures of the proph- was left and even attempt a partial Mediaeval Christian Paris, as the
ets, and the first churches to be reconstruction to be integrated into faithful flocked to be buried ad
built in the town, or the southern a public garden which was finally sanctos, in the shadow of the saint's
cemetery are all archaeological done in 1917-18. protecting grace.
T? Aptmafoj
nrv
 Galen's
Pergamm

by Lee T. Pearcy

III, ruler of the Hellenistic Greek kingdom of Pergamm, was an

eccentric monarch with an interest in botanical research and a habit of testing
Attaluspoisonous plants and their antidotes on condemned criminals. When he
died in 133 b.c., one final surprise remained for his subjects. The king's will bequeathed
his realm to the distant but rising power of Rome. The Pergamene territory,
stretching from the Sea of Marmara to the southern coast of what is now Turkey,
became the nucleus of the Roman province of Asia. The golden age of the Attalid
kings (282-133 b.c.) was over.
The modern Turkish market town of Bergama occupies part of the site of the
Attalids' capital city, Pergamm. For most visitors, the royal monuments on the
acropolis are the chief attraction. The vertiginous sweep of the theater, the founda-
tions of the Altar of Zeus, and the ruins of the palaces, arsenals, sanctuaries, and
Royal Library, with which Eumenes II ( 197-159 b.c. ) asserted his claim to cultural
parity with the Ptolemies of Egypt, crown a thousand-foot hill at the end of a spur
extending south from the Madra Dagi range. Today, as it always has, the acropolis
of Pergamm dominates the fertile valley of the Bakir Cayi, the ancient Caïcus
River.
But Pergamene history did not stop with the death of Attalus III. After
Pergamm passed into Roman rule as a nominally free city -"free and autonomous
from the beginning by grace of the emperors," as an inscription revealingly

r
Ait Ionic column
capital from the
North Stoa , part
of a complex of
structures built
in the reigns of
Hadrian and
Antoninus Pius
to enclose the
sacred precinct o
Asclepius.
describes two cities in similar cir- illuminate the life and writings of astronomy as well as architecture,
cumstances-its fortunes were in Galen, and Galen in turn helps to and a hint of a certain rigidity of
general those of the province of put life into the stones. mind emerges from Nicon's gram-
Asia. Along with the province, it matical purism and from his fond-
enjoyed prosperity during the reigns ness for exotic mathematical and
of TVajan (a.D. 98-117), Hadrian Galen was born at Pergamm in literary recreations. He was, for
(a.D. 117-138), Antoninus Pius A.D. 129. His father, Aelius Nicon, example, given to composing isop-
(a.D. 137-161), and Marcus Aurelius was an architect and builder. His sephic verses, that is, verses whose
(a.D. 161-180). Under these An- mother was, as Galen himself wrote, letters when given their values ac-
tonine emperors Pergamm in par- a shrew. She would sometimes fly at cording to the Greek alphabetic
ticular experienced a second golden her slaves and bite them and was numeral system and added together
age rivaling that of the Attalids in always fighting with his father. give the same total for each line of a
architectural and cultural splendor, Galen compared her to Socrates' poem. Five inscriptions found at
if not in political influence. quarrelsome wife Xanthippe- but Pergamm preserve samples of
Although the most distinguished Galen's mother was worse. Perhaps these isopsephic compositions.
native of Antonine Pergamm was she found it difficult to live with Galen's father was a typical
Galen, the physician and philos- someone as omnivorously and, it member of the circle of men of lei-
opher, the only direct reminder of may be, intolerantly intellectual as sure and letters who gathered at
Galen to be found in Pergamm Nicon. Galen writes of his father's second-century Pergamm 's Sanc-
today was created after his death. interest in mathematics, logic and tuary of Asclepius, the god of medi-
It is in the ethnographical museum
of modern Bergama: an Arabic man-
uscript of the Mediaeval Persian
physician Avicenna's Canon of Medi-
cine, a work which draws heavily on
Galen's and a fitting testimony to
his importance as a transmitter
of ancient Greek medicine. Galen's
influence dominated not only
Mediaeval Islamic medicine, but
also western medicine for 1,500
years after his death early in the
third century.
And yet the archaeologically
minded visitor to the site of ancient
Pergamm soon discovers that
Galen's career, his opinions of his
native city, and the careers of his
family and associates make up per-
haps the best guide to the ruins once
one leaves the upper city and the
Attalid monuments on the acropolis
itself. The remains of the lower city

TA Ado-iap
rurv-.v
 The road from the Sanctuary of
Asclepius passed through an arch , now
called the Viran Kapi, or Ruined Gate,
at the corner of Pergamm 's Roman
theater.

of Lourdes, Bath, St. Bartholomew's,

and All Souls' attracted not only
Galen and his father, but also the
famous rhetoricians Aelius Aristides
and Antonius Polemo, the Per-
gamene historian and consular
Claudius Charax, the consul Cuspius
Rufinus, and many others, sick and
well, valetudinarian and hypo-
chondriac. "All Asia," wrote Philo-
stratus in the generation after Galen,
"flocks to the shrine of Asclepius
at Pergamm."
Galen, perhaps while still in his
teens, became a therapeutes or "at-
tendant" of the Pergamene As-
clepius. Inscriptions found at the
Asclepeion and the gossipy speeches
of Aelius Aristides show that the
"attendants" were far from being
lowly servants of the god. Members
of this prestigious cult association
included consuls and ex-consuls,
senators, highly-placed members of
the imperial civil service, philoso-
phers and rhetoricians from all over
cine. The sanctuary now stands flanked by tombs, and the colon- the province of Asia.
quietly on the outskirts of Bergama naded street carefully skirts a round At the end of the colonnaded
near a Ibrkish army training camp tomb of the Hellenistic period street visitors entered a courtyard
and tank park. In Galen's day also (323-14 b.C.). and then passed through a propylon,
it stood somewhat outside the city, The shops could have sold food, or ornamental gateway, into the As-
with which it was connected by a drink, souvenirs, books- any kind clepeion itself. The inscription still
road some 820 meters long. The ex- of necessity or luxury -and would on the propylon's broken pediment
cavations of the German Archaeo- have had many customers among in the courtyard, declaring that it
logical Institute since 1927 have the throngs of visitors and residents was given by the historian Charax,
exposed the last 140 meters of this at the shrine. The Asclepeion was reminds today's visitors of the com-
elegant street. In this section, near- more than a sanctuary of the healing bination of wealth, intellectualism
est the Asclepeion, Ionic colonnades god. It combined the functions of a and social prestige that centered on
flanked the roadway and covered temple and a center of healing by the Asclepeion in second-century
broad sidewalks with shops opening faith, a spa, a teaching hospital, and Pergamm. For Charax, the money
onto them. In earlier times the road a place of resort for intellectuals spent on the propylon would be well
to the Asclepeion, like other roads from Pergamm and the other cities repaid by the way in which the struc-
leading out of Greek cities, had been of the Province of Asia. This blend ture proclaimed his social standing,

Nnuemhor/rWomlvir
1QfiR "ÍR
generosity and cultural interests to audiences would not have come to umns; the women's, it is sad to
all who passed through it. hear only dramatic performances. report, was a plain room with only
Someone standing on the inner The second century was an age in 17 seats.
steps of the propylon looked out on love with rhetoric and rhetorical dis- Someone leaving the Asclepeion
a huge open courtyard 110 meters play. During this Second Sophistic would have faced the imposing east-
wide and 130 meters long. On the -so called to distinguish it from ern façade of the enclosure- no stoa,
north, west and south sides Ionic the first great period of enthusiasm but a rhythmic architectural com-
stoas (porches fronted by a range of for rhetoric, the late fifth century position. Two buildings, each with a
columns) surrounded the temples, b.c.- the sophists, teachers and pedimented porch supported by four
fountains and treatment rooms of practitioners of rhetoric and other Corinthian columns, flanked a pas-
the Hellenistic and Early Roman arts enjoyed power, influence and sageway just to the left of the façade's
Asclepeion. Behind the visitor, an wealth to a degree seldom experi- center. The left-hand building was
impressive range of buildings com- enced by intellectuals at any time. the propylon built by Claudius
pleted the quadrangle on the east. Galen's writings show the influence Charax. The right-hand building
In the center of the western stoa a of the Second Sophistic's rhetorical was the Temple of Asclepius itself,
doorway and flight of steps gave culture, and his accounts of how he built by Lucius Cuspius Pactumeius
onto a Doric stoa. It and a good part gave anatomical demonstrations Rufinus, distinguished citizen of
of the northern colonnade have before enthusiastic, socially promi- Pergamm and consul in A.D. 142.
been reconstructed. nent audiences at Rome, refuted The temple was modeled on the
This monumental ensemble of critical partisans of other physi- Pantheon, recently completed at
enclosing structures was designed cians, or expounded his diagnoses Rome. Behind a porch only slightly
to regularize the rather haphazard of diseases differ very little from the bigger than the propylon loomed a
plan of the earlier Asclepeion, to accounts of sophists' demonstra- great cylinder 30.55 meters in diam-
symbolize the importance of the tions in Philostratus's Lives of the eter supporting a hemispherical
healing sanctuary and the city to Sophists. The small theater of the dome 23.85 meters across. The
which it was attached, and to pro- Asclepeion might have witnessed façade focused on the temple of the
vide space for the cultural activities rhetorical displays by Aelius Aris- god without being balanced around
which had become an increasingly tides (who in one of his orations at- it, and the matching porches of tem-
important part of life at the shrine tributed his skill in speaking to ple and propylon strained against
in the second century. At the north- Asclepius), by Antonius Polemo, the off-center but dominating tem-
east corner immediately to the right and by other sophists visiting the ple and gave the soothing effect of
of the main entrance stood a library shrine. symmetry without the tedium that
furnished, as an inscription still in Besides the library and theater, an actually symmetrical composi-
the northern stoa announces, by one other large room opened off the tion might have induced. The eye
Flavia Melitene, a prominent citizen enclosing stoa at the southwest cor- swept across the eastern façade from
of second-century Pergamm, wife ner opposite the library. Its purpose the library of Flavia Melitene on the
of one town councillor and mother is not obvious, but it may have been north past the propylon of Claudius
of another. The statue of Hadrian a lecture hall or meeting room. Next Charax and the temple of Cuspius
she donated to the library now stands to it the practical Romans installed Rufinus to the round treatment
in the museum of Bergama. two public lavatories. The men's was building at the southeast corner,
At the northwest corner of the on an imperial scale, with 40 seats, which was built somewhat later
enclosure is a small theater seating marble paving, and a ceiling sup- than the other buildings and lay,
perhaps 3,500 spectators. These ported by four fine Corinthian col- like the theater at the opposite cor-

Gladiators fight bears and bulls in a

frieze now in the Archaeological
Museum in modern Bergama. Such
bloody spectacles were frequent in
Pergamum's amphitheater ; one of the
few in the Greek world.

"VI Abthafoinnv
ner, outside the enclosing line of the
stoas. These buildings represented
in stone and marble the intellectual,
social, political, theological, and
medical functions of the second-
century shrine. In the tension be-
tween the near symmetry of the two
porches and the off-center focus of
the domed temple hung something
else: a straining for effect and mis-
trust of serenity in an age that knew
the paradoxes of prosperity and the
anxiety of continuous peace.
An inscription over the columns
of the north stoa honored the
Emperor Hadrian, and it is likely
that the construction of the en-
closure was begun during his reign.
Galen, on the other hand, says that
Cuspius Rufinus was building the
round temple during his consulate
in A.D. 142, four years into the
reign of Antoninus Pius. As a
boy and young man Galen saw the
eastern range of buildings and the
northern, western and southern
stoas rise up and surround the old
Asclepeion, and the precinct filled
with the dust of construction and
the shouts of workmen.

^ïicon had intended for his son

to study philosophy or politics,
pursuits appropriate to the cultured
governing class into which he had
been born. But in 144 or 145
Asclepius intervened. In a dream,
Galen says, the god told Nicon to
allow his son to study medicine.
Nicon obeyed. Perhaps he was re-
lieved that divine authority had
given him a way to grant his son's
wish without having to admit that
his plan for Galen's education
had been wrong. For the next four
years Galen studied medicine
at Pergamm amid the gleaming
buildings of the new precinct
of Asclepius. the ancient Greeks of the Roman The remains of Pergamum's Roman
In 148 or 149 Nicon died, and period were as bloodthirsty and amphitheater are rarely visited by
Galen at 19 found himself rich and competitive as anyone, and gladia- tourists to the site . The stream running
independent. He chose to travel and tors found a ready audience in Greek through the structure could have been
further his medical education at cities under Roman rule. There were used to flood the arena for mock naval
battles .
Smyrna (modern Izmir), Corinth troupes of gladiators at Smyrna,
and Alexandria. During his travels Philadelphia and Cyzicus. Although
he maintained his connections with amphitheaters are uncommon in the
influential people in Pergamm, and Greek world (in addition to Perga-
in 157 returned to his native city mum's, there was one at Corinth,
and a prestigious appointment: built in the third or fourth century,
physician to the gladiators. one at Cyzicus on the Sea of Mar-
Gladiatorial combats had origi- mara, and perhaps one or two
nated in Etruscan and Roman Italy, others), stadiums like those at
lb many people the spectacle of Aphrodisias, Smyrna, Nysa, and
human beings killing one another Laodicea were the scenes of gladia-
to entertain a crowd seems at odds torial combats. It is worth remem-
with Hellenic culture, but in fact bering that the Romanized theaters
1985
November/December 37
The Trajaneum, a temple in honor
of Trojan, the Optimus Princeps
(Best of Emperors), was the only
substantial structure added to
Pergamum's acropolis by Imperial
Rome. The lower city benefitted
most from prosperity under the
Antonine emperors.

of Greek cities like Ephesus or theaters were free-standing, but the province's general assembly, a
Miletus were often the scenes of Pergamum's was built into a hill. body which advised the Roman gov-
gladiatorial exhibitions as well as This theater was approximately 150 ernor on provincial affairs and super-
of more intellectual diversions. meters across, slightly larger than vised the official worship of Rome
Hundreds of inscriptions and reliefs the theater at Ephesus, which and the emperor. The High Priest
bear witness to the life, death and seated some 25,000 spectators. was expected to provide at his own
popularity of gladiators in the Two hundred yards north and expense gladiatorial games during
Greek-speaking parts of the Roman just west of the Roman theater stood his year in office, and each High
Empire. Pergamum's amphitheater. Its oval Priest on leaving office sold his
Pergamm had its amphitheater measures 136 meters on the long, "family" of gladiators to his succes-
and Roman theater to supplement north-south axis and 128 meters on sor. A decree of the Roman Senate
the Hellenistic theater on the acrop- the shorter, east-west axis. The passed in A.D. 177 to regulate and
olis. Few people nowadays visit Colosseum at Rome, in comparison, moderate the amount of money spent
these remains of the Roman city. measures 188 meters on its long axis on these displays gives valuable
They lie on a long plateau, Musalla and 156 meters on the short. At the details of their administration and
Mesarlik, which runs from south to northern and southern ends of Per- shows the pains taken to care for
north between the Asclepeion and gamum's amphitheater rise parts of the valuable gladiators between
the acropolis in one of the poorer the substructure of concrete and bouts.
quarters of modern Bergama. The rubble, faced with blocks of the Galen was proud of the fact that
ancient road from the Asclepeion reddish-purple andesite from which during his initial term as physician
passed through an arch at the south- much of Pergamm was built. These to the gladiators, none of his pa-
ern corner of the theater, and today remains tower nearly 100 feet (ca. tients died as a result of wounds.
that arch is the most conspicuous 30 meters) above a small stream Five High Priests succeeded one
remaining part of the Roman thea- which runs through the arena of the another in four years, and each one
ter. Known locally as the Viran amphitheater. The water from this renewed Galen's appointment. From
Kapi, the Ruined Gate, it serves as stream would have been channeled the autumn of 157 to the autumn of
a point of reference on the skyline to flood the arena whenever the day's 161 he gained valuable practical
to someone who has chosen to walk program called for a naumachia or experience in what we would call
up through the narrow, twisting mock naval battle. trauma and sports medicine. But his
streets on the eastern slope of the The gladiators who fought and duties would not have kept him too
Musalla Mesarlik rather than take occasionally died here were orga- busy to pursue his studies in theo-
the easier road from the Asclepeion. nized into a troupe or "family" under retical medicine and philosophy, and
The outline of the theater ap- the supervision of a lanista. "Slave to take part in the cultural and po-
pears as a semicircular hollow in the driver" is the dictionary's transla- litical life of Pergamum's governing
hillside. Nothing can be seen of the tion, but "coach and general mana- elite. Although a gladiatorial match
orchestra or stage building at the ger" might give a better idea of the might last several days, these
bottom of the semicircle, but along lanista' s duties. The nominal owner matches were linked to major festi-
the northern edge and by the Viran of Pergamum's "family" was the vals of local divinities or the im-
Kapi opposite it is easy to see the High Priest of Asia, an official perial cult and so took place on only
massive arches that supported the whose religious duties were less im- a few days each year. Epitaphs from
sloping tiers of seats. Many Roman portant than his role as president of Asia Minor often show how many

38 ARCHAFCH
OC.Y
combats the deceased gladiator had Sophistic reserved great rewards for lieve that the same people applauded
fought: hardly ever more than 20 in intellectuals who could demonstrate the deadly spectacles of the amphi-
a career, often fewer than ten, even their skills in eloquent, agonistic theater and the sophists' displays
when the gladiator survived to re- verbal displays. Galen practiced of verbal virtuosity in the cozy
tire from the arena. Inscriptions this craft as well as any Polemo theater of the Asclepeion. But if the
from Pergamm commemorate one or Aristides. wind was right, patients in the
gladiator with 18 combats, another When he left Pergamm in A.D. Asclepeion and readers in its library
with five victories, another with 161, however, he had, as he tells us, would have heard the shouts of
only two. This unfortunate fighter's intended to return as soon as some the crowd in the amphitheater
name was Chresteinos, and his epi- unspecified internal strife in his city carried up the ravine between the
taph, set up by his wife Antonia, had died down. We do not know Musalla Mesarlik and the higher
records the fact that he was killed what this local conflict was or hill to the west. Galen, we know,
by a gladiator with the nom de whether it was in any way the cause built his Pergamene years around
combat Achilles, and declares that of Galen's departure. (He was in fact both places.
he bore his fate like a man. back in Pergamm from A.D. 166 He was a physician who never
By A.D. 161 Galen, now 32, may until sometime in 169.) But the passed up a chance to condemn the
have realized that even a great and Roman cities of Asia knew local ignorance and greed of physicians,
prosperous provincial city like Per- conflict even in the midst of the gen- a rhetorician who mistrusted rhet-
gamm could not offer the opportu- eral Antonine tranquillity, and this oric, a success among the governing
nities his talents and ambition conflict was often directed at people elites of Pergamm and Rome who
demanded. The lure of Rome, Juve- of Galen's class. The sophist Dio of condemned their frivolity and anti-
nal had written a generation earlier, Prusa (modern Bursa) was the tar- intellectualism. When Galen left
pulled every hungry Greek to it, get of a mob who believed that he Pergamm in A.D. 169 he never re-
and, the satirist added, these clever, had conspired with his fellow no- turned. Unlike many intellectuals at
facile, talkative foreigners displaced tables to fix the price of grain. He the imperial court- the sophist
solid, decent Romans from positions came up before the proconsul Pliny Polemo under Hadrian, for example,
of preferment. on charges of malfeasance in connec- or the physician Xenophon under
Galen is not perhaps the sort of tion with a public building contract. Claudius and Nero- he never used
"starving Greekling" Juvenal had in At Pergamm itself at some point his position to win favors for his
mind. His lofty Pergamene connec- during the reign of Antoninus Pius native city, and Pergamm in turn
tions and financial independence a labor dispute halted construction never honored him with inscription
raise him above that crowd. But on a public building, and the Roman or statue. Yet in the uneasy sym-
Galen did leave Pergamm for Rome. governor of Asia, after inspecting metry of the Asclepeion's façade
There his anatomical demonstra- the site in person, intervened to and the contrast between the heal-
tions, lectures and well-publicized settle the grievance. ing god's shrine and the Roman
cures in difficult cases transformed From our point of view on the theater and amphitheater not far
him from a provincial aristocrat distant high ground of 1,800 years away, today's visitor can sense the
with a local medical reputation to of hindsight, Galen and his Perga- social and cultural forces that shaped
an international intellectual figure mm present a spectacle of paradox Galen's early career and the tensions
and court physician to the Emperor and contradiction. The stones seem beneath the Second Sophistic's
Marcus Aurelius. The Second to match the man. It is hard to be- anxious race for tranquillity.

The small theater in the Sanctuary

ofAsclepius was the scene of
rhetorical displays by Galen, Aelius
Aristides and other sophists of the
second century A.D.Aristides
writes of the therapeutic value of
giving orations.

1985
November/December 39
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 the beginning of this
century, a science has developed
Sincethat involves the study of dis-
ease in ancient populations. Known
as paleopathology, it embraces
such fields as anthropology, archae-
ology and palaeontology. In essence,
paleopathology attempts to trace
the appearance, development and
disappearance of diseases, in addi-
tion to their effects on ancient
societies.
For most ancient populations,
only the skulls and skeletons remain,
and these can provide evidence only
of diseases that leave their mark
upon the bones. Other cultures,
however, practiced some form of
body preservation, ranging from the
mummified remains of the ancient
Egyptians to bodies in Alaska and
South America which were pre-
served through freezing or heat-
drying. In these cases, it is now
possible to examine the traces of
other illnesses through the develop-
ment of paleohistology, the study
of preserved tissues.
In recent years, many such
studies have been undertaken on
preserved bodies from Egypt, Nubia,
South America, the Aleutian Islands
and Alaska. Tb date the greatest
number of samples for histopatho-
logical study have been obtained
from Egypt and Nubia. The Egyp-
tians developed an intentional
method of preserving some of the
bodies of their dead, known today
as mummification, which involved
various techniques and the use of
chemical agents. This process has
provided the most effectively pre-
served ancient tissue for the modern
study of disease in an ancient
population.
Among the various investiga-
tions of Egyptian mummified re-
mains, one of the most intensive has
been carried out at the Manchester
Museum, of the University of Man-
chester in England. The museum
has one of the largest and most
comprehensive Egyptian collections
in Britain, which came into exis-
tence in the late nineteenth century
mainly through the generous patron-
age of a Manchester textile mer-
chant, Jesse Haworth. Over a period
Close-up view of Mummy 1770 before
the two-week unwrapping and autopsy
performed by the Manchester team in
1975. The fine gilded face mask is still
preserved but the bandages are in a
poor state of preservation. Lengthy
132 centimeters.

November/
December
1985 41
 of several years, he financed the
excavations in Egypt of the famous
British Egyptologist, William
Flinders Petrie. Material from the
excavations consequently came to
Jesse Haworth, who ensured that
the Manchester Museum received a
regular and substantial share of the
division. This collection now in-
cludes 21 human and 34 animal
mummies, which exemplify most of
the major developments in mummi-
fication procedures over the 3,000-
year span of Egyptian history.
Recently, the collection has provided
a unique opportunity for a multi-
disciplinary study of Egyptian
mummified remains.
Early research in this field was
undertaken in Manchester when
Margaret Murray, the first curator
of Egyptology at the museum, led
the first multi-disciplinary team in
the scientific examination of two of
the mummies in the collection. In
May 1908, in front of an invited
audience, the mummies, known as
(Above left) The author cuts the first the "Two Brothers," were unwrapped
bandages of Mummy 1770 and (right) and subsequently subjected to a
examines the fine pair of painted carton- thorough scientific investigation by
nage slippers which were discovered specialists in various fields, such as
covering the false "feet" with which the anatomy, chemical analysis and the
mummy had been supplied. (Center) study of textiles. These experts con-
One of the Manchester mummies under- tributed their knowledge to the
goes radiological investigation on the detailed examination of both the
specialized equipment at the Man- mummies and the associated funer-
chester Royal Infirmary.
In the radiograph showing the ary artifacts, discovered à year
view of Nekht-Ankh's cranium , for previously in an intact tomb at Der
example (below), archaeologists could Rifeh in Middle Egypt, dated to the
examine anatomical and dental 12th Dynasty (ca . 1900 b.c.). The
attributes . results of this investigation were

42 ARCHAEOLOGY
 Margaret Murray (second
from right) was the first
curator of Egyptology at
Manchester University
Museum , England. Here
she is unwrapping the
mummy of one of the "Udo
"
Brothers at Manchester
in 1908. The team she led
included medical and
scientific specialists in a
number of fields.

published in a monograph entitled could then adapt for the study of their ment of Diagnostic Radiology by
The Tbmb of Two Brothers by M.A. own collections. A range of tech- computed tomography (EMI
Murray (Manchester Museum, niques carried out on all the mummies CT5005), a technique designed to
Manchester, 1910). supplied a wealth of information obtain transverse body sections
Some 60 years later, in 1973, during the first phase of the project, five to 13 millimeters in thickness.
Manchester again embarked on a from 1973 to 1979. Radiology, as a totally non-
scientific study. This time the whole destructive technique of examina-
collection of Egyptian mummified Ihe detailed radiological survey tion, can provide much information
remains was included, and a multi- of all the human and animal mum- relating to mummified remains. It
disciplinary team applied a wide mies was an unprecedented scientific supplies details not only about the
range of modern scientific tech- opportunity. Earlier studies of other history and state of preservation of
niques to the examination and study collections, carried out on site, had the mummy, but also about evidence
of the mummies. As a University involved the need to use mobile of any disease present in the skeletal
department, the museum is ideally compact equipment capable of being remains. Facts about funerary pro-
placed for an interrelated study of attached to local electricity supplies. cedures can be supplied by radio-
this kind, since it has ready access But at Manchester the mummies logical studies of the position of the
to other teaching departments and could be transported to the Man- arms and hands, the presence and
physical proximity to teaching hos- chester Royal Infirmary and the disposition of protective jewelry
pitals with highly specialized, ad- University Medical School. Here, (amulets) between the bandages,
vanced equipment. The University near ideal conditions were available, and packets containing preserved
of Manchester provided expertise with access to orbiting, fluoroscopic viscera placed in the abdominal and
and equipment, and a grant was and tomographic equipment. thoracic cavities. The existence of
received from the British Academy. Specialized radiological equip- embalmers' restorations, such as
Kodak Ltd. of Hemel Hempstead, ment available in the Department prosthetic limbs, can also be deter-
England made available free supplies of Neuroradiology at Manchester mined, as can evidence of brain
of x-ray film for the radiological Royal Infirmary included the Elema removal and the various methods
studies of the mummies, and Key Med Schonander Mimer III radiological employed for this purpose. Skeletal
Industrial of Southend, England unit, equipped with a 0.3 millimeter maturity and development, giving
provided the equipment for the focal spot x-ray tube capable of the approximate age at death, and
endoscopy program. orbiting the subject. It could also the sex of the individual can also
The Manchester Project had two undertake fluoroscopy by means of usually be assessed.
specific aims. First, the intention a seven-inch image intensifier and In the Manchester mummies,
was to discover evidence of disease television, and could be used for the radiological survey provided
and causes of death in the mummies, varying sectional thickness tomog- evidence of the presence of disease
and to gain further information raphy at any angle of orbit. An asso- in a number of bodies. Arthritis,
relating to funerary and religious ciated high-powered generator made ante-mortem trauma, and general-
practices and living conditions in it possible to employ fine-grain in- ized disease were noted. In one
ancient Egypt. Second, the team dustrial film (Kodak Industrex C) mummy, the calcified remains of a
wished to establish a methodology in order to improve image detail. male guinea-worm (Dracunculus
for the examination of mummified Two of the mummies were also in- Medinensis) were discovered in the
remains which other institutions vestigated in the University Depart- abdominal wall during the unwrap-

Movem
ber/December
1985 43
The reconstructed heads of the "Tim
Brothers," Nekht-Ankh and Khnum-
Nakht , shows the marked facial differ-
ences between them. This study has
subsequently benefitted the highly
skilled work of plastic surgeons.

ping procedure, and were subse- mality seen in the dentitions of rent project. Fragments of soft tis-
quently identified radiologically. early man- the marked attrition or sue, identified microscopically as
This is believed to be the earliest wear on the cusps of the teeth. lung, appeared to be damaged and
known example of physical evidence Egyptian grinding techniques pro- to contain a good deal of scarring
of this disease. duced bread (the staple diet of the with proliferation of both fibrous
Dentition studies of the human people) that was not only gritty but and elastic tissues. Among the
mummies provided insight into the was also contaminated by wind- fibrous tissues were several aggre-
patterns of disease and the Egyp- blown sand. Chewing it wore away gations of fine particles. These were
tian diet. Dental conditions can be not only the cusp, but also in some analyzed by means of analytical
assessed by both visual examination cases the actual body of the tooth, electron microscopy (AEM)- the
and a radiological survey of the and in many instances this led first time this technique had been
teeth and their supporting struc- eventually to dental abscesses and used in Egyptology -and found to
tures; almost all the abnormalities severe periodontal conditions. The be silica particles. Nekht-Ankh was
except those of the gingivae and patient would have suffered, at the shown to have suffered from sand
mucosa are apparent in the x-rays. very least, from debility and lowered pneumoconiosis, which resembles a
The study of large collections of resistance to infection, and in the condition acquired by coal miners
dry skulls held in various museums worst instances, the condition and stone workers who have inhaled
can sometimes assist in the inter- would have hastened death. quantities of stone dust. Similar
pretation of these x-rays. Radiologi- Significant information concern- lesions have recently been described
cal examination of human dentition ing disease in the mummies has in the lungs of people living in the
is not simple, because of the in- also been supplied by the examina- Sahara and Negev deserts, and it
volved shapes and angles of the tion of the remaining soft tissues. can be assumed that in these cases,
palate and mandible. Normal pro- The science of paleopathology in- as in Egypt, the condition was the
jections and, in selected cases, cludes the examination of ancient result of living in a desert or semi-
tomographic techniques were used tissues by means of the naked eye, desert environment, not a result of
in x-raying the Manchester mum- histological investigation, and the the individual's occupation. Further
mies. It was possible to determine application of electron microscopy examination of tissue belonging to
that the Manchester collection fol- and other advanced techniques. Nekht-Ankh also indicated that he
lows the general pattern seen in Methods to réhydraté, fix and selec- had suffered from pericarditis and
larger groups. The dentitions of the tively stain the tissues for histo- pleurisy, probably associated with
earlier periods of Egyptian history logical study have been developed pneumonia, for some time before
show a freedom from caries, a con- on the basis of pioneering techniques his death.
dition much more widespread in of paleohistology introduced by In another mummy, named
mummies of the Graeco-Roman pe- Armand Ruffer of Cairo many years Asru, histological examination of a
riod (ca. 332 B.c. to the fourth cen- ago. package of preserved material found
tury a.D.). This marked contrast In the first phase of the between her legs confirmed that it
has been explained in terms of a Manchester Project, evidence of consisted of mummified intestines,
change of food and eating habits in- disease was thus discovered in re- showing clear evidence of a parasitic
troduced into Egypt by foreign in- hydrated tissue taken from two of infestation in some areas. Trans-
vaders who entered the country in the mummies. Tissue belonging to mission electron microscopy (TEM)
the later periods. The Egyptians of Nekht-Ankh (one of the mummies of the tissue revealed that the in-
earlier times show widespread evi- unwrapped by Margaret Murray in festation was probably due to a
dence of the most common abnor- 1908) was examined during the cur- parasitic worm of the genus Strongy-

44 ARCHAEOLOGY
 This wax head reconstruction is based
on the remaining pieces of the skull of
Mummy 1 770. False eyes and hair, and
some facial coloring have to be based on
historical assumptions, but the actual
shape of the head and facial features is
reconstructed according to scientific
measurements .

Most important, electron micros-

copy was used to study the insect
remains found in the mummies.
Insects can enter a mummy at any
time in its history. Those that use
the body as a moist food supply
enter during or immediately after
the process of mummification;
others can be identified as subse-
quent attackers. Insect remains dis-
covered in the Manchester collection
spanned the range of destructive
pests that could undermine the
preservation of the mummies at dif-
ferent stages of their history.

In June 1975, the decision was

made by the Manchester team to
unwrap and autopsy one of the mum-
mies in the collection. This type of
investigation had not been under-
taken in Britain since Margaret
Murray's multi-disciplinary exami-
nation in 1908. Indeed, such a pro-
cedure should only be carried out if
it is believed that the knowledge to
be gained concerning methodology
and paleopathology is sufficient to
loides. This parasite enters the body was seen to be well preserved, with justify the loss of an irreplaceable
when the larval forms burrow discernible cell membranes and artifact.
through the skin of the feet that nuclei. In the tissues generally, bac- Preliminary x-rays assisted with
come into contact with infected teria, bacterial spores and hyphae- the selection of a mummy for
water or contaminated soil; it can like structures were commonly autopsy. Mummy 1770 (named for
cause anaemia and also occasionally observed. The analytical electron its museum accession number) was
severe inflammation of the large in- microscopy that identified the crys- chosen because of the poor state of
testines, which can then spread to tals in the lung tissue from Nekht- preservation of the outer wrappings
other parts of the body and lead to Ankh was also used to examine and because the x-rays revealed
death. certain mummies for the presence of some interesting medical evidence.
Electron microscopy was also heavy metal pollutants. The surface The unwrapping and autopsy of this
employed in various other ways. structure of hair from one of the mummy -an adolescent about 14
TVansmission electron microscopy mummies was investigated by years of age- were performed at the
provided information about the means of scanning electron Medical School of the University of
ultrastructure of liver tissue, which microscopy. Manchester. A slow, systematic ap-

November/
December
1985 45
 (Left) An endoscope is introduced into
the back of the mummy Asru to obtain
access to the chest cavity. It was pos-
sible to remove small pieces of lung
tissue for study ; which enabled the
histopathologist to identify the presence
of the disease Sand Pneumoconiosis.
(Below) The Greater Manchester Police
Force developed a method of finger-
printing the mummies by taking a mold
of the finger or toe, and subsequently
rolling the inked cast. This method of
obtaining fingerprints has since been
introduced into the standard practices
of some police forces.

between the age of the body and that

of its wrappings. This suggests that
the mummy may have been re-
wrapped in the Graeco-Roman
period, by persons who were uncer-
tain of its sex and identity.
The first phase of the project
provided the material for two books,
a scientific account and a more pop-
ular version, published in 1978 and
1979. These showed how the team
had not only concentrated on the
evidence provided by the individual
mummies but had also included
more general studies such as the
assessment of mummification tech-
niques. In addition to the written
accounts, two teaching films were
produced by the Audio-Visual Ser-
vice of the University of Manchester.
The one dealing with the range of
techniques applied to the mummies
was the winner, in November 1979,
of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science Major
proach was adopted to ensure that indicated that this adolescent girl Film Award. The shorter film, which
no evidence was overlooked and that suffered from chronic ill health for concentrated on the methodology of
the maximum amount of scientific most of her short life. Various arti- unwrapping Mummy 1770, was
information was obtained. Records facts were recovered from between awarded one of five certificates of
were kept with cine and still photog- the bandages, including cartonnage merit from the same Association.
raphy, and the position of each slippers, head and chest covers, A 50-minute film made by the
bandage or layer of bandages was gilded nipple amulets and a false British Broadcasting Corporation
noted as it was removed. All ban- phallus, false feet, and gilded toe- for its archaeology series Chronicle
dages, bone and tissue fragments nail and fingernail covers. has been shown twice on British
were carefully numbered, labeled The bandages were subjected to television as well as abroad. A major
and stored in sealed polythene bags intensive examination, and the na- temporary exhibition entitled O,
for future reference and examination. ture of the material was identified Osiris , Live Forever /, which
The dissection of the mummy macroscopically and microscopically described the work of the project
was carried out in two weeks, but as linen. Other research included against the background of Egyptian
the slow, painstaking compilation of the use of such techniques as gas religious and funerary customs, was
the research and results occupied liquid chromatography and amino displayed at the Manchester Mu-
another two years. It was discovered acid analysis to isolate and charac- seum in 1979. It attracted many
that, in life, this individual had not terize the substances applied to the visitors during its 18-month dura-
only suffered from guinea-worm in- bandages at the time of mummifi- tion, and was awarded the Sotheby's
festation, but had also undergone cation. Radiocarbon dating of the Prize in the 1980 "Museum of the
the amputation of the lower part of bones and bandages of the mummy Year Awards" in Britain for the best
both legs. Dental and other evidence indicated a substantial discrepancy temporary exhibition. Subsequently,

46 ARCHAEOLOGY
 Insect remains from the Man-
chester mummies were examined
by electron microscopy. Some of
these attackers seriously en-
danger the state of preservation
of the mummy. Here an adult
hump spider beetle, Gibbon
psylloides, is magnified 36 times.

part of this exhibition traveled to mummified heads. the surgeons a three-dimensional

the University of Alberta in Edmon- Information about the Man- view of their patient's intended ap-
ton, Canada. In June 1979 an inter- chester mummies, and about other pearance before surgery takes place.
national symposium entitled collections of Egyptian mummies in As applied to the heads of the Two
"Science in Egyptology" was held public and private institutions Brothers and of Mummy 1770, new
at the University of Manchester. around the world, is now being techniques developed from methods
This provided the first opportunity stored at Manchester on the Inter- devised in 1898 can produce more or
for a multi-disciplinary gathering to national Mummy Data Base. This less accurate representations of the
meet and discuss the current re- computerized base was established major features of the head and face.
search and use of modern medical to receive, store, and eventually Such three-dimensional "busts"
and scientific techniques in the field make available to scholars informa- have served as models on which
of Egyptology. The second phase of tion relating to funerary artifacts drawings and paintings could then
the Manchester Project developed associated with mummies and to be based, for purposes of publica-
from this symposium. patterns of disease and conditions tion and exhibition.
which affected daily living condi- The modern application of
T-his stage of the Manchester tions in ancient Egypt. these techniques was featured in
Project, lasting through 1984, con- Another interesting outcome of a 1984 award-winning, educational
centrated mainly on the develop- the Manchester research is the way television film entitled Perspective :
ment of virtually non-destructive in which some of the techniques de- The Mummy 's Blessing. A second
methods of obtaining new informa- vised for specific use on the mum- BBC "Chronicle" film showed how
tion about mummified remains. mified remains have been applied to the Manchester studies developed
Endoscopy has provided a most ac- modern forensic problems. Staff from 1979 to 1984, and this is also
ceptable means of non-destructive members from the Fingerprinting featured in another book, Evidence
examination, and a serological study Department of the Greater Man- Embalmed. And at the Manchester
has been undertaken to determine chester Police Force originally be- Museum, a new Egyptology gallery
the mummies' blood types. New came involved in the project to de- illustrates the team's work.
material has been obtained through velop a method of obtaining the In June 1984, a second sym-
use of endoscopic techniques, and fingerprints and toeprints of one of posium on the theme of Science in
new tissue stains of the conven- the mummies. This technique not Egyptology held at the University
tional type as well as new histologi- only helped to determine the age of of Manchester gave scholars from
cal stains have been employed. the deceased but also provided in- many countries the opportunity to
Endoscopy carried out on the chest formation about the person's life- discuss their work and to consider
cavities of several mummies has style. Subsequently this technique how new techniques of investigation
enabled small pieces of lung to be was introduced into the standard can be introduced. With the new,
removed for study. In addition to practices of some police forces in virtually non-destructive methods
the sand pneumoconiosis seen in one cases where the customary methods of examining mummified remains,
mummy, the lung biopsy of another of fingerprinting were inappropriate future research will be able to amass
(previously identified as suffering -where cadavers had been severely new facts about disease and living
from the worm infestation, Strongy- charred by fire or mummified by conditions in ancient societies, with-
loides), showed that this woman had natural environmental conditions. out destroying irreplaceable evi-
also had hydatid disease, caused by Knowledge obtained from the dence. Involving specialists from
a tape worm called Ecchinococcus scientific reconstruction of the many disciplines will make it pos-
granulosus . The disease is not a three-dimensional heads of mum- sible to build up from mummified
common problem, but another ex- mies has also been of benefit in remains a more accurate picture of
ample was found in the Manchester modern plastic surgery. Working the realities of everyday existence
collection, in brain tissue samples from x-rays, a reconstruction of the in early communities than the writ-
taken from one of the detached proposed result can be built, giving ten evidence alone can provide.

November/December
1985 47
The Protection of

Historic
Shipwrecks:

A New Zealand Case

Study

by J.R. MCKlNLAY and G.J. HENDERSON

the onslaught of increasingly large numbers cutions, the conviction in the District Court was a sig-
of well equipped recreational divers, professional nificant event. The details and outcome of the case must
With salvagers and treasure hunters, it is now recog- be of interest to the concerned international public and
nized in many parts of the world that very little of any to all archaeologists responsible for managing our in-
country's underwater cultural remains will survive for creasingly threatened underwater sites.
long in the absence of comprehensive protective legisla- Actually, New Zealand is not regarded as a center
tion. In 1977 The Underwater Cultural Heritage , a for maritime archaeological studies, but as it turns
report prepared for the Council of Europe, listed legal out the first test case of the Historic Places Act in-
protection as one of several problem areas in the field of volving a shipwreck took place here just a few years ago.
underwater archaeology along with technical training, The Maori people had colonized the islands from the sea
funding of research, and improving public awareness of by A.D. 1000, but no examples of their early seagoing
the cultural heritage that lies beneath the seas. Since craft are known to have survived. The earliest known
then some progress has been made in providing protective "Western" shipwreck in New Zealand waters is the 800-ton
legislation as Australia, Britain, Denmark, Finland, stock carrier Endeavour, scrapped in 1795, three years
France, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and the United States after the establishment of the first temporary European
have passed or are preparing laws covering work on settlement by a group of seal hunters.
underwater sites. Even after European colonization of New Zealand
Even earlier, in 1975, the New Zealand Parliament was legitimized by the Treaty of Waitangi with the
passed an amendment to the 1954 Historic Places Act Maoris, and the proclamation of British sovereignty in
which defined the responsibilities of the Historic Places 1840, the growing body of settlers had to rely entirely
TVust to protect and preserve archaeological sites. The on sea transport for both internal and external trade
definition of "archaeological site" included the site of and communications until road service was available.
the wreck of any vessel "where at any material time that Substantial numbers of shipwrecks began to occur.
wreck occurred more than 100 years before that time, and About 270 are recorded up to 1839, and another 690 be-
which is or may be able through investigation by ar- tween 1860 and 1879. Most of the wrecks in the latter
chaeological techniques to provide scientific, cultural period are steamships, many of them well-preserved
or historical evidence as to the exploration, occupation, large iron propeller-driven vessels. It would be difficult
settlement or development of New Zealand." This defini- to argue that they are not an important part of New
tion is included in the current ( 1980) Historic Places Act. Zealand's archaeological resources along with the earlier,
So a good amount of legislation is on the books, but perhaps more glamorous sailing ships. Although no
the worldwide record of enforcement is less impressive. archaeologists have been employed for the express pur-
Very rarely, in fact, are convictions obtained. The legis- pose of managing the underwater sites protected by the
lation is useful in dissuading law-abiding citizens from Historic Places Act, there is considerable interest in
destroying sites, but calculating and determined in- them within both the diving and the general community,
dividuals break the law without being apprehended or, expressed for example in the popularity of Kelly Tarlton's
at any rate, without being successfully prosecuted. Shipwreck Museum at the Bay of Islands. And it was the
Australia, for example, has comprehensive legislation concern of the diving community that led to the prose-
at both the Commonwealth and State levels, the first cution of the Taupo case in 1983.
dating back to 1964. Yet despite several prosecutions
there have been no convictions in any court under
these acts. On February 18, 1879, a 720-ton iron screw steamship,
In 1983 a diver was charged in a New Zealand Dis- Thupo , struck a rock while entering Tauranga Harbour
trict Court under the 1980 Historic Places Act with and foundered. On April 29, 1881 the vessel, having
damaging a historic shipwreck. He was convicted as been refloated and temporarily repaired, set off in tow
charged, but the judgement was overturned on appeal. for Auckland. In the early evening she sprung a leak
Nevertheless, in light of the rarity of successful prose- and was abandoned, and at 9:40 p.m. Taupo sank in a

aft ARCHAFOI
ogy
reported 38 fathoms of water near Mayor Island in the
Bay of Plenty.
The site of the wreck had never been formally identi-
fied in later years, although by the 1970s the local diving
fraternity was agreed that a wreck some five miles off
the coast at Waihi Beach, about 35 miles from Tkuranga,
was that of Thupo. On January 17, 1982 a boat equipped
for maritime salvage was observed by M.D. Ogier,
Chairman of the Scientific Committee of the New
Zealand Underwater Association, anchored over the site
of the wreck. Ogier and other local resident divers went
out to the boat and discovered that it was tied to the
wreck by a rope. They saw indications that explosives
had very recently been used to remove metal items from
the wreck, and metal objects apparently from a wreck
were lying on the deck of the salvage vessel.
At that time Ogier was formulating plans to have
the wreck declared a reserve, under another statute, for
"no-touch" diving. Very much upset at what he con-
sidered to be the vandalism of the wreck, he reported
the matter to both the police and the New Zealand His-
toric Places TYust. Eventually the owner of the salvage
boat was charged with willfully modifying an archae-
ological site- the wreck of the Thupo- contrary to the
provisions of the Historic Places Act. The Thupo case
was therefore the first test of the section of the Act that
related to shipwrecks as archaeological sites.
The case was heard at the District Court in T&uranga
on July 13-15, 1983. The police, who prosecuted, set
out to prove the following chain of evidence: the SS
Thupo was wrecked on that part of the Bay of Plenty on
April 29, 1881 ; the site of the wreck was an archaeologi-
cal site within the definition of the Act; the vessel (that
is the wreck) involved was the Thupo ; the wreck had
been damaged or modified; the damage could be linked
to the defendant's salvage vessel; and the modification
of the wreck was within the defendant's knowledge.
The police called 18 witnesses, including:
• M.D. Ogier, to testify as to the events on the day he
saw the salvage vessel over the site of the wreck;
• The Property Manager of the Union Steamship Com-
pany, owners of the Thupo , to testify as to the facts of
the ship and its sinking;
• The archivist of the Hocken Library, to give details of
the registration of the Thupo and of its machinery;
• Divers who had seen the wreck before January 1982,

November/December
1985 49
The has
archaeological community certainly

learned a deal about the

great degree

of required for the successful

proof
of such a case.
prosecution

who subsequently knew or believed it to be the Thupo While agreeing with the District Court on most points,
and could describe the damage done to it; the appeal judge differed in his view of the extent to
• A scientist from the Department of Scientific and which the defendant demonstrated the necessary degree
Industrial Research, who gave evidence as to the special of mens rea in terms of the word "willfully" in the statute.
nature of certain items which had been recovered from He noted that while the word is commonly used to mean
the wreck; intentional or deliberate, it also has an interpretation
• The officer in command of a Royal New Zealand Navy encompassing recklessness as to the consequences of the
Operational Diving Team, who testified as to the pre- act. It is stated in the judgement that: "assuming that
cise location, identity and condition of the wreck; recklessness is all that needs be proved, the prosecution
• The Senior Archaeologist of the New Zealand Historic in this case was required to show beyond reasonable
Places TVust, J.R. McKinlay, who testified as to the doubt that the appellant intended to modify the wreck
archaeological value of a ship such as the Thupo, and knowing it to be an archaeological site, or that he was
also with regard to the TVuss administration of the Act; reckless as to its status. If he believed the wreck was
• The Curator of the Department of Maritime Archae- not an archaeological site, then mens rea would be
ology at the Western Australian Museum, G.J. Hender- negatived unless the belief was reckless."
son, who as a maritime archaeologist was asked to It was noted that this was not the same thing as
testify as to the archaeological, scientific and historical ignorance of the law, and that: "where a person acts
value of the wreck. under a mistake of law which precludes him from having
McKinlay and Henderson had the status of expert the requisite mental element for a particular offense,
witnesses. he cannot be guilty of that offense. This is so long as
During the proceedings the defense emphasized the mistake was honestly entertained whether or not
that the Thupo had only become an historical wreck it was reasonable to have made it."
(occurring more than 100 years before) in 1981, less than The appeal judge, having followed through various
a year before the alleged offense took place. They also legal precedents, came to the view that the prosecution
pointed out that the Thupo had been raised and stripped had failed to prove mens rea beyond a reasonable doubt,
for salvage and was being towed to the salvage yard and the District Court conviction was quashed. He was
when it sank in 1881. also critical of the high level of costs which had been
The judge in his summation said that he was satis- ordered in the lower court- "I do not think it was fair for
fied that the wreck was that of the Thupo , that it came the appellant to be penalized by the District Court
within the definition of Section 2 of the Historic Places Judge by having to pay the costs of bringing an expert
Act, and that the wreck had been modified by the de- witness from Perth [Australia]. Tb have done so would
fendant. He was also satisfied that the defendant knew put too high a price on the appellant's constitutional
it was the wreck of the Thupo , and the action was there- right to defend." The judge also seemed to disparage
fore willful. expert testimony concerning the archaeological sig-
Since on the basis of the evidence the judge was nificance of the Thupo , remarking that the wreck was
confident that each of these points could be answered in hardly in the same class as the Waitangi Treaty House
the affirmative, the defendant was convicted as charged. (site of the British-Maori treaty that New Zealanders
Although the judge acknowledged that this was a regard as the founding of the nation).
precedent-setting test case, he decided that the modifica-
tion of the wreck was not of major proportions, and
since the salvage work had been stopped after M.D. So in the end the case was lost- but not all was lost.
Ogier's visit to the site he did not impose any fine (al- The important gain from the case was that the District
though the Act provides for a fine of up to $25,000). Court Judge accepted the definition of a shipwreck as
The defendant was, however, ordered to pay costs, ex- an archaeological site, and this was not disputed by the
penses and fees totaling $3,720. appellant. The archaeological community has certainly
Subsequently, an appeal was lodged with the High learned a great deal about the degree of proof required
Court, and judgement was given on October 23, 1984. for the successful prosecution of such a case. We are all

30 ARCHAEOLOGY
now more informed about the legal principle of mens rea-
we think! And an important lesson was learned by
the diving fraternity in New Zealand.
From an administrator's point of view, the Thupo
case has brought additional understanding of the fra-
gility and possible impotence of a law that is not backed
up by adequate resources for enforcing it. The case of
the Thupo would never have been heard had it not been
for the fortuitous coincidence of the wreck site and the
residence of a senior executive of the New Zealand
Underwater Association. Most wrecks in New Zealand,
and most of the unauthorized disturbances of them,
occur far from the surveillance of the Underwater Asso-
ciation (not all of whose members are willing to have
their own diving activities too closely monitored or con-
trolled by legislation). And the New Zealand Historic
Places Trust still has no maritime archaeologist or even
a diver on its staff -a situation unlikely to change in
the foreseeable future.
From the maritime archaeologist's point of view, the
need is clear for resources to be made available for appro-
priate institutions to carry out adequate cultural re-
source management: to assemble site registers, carry
out site surveys and inspections, excavate where appro-
priate, and conduct educational programs to make the
diving and general public aware of the existence and
fragility of these archaeological sites beneath the water.
Iron and steam shipwrecks are under particular threat
today, being more conspicuous to fossickers, more profit-
able for salvagers, and regarded by many archaeologists
(uncertain about how to exploit their archaeological
potential) as less interesting than older shipwreck sites.
There is, however, a growing recognition in several
countries of the value of iron and steam shipwrecks as a
cultural resource. In Australia, for example, the Western
Australian Museum has recently been conducting inten-
sive investigations on the site of a screw steamship
wrecked in 1872. But unless adequate site management
plans can be brought into effect in many other areas
in the near future the world will lose a large proportion
of these sites. Perhaps the greatest benefit of a case
such as that of the Thupo is its role in public education,
by heightening the general awareness of the cultural
value of the sites and the destruction currently taking
place- and by making it less likely that future dis-
turbers of the sites can claim a lack of understanding of
the nature and consequence of their acts.

1985
November/December 51
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 ARCHAEOLOGY NEWS

Kushan From India

Sculpture: Images Early
by Stanislaw Czuma

the zenith of its power the empire the Arts helps to support the Kushan The indigenous tradition
At of the Kushan dynasty, one of the exhibition, and its Cleveland showing
most significant in India's history, has been funded by the Ohio Arts From early times Mathurã enjoyed
stretched from modern Afghanistan and Council. great importance because of its favora-
Pakistan to central India. For nearly ble position on the ancient trade routes.
Perhaps the most unusual feature of Merchants stopping in Mathurã for ex-
300 years - the first through the third Kushan art is that it embraces two dis-
centuries of this era- the Kushans ruled tinctive sculptural traditions that flour- tended periods often commissioned
all or part of these lands, which con- ished simultaneously, each sponsored by works of art such as shrines, votive ob-
trolled a vast portion of the trade routes the ruling dynasty. The more common jects, and even official buildings. Their
connecting China and the Mediterra- historical experience is that a single art presence gave the city a cosmopolitan
nean. It was a lucrative business, being character marked by religious and ra-
style ''speaks for" the state and its cial tolerance. Buddhism, Jainism and
lord of the merchant roads, and the favored religion. But the Kushans, per-
Kushans prospered. Hinduism all flourished there, along
haps because of their nomadic back- with spirits of ancient cults which be-
With prosperity came the possibility ground, readily adjusted to the cultures
of cultural, intellectual and spiritual de- came a part of the new religions along
they found in the lands they conquered. with other auspicious symbols and mo-
velopment, but the Kushans came of That of their northwestern region, tifs. The result of all this was a great
nomadic stock and had few cultural fra- Gandhãra, had its roots in the Graeco-
ditions of their own to develop. They Roman tradition dating back to Alex- variety of sculptural representations.
had been pushed out of their homeland The Kushan period in Mathurã pro-
ander the Great's conquest in 326-23 duced many Buddhist structures: the
north of the Oxus River and then, in b.c. The eastern region, with Mathurã,
the second century b.c., into the ad- some 60 miles south of Delhi, as its cen- stüpa (a dome-shaped funerary mound
vanced urban civilization of Bactria, with railings and gates, often orna-
ter, was heir to the indigenous Maurya-
where they occupied one of five princi- mented), vihara or sangharama (mon-
Sunga tradition. asteries) and chaitya (a worship hall).
palities. During the century that fol- These are now in ruins (Mathurã was
lowed the Kushan nomads acquired a
taste for settled existence. Shortly be- devastated by war in the twelfth cen-
fore the Christian era a Kushan scion tury), but provide enough sculptural ma-
united all of the Bactrian principalities terial to give a fairly accurate picture of
under a single rule, giving his name to the school's artistic production.
the whole and laying the foundations of Mathuran sculpture of the Kushan pe-
the Kushan Empire. riod derived from the earlier Sunga style
During almost three centuries of vig- that flourished in central India in the
orous Kushan rule Buddhism became second century b.c. In addition to reli-
the dominant religion in India, the im- gious icons, popular divinities include
age of the Buddha first appeared in Yaksas and Yaksis (male and female
Indian art, and the models that inspired spirits with powers over the productive
later Indian sculpture were created. Al- forces of nature). In carving these sec-
though the Kushan period was mani- ondary figures the artist was less re-
festly a formative one in Indian art strained by iconography. The sensuous
history it has never before been the sub- females continue the ancient tradition
ject of a major art exhibition. Such an of the fertile mother goddess, and pot-
exhibition has now been organized by bellied males symbolize abundance,
The Cleveland Museum of Art, where wealth and protection. Their style is
Kushan Sculpture: Images from Early more realistic than that of the earlier
India opens on November 13, 1985. Al- Maurya-Sunga sculpture. This had lit-
though some of the 130 sculptures have tle in common with realism as under-
been loaned by India and European mu- stood by the Western or even the Gand-
seums, the objects are primarily from hãran artist. The Mathuran sculptor
American collections, and nearly a third
of them come from The Cleveland Mu-
seum of Art. Kushan Sculpture is part of
the Festival of India 1985-1986, a cele-
bration of Indian culture throughout
the United States that originated dur-
ing the 1982 state visit of the late Prime (Left) The second-century A.D. statue
Minister Indira Gandhi with an agree- of Kubera, highest-ranking deity
ment between Mrs. Gandhi and Pres- inherited from the animistic pre- Aryan
ident Reagan to emphasize cultural ex- tradition , sports a potbelly appropriate
change between the two countries. A for the god of wealth and prosperity.
grant from the National Endowment for Height y97 centimeters.

54 Archaeology
(Above) The sandstone salabhanjika
(tree spirit) is one of a pair adorning a
second century B.C.Mathuran torana
(gate bracket). Height , 71.1 centimeters .
(Right) The stucco head of Buddha is
late Gandhãran style (fourth/ fifth cen-
tury B.C.),probably from Hadda.
Height , 29.2 centimeters.

never copied nature; his art was concep- The melting pot later, more advanced Gandhãran style
tual, based on his idea of what the ob- The Gandhãran school of sculpture seems based more directly on Roman
ject should look like, rather than what had several artistic centers, located on prototypes.
it really was. The fully rounded figures the trade routes linking China and cen- Although no Gandhãran monuments
wear a minimum of garments, so trans- tral Asia with the Roman world. By far remain intact, remains of stüpas , shrines
parent that the nude body underneath the most important was Peshawar, pos- and monasteries supply a fair indica-
is evident. sibly the main seat of the Kushan Em- tion of their style. The sculptures are
It was the human body that captured pire. The Kushans also maintained usually Buddhist, since during Kushan
the Mathuran sculptor's interest. The regular navigation to the West from times Hinduism and Jainism were pri-
hefty, somewhat plump males and vo- ports on the Indus River delta, and marily indigenous cults localized around
luptuous, opulent females are richly Gandhära was the point where the Silk Mathurã. Most of the stone sculpture,
adorned with jewels; their faces, with Road forked toward India. So the re- usually of the local gray schist, dates
thick and fleshy features, are animated, gion was a melting pot of Western, from the first to the third centuries A.D.;
following the pattern of earlier Indian Iranian, Indian, and Far Eastern cul- objects of stucco and bronze are fre-
art. Although most Mathuran sculpture tural currents. quently from the fourth and fifth
of this period is religious and therefore The artistic tradition of the Gand- centuries.
governed by iconographie restrictions, hãran school traced back to the Hellen- Gandhãran sculpture was based on
it nonetheless offers an abundant vari- ized civilization of Bactria, where the the Classical models of Greek and Ro-
ety and freshness. The characteristic Kushans had settled in the second cen- man art. Its ultimate aim was to cap-
material is a reddish sandstone, some- tury b.c. The philhellenic character of ture the physical beauty of the human
times spotted with white, from the local the region's art is revealed in finds from figure, often enriched by a spiritual qual-
Sikri quarries. Flora and fauna, baccha- the Bactrian city of Ai Khanum (in mod- ity. Gandhãran sculptors observed life
nalian themes and royal portraits were ern Afghanistan) and from Taxila in much more closely and produced works
also carved- in stone, metal, ivory and Pakistan (ancient Sirkap) dating to the far more realistic than their Mathuran
terracotta. first century b.c. /first century A.D.The counterparts. Sometimes, especially dur-

Novem
ber/December
1985 55
 (Above) Silver roundels with elephant
riders , first century A.D., werepart of
the treasure found in the Oxus Valleyin
1887.Diameters , 7.2 and 7.5 centi-
meters. (Right) The Buddha's trans-
parent clothing and modeling of the
body reflect Graeco-Roman style typical
of the late Gandhãran period, when
Mahayana Buddhism created a demand
for icons. Height, 1 meter, 19.7 centi-
meters . (Far right) The Mathuran rail-
ing pillar, second century A.D., is of
Sihri sandstone. Height, 80 centimeters.

ing the later period or if the iconogra- -which decorated the plinths and stüpa, or other emblems. One can there-
phy warranted it, their ideal of physical drums of stüpas and were contemplated fore assume some kind of canonic re-
beauty might be sacrificed for the sake by worshipers performing the devotional striction against depicting the Buddha
of the expressive or dramatic qualities circumambulation of the monument. in human form. Hinayana Buddhism-
of the subject portrayed; a particularly Often the narrative of the bas reliefs was the "Lesser Vehicle"- considered Bud-
fine example is the representation of the continuous, its scenes divided by pilas- dha a mortal teacher and consequently
Emaciated Buddha. In their expressions ters with pseudo-Corinthian capitals. had no need to turn to an icon for wor-
of religious zeal some of the Gandhãran This iconography, minutely detailing the ship. Mahayana Buddhism, the "Greater
stuccos are comparable to Mediaeval Buddha's life, was the innovation of the Vehicle"which probably developed some
Christian art. Gandhãran school. time during the first century A.D.,
In addition to its Hellenistic and stressed the miraculous and godly char-
Roman sources, Iranian influences and acter of the Buddha.
some indigenous Indian characteristics The Buddha In Mathurã during this time the
are also discernible in Gandhãran sculp- For several generations scholars of bhakti (devotion cult) was flourishing
ture. Whatever the mix, it is perfectly Indian art have debated the origin and along with the local tradition of image-
clear that Gandhãran art should be development of the Buddha image. While making. Although there is no secure ev-
looked on not as a provincial version of they agreed that it initially appeared in idence that a Mathurãn sculptor made
Greek and Roman but as an individual the late first century A.D. the question the first Buddha image, the conjunc-
style inspired by those sources- and an remained, "Which of the two schools tion of impulses and traditions that
art which at its best displays innova- should have credit for its creation, Gand- could be adapted to satisfy them sug-
tive ideas of its own. hãra or Mathurã?" During the earlier gests that Mathurã was a more fertile
The greatest number of Gandhãran stages of Buddhism the Buddha had breeding ground for the depiction of
sculptures are architectural fragments been depicted through aniconic symbols: Buddha in human form than Gandhãra.
and decorations. Particularly popular his throne, the Bodhi tree beneath which The model for the Buddha image was
were bas-reliefs with scenes from the life he had meditated, his footprints, the borrowed from two indigenous Indian
of Šakayamuni - the historical Buddha wheel of the law (dharma-chakra ), the concepts with which the Mathuran sculp-

56 Archaeology
 (Far left) The nagini (serpent deity of a
lake or river) is Mathuran, first or sec-
ond century A.D. Height, Î meter, 24.4
centimeters. (Left) The Bodhisattva
from Mathurã , of mottled sandstone, is
late second century A.D. Height, 89
centimeters. (Above) The Mathuran
Ayagapatta (cosmic design) of the first
century A.D. is of red sandstone.
89 by 82 centimeters.

tor was familiar: the Universal King or graphie formulae that provided some of certain mudrã; whether his hair is de-
Superman and the ascetic. The earliest the most important distinguishing fea- picted by wavy lines or shell-shaped;
inscribed Buddha images in Mathurã are tures of the Buddha. He wears a monas- the decoration of the halo and the base
referred to in their inscriptions as Bodhi- tic garment covering one or both of the image; the presence or absence of
sattvas. Only later is the distinction shoulders. The gestures of his hands attendants --all these are clues the spe-
between Buddha and Bodhisattva (mudrà ) reflect various moods or events cialist follows in trying to determine the
defined, with the Buddha wearing mo- in his life, such as the gesture of bless- date or the provenance of an image.
nastic garb and the Bodhisattvas (his ing, of meditation or of preaching. The Making matters more complex is the
human intermediaries who have not yet religious manuals (sütm) endowed him fact that the two schools exerted con-
reached Buddhahood) clad in princely with 30 superior and 80 inferior lack - siderable mutual influence throughout
garments. shanas , or superhuman features, bor- the Kushan period.
In Gandharä this initial synonymous rowed from the ancient Indian concept The catalogue for Kushan Sculpture
origination of two representations is ab- of the Universal King. Best known (published by The Cleveland Museum
sent. This strongly suggests that among these are the bump at the top of of Art and Indiana University Press)
Mathurã was the place where ideas were the Buddha's head that accommodates makes an important contribution to
initiated. Since both Gandhãra and the Supreme Wisdom of his Enlighten- scholarship in Kushan studies. It also
Mathurã, and their artistic schools, were ment (ushnisha ); the whorl of hair be- features a thorough essay for the gen-
parts of the same political empire under tween his eyebrows (urna); long earlobes eral reader and entries and photographs
the strong rule of an ardent proponent formed by the rich and heavy earrings for each of the objects in the show, with
of Buddhism, it is likely that Gandhãran he had discarded and disavowed; aus- 34 color reproductions.
artists very quickly adapted the ideas picious symbols on his feet and hands; After Kushan Sculpture closes in
formed in Mathurã. and his halo. Cleveland (January 5, 1986)it will travel
Each school drew on its own tradi- How the Buddha's sanghàti, or mo- to the Asia Society Galleries in New
tions for its manner of depicting the nastic robe, is worn and whether it falls York City (February 13-April 6, 1986)
Buddha, but the two schools shared an over his feet or leaves them uncovered; and to the Seattle Art Museum (May
elaborately prescribed set of icono- the position of his hands expressing a 8- July 13, 1986).

fSowpmher/Df*rpmhM-
1Qfl5 57
 effectiveness of the "Rock" as a symbol
In the Field of Federal power.
But the lurid imaginings of the press
concerning a Confederate invasion
The Rumble of Distant Thunder backed by a fifth column continued to
influence public opinion. Both military
and public pressures were exerted for a
congressional appropriation to bolster
the city's defenses. In the expectation
that funds would soon arrive, the Com-
mander of the Department of the Pa-
cific, General George Wright, in 1861
ordered his engineer, Colonel René E.
De Russy, to prepare a plan for "field
works to command the approaches to
the city, should a landing be attempted
by the enemy."
Throughout 1861 and 1862, however,
Wright's appeals for money fell on deaf
ears as the demands of a hard-pressed
army and navy in the East occupied the
attention of Congress and fears of an
attack on the West declined. Then the
highly publicized activities of Confeder-
ate raiders against merchant shipping
created new anxieties, and in 1863 an
allocation of $400,000was made available
for fortifications on San Francisco Bay.
On August 18, General-in-Chief Henry
Wager Halleck wired Wright that the
batteries would be built on the northern
by James P. Delgado The view of Black Point Battery (the shore of the Golden Gate, on Angel
The outbreak of civil war on the eastern Golden Gate in the background) shows Island, and at Black Point.
seaboard of the United States in 1861 the faces of the ready magazines Black Point, so called because of its
had immediate repercussions on the between gunpits 9 and 10. stands of dark laurel trees, had been
western shore of the continent. The in- fortified by the Spanish authorities of
fant state of California, vital to the point of San Francisco, lay the rotting Alta California until the 1830s, but by
interests of the Union because of its timber gun platforms and battered brick the time of the American conquest in
mineral and agricultural wealth, was walls of the small, 12-gun Black Point 1846-47 all traces of their Batería San
Battery. José had vanished. In 1850 Point San
thought to be in a perilous situation due José Military Reservàtion was created
to the war. Isolated from the protection Now professional archaeologists and
of Federal might, and governed by pro- student laborers have exposed nearly by Executive Order. Without funds to
Southern Democrats, California was one-half of the structure and recovered build a post, however,the Army did not
considered vulnerable to a Confederate thousands of artifacts offering an ar- occupy the site. In their stead came a
chaeological and anthropological assess- handful of squatters, prominent citizens
onslaught from within or without. whose substantial residences, with out-
Of particular importance was the port ment of the only known intact temporary
of San Francisco, principal harbor on Civil War fortification west of the Rock- buildings and gardens, stood along the
the coast and center of the region's mar- ies. Soon the Black Point Battery will crest of Black Point.
itime commerce. Fear of Confederate stand open to the air once again, as a
attack and of a rebellion by disloyal cit- tangible reminder of a time when an
izens prompted several preventive meas- enemy flying the Stars and Bars could
ures: completion and arming of existing command the fear and respect of a city
defenses at Fort Point on the southern far removed irom the theater of war.
shore of the Golden Gate and on Alca- Fortifying the Golden Gate
traz Island; dispatch of an ironclad Mon- When the opening shots of the Civil
itor, U.S.S. Camanche, to San Francisco War were fired the Golden Gate was The trigger guard
Bay; arrest and imprisonment of out- guarded only by two uncompleted forti- (above) is from a
spoken Southern sympathizers; and fications partially covering the entrance Springfield rifle,
erection of temporary seacoast defenses to the important harbor. This lack of Model 1873. The
inside the harbor. These measures were readiness worried both pro-Union citi- iron pintle , or
taken to fight a battle that never oc- zens and the military, and the presence pivot pin, (below)
1curred, an enemy who never came. of a vocal pro-Confederate faction exac- was used to
Until recently, only the towering walls erbated their concern. The existing for- attach a cannon
of Fort Point, now a National Historic tifications were rushed to completion, to its platform
Site, stood to remind visitors of San arms were massed and stored on im- and is 18 inches
Francisco's Civil War past. Then in 1982 pregnable Alcatraz Island, and appeals square with 40-
National Park Service archaeologists were made to Washington for additional inch bolts.
discovered the intact walls of one of the defenses. Military and civil authorities Length of trigger
"emergency" fortifications. Sepulchered arrested anyone heard espousing the guard , 17
beneath tons of sand and rock and the Southern cause, and the detainment of centimeters.
manicured lawns and curving pathways dozens of prisoners in hastily con-
of Fort Mason, at the northernmost structed cells on Alcatraz added to the

58 ARCHAEOLOGY
 On October 13, 1863 General Wright one intact gun pit in the western por-
received orders to take possession of the tion. The walls then disappeared, run-
site. TVoopsfrom the Presidio of San ning between six feet of dirt and rock
Francisco marched to Black Point and fill. Dozens of artifacts, including brass
work on the new battery began. Most of friction primers (used to fire the cannon
the squatters were evicted, houses were without a match) and the remains of
demolished, and the tip of the Point was timber supports for the guns, offered
blasted away to create a flat plateau for tantalizing evidence of a unique archae-
the battery. Excavated Army equipment includes a ological legacy from San Francisco's
When completed in May of 1864 the leg strap to top a boot. Length , 43 Civil War days.
battery was a 12-gun fortification with centimeters. When scientists from the National
breast-high brick walls, dressed rock Park Service's Western Archaeological
flanking walls and massive gun plat- "East Battery" for a powerhouse de- and Conservation Center in T'icson, Ar-
forms of redwood timber. Since solid ma- stroyed most of that end of Black Point izona, analyzed the bricks, they found
sonry forts had been made obsolete by Battery, and sand and gravel dumped that acid in the soil was eating them
shells fired from rifled guns that reduced over the old brick walls completely re- away, along with the mortar that held
them to rubble in a matter of days, moved from view all traces of the Civil the buried walls together. Of the series
Black Point's parapets were built of soft, War fortification. The dirt fill over the of options recommended by Soil Scien-
yielding earth to absorb the impact of site was then landscaped with trees, tist Elvia Niebla, the total excavation
incoming shells. The battery also had lawns, curvilinear walkways, and stair- of the battery was the one selected.
two underground timber magazines for ways as part of a beautification program Funding was provided through a gener-
black powder, and five small shell rooms in connection with the Panama Pacific ous grant from San Francisco's Richard
known as "ready magazines" to give the International Exposition of 1915. A ga- and Rhoda Goldman Fund, matched by
cannon a quick and ready supply of am- rage covered the site of the 1898 bat- the National Park Service, which al-
munition in the heat of battle. tery, and gradually all memory of the lowed for the hiring of 20 local high
By the end of June half the battery two fortifications faded away. In 1968, school students. Supervised by profes-
was armed. At the west end ("Battery when the 1909 powerhouse was de- sional archaeologists Robert Bennett,
West") were six Ten-Inch Rodman Can- molished and its semi-circular depres- Gregory Brown, Rebecca LaFontaine,
non, monstrous 24,000-pound weapons sion filled in, the last hint of what had and John Schuster, and by work super-
that could fire a ten-inch diameter, 124- been there during the Civil War van- visors Marguerite Dailey, Gary Habeeb,
pound shell almost two-and-a-halfmiles. ished. and Linda Posternak, and working side
In the "East Battery" iron carriages for
Excavating the battery by side with National Park Service
six 42-pound "James" guns had been In 1972 the Black Point military post, heavy equipment operators Gary Moel-
installed, but the guns did not arrive ler and Neil Woods, the students cleared
until January of 1865. renamed Fort Mason almost a century over 5,000 cubic yards of soil, exposing
before, became the headquarters of a much of the west battery. Thousands of
Despite its "temporary" designation, new unit of the National Park system,
the new fortification was used well into the Golden Gate National Recreation
the twentieth century, even though plans
to enlarge it never reached fruition. With Area, created to preserve, protect and
the building of other fortifications closer interpret nationally significant cultural,
to the Golden Gate the need for the Black scenic, natural and recreational re-
sources. Since many former military
Point Battery steadily declined, and by installations were included in its bound-
1887 the eastern half was abandoned. aries the National Park Service was Soldiers were issued a Model 1906
Only the Rodman guns remained, to entrusted with the task of interpreting bayonet scabbard. Length , 22.3
fire salutes and to be used for practice. 200 years of military history at the centimeters.
Another threat to San Francisco Golden Gate. Park historians and ar-
loomed in 1898, and fear of an attack by artifacts were also recovered through pa-
the mighty Spanish fleet brought new chaeologists began a careful evaluation
of sites and structures, but the dilapi- tient chipping of rock-hard clay with
appropriations for "temporary" fortifi- dated tip of Black Point was overlooked picks, sifting the crumbled earth, and
cations at Black Point. Adjacent to the until the late 1970s, when Park Ranger painstaking plotting of each item
still-armed western end of the old forti- John Martini, an avocational historian, wrested from the hard, unyielding soil.
fication a new concrete emplacement Before closing the site for the winter
was built for two Ifen-Inch Rodman can- began to search for traces of the Civil
War battery he had read about. Clear- of 1982-83 the National Park Service
non that had been converted into "Eight- obtained the services of master mason
Inch Muzzle Loading Rifles."A new con- ing a clogged passageway leading into
the hillside, Martini discovered the un- Thomas Mairo, who restored battered
crete magazine was also built and the and broken sections of the battery wall
new battery was put into service in July derground concrete magazine of the 1898
battery and, protruding from a nearby with original bricks. With the needed
of 1898.
hillside, a stub of broken brick wall that repairs done, the battery was once again
When the new national emergency he deduced was part of the Civil War abandoned, albeit for a short time, to
passed the Civil War-era weapons were structure. the winter rains, awaiting a new season
removed. The gun tubes remained on In 1982, when plans to renovate the to complete the archaeological excava-
post, however (probably until the Sec- tip of Black Point for a new picnic area tion. After the winter hiatus work began
ond World War, when all cannon there caught the attention of GGNRA's cul- again in the summer of 1983, as addi-
were scrapped), and the Eight-Inch Ri- tural resources management team, Mar- tional grant money from the Goldman
fles stayed mounted until 1904and 1909, tini's discoveries were remembered, and Fund and a new grant from the Mary
thus maintaining the defensive use of Park Archaeologist Martin Mayer, aided A. Crocker Trust of San Francisco
the battery site into the new century. by volunteer archaeologist Robert Ben- brought in a new crew of students. Su-
In 1909 construction of a reinforced nett and Park Historian James Delgado, pervised once again by archaeologists
concrete powerhouse for a nearby de- carefully excavated small areas of the Brown, Bennett and LaFontaine and by
fense searchlight occupied most of the site. The stub of broken brick wall was newly-hiredarchaeologists Myra Nisson,
interior of the old "West Battery." In traced back to intact walls outlining two Cindy Desgrandchamps and Sunshine
1911 grading of the slope below the gun pits in the east battery area and continued on page 76

December
November/ 1985 59
 SCIENCE SCOPE

by Stuart Fleming

Ukiyo-e Painting:

An Art Tradition

under Stress

Any conversation about Japanese art

other than one among the fanatical col-
lectors of sword-fittings and Samurai
armor, soon turns to a comparison of
personal tastes for the colorful ukiyo-e
prints of the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. Everyone remembers the tsu-
nami of the "Great Wave of Kanagawa,"
in Katsushika Hokusai's opus, The
Thirty-six views of Mt Fuji , first pub-
lished in 1823; everyone reacts to the
sensual beauty of the courtesans of the
pleasure areas of the city of Edo, as
captured by Kitagawa Utamaro in the
1790s. Such prints, however, represent
ukiyo-e (which translates as "pictures
of the floating world") during its full
flowering, when its artistic tradition had
been thoroughly formalized as part of
Edo's lively plebeian culture. Within the
larger context of Japan's pictorial art
history, the evolution of ukiyo-e was a
centuries-long affair, in both technique
and content, and based on a quite dif- This 1780 scene captures the essence of
ferent notion of genre painting. Back in
the tenth century, there emerged an ar- ukiyo-e, with four womenperforming a
tistic tradition called Yamato-e. It was chore necessitated by the humidity of
the Japanese summer. If these paint-
very much a response to the abstract
mood of the then dominant Chinese ings are to be preserved, they have to
be kept in somewhat over 70percent
styles; its basic themes were landscapes humidity, a climate not too different
of the four seasons, famous places, an-
nual festivals, and incidents recounted from the one in which they were created.
in Japanese literature. By the twelfth
century Yamato-e was sprouting sub- how so many ukiyo-e scenes appear to
traditions, the most powerful of which be an on-high view of daily activities in
was fuzaku-ga, or pictures of Japanese
manners and customs. This was genre Japanese home life.) Each had an artistic
influence which outlasted many a polit-
painting of sorts, but it primarily de- ical change in the world surrounding
picted the interests and leisurely pur- them.
suits of the nobility and military classes;
it touched but incidentally on the lives The pleasure seekers
of the common people. It was, in fact, a political event that
The inheritance of fuzaku-ga bestowed gave ukiyo-e its initial stimulus- the
on ukiyo-e was mainly certain aspects century of confusion and civil strife fol-
of technique. There was the unusual re- lowing the outbreak of the Onin Rebel-
verse perspective (i.e., lines converging lion in 1467, which itself lasted some
towards the foreground ) and the unique twelve years. In 1568, Oda Nobunaga
compositional device called fukinuke captured the imperial capital of Kyoto
yatai , which literally means "house with and brought some sense of unity back
the roof blown off."(This nicely describes to the land. Nobunaga's campaign had,
however, been a bloody and destructive
Stuart Fleming is Scientific Director of one, and Kyoto's old palaces and shrines
MASCA, Museum Applied Science Cen- were in ruins as he brought his army
ter for Archaeology University Museum, through the city gates. Artisans flocked
University of Pennsylvania , Philadel- to Kyoto to begin rebuilding its splen-
phia , PA. dor; others were drawn there by the pos-

60 Archaeology
sibility of joining the warrior ranks and the inner box was both a humidity
thus achieving a higher station in life. buffer and an effective shock absorber.
In the wake of this influx came the pur- We have now come to recognize, how-
veyors of amusement: courtesans, pros- ever, that this method of storage served
titutes and entertainers who could cater a couple of quite different vital func-
to the desires of this growing consumer tions in preservation. Both relate to the
society. pigments used. Among the inorganic
The prevailing mood of Kyoto's popu- ones, the most popular were powdered
lace was to reject the tenets of orthodox oyster shell (for white), cinnabar red,
Buddhism of that time- a passive atti- malachite green and azurite blue, to-
tude, wherein the world was but a sad, gether with browns and yellows of var-
fleeting dream- and replace them with ied hue prepared from natural ochers.
a desire to make the most of life, here Each was mixed into a paste based on a
and now. The Buddhist ukiyo, meaning watery solution of glue just before ap-
either "sad world" or "floating world," plication. In ukiyo-e, then, the notion of
suffered a value transference, to equate a paint layer drying was quite different
to the troubled, earthly affairs of man from the one that we are familiar with .
as seen, in microcosm, in the pleasure in Western art. Whereas linseed oils,
districts. Gambling became popular, and etc., become hardened by chemical
the winnings were invariably spent on change and limited evaporation of or-
women. Prostitutes of all kinds and ganics, the ukiyo-e glues do so by reach-
classes, some even dressed as Buddhist ing a point of gelatinization as water
nuns, often used popular temples and steadily evaporates. Pigment grains are
shrines as areas to ply their trade. They then tightly bound together (and to the
mingled with the countless dancers, ac- paper beneath) as much by surface ten-
tors, etc., to create a truly rich pageant sion effects as by basic adhesive proper-
of daily pleasure-seeking that cried out ties of the glue. The drying process
for expression via a richly-colored pal- ensures that only about 50 percent of
ette. Ukiyo-eartists did just that. the surface of the pigment grains is cov-
When a fresh power struggle ended ered by glue gel; each paint layer is like
in victory for Ieyasu Ibkugama at the a porous sponge, protected to only a
Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, and the limited extent from any deterioration
moving of the imperial capital to Edo processes which air and moisture can
soon afterward, the popular arts gained induce. The scrolling and boxing tech-
in diversity. In ukiyo-e, while Kyoto and nique does much to slow those pro-
Osaka remained centers for more tradi- cesses, with layer upon layer of paper
tional painting topics, such as kabuki shielding the fragile painting beneath
theater and literature, Edo artists took them.
full advantage of the newly developed Then there is the problem faced by
woodblock medium to mass-produce the organic components of the ukiyo-e
their efforts. (Initially, they hand- palette. Tfextiledyeing was as popular a
painted over black-and-white prints, but craft in Edo in the late seventeenth cen-
by about 1745 printmakers were trans- tury as any other, so the ukiyo-e print-
ferring color directly from the blocks.) maker had a whole host of colors to draw
It is said that the leading artist of the upon. They included a safflowerred (and
day, Hishikawa Maronobu, was so pro- sometimes a cochineal red imported
lific that he caused a paper shortage in from China as early as 1695); all man-
Edo around 1680.But the scale of ukiyo-e ner of yellows, including gamboge resin
production did not detract significantly derived from the Garcinia evergreens,
from its quality; it simply kept pace and tumeric extracted from the roots of
with its exuberance. the Curcama tuber; dayflower blue and
indigo blue (which, by Hokusai's times,
The protective scroll was almost eclipsed by Prussian blue
Beautiful though ukiyo-e is, it is also from Europe); and browns and blacks
one of the most difficult art media to prepared from tannins. Greens, called
Kusa-ai, were some admixture of indigo
preserve. Whether on paper or silk, the and one of the yellow dyestuffs.
paintings have always been highly vul- Brilliant though these colors are when
nerable to Japan's seasonal variations
of humidity. Any support for the paint- first used, most of them are highly fugi-
tive, i.e., they change color quite mark-
ing has to be flexible,because the stresses
induced by a sharp decrease in humidity edly when exposed to light for lengthy
could tear the work apart. The solution periods. Again, scrolling and boxing an
the Japanese themselves favored was ukiyo-e work proves invaluable, simply
scroll-mounting, lining with a tough, by the act of light exclusion. In terms
of damage what we are talking about
long-fibered paper that could absorb here are processes of change that might
stress by small deformations. Hand-in-
hand with that preservation measure occur over about twenty years of expo-
went another: the habit of storing the sure in household conditions. Left un-
checked, almost all of these dyestuffs
rolled-up scroll in a plain box of paulow- are reduced to ugly pale yellow, gray or
nia wood that, in turn, fitted snugly into
a lacquered wooden box. The outer lac- black stains where there was once vivid
quer acted as a moisture barrier, and continued on page 75

Nm/amhar/fWomhor
IQftS fil
 ABOUT

PHOTOGRAPHY

by Joe Marvullo

All New! 1986!

Improved! Photography
In a high-gloss, often glutted market- concept of a built-in motor drive, inter-
place, with a seemingly endless stream changable film backs and a dual viewing
of all new improved products, there are, system was revolutionary.
of course, superlative entries that pro- This year, after some well thought out
vide breakthroughs in both technology modifications a new model has arrived -
and design, and these deserve specific the fabulous Rollei 3003. Retaining the
mention. In last year's columns, "The best features of the previous model, the
Electronic 80's" and "The Digital Dec- 3003 has added a well-fitted loop hand-
ade,"we discussed the new trends in cam- grip as part of the camera design, giving
era design and high-tech electronics as it greater flexibility to the camera's hand-
applies to the photo industry. The last held operation. There are also three sep-
five years or so have been nothing short arate release buttons and a well-placed

Automatic exposure in action is repre- hot shoe on the side of the camera. The
sented in this photograph of a bird hot shoe has contacts for automatic or
caught in mid-flight against a back- "dedicated" flash units; a separate syn-
ground of the Meiji Shrine in Tokyo. chronizing socket for strobes assures the
An 80-200mm lens was used at the photographer several options for the so-
maximum tele setting to capture a lution of the photo problem. The dual
larger moon than the eye could see. integrated viewing systems give great
The film was Kodachrome 64. leverage when choosing an angle since
of remarkable as far as the field of optics the scene or subject can be viewed from
and the design and construction of lenses eye-level to waist-level at a second's no-
are concerned. These latest innovations tice. The ability to see overhead or right
have and will continue to change the angle views while hand-holding the cam-
way we take and see pictures. era is unique.
One of the most startling departures On a tripod the 3003 is easy to use
from the accepted "look" of a 35mm cam- since its "cube"-like shape has the con-
era was introduced two years ago by the trols at strategically important places.
prestigious German manufacturer, Multiple exposures are made simple by
Rollei. In the most dramatic cosmetic a setting on the interchangable back,
change in sir history, since Nikon intro- and in conjunction with the built-in
duced the Nikon F, Rollei introduced the motor any variety of creative or techni-
SL2000F. The goal was to integrate the cal exposures can be made. The view
flexibilities of medium format photogra- finder clearly indicates all the functions
phy with the size and ease of operation of the camera, which includes a "memo"
of a modern automatic sir. The unique function for light evaluation storage,

fO OGY
ARCHAFOl
shutter speeds, f-stops, flash function "smaller" in size then any of their com- provides ( 100 per charge ) is twice that of
and a clearly visible exposure measure- petitors while at the same time main- any comparable unit. This incredible unit
ment field. An electronic exposure sys- taining a futuristic approach to metering also cycles at two seconds, an important
tem that is highly accurate rounds off systems and automatic TTL compact feature for action or multiple exposure
the innovative course Rollei has taken flash units. photography.
with the 3003. The key to the OM-4 is the incredible
A camera such as the Rollei would multi-spot metering system, part of the Photographing artifacts
require lenses of the highest professional new age of "intelligent electronics" which The lens selection of computer de-
calibre to realize the full potential of the contains a whole array of professional signed Zuiko lenses is as extensive as it
camera system. The famous German lens functions. The multi-spot takes its light is innovative. I have chosen several to
manufacturer Carl Zeiss has succeeded reading directly off the film plane and highlight because of their special quali-
in producing an excellent series of com- can be switched from a center-weighted ties. For the archaeologist/photographer,
patible lenses. Renown trademark names light reading, which measures the whole the new and light-weight 50mm F:2
such as "Sonnar, Distagon, Planar, and frame instantly, to a spot reading which Macro lens is a welcome addition.
Tble-Tfessar"are represented in modern takes in a small selective reading of only Its sophisticated elements provide pin-
versions customized for the 3003. A two percent of the picture area. Push point focusing over the entire picture
completely different series of lenses, the button controls allow the photographer range while at the same time its high-
"Rolleinar" line are made to the highest to program the meter-computer to either speed (for a macro lens) assures bright
specifications for Rollei by some of Ja- expose for highlights or shadow areas, and easy viewing. It is both a functional
pan's top optical companies; these lenses or if desired a combination of all tonal "normal" lens and a compact macro with
range from super-wide angle to powerful ranges. For the photographer in the field remarkable resolution and color rendi-
telephotos. this is an extremely time-saving, effec- tion. The 100mm F:2 semi-telephoto has
tive and problem solving feature. floating elements which make detailed
Intelligent electronics There is also a useful memory func- close-up work in low-light situations or
Another type of professional camera tion which allows the photographer to copy work easy and accurate. It can focus
design in a completely different conclu- follow the action in any light changing extremely close for a tele, and is ideal for
sion is the sleek and compact OM-4from environment while keeping a pre- photographing artifacts. Its size is com-
Olympus. The OM-4 is part of the new recorded exposure setting for the elec- pact and the weight is well balanced.
Olympus generation of cameras, lenses tronic shutter. The precision engineer- On the other side of the visual spec-
and accessories. In last year's column ing of the meter ties directly into the trum is the ultra-wide 18mm F3.5 lens,
we talked about the introduction of this advanced flash accessories such as the one of the finest lenses of its type on the
state-of-the-art, well-plannedsystem and powerful new electronic flash, the T45. market. It too has floating elements and
a brief review of its most exciting fea- Smaller than most comparable flashes, is both ideal for close-up work and archi-
tures is well deserved. Olympus has al- it has its batteries stored in its handle so tectual vistas. Its minimum focusing
ways been known and respected for their there are no bulky powerpacks to carry. range is an incredible 9.8 inches!
continuing policy of designing high- At the same time the ingenious design With the investment photographers
quality equipment that is generally has assured that the number of flashes it continued on page 73

10QR £-3
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 that time. If it's bedtime at your desti-
nation, tell yourself it's bedtime and that
you're going to sleep for the night, not
PASSPORT just taking a cat nap. During your desti-
nation's daylight hours picture daytime
Allen activities, even if you're in the dark.
by Audrey Dr. Alfred Lewy of Oregon Health Sci-
ences University has studied the effects
How To let Lag And Win of daylight on a hormone that may be
Fight the body's chief timekeeper. His advice
American pioneers trekking westward 3 p.m. and 5 p.m., when their effect on is, when flying eastward, go outside for
by wagon train faced many obstacles, your body rhythms is neutral. several hours in the morning before
but jet lag wasn't one of them. Slow • Monday flying. When flying westward, spend
progress gave their internal body clocks The following day- Monday- "fast"; time outside in late afternoon.
plenty of time to adjust to crossing time that is, eat as little as possible. But take More tips
zones. Tbday, however,when we can eas- care not to become famished. Again, eat • If your flight is in the morning, go to
ily be transported across three or more protein for breakfast and lunch, but only bed about an hour later than usual for
time zones in less than a day, we suffer half -portions. Keep carbohydrates and westward trips, and one hour earlier if
the consequences of jet lag: a dragging calories low; choose light soups and sal-
you're eastbound.
dullness of brain, drowsiness, a tend- ads, fruit, unbuttered half slices of bread. • Don't drink alcohol in flight ; it brings
ency to walk into walls, insomnia, indi- Such fasting, it's said, depletes the liv- on fatigue and interferes with the reset-
gestion, nervousness, irritability, even a er's carbohydrates and helps the body
kind of leaden euphoria, to mention only clock to reset. Follow yesterday's advice ting of the body clock. This is probably
the most important part of the diet plan.
a few of the possible symptoms. This is about caffeinated beverage drinking. The decision to just sit and sip a few
not the best of conditions in which to • Tuesday martinis or Scotches and sink into pleas-
start your vacation, or a course of study, Feast, as you did on Sunday. Again, ant oblivion on long trips is common-
or to begin your volunteer work- or take drink caffeinated beverages only between and looked upon as sophisticated by
charge of volunteers- at an archaeologi- 3 p.m. and 5 p.m. some. But the truth is that alcohol
cal site. • Wednesday "knocks you out" faster in flight because
It usually takes one day per time zone Back to fasting on this, the day of your of cabin pressure. So there's a lot of truth
crossed for your body rhythms to get in
flight. Avoid carbohydrates up to 6 p.m., in the thought that "jet lag" for a lot of
sync with your new time and place. (Trav- as they bring on sleepiness. If you're people who are alcoholic beverage drink-
elers going northward or southward and west, it's a good idea to drink ers is really hangover.
not crossing time zones may arrive tired, traveling
caffeinated beverages (no sugar or cream ) • Do drink water to fight dehydration.
but not jet-lagged.) Most people find it's
easier to fly east to west (into longer only in the morning. If traveling east- The air in flight can be as dry as desert
ward, only between 6 p.m. and 11 p.m. air, and heightens the distress of jet lag.
days )han west to east (into a short day ) Dr. Ehret maintains that caffein and Caffein, sweetened soft drinks, and alco-
because our rhythm is set for about 25 in beverages like coffee and hol add to the problem because they are
theophylline
hours, not 24 hours. But with a few days tea speed the depletion of glycogen, dehydrating.
preparation and a bit of planning, you readying your body for rescheduling. • After the flight, keep to destination
can avoid or at least lessen the scourge Late in your "day," quiet down, skip
of jet lag. time, but try to get to bed early. Don't
the in-flight movie, avoid bright lights plan much for your first day there. If
Experts point out that you have three and conversation, and sleep on the plane you're heading for an all-important con-
weapons with which to fight jet lag: diet, until that pre-determined breakfast time ference, plan to arrive a day ahead.
mental imagery, and light exposure. -and no longer.: Dr. Ehret cautions • Remember: losing hours is harder on
Here's how you can use them all to get
emphatically against sleeping past this the body than gaining them, so it's espe-
your internal clock ticking to your desti- breakfast time even if it means rising in cially important to fight jet lag on east-
nation's time before you arrive there. the middle of the night. ward trips.
Plan your anti-jet lag diet Have a high protein breakfast. If • Avoid smoking and eating big meals
Your first step is to determine break- you've actually arrived by that time, sim- on the plane. This only adds to fatigue
fast time at your destination on the day ply start living your day as they are and body stress.
you'll arrive. Then followthe anti-jet lag doing at your destination. If you're still • Plan to move around the plane. Get up
diet developed by Dr. Charles Ehret of in flight at breakfast time and can't count and walk at least once an hour during
the U.S. Energy Department's Argonne on the airline serving what you need, waking hours (helps prevent swollenlegs
National Laboratory in Argonne, Illi- plan ahead to pack a high protein "break- and ankles), and try isometru exercises
nois. If breakfast time is, for example, 8 fast" in an insulated container- a sand- in your seat.
a.m. on Thursday, and you'll be arriving wich of cheese, meat, fish, turkey, or • Use the diet plan again foAyoui trip
some time after that (or late the day peanut butter . back. If you're going to be at your desti-
before), count four days before that hour, Start living your day as though you nation only a day or two, so that you
which would be the previous Sunday at were at your destination: stretch, turn can't start your diet plan four days be-
8 a.m. on lights, walk around, socialize. Eat a fore flight, at least fast, and sleep only
• Sunday large lunch and dinner at your destina- until your destination's breakfast time,
"Feast"- that is, eat generous portions tion when the locals do; retire early, and and avoid alcohol.
on that Sunday. Eat a high protein break- continue doing "as the Romans do..." Youcan send for a wallet-sized plastic-
fast and lunch (omelets, cheese, eggs, You can help your body reset its in- coated card describing Dr. Ehret's anti-
milk, fish, meat, beans, high-protein ce- flight time clock by picturing what the jet lag diet plan by writing to: Anti-Jet
reals) to provide power all day and to people at your destination are doing at Lag Diet, Argonne National Laboratory,
stimulate the body's active cycle. any given time, according to Dr. Edith 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL
Eat a high carbohydrate dinner- Jurka, a New York psychiatrist who's 60439. Youmight also want to read Over-
spaghetti (without meat or meat sauce), taught many people to create these men- coming Jet Lag, by Charles F. Ehret and
potatoes, rice, a sweet dessert- to help tal pictures. As soon as you board your Lynne Waller Scanlon, Berkley Books,
you sleep. If you're a coffeeor tea drinker, plane, set your watch to your destina- 200 Madison Avenue, New York, NY
drink caffeinated beverages only between tion's time, and imagine that you're on 10016 ($4.95).
1985 65
November/December
 THE BOOKSHELF

The Dawn of European Art: An attests to the nature of his book as an

Introduction to Palaeolithic Cave original piece of research and interpre-
Painting, by André Leroi-Gour- tation. By contrast, Beltran's bibliogra-
han. 77 pages , 105 color photographs , phy, citing research on the Levantine
9 black-and-white photographs , 17 text art that has rarely been published in
figures , 2 plans , i table, bibliography. accessible English versions, makes clear
Cambridge University Press , AfewYbrfe, the nature of his book as a survey and
Afy 1982 (The Imprint of Man) $19.95 synthesis.
A second major contrast between
Rock Art of the Spanish Levant, these books is in the illustrations, which
at first glance appear to be set up ex-
by Antonio Beltran . 91 pages , 101 actly the same way. In the book on
color photographs , 32 text figures, 1 Palaeolithic art the color plates are
map, bibliography. Cambridge Univer- numbered and have brief captions. Fre-
sity Press , Afew Yòr&,7VY1982 (The quently referred to in the margins of the
Imprint of Man) $19.95 text, they are used to illustrate the au-
These are the first two volumes in a thor's points. While there is not the same
"new lavishly illustrated series of books integration of text and plates in the book
on prehistoric art," edited by the enthu- on Levantine art there is much greater
siastic and dedicated rock art scholar, use of black-and-white figures within the
Emmanuel Anati. They address art rep- text.
ertoires that are chronologically early, The Beltran book on Levantine art
in regions where the histories of discov- gives us a fine descriptive overview of
ery and interpretation of the art have the subject and emphasizes two major
long been intertwined. For these reasons topics. First is the categorizing of the
it is quite appropriate to review the two subject matter: animals by species; hu-
volumes together. mans by type, including their attributes
At first glance the two volumes ap- and ornamentations, and kinds of com-
pear to be the same- in size, in format, positions or scenes (economic activities,
and presumably in scope and content. conflicts, dancing). Beyond this, the
But the differences between the two are book is concerned with the "questions
striking, and particularly informative on of chronology and origins that deter-
the state of knowledge and research into mine the position of Levantine painting
each of the two artistic traditions. These within the general history of art" (p.
differences exemplify the diversity of 80). Clearly, this stems from past de-
opinion within the field of prehistoric bates over the distinctiveness of Levan-
art, even with respect to the artforms tine art. The author quite firmly res-
themselves. One author (Leroi-Gourhan) cues it from the claims of other artistic
does not deal with these divergences, traditions (Palaeolithic or even Bronze
but the other (Beltran) must , because Age), and sets it on its own as a dis-
of the longstanding and obviously acri- tinct and distinguished artform of some
monious debate over the assignment of 40,000 years' duration.
the Levantine art to the Palaeolithic. It Working within this traditional ar-
is now the consensus that the Levantine chaeological concern for a chronological
art is no earlier than the Mesolithic/ framework, Beltran finds himself at a
Neolithic in period, and not even directly loss when he tries to account for the
derived from the preceding art of the occurrence of different types of human
Palaeolithic. depictions in the same panel, since there
Nevertheless, this debate over the is no chronology in the types (p. 40).
chronological and cultural assignment Although he claims that there ought to
of the eastern Spanish paintings has have been successive changes in color,
contributed to a state of knowledge and movement, and style through time (p.
research that differs markedly from that 70) he laments that he has not been
into Palaeolithic art. Thus, the two able to distinguish such stages.
books differ markedly- in intent, scope, Despite the predominance of his con-
and what the reader must know before- cern with description and chronology,
hand. Beltran also pays some attention to the
Two further important points of com- "whys" of Levantine rock paintings. And
parison between the volumes must be he is not alone among interpreters of
made. First, the bibliographies. The prehistoric art in reading most scenes
Beltran book has nine small-print pages quite literally as empirical and direct
of references, ranging from general statements on activities and generalized
works to works on a site-by-site basis beliefs such as fertility. Such readings
for 112 Levantine art sites. The Leroi- must, however,be considered only a par-
Gourhan book gives us only ten refer- tial, or perhaps even a misleading way
ences; those he cites in the text. This to approach the interpretation or de-

66 ARCHAEOLOGY
scription of rock art. The pitfalls of lit-
eral readings, and some alternatives to
them, have been shown by the pioneer-
ing works of Patricia Vinnicombe and
especially David Lewis-Williams for
southern San rock art (South Africa).
Not only does Beltran fail to consider
the possible metaphorical component of
the depictions. In trying to read the
scenes literally he draws on generalized
notions about fertility and magic that
have no compelling linkages to the par-
ticular imagery he has so carefully de-
scribed for the Levantine. By the end of
his discussion we are left with a string
of general, almost universal inferences
about the painted scenes that are very
far removed from the specific contexts
of the peoples, places and times that
generated these paintings. Despite the
author's optimistic opening statement
that advocates seeking the "why" of
Levantine art in "historical causes" (p.
13) and his attempts to place Levantine
art as a distinctive tradition, his con-
clusions are characterized by the same
vocabulary as that of an introductory
early twentieth-century text on primi-
tive magic and religion.
Whereas Beltran's book begins with
his observation that we are "spared the
monotony of formal rules" in Levantine
art (p. 18), Leroi-Gourhan's essay on
Palaeolithic art is primarily a further
elaboration of the formal rules of that
art. For him, the decoding and explica-
tion of the structure of prehistoric art
provide access to its meaning. This
structural approach, however, is almost
exclusively applied to the parietal art
or cave/wall paintings; he refers only
occasionally to portable art. And he
makes no attempt to summarize here
the subject matter, chronological se-
quence, history of debates, or even tech-
niques, except as these topics relate to
his own agenda- the presentation of a
"model for figurative construction" (p.
44) "characterizing the evolution of
Palaeolithic art" (p. 17).
Having already placed this book in
historical perspective with his earlier
treatises, Leroi-Gourhan now wants to
try out a "less contentious" domain- the
actual production of the works. "If
plenty still remains to be discovered
about the 'why' of the symbols depicted
on the cave walls, almost everything re-
mains to be said about the 'how'" (p. 7).
The first section of his text includes
Form, Space, Animation, and Time. It
presents his research since the time ten
years ago when he first detailed the to-
pographic, mythogram approach: "that
the pictures constitute a symbolic ap-
paratus linked to the shape of the cave,
a 'decoration' in which the different ele-
ments fill predetermined positions" (p.
8). In this particularly provocative sec-
tion there is a substantial attempt to
decode the cognitive processes that may
Continued on page 70

1985
November/December 67
 ARCHAEOLOGY FILMS

The Sun Kingdom of Yucatan. of the ancient Maya will be dismayed

1984. Produced and directed by Hugh by the film's sketchy treatment of Maya
and Suzanne Johnston. Color, 20 min- civilization, which is portrayed almost
utes. Purchase $395(16 mm), video cas- as if it had existed in a vacuum. Ar-
sette all formats $340 from Hugh and chaeology has shown that Maya culture
Suzanne Johnston , 16 Valley Road > was anything but homogeneous, either
Princeton, N J 08540 (609) 924-7505. temporally or spatially, but the consid-
erable differences between earlier, more
southerly manifestations of this culture
and its later Yucatan flowering are dis-
This is a short, fast-paced and very regarded. Much is made of the "mystery"
handsome film focusing on the Yucatan of the decline of the Maya civilization,
Peninsula of eastern Mexico, once a cen- but none of the possible contributing
ter of late or "New Empire" Maya civili- factors is mentioned. Likewise, the film
zation and today the home of many skirts substantive issues of contempo-
descendants of the Maya. The viewer is rary Mesoamerican anthropology to por-
treated to arresting views of numerous tray the present-day Maya Indians in
Peninsular Maya archaeological sites- what are perhaps unrealistically sunny
Uxmal, Coba, Chichen Itza, Tulum, hues. In both cases- the archaeological
Dzibilchaltun, and others. But much of and the anthropological- it is a loving
the emphasis of the film is on the Yuca- portrait, but it lacks depth.
tan of today, and the camera dwells just Still, The Sun Kingdom of Yucatan is
as appreciatively on the beaches and more than just a lightweight explora-
tourist hotels, faces and fiestas of mod- tion of the art, archaeology and culture
ern times. The role of the Spanish in the of the Yucatan. It is a travelogue, in the
history of the Yucatan is mentioned, and best sense of the word: the lay viewer's
there are several shots of Spanish interest in and appreciation of the place,
churches and haciendas, but for the its people and its past are kindled. The
most part the film concentrates on two film will be enthusiastically received by
periods in the culture history of the members of armchair travel clubs and
Yucatan (and on the peoples associated by junior high school social studies
with these)- the Maya period and today. classes. It will disappoint professional
The influence of one on the other is made archaeologists and anthropologists, al-
clear: modern architecture evokes an- though the beauty and polish of the
cient temple design, for example, while production make it pleasant viewing,
contemporary peasant faces mirror the even for them.
priestly or princely visages in Maya
painting and sculpture. Gretchen Anderson Gwynne is Adjunct
Technically this film is very proficient Assistant Professor of Anthropology,
indeed. Vibrant colors, interesting cam- State University of New York at Stony
era angles and the seductive interplay Brook.
of light and shadow are all used to ren-
der the great natural and architectural The Ritual of the Mounds. 1984.
beauty of the Yucatan nothing short of Produced and directed by John Meyer
spectacular. Evocative views of archae- for the Tennessee Department of Conser-
ological sites and shots of slowly revolv- vation. Color, 281/2 minutes. Purchase
ing Maya objets d'art are intercut with $250 (16mm), video (VHS) $75, rental
scenes from contemporary life in which $25 from the Educational Resource Cen-
the charming, the colorful or the dra- ter, Tennessee Department of Conserva-
matic-in costumes, crafts, native cere- tion, 701 Broadway, Nashville, TN 37203
monies, even foods- are sought out. The (615) 742-6567.
narrator's precise enunciation and pleas- The Ritual of the Mounds is an enter-
antly sonorous voice and the background taining introduction to a truly impor-
of Mexican guitar and band music com- tant site: the Pinson Mound complex
plement the fine photography. located in western Tfennessee.This ex-
In contrast to what many may feel is tensive mound complex has been pur-
implied by the title, this film contains chased by the state of Tfennessee,which
less information about the ancient Maya has begun a laudable program of con-
than about their homeland and cultural servation, scientific investigation, and
legacy. It does not purport to be a schol- public interpretation. The narrator's
arly or didactic effort, but rather a claim that Pinson represents the "larg-
ground-floor introduction to the anthro- est burial and ceremonial Woodland
pological geography of a particularly in- mound complex in the United States"
teresting culture area. Serious students would be challenged by some (Newark

68 ARCHAEOLOGY
and Hopewell spring to mind as possi- of the film is the distracting music, a
ble challengers), but never mind: Pinson peculiar combination of atonal flute
is big enough and unusual enough to moans and twanging strings, which ac-
warrant our most carefully focused at- tually drowns out the narration on more
tention. than one occasion.
The time period (ca. A.D. 200) is an We see the young archaeologists at
important one in eastern United States play as well as at work. We witness their
prehistory for it witnessed the flores- technological failures (a recalcitrant dirt
cence of the far-ranging Hopewell belief slide, for example) as well as the im-
system/exchange network as well as the pressive results of their careful excava-
crystallization of more localized, but tions. We also see an extended sequence
nonetheless important, cultural com- of "archaeo-humor," as the workers re-
plexes such as Weeden Island in north- lieve the tedium of their work by engag-
ern Florida. Especially remarkable, but ing in various masquerades and pranks.
as yet incompletely investigated, is the The sequence is amusing enough, but
fact that a number of Pinson's mounds much overdone. Mimicry of Arab dress
appear to be flat-topped, thus possibly and gestures will be insulting to some,
representing some of the earliest known and the general attitude of frivolity dur-
"temple" mounds. ing the excavation is embarrassing.
In spite of the film's title, Ritual of Rock-and-roll music blares from a radio
the Mounds is much less concerned with during the excavations, and a dog wan-
mound ritual than with mound excava- ders freely through the trenches. Such
tion. We watch as a crew of young ar- informality during excavation of a burial
chaeologists sets in a grid, previews the site may be offensive to Native Ameri-
stratification using split-spoon soil cans. Close-ups of the burials are over-
probes, and opens a series of two by dramatized, and accompanied by eerie
two meter squares into the mound. As music, suggesting that they are objects
they excavate, we share with them the of morbid fascination rather than res-
thrill of discovery as well as the tedium pect-something to be stared at rather
of day to day note-taking, digging and than learned from. Such overdramatiza-
sifting. Outstanding assets of this film tion is condescending to the audience
are its realistic portrayal of field and and simply in bad taste. It certainly
laboratory work and its clearly drawn does not present an accurate picture of
connection between research questions archaeologists' motives for investigat-
and the excavations being undertaken. ing the past.
The treatment of methods is uneven, In spite of the crew's frivolity, the film
however. The viewer is left with the succeeds in portraying their technical
impression that all excavated sediments competence, dedication to duty, and gen-
are routinely passed through one-quarter uine respect for the Native Americans
inch hardware cloth; no mention is made they are investigating. Excellent artist's
of quite standard techniques of biologi- sketches of the reconstructed burial rit-
cal data recovery, such as flotation. uals deserve discussion; instead they are
The mound excavation is emphasized flashed rapidly, without comment, jux-
strongly, but there is little mention of taposed with photographs of the exca-
the non -mound parts of this vast site. vation crew. Once again, the filmmaker
The director of the project is shown discards an opportunity to connect the
mending pottery with a cellulose-based excavations with the interpretations in
glue, rather than water-based as recom- favor of an unsuccessful attempt to link
mended by most conservators. the diggers with the digees.
The cinematography is uneven. Splen- The elements of a great film are here,
did action scenes show the importance but they are poorly integrated. The film
of teamwork in a complex excavation, is generally enjoyable, and informative
but often there is insufficient connec- of excavation techniques, but it falls
tion between the narrator's message and short of its potential to teach valuable
the scene being viewed. While we listen lessons from the past. We learn much
to a description of the location of Hope- about digging, but little about the con-
wellian and Mississippian developments, text of the mound in the larger site and
we are shown not a helpful map, but a the site in its regional context. The film
view of the Tennessee sky. Near the be- is probably best suited for high school-
ginning of the film, as the viewer strug- educated audiences and above, but it
gles to comprehend the site plan being should be shown by someone who can
described, the camera is whirling dizzy- provide some of the necessary back-
ingly around the base of unnamed ground and context that this otherwise
mounds. As the narrator speculates on informative film lacks.
the leadership structure of this past so-
ciety, the archaeologists are shown star-
ing intently at freshly-excavated pot William H. Marquardt is Visiting Asso-
sherds. In one of the sillier outdoor ciate Professor of Anthropology and Ad-
scenes, the camera lurches unsteadily junct Associate Curator in Archaeology
about, narrowly missing colliding with at the Florida State Museum, Univer-
a tree. By far the most annoying aspect sity of Florida.

November/December
1985 69
 The Bookshelf directly to the confirmation of the myth-
Continued from page 67 ogram or to elucidating the meanings it
may have embodied. In the end, we are
have brought the visual imagery into once more in the generalizations of the
existence. The author discusses fram- nineteenth century: "evidence of magic
ing, superpositioning, and symmetry- activity linked to hunting;" "Lascaux
topics that are extremely rare in the can be considered a temple" (p. 75).
study of Palaeolithic art. Despite their shortcomings, perhaps
The second part of the text, divided even because of them, these first two
into sections entitled The Message, The volumes in the Imprint of Man series
Actors, and The Content of the Mes- are excellent contributions to the field
sage, elaborates on his proposition that of prehistoric art. They show us how
Palaeolithic wall art is a mythogram of little we know, despite more than a cen-
continuity and unity. Under the head- tury of inquiry; they set the agenda for
ing of Actors he discusses the animals, further research; and they herald an
the human depictions, the monsters, and exciting potential for the study of pre-
the signs. Then he discusses these as- historic art. Margaret W. Conkey is As-
semblages as they contribute to the sociate Professor of Anthropology at the
identification and illustration of the fun- University Center at Bingfiamton, State
damental formulae for the grouping of University of New York.
images, both in relation to each other
arid in their locations within the cave. An Introduction to Louisiana
Leroi-Gourhan's conclusion that "all Archaeology, by Robert W. Neu-
authors find themselves very generally man. Xvi, 366 pages , 71 black-and-white
agreeing that the images in the caves plates, 3 maps, bibliography, index. Lou-
were the framework for an ideology isiana State University Press, Baton
which is expressed in symbols associ- Rouge, LA 1984 $27.50
ated with fertility and the hunt" (p. 8)
is unfortunately not significantly be- Regional archaeological guides are apt
yond the generalisms that conclude to open with a labored chapter on the
Beltran's book, despite the structural palaeoenvironment, but this thorough,
gymnastics he has gone through. up-to-date synthesis begins instead with
Although Leroi-Gourhan continues to a detailed report on archaeological work
advocate the existence of a progressive, in Louisiana from early in the nineteenth
transformational sequence for the evo- century through the 1930s. It is a novel
lution of Palaeolithic art, his underly- introduction, devoid of critical evalua-
ing agenda is to demonstrate the tion and thus admirably reflective of the
existence of a mythogram; that is, a archaeological naiveté of those early
visual depiction that is without spatio- years. The author saves his interpretive
temporal references. In particular, the efforts for the succeeding, chronologi-
mythogram in Palaeolithic cave art in- cally-arranged chapters, in which he de-
volves hierarchically coordinated images scribes the state's many sites and their
of animals according to a fundamental excavation in meticulous detail, build-
formula. Here we find Leroi-Gourhan's ing slowly toward a comprehensive pic-
most explicit statement of that formula. ture of a late prehistoric Louisiana that
It begins with the two major classes of was an extraordinary cultural mélange
animals, A (horse) and B (bison/ of indigenous and exotic influences. The
aurochs), which are the central figures story is set in a non-standard but sensi-
of any composition, and which together ble .chronological framework: the rela-
comprise 60 percent of the images in tively poorly-known Paleo-Indian period
Palaeolithic cave art. They are, by for- is followed by the "Meso-Indian" (Ar-
mula, complemented by peripheral or chaic) and "Neo-Indian" (Burial Mound
complementary animals (type C): stag, and Ifemple Mound) periods, with the
hind, mammoth, ibex, or reindeer. The latter represented by seven finely-drawn
remaining 10 percent of the depictions, and highly evocative portraits of dis-
type D (bear, feline or j-hino) are remote tinct prehistoric cultures. The last of
to the composition as well as within the these spilled over into the post-contact
cave. Relative size and positioning are ("Historic Indian") period.
used to demonstrate the formula, and Because of the author's academic
several major caves are explicated in voice and painstaking attention to de-
terms of the formula and how it is played tail, this book may prove difficult going
out. for laymen, but will find an attentive
The sexual symbolism that prevailed readership among archaeologists and
in Leroi-Gourhan's earlier essays is not their students- particularly those inter-
completely abandoned; the cave itself is ested in Native American cultures and
still presented as a female symbol, and in the development of archaeological the-
it remains the only context in his analy- ory and method in the U.S.
sis and interpretation of the art. Occa- The book is well written, scrupulously
sional references to the sociocultural footnoted and indexed, and masterfully
context or to archaeological finds such illustrated with black-and-white plates
as those from Lascaux are not the kinds showing Louisiana's archaeological sites
of contextual data that will contribute and the artifacts - some of them of

70 ARCHAEOLOGY
astonishing artistic and technological
sophistication- they have yielded. This
is a thoroughly responsible job, right
down to its useful summary chapter,
(now-standard) plea for site conserva-
tion, and comprehensive bibliography.
Gretchen A . Gwynne, State University
of New YorkyStony Brook, NY
Trade and Exchange in Early
Mesoamerica, edited by Kenneth
G. Hirth. vii, 338 pages , 60 black-and-
white photographs , 20 text figures , 29
tables , 1 plan, 28 maps, bibliography .
University of New Mexico Press, Albu-
querque, NM 1984 $37,50
The materialist-ecological approach has
been the most successful employed in
world archaeology during the twentieth
century, and this volume represents a
major contribution from that perspec-
tive. All authors are remarkably similar
in their assumptions and theories, and
most use them well. These cases detail
the emergence of increasing economic
centralization from egalitarian roots,
concomitant with marked differences in
power and prestige. Three stages of cen-
tralization can be seen in all cases: non-
centralized, minimally centralized
(ranked societies), and highly central-
ized (the state). Most analyses rely heav-
ily on obsidian and other well-preserved
and well-studied materials.
The volume is over-titled; it only
rarely ventures out of highland Central -
Mexico. Neglected are the Gulf Coast,
Yucatán, Petén-Belize, the Southeast,
and Xoconusco. Topically,the Olmec are
conspicuous by their absence, and per-
ishables need greater consideration, in-
cluding major and minor foodstuffs,
salt, cotton, and feathers. The authors
are often weak in isolating transforma-
tion of an egalitarian into a non-egali-
tarian society. This is, however, a major
volume. Hirth is to be complimented on
an excellent job of editing. His intro-
duction, his conclusion, and his chapter
on Morelos are models to be emulated.
Payson D. Sheets, University of Colo-
rado, Boulder, CO.
Pottery in the Roman World: an
Ethnoarchaeological Approach,
by D.P.S. Peacock . xxi, 192 pages,
31 black-and-white plates, 62 text fig-
ures, 1 table, 20 plans, 4 maps, bibliog-
raphy. Longman, Inc., New York, NY
1982$35.00
This book, the first in Longman's new
archaeology series, looks at how Roman
pottery was made and distributed and
at the reasons for its developmental his-
tory. It is not a conventional handbook
of pottery shapes, functions, trade-
marks, origins, and dates. The book's
purpose is to see Roman pottery objects
in terms of the economic and social en-
vironments in which they were produced
and used.
continued on page 73

1985
November/December 71
 WORDS TO REMEMBER

MACHU PICCHU: CONSERVING AN THE MANCHESTER

INCA TREASURE, page 18 MUMMYPROJECT, page 40
Bromeliades- plants of the Bromeliaceae Cartonnage- a material made from papy-
familyof tropicalAmerica,with basal, often rus and gum, used for coffinsand other fu-
spiny leaves and flowersin dense spikes or nerary objects in ancient Egypt.
heads; the pineapple is a bromeliade.
Chromatography - a method used to
Lianas - climbing plants rooted in the isolate and identifysome of the substances
ground; woody lianas are found in tropical with which a mummy's bandages were
rain forests, herbaceous lianas in temper- impregnated.
ate regions.
Electron microscopy- a method of exam-
iningsamplesof tissueand other substances
from the mummies. The electron micro-
THE ARCHAEOLOGYOF scope can show up details in a specimen
EARLYPARIS, page 26 1,000 times smaller than is possiblewith a
light microscope.
Arverni- a powerfulGallicpeople livingin Endoscopy - the use of an endoscope
the Auvergne section of modern France (viewinginstrument) to examine internal
who came under Roman dominationin the cavitiesof the mummies.
second century B.c.
Fluoroscopy- examinationby x-raystrans-
Celts- a group of peoples with a common mitted onto a fluorescent screen.
speech and artistictradition who occupied
lands north of the Mediterranean region Orbiting- a radiological technique using
from Galatia (Turkey)in the east to Galicia apparatus that enables the x-ray image to
(Spain) in the west. be viewedfrom a number of angleswithout
moving the body.
Gauls- a name applied by ancient writers
to the peoples of the territory west of the Paleohistology- the study of examining
Rhine, bounded by the Alps,the Pyrenees, tissue from ancient bodies.
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. Paleopathology- the study of disease in
Salyans - a Gallic people living in the ancient tissues.
Provence area of modern France, defeated Tomography - a method of obtaining
by Rome in 133 b.c. x-rays of tissue in a plane of interest by
Sigillata - ceramics, especially ancient blurring out the unwanted shadows above
Roman ware, decorated with stamped-on and below the plane, thus sharply defining
patterns or motifs. the image.
Stater- ancient gold or silvercoins of the
Greek city-states, with varying standards KUSHAN SCULPTURE: IMAGES
of value. FROM EARLYINDIA, page 54
Jainism - a religion and philosophy
founded at about the same time as Bud-
GALEN'S PERGAMM, page 33 dhismby Mahãvíra,the last of 24 Tirthankas
whose teachings are followedby Jains. The
Asclepius - the Greek and, later, Roman religion espouses non-injuryto all beings,
god of healing. His shrines at Pergamm, and asceticism and monasticism as paths
Epidaurus and Cos were centers of medi- to human perfection.Formerlywidespread,
cal practice and cultural activityin Greece Jainism is now strong only in the western
during the Roman period. state of Gujarat.
Lanista - the manager and trainer of a Maurya Sunga- Indian historical period
troupe of gladiators. taking its name from two ruling dynasties,
Naumachia- a mock naval battle fought the Mauryas(320-185 B.c.)and the Sungas
in a flooded arena or in a specially built (185-72 b.C.).
pool that was also called a naumachia.The Plinth- the base of a wall or column ped-
spectacle was introduced by Julius Caesar estal, also the square, projecting base of a
in 46 B.c. and became increasinglypopu- stupa.
lar under the Early Roman emperors.
Propylon- a formal entrance to a shrine THE RUMBLE OF
or precinct. Often, as on the Acropolis at DISTANT THUNDER, page 58
Athens or at Pergamum's Asclepeion,the
propylonwasan importantarchitecturalunit. Parapet- an earth embankmentsupported
Stoa- a long open building fronted with (at Black Point) on the inside by a breast-
columns, often with rooms opening off the high masonry wall.
back walland on a second floor.Stoas pro- Revetment- angled timber facingatop the
vided shelter from sun and rain as well as
space for public and private business, and parapet wall used to retain the earth fill.
tney often served to bound open public Terreplein- the surface behind the para-
areas. pet where the gun platformsare located.

72 ARCHAEOLOGY
The Bookshelf ing system, production on estates, and
continued from page 71 finally military and municipal/state pot-
Suggesting that "current ceramic teries. Within these categories such top-
studies are in some ways comparable ics as the types and amounts of pottery
with chemistry before Lavoisier,"the au- produced, the chief centers of produc-
thor seeks to formulate a model to be tion, the classes of society to which
used for future pottery studies. The pottery-owners and workers belonged,
model he develops involves an ordering, and the marketing of wares are treated.
from simple to complex, of the chief The chapter on the huge fine-ware in-
methods probably used by the Romans dustry is particularly well developed, as
to produce and distribute pottery. He might be expected, given the abundant
constructs the model on the basis of information now in print. The equally
ethnological study of modern pottery large shipping amphora industry is,
production in areas once occupied by however,less extensively discussed. The
the Romans, especially Spain, France, model is preliminary, but it should pro-
Italy, Greece and T'inisia. The same de- vide both specialists and non-specialists
ductive approach already applied by with a background against which to see
such scholars as Matson and Hampe/ Roman pottery in better focus.
Winter on a smaller scale in the eastern Readers will be interested in the chap-
Mediterranean is thus enlarged in this ter that describes in clear terms just
book to include a considerable part of how the Romans made various types of
the Roman West. pottery, from raw material to finished
The author, a specialist in the scien- product. There are also up-to-date dis-
tific, especially the penological, analy- cussions of such technical matters as
sis of pottery, has visited and worked at the dating of Roman pottery and the
many of the locations, ancient and mod- methods currently used to sample, quan-
ern, discussed in the book. Using evi- tify, and study the distribution of pot-
dence from ethnology, he presents an tery. This stimulating and useful book
"ethnoarchaeological" model for Roman is also a convincing statement of the
pottery production. Starting with the importance of pottery as a source of
most primitive pottery-makig, in knowledge about Roman economic and
households, he progresses to individual social history. Elizabeth Lyding Will,
workshops, urban and nucleated indus- Department of Classics, University of
tries, the massive fine-ware manufactur- Massachusetts , Amherst , MA.

About Photography stability. One of the best features is the

continued from page 63 padded wood-lined bottom which keeps
are making in these sophisticated cam- the bag from collapsing and makes put-
era, flash and lens systems, it is only ting the bag down on the ground less
reasonable to provide the best possible hazardous to the equipment inside. The
protection for traveling and rugged use Tfenbaline with its accessories such as
in the field. There are many types of backpacks (ideal for outdoors and treach-
camera bags from the excellent to the erous locations), shoulder pads, waist
absurd (for example, plastic bags), but belts, tie straps, hand straps, and divid-
the quality of excellence rests in bags of ers is probably the most comprehensive
rugged durability, water repellency, the product line on the market today. The
ability to take shocks, and even to look bags are called Pro-Packs, and have in-
good. Such requirements go into one of deed earned that name.
the professional's most favored line of A word on Gitzo tripods: excellent! A
camera bags, the Tfenba. These are a superior line of tripods and accessories
whole series of bags, straps, clamps, and from France whose products are as good
accessories to fit every possible photo- as their reputation. These universal tri-
graphic need. pods and stands come in every conceiva-
Since the bags are designed by a pro- ble size and configuration. There are over
fessional photographer, great care has 100 precision tripods to choose from, in
gone into both the planning and con- light, medium and heavyweight classes,
struction of each piece. The bags are as well as monopods and over 30 sepa-
easy to work out of, are reliable and are rate interchangeable heads. The tripods
waterproof. The word Tenba means are made to handle any camera from
"steadfast" in Tibetan- this has defi- 35mm through 8x10, as well as 16 and
nitely been achieved. The bags are man- 35mm film and video cameras. A whole
ufactured in the U.S.A. The cloth is range of accessories is available from
DuPont's Codura, a material three cases to light stands. For the archaeolo-
times stronger than canvas. The pad- gist/photographer there is virtually no
dings are made of Ethafoam, the photographic chore on location or in the
same tough material used in the linings studio that cannot be accomplished by
of football and race car driver's helmets. one of the durable Gitzo tripod
It is a quarter of an inch in thickness and variations.
is made to take shocks. U.S. grade mili- In the next issue we will continue our
tary hardware has been used for all buck- look at the International photo product
les, clamps and d-rings; the shoulder scene with some comments on other su-
straps are welded to d-rings to assure perior entries in the field.
rvi i ir' u irtQR Ti
 FOR FURTHER READING
Machu Picchu chester Museum Mummy Project : Mul-
tidisciplinar y Research on Ancient
For Further Reading on the Inca: Egyptian Mummified Remains (Man-
Hiram Bingham, Lost City of the Incas : chester Museum, Manchester 1979),pre-
The Story of Machu Picchu and its sents the scientific account of the
Builders (Atheneum, New York, NY Manchester researches until 1979; A.R.
1972),is the account of Bingham's 1911- David and E. Tapp, editors, Evidence
15 expeditions which remains a solid, Embalmed: Modern Medicine and the
fascinating report of his discoveries; Mummies of Ancient Egypt (Man-
Paul Fejos, "Archaeological Explora- chester University Press, Manchester
tions in the Cordillera Vilcabamba, 1985), tells the story of the Manchester
Southern Peru," Viking Fund Publica- investigation to 1984 in layman's terms;
tions in Anthropology, No. 3, (Wenner- W.R. Dawson and P.H.K. Gray, Cata-
Gren Foundation for Anthropological logue of the Human Remains in the De-
Research, New York, NY 1944), the only partment of Egyptian Antiquities,
complete published description of the British Museum, London (British Mu-
sites on the Inca IVail; Graziano Gas- seum Publications, London 1968), is a
parini and Luise Margolies, translated radiological survey of the collection of
by Patricia J. Lyon, Inca Architecture Egyptian mummies; J.E. Harris and
(Indiana University Press, Blooming- E.F. Wente, An X-ray Atlas of the Royal
ton, IN 1980), is the most complete Mummies (University of Chicago Press,
study available on this subject; John Chicago and London 1980), gives a de-
Hemming and Edward Ranney, Monu- tailed account of the radiological survey
ments of the Incas (New York Graphic carried out on the royal mummies in the
Society Book published by Little, Brown Cairo Museum; E. Tapp, A. Curry and
and Co., Boston, MA 1982), is a well- C. Anfield, "Sand Pneumoconiosis in an
researched, general written and photo- Egyptian Mummy," British Medical
graphic study of some major Inca sites. Journal, May 3, 2:276, discusses the ev-
Galen's Pergamm idence for this disease in Nekht-Ankh.
The Protection of
For Further Reading on Pergamm Historic Shipwrecks
and Roman Asia in general: Ekrem
Akurgal, Ancient Civilizations and For Further Reading on shipwreck
Ruins of Turkey (Mobil Oil Türk, Istan- legislation: Council of Europe, The Un-
bul 1969; fourth edition Haset Kitaberi, derwater Cultural Heritage, Volume I
Istanbul 1978), provides a good guide (Report of the Committee on Culture
to Pergamm and the other important and Education, 1977); C.W.N. Ingram
sites in Roman Asia; Roland Auguet, and P.O. Wheatley, New Zealand Ship-
Cruelty and Civilization : The Roman wrecks 1795-1975 (A.H. and A.W. Reed,
Games (Allen & Unwin, London 1972), Wellington, NZ 1977); P.J. O'Keefe and
is the best book in English on gladia- L.V. Prott, Law and the Cultural Heri-
tors and their life; George Bean, Aegean tage, Volume I, Discovery and Excava-
Turkey (Praeger, New York, NY 1966), tion (Professional Books, Oxford 1984).
although less up-to-date than the recent Kushan Sculpture:
editions of Akurgal, makes better read-
images from Early India
ing.
On Galen: G.W. Bowersock, Greek For Further Reading on Indian and
Sophists in the Roman Empire (Oxford Buddhist art: A. Coomaraswamy, His-
University Press, Oxford 1969), has a tory of Indian and Indonesian Art
valuable chapter on Galen; Vivian Nut- (Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY
ton, "The Chronology of Galen's Early 1965),is a reprint of a 1927classic; more
Career," Classical Quarterly 23 (1973): recent treatments are J. Rosenfield, The
158-71, gives evidence and arguments Dynastic Arts of the Kushans (Univer-
for the events of Galen's life up to his sity of California, Berkeley and Los
first journey to Rome; John Scarborough, Angeles 1967); and W. Zwalf, The
"Galen and the Gladiators," Episteme Shrines of Gandhara (British Museum
5 (1971): 98-111, gives an account of Publications, London 1979).
the treatments employed by Galen and The Rumble of
relates them to Roman medical practice.
Distant Thunder
The Manchester
Mummy Project For Further Reading on Civil War
San Francisco: Emanuel Raymond
For Further Reading on mummies: Lewis, Seacoast Fortifications of the
A. and E. Cockburn, editors, Mummies, United States : An Introductory History
Disease and Ancient Cultures (Cam- (Leeward Publications, Inc., Annapolis,
bridge University Press, Cambridge MD 1979), is invaluable; Erwin N.
1980), is an account of the multidisci- Thompson, Seacoast Fortifications, San
plinary research carried out on mummi- Francisco (National Park Service, Den-
fied remains from many areas of the ver, CO 1979), is the best available
world; A.R. David, editor, The Man- source.
74 Archafoinc.v
Science Scope
continued from page 61
color. Safflower red and dayflower blue
seem most susceptible to deterioration
in this respect.
Ukiyo-e in the museum
If ukiyo-e paintings were kept perma-
nently scrolled, their longevity might
be assured. But then we would never
see them. Perhaps just unroll them for
a while? But for how long? As muse-
ums have tried to make these judge-
ments, a couple of drawbacks in the
usual storage conditions have been rec-
ognized. The rolled-up state becomes,
as a result of creep, the natural shape of
the scroll. Unrolling creates a tension
on the painting's inner surface, and the
fibrous, network-like structure of paper
responds by creating a lateral concav-
ity. This means that the edges of the
support are actually some distance in
front of the central region of the paint-
ing itself, as the scroll hangs on display.
In the short term this effect is revers-
ible, but under the prolonged stress of
the weight and horizontal rigidity of the
roller, the painting buckles into a wavy
shape that is irreversible. Creasing may
occur during rerolling. This damage oc-
curs in just a few years in ordinary cli-
matic conditions. Fluctuate the humidity
appreciably, and it will be much aggra-
vated ; add a certain degree of age-related
brittleness to the paper, the pigments' -
glue and the paste on supportive back-
ing, and lateral cracks soon develop.
Current exhibit strategy for ukiyo-e
still has a certain empiricism about it.
The Japanese generally insist on a limit
of one month on display and a controlled
humidity ranging between 55 and 60 per-
cent. As for color fading, ultraviolet fil-
ters commonly used to protect other
museum artifacts prove only margin-
ally effective in its prevention. (An ex-
ception is indigo blue, the deterioration
rate of which can be slowed to about a
third of its unshielded value. ) Many pig-
ments respond very unfavorably to en-
vironmental pollutions, lead-based
colors suffering badly since they readily
convert to black lead sulfide.
As it stands there are no simple solu-
tions for ukiyo-e preservation. Therein
lies an irony, since ukiyo-e is essentially
an art for and about people, yet its pub-
lic display threatens its very survival.

Science Scope Reading: R.L. Feller,

M. Curran and C. Bailie, in Japanese
WoodblockPrints (Allen Memorial Art
Museum, Oberlin, OH 1984); E.W. Fitz-
hugh, "A Pigment Census of ukiyo-e
Paintings in the Freer Gallery of Art,"
Ars Orientalis XI (1979): 27-38;
Muneshige Narazaki, Masterworks of
Ukiyo-e: Early Paintings (Kodansha,
Tokyo 1967); Kenzo Toishi, "The Scroll
Painting," Ars Orientalis XI (1979):
15-25.
 In the Field
Continued from page 59

Psotta, the students worked as hard as

their predecessors, removing thousands
of cubic yards of soil, painstakingly ex-
cavating the gun platforms, and recov-
ering thousands of artifacts.
While the amazingly intact battery
walls were a pleasure to behold, the ar-
tifacts were the real treasure of two sea-
sons' digging. The hundreds of friction
primers, parts of uniforms, firing mech-
anisms of Civil War muskets, bullets
and cartridges, mess kits and canteens,
broken bottles, and thousands of other
smashed, trampled, buried and forgot-
ten items offer unique insights into mil-
itary life and attitudes in Civil War San
Francisco. Contractor shortcuts in con-
struction, intricate and massive "tem-
porary" platforms for the gigantic
cannon, and au courant weapons pro-
vide perspectives on mid-nineteenth-
century building practices and on the
actual capability of the well-armed men
who defended the city. Randomly-fired
bullets in the walls, a carefully-hidden
liquor bottle in a gap in the timbers of a
gun platform, and a twisted chain of
firing pins are graphic evidence of the
boredom faced by soldiers who stood
ready for an enemy who never came.
At the end of the second summer all
of the west end of the battery stood
completely exposed, and its restoration
began. Foundations of later buildings
were chipped away to allow an unob-
structed view of the original brickwork.
Earth was replaced atop the parapets, re-
creating the contours of the earthworks.
Now reproduced timber revetments
are being installed on the walls to face
the interior slopes of the earthworks, as
was done in 1864. Lawn is being planted
to accentuate the terreplein and slopes
atop the walls; double-hinged wooden
doors are soon to be re-hung on the ready
magazines ; and a reproduction gun plat-
form, cast in concrete to simulate wood,
will be installed to await the placement
of a Civil War vintage Rodman cannon.
Future plans call for uniformed inter-
preters to stand watch, drilling and run-
ning through mock firings for the thou-
sands who visit Fort Mason each year.
Small, unobtrusive outdoor exhibits
reproducing historical photographs have
been oriented to help merge the past
with the tangible present.
After almost three years of careful ar-
chaeological excavation, meticulous res-
toration, and much planning, the Black
Point battery stands open to the air once
again. The restored ramparts now re-
mind visitors of a time when the pas-
sions and fears of the Civil War engulfed
the nation's western shore. The conflict
is long past; yet it can still be perceived,
like the rumble of distant thunder, by
those standing inside the Black Point
battery.

-7/r ArvM
iA1-/M
rvn/
/';-=09 )(8*=-0/']
 More on the Festival of India
n EWSBRIEFS
Each of the variousexhibitionsof Indian
art in the 1985-86 Festivalof India cele-
Folk Art of the South ment for the Arts,willbe on viewat the bration in the U.S.features a particular
AlthoughSouthern music,craftsand BirminghamMuseumin AlabamaOctober culturalregion,period or style.Indian
folkwayshave long been diligentlystudied 17-December8, 1985; the Tennessee Miniaturesfrom the EhrenfeldCollection,
by folklorists,comparativelylittleattention State Museumin NashvilleJanuary 9- on viewat the CaliforniaPalace of the
has been paid to Southern folkart, particu- March8, 1986; the MintMuseumin Char- Legion of Honor in San Franciscothrough
larlythat from the eighteenth and nine- lotte, NC April5-May 25, 1986; the Valen- December 15, 1985 and travelingto nine
teenth centuries.Withinthe large and tine Museum,Richmond,VAJune other museums,presents an overviewof
diverseregion extendingfrom Maryland 17-August30, 1986; and the J.B. Speed the development of Indian miniaturepaint-
and Virginiato east Texas,a number of Art Museum,Louisville,KYSeptember 28- ing and includesworksof Mughal,Decanni,
distinctgroups- French,Spanish,German, November30, 1986. Rajasthani,and Pahari painting.The ear-
Moravian,Afro-American,Swiss,Scotch- liestworksdate fromjust before the reign
Irish,and Shaker- developed their various Prehistoric of the firstgreat Mughalemperor,Akbar
artistictraditionsin rural isolation. (a.D.1556-1605), when the Persian style
Nowa landmarkexhibitionorganized Native Americans imported by the Mughalsbegan to merge
by the Museumof AmericanFolkArt in AncientArt of the AmericanWoodland with the indigenousIndian traditionto
NewYorkCityand on tour through several Indians,exhibitedat the Detroit Instituteof form a vigorousnew Mughalart styleem-
Southern citiesuntilthe end of 1986 pro- Arts September 5-November 10, 1985 and phasizingnaturalisticanimal studies and
videsan opportunityfor the publicto see the Museumof Fine Arts,Houston, TX court painting.Typicalworksare a portrait
the fullrange of the South's rich folkart December21, 1985-March 9, 1986, brings of Akbarpresenting a falconto his son
legacy.Portraitsin flattenedtwo-dimen- together stone sculptures,ceramics,copper Jahangir (Mughaliconographyassociates
sionalstylewith crisp outlinesand much tools,weapons,ornaments,and ceremonial the falconwith politicalpower and its trans-
decorativedetailwere the most important objectscreated between 3000 b.c.and mission)and the charming YoungAfrican
art form.Others were genre painting, a.D.1500. Discoveredover the past 180 Elephant.Other importantworksdepict
prominentlyfeaturingevents of war;fraktur years,some as recentlyas fiveyears ago, in Krishna(an incarnationof the Hindu god
(illuminatedor decorated writing)and slip- the Woodlandregion extendingfrom the Vishnu) as child,warrior,lover,and deity.
glazedearthenware produced by German AtlanticCoast to the Westernprairiesand Afterclosingin San FranciscoIndian
settlersof the Upper South; sculpturesof from the Great Lakesto the Gulfof Mexico, Miniatures, organizedby the American
wood, stone and metal;alkaline-glazed the objectscome from the Late Archaic Federation of Arts,willvisitmuseums in
stoneware,stillproduced by the last of the (3000-1000 b.c.),Woodland (1000 b.c.- Texas,Louisiana,NewJersey, Massachu-
Southern folkpotters;textilesand furniture. A.D.900) and Mississippian(a.D.900-1500) setts, Florida,Illinois,Iowa,Oklahoma,and
Afterclosingin San Franciscothe exhibi- Periods.Partiallyfunded by the National North Carolina;watch the "Current Exhibi-
tion, sponsored by PhilipMorris,Inc.and Endowmentfor the Arts,the exhibitionis tions" section of Archaeologyfor dates and
partiallyfunded by the NationalEndow- open to the publicwithout charge. places.

Maya Art in Washington presentation of Flowers,Saints and Toads: Prehistoric Pottery

Handwoventextilesfrom the Guate- the TextileArt of the Chiapas Mayas Re-Dated
malan villageof Comalapa and 20 oil inauguratesa national tour of the firstU.S.
exhibitionof weavers'artistryfrom Maya Collectionsof Precolumbianpottery and
paintingsby Andres Curuchich,the coun- communitiesin Mexico.Organizedby the gold artifactsin the FieldMuseumof
try'soutstandingprimitivepainter,willbe Science Museumof Minnesota,the more Natural History,originallybrought to
on displayat the Museumof LatinAmeri- Chicago for the Colombianpavilionat the
can PopularArt in the Organizationof than 50 textilesfrom the nineteenth and
twentiethcenturies interpret the art form's 1893 World'sFair and dated a.D.400-800,
AmericanStates buildingin Washington, are now attributed to a much earlierperiod
DC November26-December 31, 1985. history,aestheticsand symbolism.The
toad, "musicianof the rain,"causes rain to -600-1500 b.c.Scholarshipand excava-
Comalapa:Traditionsand Textileshas been fallfrom the cloudscreated in the mountain tions in Colombiaand Ecuador since the
mountedby the MuseoIxchelof Guatemala late 1960s have confirmedthat the
cave of the Saint, or Earth Lord. Although
City,a privatemuseum devoted to the each Mayacommunity'stextilesappear Museum'sIncisedBrownwarepottery
preservationof Guatemala'srich textile uniformat firstglance,everypiece expresses comes from the same tombs and the same
heritage.PhilipMorris,Inc.funded the the weaver'spersonal visionof the world culture that produced its ClassicQuimbaya
Englishtranslationof the illustratedmono- and her place in it, and each is unique: the gold pieces (most examplesof whichare in
graph writtenby anthropologistLinda weaver never repeats her design exactly. Madrid'sMuseo de America).
Barrios,Curator of the Museo betel. Current informationclearlyindicates
At Washington'sTextileMuseumthe Thishuipil,or overblouse,from Comalapa that by 1000 b.c.the most advanced metal-
is of the San Martintype. lurgyin the NewWorldwas being practiced
in the Cauca Valleyof Colombia,and that
the people who produced this civilization
were either exterminatedor drivenawayby
a series of Pompeii-likevolcanicdisasters,
extendingfrom south of Quito, Ecuadorto
northern Colombia,that made the Quim-
baya region uninhabitablefrom about 600
b.c.to a.D.100 or later.The most recent
archaeologicaloccupation of the area is
dated a.D.800-1600.
Duringtheir investigationsscholarsat
the Field Museumcame across approxi-
mately 15 more pieces of IncisedBrown-
ware- among them a spectacularbichrome
example and a mug for nativebeer in the
shape of an alligator,perhaps the giant
blackcaiman which has great mythological
significancein South America.
 1900 pavement hidden beneath the current
Asphalt Archaeology asphalt surface.
Urbanarchaeologicalprojectsoften take Test units were dug by a CityPublic
on an unusual character,and sometimes Workscrew under Moore'ssupervision,
lend themselvesto curiouslyapplied ob- perhaps one of the firstarchaeologicalex-
jectives.A recent case of "applied archae- cavationsto employa pneumaticjack ham-
ology"came about in Galveston,Texas, mer as its principaltool. Odd (and noisy)
where the cityis seekingto bringback an as this substitutefor troweland shovel
operationaltrolleysystem.Roger Moore, mightbe, it worked likea charm, exposing
an independent archaeologicalconsultant, the older surfaceswithout damagingthem
is servingon the project'sdesignand engi- noticably.Brickpavements,whose presence
neeringteam, withthe task of satisfyingthe was expected,were cleanlystripped. In
UrbanMassTransportationAdministration addition,the work turned up a bit of a sur-
and State of Texasrequirementsin regard prise in the form of creosoted wood blocks
to the constructionimpact of the trolleyon used as pavement for a couple of blocksof
archaeologicalresources.As events un- the street. This forgottenpavement mate-
folded,the archaeologicalcontributions rialwas fairlypopular with civilengineers
went beyond the boundaries of environ- around the turn of the century,even though
mentalcompliance. it was prone to "explosion"when water-
Giventhe fact that the trolleyline will saturated.
pass through one NationalLandmark dis- Both the old surfacesseemed to be in
trict-the Strand, the nineteenth-century excellentcondition.This fact caught the eye
"WallStreet of the South" and currentlya of the GalvestonHistoricalFoundation,the
popular historicalattraction- as wellas guardian of the Strand district.The His-
severalNationalRegisterdistricts,Jeffery toricalFoundationjoined forceswith the
Oschsner,the project architect,placed DowntownRevitalizationCommitteeto
the highestpriorityon achievinga histori- financea more ambitioustest, clearing
callycompatibledesign for the system. awaya 25 by 30-foot section to get a better
For example,the cars willbe traditionalin look.The test was placed at the joint of the
character,replicatingcars of the 1890- brickand wood surfaces.It demonstrated
1915 period. that the asphalt could be economicallyand
Another key issue lay in the design of a safelystripped usinga grade-allbackhoe.
historicallyappropriate new pavingsurface Strippingall the asphalt off- givingthe
to be placed betweenand around the tracks. districta more historicalflavor- is stilla
Thiswas a question that seemed best an- possibilityas the citydecides on the next
swereddirectly,by a glimpseof the old ca. move.
vm- *rt-; ;*<.w «/
Yuletide Festivities the holidayseason decorated as the Ram-
sey familyarranged it in the late nineteenth
The 15th annual ScottishChristmas century- with the accent on children.
Walkweekend in Alexandria,Virginiawill Special features include exhibitsof chil-
be highlightedon Saturday,December7, dren's literature,samples of food described
1985 by the traditionalparade of tartan- in the stories,and interpretivereadings of
clad marchersthrough the Old Townand a the storiesthemselveson the fiveSundays
concert of massed pipe bands afterwards. of December.Fridayeveningtours of the
Bagpiperswilllead visitorsto a Saturday house (occupiedby Ramseysuntil 1964)
Adventserviceat the Old Presbyterian on December6, 13 and 20 willculminate
MeetingHouse builtby Alexandria'sScot- in quadrilledancing,and both house and
tish founders in 1774, site of the tomb of museum giftshop willbe open for Decem-
the UnknownRevolutionaryWar soldier. ber tours Mondaysthrough Fridays,10-3,
Publictours of privately-ownedbuildings Saturdaysand Sundays, 1-4.
willbe conducted on Saturday afternoon,
Scottishcraftsand Christmasdecorations
willbe on sale, and childrenfrom two to 12 An Ancient Greek Oeuvre
may have lunch with Santa- served by The WorldoftheAmasis Painter:Vase
elves.The entire affairis for the benefitof Paintingin Sixth-Centuryb.c.Athens,the
the AlexandriaY,a serviceorganization firstinternationalloan exhibitionfeaturing
concerned withwomen and their families, the work of a singleartist from the ancient
whichsponsorsthe ScottishWalkWeekend world,willbe on displayat the Toledo
jointlywiththe Cityof Alexandriaand the Museumof Art November24, 1985-
Saint Andrew'sSociety. January 5, 1986. The real name of the
EleutherianMillsin Wilmington,Dela- master painter,whose hand is recognized
ware, ancestral home of the DuPont family, in more than 100 survivingvases and frag-
adorned December7-31 with natural dec- ments in collectionsthroughout the world,
orationsof greens and berries,grapevine is unknown;the name "Amasis"belonged
wreaths and poinsettias,may be visited to the potter in whose workshopthe vases
seven days a week. Candlelighttours (ad- were made and painted. Tracingthe artist's
vance registrationrequired) on December 40-year career, the vases depict the my-
17, 19, 26 and 30 willbe conducted by the thologyand dailylifeofAthensthrough their
HagleyMuseumand Library,located on varied subjects:gods and heroes, battle
the site of DuPont'soriginalblackpowder scenes, horse races and athleticevents,
factory. weddings,banquets and wine making.
In Minneapolis,the AlexanderRamsey Afterclosingin Toledo The Worldof the
House, home of Minnesota'sfirstterritorial AmasisPainterwillbe shown at the Los
governor,who was also second governor AngelesCounty MuseumFebruary20-
of the state and Secretaryof War in the April6, 1986, jointlysponsored by the
cabinetof President Hayes,willbe open for J. Paul Getty Museum.

November/
December
1Qft5 7Q
 THE FORUM

In Quest of Nuraghi
helped the architectsdividethe circleof But Paul Tuttleof the Universityof Cali-
by Stephanie Ocko the nuraghe into quarters and map the sec- fornia,Berkeley,whose fieldis the social
tions with a networkof invisibletriangles factorsof architecture,believesthat a cen-
fromwhichthey can make the finaldraw- tral governmentoversawthe building,send-
police helicopterlookingfor firesor ingsthat note each nuraghe's specialfea- ing out trained architectsor engineers.
banditsrumblesoverhead as the ten of us ture-an intact post and lintelon the roof, "The buildingsare so complex,and the
trek across an empty Sardinian field,haul- a second stairwayleadingto an inwall stones are so large, constructingthem re-
ing meter sticks,surveyingtransit and chamber,or holes seven to eight feet deep quired a lot of organization,"Tuttlesays.He
tripod,clearingtools,a ladder,boxes of at graduated levelsin an outside wall- also believesthat hilltopand fieldnuraghi
tapemeasures,plumb bobs,flashlights,can- individualdifferencesthat are important to compriseda defense network.Architect
teens, lunch,and a huge container of tea Gallin'sdata. Tom Carnegie,who worked on a public
for morningbreak. For half an hour we Bonorva,where we live,is one of those housingproject in the Arctic,thinksthere
walkpast flocksof sheep and an interested Mediterraneanvillageswith a high inci- were too many nuraghi to have functioned
donkeyor two to a round stone tower loom- dence of widows,cheeky children,teen- only as refuge centers and suggeststhat
ing monumentallyin the treeless field.Its agers dressed to the nines plyingthe many were houses. When someone asks if
ancient stones,coveredwith orange lichen, passeggiataeverynight,and old men who livingin a windowlessstructurewould not
glowin the earlymorning sun. sit on benches and wonder. Streets wind have been unpleasant, he argues that peo-
The tower is a nuraghe,and we are a between two-storystucco houses painted ple then might have had differentconcepts
Universityof CaliforniaResearch Expedi- in soft pastels and lead to piazzasfronted of lightand darkness.Most of the houses
tion- sixvolunteers,three professional by churches and busy cafes.Our landlady, in Bonorvatoday are shuttered against the
architects,and Project DirectorLenore Zia Peppa, patrols the terrace and controls afternoon sun.
Gallinof U.C.LA Our missionis to meas- the general order of things.If musicfrom As volunteerswe findwe are a compat-
ure and record the architecturalfeatures of our guitar reaches a criticalpitch she flings iblegroup, and toward the end of our stay
Sardinia'smysteriousBronzeAge struc- up the slatted blind and cries into the night we achieve a kind of synergy.For Stuart
tures. Archaeologistshave recorded a con- for peace and quiet or she willcallthe cara- Plumb,a Seattle biologyteacher and vet-
tinuous pottery styleand recoveredbronze binieri.Her quiet, pleasant brother, a shep- eran of severalarchaeologicalexpeditions
tools,ingotsand figurinesfromthe nuraghi, herd, slowlystirsmilkin a vat over a fire in and Outward Bound trips, ours is the best
about 7,000 of whichhave been mapped a room on the terrace, makingpeccorino, group he has known.WarrenTarshis,a re-
and named by the Italianmilitary.But why a hard goat cheese. tired insuranceexecutive,and his wifeOlga,
they were builtis not clearlyunderstood. Zia Peppa's neighborand archenemy, a teacher, have been on sixarchaeological
Gallinhopes her architecturaldata willhelp Benedetto, a metalsmithwho makes bed- expeditions,some with Earthwatch."In our
answerthat question. steads decorated with gailypainted flowers, experience,groups peak at midpoint,"
Mostof the nuraghi have two stories, invitesus one night for cakes and wine and Warren says."In the beginningthe process
each witha corbelledinner room, an inwall dancingto his collectionof Americanswing of discoveryis fun. Then it slopes off."Olga
stairway,and a singledoorwaycapped by a and waltzrecords. He has intense brown adds, "People get tired at the end of expe-
mammoth lintel.In most cases the second eyes and an excitedsmile,but when he ditions.And accidents can happen."We
storyhas collapsed,leavinga ragged con- plays Sardic music he growsserious.We think of the teeteringheightswe hang from,
figurationof fallenstones on the roof. are invitedto join hands in a circleand on stones that are none too stable,and of
Nuraghihave been used as animal shelters dance to its curious,monotonous rhythm. the recent headlinesin the localnewspaper
for so long that they could qualifyas the We stop when Benedetto'swifeAngelina sayinga nuraghe had collapsed.But we do
Augean Stables,but our only Herculean enters with her ricotta cake, cut into mathe- not think- together, at least- of disaster.
task is to clear awaythe dry tangled thorn- maticallyprecise pieces and laid in a per- Ann Criswell,a Latinteacher from northern
bushes that obscurethe base and clutter fect grid on a huge tray.The cake is as California,spends her free time taking
the top of the building. monumental as the evening. photographs; KristyWessenberg,a San
Then, splitinto teams, we get to work. It never rains in Sardinia,they say- Franciscolaw librarianand experienced
Some of us perch precariouslyon the edge except on our fieldtrips. In Castelsardowe backpacker,is interested in architecture.I,
of the top and sink a plumb bob attached sit in a cafe drinkingcoffeeto keep warm; a writerfrom Boston who livedin Zaïrefor
to a tape to measure the slope and height in Cala Gonone we huddle against a beach three years, am doing a thesis on Daidalos.
of the nuraghe. Gusts of the soft Sardinian house watchingrain fallin silverglobules Ifwe have anythingin common, it is a love
windthat temper the heat wreak havoc and lightningbolts shoot into the sea. But of adventure.
withthe plumb bob and bring up the music on our fieldtrip to Baruminiit is hot and Our last nuraghe is the biggest:Santa
of sheep's bellsfrom the lonelyfields.Be- dry.Baruminiis the superstar of Sardinian Barbara,a three-story,four-toweredruin on
low,while someone holds a meter stick at nuraghi.Coveringseveralacres on a hilltop, a hilltop.Everythingis breakingdown:the
points around the base, another person it is a labyrinthof paths that snake around van sputters, Stuart's shoe is held together
movesthe tripod, measuringthe distances stone wallsand circularbuildingsthat clus- with maskingtape, the flashlightbatteries
and angles on a transit. ter around a central tower,the focus of are weak,the climbup the hillfeels likethe
Lunch is a sumptuous Mediterranean radiatingrooms. Romanscalledthe nuraghi BuddhistWayof Truth.We have givenit
delightof meats, cheeses, huge Sardinian castra,and the message of defense at our best.
flatbread,tomatoes, olives,fruit and yogurt, Baruminiis loud and clear. But the nuraghi stillelude us. On our last
whichwe eat off a checkered tablecloth That night at dinner we discussthe night,we walkto the piazza,under the
spread in a groveof olivetrees. Afterlunch, nuraghiwith our architects,none of whom same networkof stars that shone on the
we move insideto the dark and gamy in- was familiarwith them beforejoining enigmaticBronzeAge builders.In the
terior,lightedby flashlightsand a wheezy Gallin'sexpedition.BillHocker of Berkeley distance,between the roars of motorbikes,
gaslamp.We measure the radii of the thinks nomads from the mountains periodi- we hear the music of sheep's bellsthat
chamber from a center point, draw and callyraided the pastoralistNuraghicPeople, enlivenedthe silencetwo millenniaago.
measure the niches,doorwayand stairway, and nuraghi might have been builtby local
and then, standing on a ladder and stretch- masons as refuge centers for families. Stephanie Ocko is a journalist withgrad-
ing upward,we measure the rise and apex "Nuraghididn't require an architectany uate degrees in communicationsfrom Sim-
of the beehiveceiling. more than farm houses do, but likefarm mons and ancient art from Harvard.She
Whenwe pack up our gear to go, after houses each nuraghe is different,based on spent time in Zaire withthe ForeignService
guzzlingwater from canteens, we have localor personal preferences,"Hockersays. and WaltDisneyFilms.

80 Archaeology
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