Introducción

Scientific knowledge provide:

1. A method of organizing and categorizing “things”, a typology
a. Exhaustiveness: there is no item that cannot be placed in the scheme
b. Mutual exclusiveness
2. Predictions of future events
3. Explanations of past events
4. A sense of understanding about what causes events. Goes beyond explanation by
providing a sense of understanding
5. Potential for control of events. This is true only for some events in like how certain
variables affect one another and being able to change the variables. If both conditions are
met, then the event can be controlled.
Factors that affect scientist’s attitude toward a concept
1. The scientist’s confidence that he understands the meaning of the concept or statement
2. The scientist’s confidence that the concept is useful for achieving the purpose of science
(empirically tested)
Scientific knowledge desirable characteristics
1. Abstractness: independent of time and space
2. Intersubjectivity:
a. Explicitness: detailed description and with terms selected to insure that the audience
agrees the meaning o concepts
b. Rigorousness: use of measurement systems that are shared and accepted among the
scientific community to insure agreement on the outcomes
3. Empirical relevance: others can evaluate the correspondence between theory and empirical
findings
The Idea
• Kuhn’s paradigm. “Un nuevo paradigma aparece y todo vuelve a cero”
• Paradigm. Similar to Kuhn’s paradigm but without being a revolution
Concepts
• A theory only attempts to describe an idea, and the idea is the most important feature in any
theory
• The most important feature in any scientific term is the degree of agreement about its
meaning. Derived definitions are composed by primitive terms.
• Associational statements describe what concepts exist together. type: positive, none, negative
• Concepts can be abstract or concrete
• A scientific statement should have empirical relevance: it should be possible to compare the
statement to some phenomenon or phenomena.
• Operational definition is a set of procedures that describes the activities an observer should
perform in order to receive sensory impressions that indicate the existence, or degree of
existence, of a theoretical concept
• Quantification of concepts
a. Nominal
b. Ordinal
c. Interval
d. Ratio
Statements
• A relational statement describes a relationship between two concepts. Two types are
a. Those that describe an association between two concepts
b. Those that describe a causal relation between two concepts
• Relational statements
a. Knowing the existence of one concept conveys information about the existence of an
instance of another concept. Example: If a person is a member of a fraternity, then he
will have a high authoritarian test score
b. The heart of scientific knowledge is expressed in relational statements
c. Associational statements describe what concepts exist or occur together
d. Causal statements are those that one concept is considered to cause the occurrence of
a 2nd concept. Example if a small group has an increase in morale, its productivity
will increase
e. Deterministic and probabilistic statements
• Levels of abstraction: theoretical, operational and concrete (from more general à specific)
• Relation of theoretical statements to theory
a. A law is a statements that describes a relationship in which scientists have so much
confidence they consider it an absolute “truth”
b. Axiomatic theory consists of a basic set of statements, each independent of the others,
from which all other statements of the theory may be logically derived. The basic
statements are known as axioms
c. Proposition refers to any idea or hunch that is presented in the form of a scientific
statement
d. Hypothesis is a statement selected for comparison against data collected in a concrete
situation
e. If the same pattern of events is found in a number of deferent empirical studies, the
pattern is often summarized in an “empirical generalization”
• Relation of theoretical statements and empirical data
a. Hypotheses are those statements without support from empirical research, it is not yet
known whether they are true or false
b. Theoretical statements may be laws, empirical generalizations, or hypotheses,
depending on the degree of empirical support for the statement. Those with no
support are considered hypotheses, those with some support are considered empirical
generalizations, and those with “overwhelming” support are considered laws

1. Forms of theories
• One approach is to accept only those statements that can be considered laws as part of
scientific knowledge. A set of laws is considered to be a theory.
• Scientific knowledge in the form of a set of laws appears to be useful for providing a
typology, providing predictions an explanations, if the statements are sufficiently precise,
allowing the potential for control. However, they do not provide any “sense of
understanding” with regard to any of the phenomena discussed
• The conception of scientific knowledge as a set of laws will allow scientists to achieve some
of the goals of science –typologies, prediction and explanation, and if the laws are carefully
 specified, the potential for control. However, a sense of understanding is completely absent
when laws are used to logically explain phenomena
• Only the causal process form, or statements from an axiomatic theory can provide a sense of
understanding
• The research efficiency is related to both the concepts of theory and the strategy employed
for developing scientific knowledge. A conception of theory as a set of laws will lead to an
efficient use of resources in the research-the-theory strategy is employed, and a theory in
axiomatic or causal process form will lead to an efficient use of resources if a theory-then-
research strategy is employed
• The axiomatic-causal process form of theory is to be preferred over the set-of-laws model for
a. It provides a sense of understanding
b. It makes easier to describe new paradigms
c. It may allow for more efficient research
d. It suggests a more concise and interrelated organization of scientific knowledge
• Simulation or model building
a. Simulations are often used for the solution of practical problems

2. Testing Theories
• Abstract statements cannot be proven true, but they can be proven false
• Concrete statements can be proven true or false
• Concrete statements provide indirect support for the usefulness of abstract statements
• As abstract statements are found to be useful descriptions of more and more situations, the
confidence in the usefulness of the statement increases
• Classical statistical tests of significance are directly applicable to concrete statements but
generally cannot be directly applied to abstract statements
• Substantive significance is often more important than statistical significance
• It is more useful to consider “how much effect” each of several theories (causal process) has
on a phenomenon that which theory “is right” or the answer
• Providing a sense of understanding appears to be a more useful basis for choosing between
competing theories than simplicity

3. Strategies for developing a scientific body of knowledge

Research-then-theory
• This strategy is essential as follows
a. Select a phenomenon and list all the characteristics of the phenomenon
b. Measure all the characteristics of the phenomenon in a variety of situations
c. Analyze the resulting data carefully to determine if there are any systematic
patterns among the data “worthy” of further attention
d. Once significant patterns have been found in the data, constitutes the laws of
nature
• If anything characterizes social science it is the lack of agreement as to what variables are
important for characterizing an event or phenomenon
• In Social phenomena seems to be a relatively large number of subtle and interrelated causal
relationships that influence most events. If this is the case, then it is going to be difficult to
detect any systematic patterns
Theory-then-Research
• This strategy may be described as follows
a. Develop an explicit theory either axiomatic or process description form
b. Select a statement generated by the theory for comparison with the results of
empirical research
c. Design a research project to “test” the chosen statement’s correspondence with
empirical research
d. If the statement derived from the theory does not corresponds with the research
results, make appropriate changes in the theory or the research design and
continue with the research (return to step 2)
e. If the statement derived from the theory corresponds with the results of the
research, select further statements for testing or attempt to determine the
limitations of the theory (the situations where the theory does not apply)
• One important issue here is which statement from an axiomatic or causal process theory
should be selected for comparison against empirical data. Possibilities are:
a. Select the statement that is most likely to be true
b. Select the statement that is most likely to be false
c. Select the statement that is most crucial to the theory
• One big issue here is when a theory has failed to be supported by empirical evidence, it must
be discarded or altered. This is very hard because scientists do not want to throw away their
theories (ego is involved) because all the time and intellectual investment on the theories

Dimension Research-then-theory Theory-then-Research

Assumption about the Reflects the assumption that there are Reflects the assumption that scientists impose their
relationship between “real” patterns in nature and that the descriptions on any phenomenon that is studied
the “real world” & task of scientists is to discover these Has the advantage of providing an approximate
scientific knowledge patterns, the laws of nature answer until the final truth is reached
Relationship between The basic problem of implementing the The most fundamental problem in implementing it
nature and scientific research-then-theory approach is that is is in inventing the initial theory
knowledge almost impossible to define all the
variables that might be measured for
any phenomenon
Efficiency with which Will led to more efficient research If Will led to more efficient research If scientific
empirical research is scientific knowledge is organized as a knowledge is organized in axiomatic or causal
conducted set of laws process form
In reference to the This seems to be the one with more
individuals that made contributions (example: Kuhn)
more advances

4. Dimensiones de la Investigación
De Acuerdo al Objetivo Final
1) Basic research (BR):
a) BR advances fundamental knowledge about the social world
 b) BR focuses in refuting or supporting theories that explain how the social world
operates, what make things happening, why social relations are a certain way, and
why society changes
c) Is the source of the most scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world
d) Some nonscientist consider basic research as a waist of time and money because it
does not have direct use or help to resolve problems
e) Although sometimes basic research lacks practical applications in the short them, it
provides a foundation for knowledge and understanding that are generalizable
f) It is the source of most of the methods, theories, and ideas that applied researchers
use
g) Basic researchers seek answers for questions that could have an impact on thinking
for over an extended period of time
h) The questions for BR seem impractical (ex, why does deviant behavior occur?)
i) BR rarely helps practitioners directly in their everyday concerns. However, BR
stimulates new ways of thinking about deviance that have the potential to
revolutionize how practitioners deal with the problem
j) Research would be ineffective unless it is based on an understanding of actual causes.
BR is not the only one responsible for applied research also can build knowledge too.
Most of the researches in the scientific community conduct BR
2) Applied research (AR)
a) Applied researchers conduct a study to address a specific problem that one specific
entity has. AR is not common for build, test, or connect to a larger theory, develop a
long-term general understanding, and carry out a large-scale investigation that might
span years. AR is for quick, small-scale investigation that provides practical results
that people can use in the short term.
b) AR is conducted in organizations to make practical decisions like starting a new
costumer service program, marketing a product to a special audience
c) Practitioners are the main consumers of AR (BR is for the scientific community)
d) Often, someone other that the researcher who conducted the study uses the results of
AR
e) Sometimes the nonscientific community night accept a study that fails to meet basic
scientific criteria or reject a study that has the highest standards of scientific quality
and rigor. Thus, applied researchers need to be very careful to translate findings from
the scientific-technical world into a language used by nonspecialist decision makers.
Also, the limitations of the study must be included. It is very important that a detailed
research report be prepared in the event that others are interested in evaluate the
quality of the research
f) Results from AR are intended to a small number of people, who decide whether or
how to put the study results in practice and who may or may not use the results
wisely. Thus, the results of AR are less likely to enter the public domain
g) Very often AR causes conflicts because its results has immediate implications.
h) Types of AR
(i) Evaluation research
(a) This is the most widely type of AR. It measures the effectiveness of a
program, policy or way of doing one activity. Evaluation researchers make
 use of several research techniques (survey & field). The most effective is
experimental technique, if it can be used.
(b) Sometimes ethical and political issues arise in evaluation research because
people have opposing interests about the topic. Some limitations of evaluation
researcher are: results rarely go to a peer review process, raw data are rarely
publicly available, among others.
(ii) Action research
(a) It is applied research that treats knowledge as a form of power and eliminates
the line between social action and research. Action research is associated with
the critical social science approach.
(b) Action researchers try to equalize power relations between themselves and
research subjects. They tend to avoid having more control, status, and
authority than those subjects they study. They are less concern with the
publication of results because action research is more concern with improving
the conditions and lives of research participants. They also assume that any
person can become aware of conditions and learn to take actions.
(iii) Social impact assessment research
(a) Its purpose is to estimate the likely consequences of a planned change. The
assessment can be used for planning and making choices among alternative
policies. Their researchers examine many outcomes and often work with
researchers of other disciplines.
Basic Applied
1. Research is intrinsically satisfying and judgments 1. Research is part of a job and is judged by sponsors who
are by other scientists are outside the discipline
2. Research problems and subjects are selected with a 2. Research problems are “narrowly constrained” to
great deal of freedom demands of employers or sponsors
3. Research is judged by absolute norms of scientific 3. The rigor and standards of scholarship depend on the uses
rigor, and the highest standards of scholarship of results. Research can be quick or may match high
thought scientific standards
4. The primary concern is with the internal logic and 4. The primary concern is with the ability to generalize
rigor of research design findings to areas of interest to sponsors
5. The driving goal is to contribute to basic, 5. The driving goal is to have practical payoffs of uses for
theoretical knowledge results
6. Success comes when results appear in a scholarly 6. Success comes when results are used by sponsors in
journal and have an impact on others in the decision making
scientific community

De acuerdo al Propósito
3) Exploratory
a) The goal is to formulate more precise questions that future research can answer. It
may be the first stage in a sequence of studies. A researcher may decide to conduct an
exploratory study in order to get more knowledge of the subject and to design and
conduct a second more systematic and extensive study
b) Exploratory studies rarely delivers definitive answers. It addresses the “what”
question and it is difficult to conduct because there are few guidelines to follow.
Exploratory researches must be creative, open minded, and flexible, explore all
sources of information, and adopt an investigative stance
c) Exploratory researches frequently use qualitative techniques for gathering data and
they are less committed to a specific theory or research question
 4) Descriptive
a) It presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting, or relationship.
b) Here the researcher begins with a well-defined subject and conducts research to
describe it precisely. The goal is to create a detailed description of the subject.
c) Descriptive research focuses on “how” and “who” questions.
d) A great amount of social research is descriptive.
e) In this type of research, surveys, field research, content analysis, and historical
comparative research are used to gather data
5) Explanatory
a) This type of research builds on exploratory and descriptive research. Its main purpose
is to explain “why”. It looks for causes and reasons rather than only painting a picture
of a topic.
Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory
-Become familiar with the basic facts, -Provide a detailed, highly accurate - Test a theory’s predictions or
settings, and concerns picture principle
-Create a general mental picture of -Locate new data that contradict past - Elaborate and enrich a theory’s
conditions data explanation
-Formulate and focus questions for future -Create a set of categories or classify - Extend a theory to new issues or
research types topics
-Generate new ideas, conjectures, or -Clarify a sequence of steps or stages -Support or refute an explanation or
hypotheses -Document a causal process or prediction
-Determine the feasibility of conducting mechanism -Link issues or topics with a general
research -Report on the background or principle
-Develop techniques for measuring and context of a situation -Determine which of several
locating future data explanations is best

De Acuerdo al Tiempo
1) Cross-sectional
a) This research conducts a study at one point in time (takes a snapshot). This is the
simplest and least costly alternative. Its main disadvantage is that it cannot capture
change or social progress. This can be conducted as exploratory, descriptive, or
explanatory but it is most consistent with descriptive approach.
2) Longitudinal
a) It analyses a phenomenon at more than one time. It is most costly, complex and
powerful than cross-sectional. It is especially useful when the research needs to
analyze change. This is used in descriptive and explanatory research.
b) Types
(i) Time series. The same type of information is collected on a group of people or
phenomenon across multiple time periods. Researchers can track changes or
stability during the study.
(ii) Panel. In this type, researchers observe exactly the same people, group, or
organization across time periods. It is more complex and costly then time series.
One issue is that people die or cannot be located anymore. This type of study
provides very valuable results.
(iii)Cohort. It is similar than panel but it analyzes a category of people who have
something in common. It has a macroanalytic nature. The focus is on the cohort
(e.g. people hired at the same time), not on specific individuals. On characteristic
 of it is that researchers do not need to localize the same people –as panel does.
Researchers only need to identify those who experienced a common life event.
3) Case study
a) In this type of research, the researcher examines in depth many features of a few
cases over a period of time. Cases can be: individuals, groups, organizations, events,
and so on. A more detailed, extensive and varied data is usually used. Most involve
qualitative data about a few cases. In case studies, researchers focuses on several
factors about the cases involved in the study. In it, the researcher carefully selects
cases to illustrate an issue and analytically study them in detail. The context plays a
important role in case studies. The researcher looks for more patterns or averages
across many units or cases. Case studies are helpful for understand how the actions of
individuals are connected with the macro level. Some argue that cases studies are
likely to provide the best theory.

5. Técnicas patra Recolectar Datos

1) For Quantitative data
a) Experiments. It uses the principles used in natural science research. It can be
conducted in lab experiments or real life. It uses a focused set of questions. Usually
involve a relatively small number of people in the study. Experiments are more
suitable and effective for explanatory research. In most of the cases, the researcher
gives a treatment to a group of people (treatment group) and other without the
treatment (control group). Then, the researcher makes comparisons among the groups
and draws his/her conclusions. Sometimes only one group is used and measures are
taken before and after the treatment.
b) Surveys. They are often used for explanatory and descriptive types of research. The
researcher makes questions to the interviewee and records the answers. This type of
data collections does not manipulate a situation, people simply answers questions.
Surveys provide a picture of what some people think or report doing. A small set of
people (sample) is normally used to apply the survey but generalizes results to a
larger group (population).
c) Content analysis. It examines information or content in written or symbolic (e.g.
pictures, movies). For content analysis, first a body of material needs to be identified
and then, create a system for recording specific aspects of it (example, counting).
After that, the researcher records what was found in the material. It is used for
exploratory and explanatory research but most often used in descriptive research.
d) Existing statistics studies. A source of information collected needs to be located for
this type of technique. Then, the researcher reorganizes or combines the information
in such way that the research question can be addressed. It is frequent that the
researcher does not know whether the information is available when he begins the
study. It can be used for exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory but is most
frequently used in descriptive studies.
2) For Qualitative data
a) Field research
b) Historical comparative research
6. Técnicas para Análisis de Datos

Analysis of Quantitative Data. Dealing with data

Coding data
• Definition: systematically reorganizing raw data into a format that is machine readable
• Coding procedure is a set of rules stating that certain numbers are assigned to variable
attributes. Example: Malesà 1, femalesà 2
• Codebook is a document describing the coding procedure and the location of data for
variables in a format that computers can use

Entering data
• Is the use of data records (e.g. a grid format)
• Ways to get raw quantitative data into a computer
1. Code sheet. Gather the information, then transfer it from the original source onto a grid
2. Direct-entry method. Recording the data using a device as it is received
3. Optical scan. Scan sheets by filling in the correct “dots”. Like UAA’s evaluation form
4. Bar code

Cleaning data
• Cleaning data is the process of checking the accuracy of coding by the researcher. This is
important because if bad data threatens the validity of the measures and cause misleading
results
Results with one variable

1. Frequency distributions
• Descriptive statistics describe numerical data. They can be categorized by the number of
variables involved: univariate, bivariate, or multivariate.
• The easiest way to describe the numerical data of one variable is with frequency
distributions. It can be: nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio.
• Graphic representations are histogram, bar chart, and pie chart for discrete variables
• Frequency polygons are used for interval or ratio data

2. Measures of central tendency

• Mean: arithmetic average. Interval or ratio
• Mode: number that appears the most. Used for nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio
• Median is the middle point. Ordinal, interval, or ratio
• If the frequency distribution forms a normal, then the 3 measures equal each other

3. Measures of variation
• Range is the simplest. It consists of the largest less the smallest scores. Ordinal, interval, ratio
• Percentiles tell the distribution at a specific place within the distribution. Ordinal, interval,
ratio
• Standard deviation. Interval or ratio
Results with two variables
1. A bivariate relationship
• It shows a statistical relationship between two variables. They are based on covariance and
independence.
• Covariation means that things go together or are associated
• Independence is the opposite. It means there is no relationship or association between
variables
2. Measures of association
• A measure of association is a single number that expresses the strength, and often the
direction, of a relationship. It condenses information about a bivariate relationship into a
single number. They are named using Greek letters