The Role of Zinc in Antiviral Immunity: Review

REVIEW
The Role of Zinc in Antiviral Immunity

Scott A Read,1,2 Stephanie Obeid,3 Chantelle Ahlenstiel,3 and Golo Ahlenstiel1,2
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/advances/article-abstract/10/4/696/5476413 by guest on 13 April 2020

1 Blacktown Medical School, Western Sydney University, Blacktown, New South Wales, Australia; 2 Storr Liver Centre, The Westmead Institute for Medical
Research, The University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia; and 3 The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales,
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
ABSTRACT
Zinc is an essential trace element that is crucial for growth, development, and the maintenance of immune function. Its influence reaches all organs
and cell types, representing an integral component of approximately 10% of the human proteome, and encompassing hundreds of key enzymes
and transcription factors. Zinc deficiency is strikingly common, affecting up to a quarter of the population in developing countries, but also affecting
distinct populations in the developed world as a result of lifestyle, age, and disease-mediated factors. Consequently, zinc status is a critical factor that
can influence antiviral immunity, particularly as zinc-deficient populations are often most at risk of acquiring viral infections such as HIV or hepatitis
C virus. This review summarizes current basic science and clinical evidence examining zinc as a direct antiviral, as well as a stimulant of antiviral
immunity. An abundance of evidence has accumulated over the past 50 y to demonstrate the antiviral activity of zinc against a variety of viruses,
and via numerous mechanisms. The therapeutic use of zinc for viral infections such as herpes simplex virus and the common cold has stemmed
from these findings; however, there remains much to be learned regarding the antiviral mechanisms and clinical benefit of zinc supplementation
as a preventative and therapeutic treatment for viral infections. Adv Nutr 2019;10:696–710.
Keywords: zinc, virus, metallothionein, antiviral, immunity, zinc deficiency, zinc supplementation
Introduction for cellular processes, including growth and development, as

Zinc deficiency was first recognized by Prasad et al. >50 y well as DNA synthesis and RNA transcription (4).
ago in a malnourished group of individuals presenting The global prevalence of zinc deficiency is estimated
with hepatosplenomegaly, dwarfism, hypogonadism, and an to range from ∼17% to 20% (5, 6), with the vast ma-
elevated risk of infection (1). Unbeknownst to Dr. Prasad and jority occurring in developing countries of Africa and
his colleagues at the time, their discovery would highlight Asia. Although significantly less common in high-income
the importance of zinc as an integral component of human nations, zinc deficiency occurs most frequently in the elderly,
physiology, and inspire decades of zinc research. It is now vegans/vegetarians, and individuals with chronic disease
understood that zinc is the second-most abundant trace such as liver cirrhosis (7) or inflammatory bowel disease
metal in the human body after iron, and an essential com- (8). Importantly, zinc deficiency results in a compromised
ponent of protein structure and function. Importantly, zinc immune system, as evidenced by thymic atrophy, lymphope-
is a structural constituent of ∼750 zinc-finger transcription nia, and defective lymphocyte responses in animal studies
factors (2) enabling gene transcription, and is a catalytic (9). These data underscore the importance of zinc nutrition,
component of approximately 2000 enzymes, encompassing particularly in underdeveloped countries where the risk of
all 6 classes (hydrolase, transferase, oxido-reductase, ligase, infection is heightened because of poor sanitation, public
lyase, and isomerase) (3). Hence, zinc is biologically essential health, and vaccination strategies (5).
This review focuses on the role of zinc as an essential
micronutrient that is required to mount an effective antiviral
Supported by Sylvia and Charles Viertel Charitable Foundation Investigatorship (VTL2015C022). response. Although zinc possesses direct antiviral properties
Author disclosures: SAR, SO, CA, and GA, no conflicts of interest.
Address correspondence to SAR (e-mail: [email protected]). (e.g. influenza), it is also critical in generating both innate
Abbreviations used: EV, epidermodysplasia verruciformis; HCMV, human cytomegalovirus; HCV, and acquired (humoral) antiviral responses. To complicate
hepatitis C virus; HPV, human papilloma virus; HSV, herpes simplex virus; IRF, IFN regulatory matters, zinc is an integral component of many viral enzymes,
factor; ISG, interferon stimulated gene; MT, metallothionein isoforms; MTF1, metal-responsive
transcription factor; PRR, pattern recognition receptor; RdRp, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase; proteases, and polymerases, highlighting the importance of
RT, reverse transcriptase; SOCS, suppressors of cytokine signaling; TLR, Toll-like receptor; ZIP, regulating cellular and systemic zinc distribution to inhibit
Zrt- and Irt-like proteins. viral replication and dissemination.
696 Copyright
C American Society for Nutrition 2019. All rights reserved. Adv Nutr 2019;10:696–710; doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmz013.
Current Status of Knowledge of EV patients to strains 5 and 8 from the loss of EVER protein
Zinc homeostasis and viral infection function, favoring HPV replication. Interestingly, HPV E5
Systemic and intracellular zinc are tightly regulated, such genes have co-evolved with the major HPV oncogenes, E6
that free zinc ions (Zn2+ ) represent a minimal fraction of and E7, and indicate the potential involvement of E5 in
total cellular zinc (∼0.0001%) (10–12). The vast majority carcinogenesis (21, 22). Clinical trials using both oral and
of zinc remains bound to zinc-binding proteins such as topical zinc have proven effective for the treatment of viral
serum albumin or intracellular metallothionein proteins, warts, and will be reviewed in a later section.
where it can be transferred to zinc-binding enzymes and
transcription factors as necessary. Zinc transport is princi- Metallothioneins, zinc homeostasis, and antiviral activity.
pally mediated by 2 groups of proteins: the ZnT [solute- Metallothioneins are small, cysteine-rich proteins capable
linked carrier 30 (SLC30A)] family, which is responsible of binding divalent cations such as zinc and copper. As
for efflux of zinc outside the cell or influx into organelles, vessels for much of the labile intracellular zinc pool,

and the ZIP [Zrt- and Irt-like proteins (SLC39A)] family metallothioneins possess numerous functions through their
of proteins, which performs the opposite role, transporting ability to bind and release metals from their thiol groups.
zinc into the cytoplasm from extracellular sources or cellular These include storage and transfer of zinc ions and heavy
organelles (13). The >30 human proteins responsible for zinc metal detoxification, as well as involvement in oxidative
homeostasis collectively ensure that zinc does not become stress, apoptosis, and immune responses (23). Humans
toxic in the case of dietary excess, nor limited in the case express 4 metallothionein isoforms (MT1–4), including the
of dietary insufficiency. Of course, this balance cannot be ubiquitously expressed MT1 and MT2 genes (MT1A, B,
maintained indefinitely, and may result in zinc-induced E, F, G, H, I, J, L, M, X, MT2A), as well as MT3 and
copper deficiency if consumed in excess (14), and severe zinc MT4 whose expression is limited, and function remains
deficiency if it is lacking in the diet (1). poorly understood (24). Importantly, MT1 and 2 gene
Sequestration and toxic accumulation of metals are well- expression is extremely responsive to zinc, and therefore
documented antibacterial immune responses. Calprotectin serves as an ideal indicator of an individual’s zinc status (25).
is a prime example, binding and sequestering extracellular Upon taking a zinc supplement, for example, an increase
calcium and zinc, thus preventing bacterial and fungal in protein-bound zinc in the bloodstream is internalized
overgrowth (15). Conversely, toxic endosomal zinc accu- by cells in various tissues and organs through the ZIP
mulation can inhibit intracellular Mycobacterium growth in transporters. In response to increased intracellular zinc,
macrophages (16). Unfortunately, these mechanisms are not the metal-responsive transcription factor (MTF1) becomes
well described in the case of viral infections, perhaps because active, and binds the metal responsive element in metal-
of a lack of efficacy. Calprotectin, for example, has no proven lothionein gene promoters to upregulate their transcription
antiviral role, nor is it significantly upregulated in response (26). Although there are additional stimuli that influence
to viral gastroenteritis (17). This absence of a zinc-mediated metallothionein expression, this primarily occurs in a zinc-
antiviral response may reflect the “parasitic” nature of viral dependent fashion. Oxidative stress, for example, induces
infection, hijacking host machinery to self-replicate. Changes zinc release from metallothioneins as a mechanism to reduce
in intracellular zinc concentrations necessary to inhibit viral reactive oxygen species generated by mitochondrial dysfunc-
replication may also prove toxic to eukaryotic cells for the tion or viral infection (26). Zinc released from metalloth-
same reason. ioneins binds MTF1 to stimulate additional metallothionein
Although antiviral modulation of zinc homeostasis in expression.
humans remains unproven, papilloma viruses have evolved It should be noted that metallothioneins, although highly
mechanisms to alter zinc homeostasis to favor viral replica- responsive to zinc, have long been classified as interferon
tion and persistence (18). The human papilloma virus (HPV) stimulated genes (ISGs) (27). IFNs are immunostimulatory
E5 protein can interact with the zinc transporter ZnT-1 in cytokines secreted from infected cells and nearby immune
complex with EVER2, thus stimulating nuclear accumulation cells that induce the expression of hundreds of antiviral
of zinc (19). The ZnT-1:EVER2 complex responsible for zinc genes. They possess diverse roles including chemoattraction,
export from the nucleus is inhibited by HPV E5, subsequently immune cell activation, and direct antiviral activity. In
increasing both nuclear zinc and the activation of AP1 (20), response to IFNs, we suggest that there are 2 mechanisms of
a transcription factor required for HPV genome expression. metallothionein induction. Most ISGs possess binding sites
Interestingly, homozygous mutations in either EVER1 or for STAT- or IFN regulatory factor (IRF) transcription factor-
EVER2 result in a rare condition termed epidermodysplasia mediated expression, as is the case for MT1X and MT2A (28,
verruciformis (EV). EV patients are particularly susceptible to 29). Other metallothioneins such as MT1F and MT1G do not
HPV strains 5 and 8, which significantly increases the risk of possess known IFN regulatory regions in their promoters,
developing nonmelanoma skin cancers. HPV strains 5 and 8 but are instead more sensitive to zinc (28). IFNs stimulate
lack expression of the E5 protein, which may explain 1) their an influx of zinc into the target cell, as is the case with some
limited replication in the normal population because of their inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, which in turn drives
inability to control zinc homeostasis, and 2) the susceptibility metallothionein expression.
Zinc as an antiviral 697

Because metallothioneins possess such a diverse func- perhaps reflecting specific viral zinc requirements during
tional repertoire, their specific roles during viral infection replication. This is particularly evident for HIV, which
remain undefined. However, both in vitro and in vivo demonstrated an increase in viral replication as a result of
studies have made it abundantly clear that metallothioneins metallothionein overexpression in the Schoggins et al. ISG
are induced by viruses. The mechanisms often remain screen (46), validating previous works (33).
undefined; however, metallothionein expression has been
attributed to zinc influx or redistribution (19, 28), by Zinc as an antiviral: bench to bedside and back again
viral means, cytokine exposure, or oxidative stress (30). Many studies have evaluated the efficacy of zinc as an
Metallothionein upregulation has been observed in response antiviral agent in vitro. Unfortunately, zinc concentrations
to measles virus (31), influenza (31, 32), HIV (33), hepatitis used to assess antiviral activity often far exceed physiological
C virus (HCV) (34), and coxsackie virus (35), among others. concentrations. Human plasma zinc, for example, ranges
In the case of HIV, zinc appears to be the key driver of from approximately 10 to 18 μM (47), whereas antiviral

metallothionein expression to favor viral persistence. HIV- concentrations of zinc can reach into mM concentrations
infected monocytes demonstrate a significant increase in (48). Intracellular zinc concentrations range from 10s to 100s
both MT1 gene expression as well as intracellular zinc (33). of μM, but are significantly buffered by zinc-binding proteins
Elevated intracellular zinc increases monocyte resistance to such as metallothioneins, rendering free zinc concentrations
apoptosis via inhibition of caspase 3 activation [as has been at picomolar to low nanomolar concentrations (49, 50). The
reported previously (36)], thus providing a reservoir for HIV antiviral properties of zinc are certainly virus-specific, but
replication. The role of metallothioneins remains unclear in it would appear that zinc ion availability plays a significant
this study; however, they have been described as negative role in the antiviral efficacy of zinc (51). Here we describe
regulators of apoptosis, albeit not through direct caspase the role of zinc as a virus-specific antiviral: both in vitro
3 inhibition (37). Zinc and metallothioneins also facilitate mechanistic studies, as well as human-based clinical trials
human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) replication by activating using zinc supplementation. In vitro and in vivo studies are
the immediate-early HCMV promoter (38, 39). Kanekiyo et summarized in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
al. demonstrated that both zinc and metallothionein overex-
pression increased NF-κB binding in the HCMV promoter. Herpesviridae.
Because no complex was detected between metallothionein The effect of zinc on HSV-1 and -2 has been studied for >40 y,
and NF-κB, it was suggested that metallothioneins served with in vitro studies suggesting that zinc plays an inhibitory
as a zinc donor necessary for NF-κB binding. In addition, role on almost every aspect of the viral life cycle: viral
as NF-κB transcription factors are known potent activators polymerase function (52), protein production and processing
of HIV and HSV replication, and several other viruses (53), and free virus inactivation (48, 54). Although these
(40), metallothioneins may be proviral. Zinc has also been studies were performed >20 y ago, a more recent study using
reported to inhibit NF-κB in numerous studies (41–43). the zinc ionophore pyrithione demonstrated a reduction
Despite these contrasting data, Kim et al. have bridged these in HSV replication from reduced NF-κB activation by
inconsistencies, demonstrating that MT2A can serve as a sink interfering with the protein ubiquitination pathway (41).
for excess zinc (44), thus limiting its proximity to NF-κB and Unfortunately, no recent experimental data can demonstrate
favoring NF-κB-mediated transcription. with any certainty the mechanism by which zinc inhibits
In the case of HCV infection, metallothioneins possess HSV infection. Nonetheless, in vivo studies in mice and
an antiviral role. Using a pan-metallothionein siRNA to humans have shown a significant reduction of infection and
knockdown all MT1 and 2 genes, we demonstrated both an disease burden. Mouse studies performing intravaginal zinc
increase in HCV replication and a decrease in intracellular inoculation in liquid (55) or gel (56) form both resulted
zinc content in vitro (34). Interestingly, although ZnSO4 can in significant reductions in HSV-2 infection. Several topical
reduce HCV replication, this effect was ablated when metal- zinc application studies have been performed in humans,
lothionein genes were knocked down. These data suggest that which demonstrated a significantly reduced recurrence and
metallothioneins are either 1) directly antiviral, potentially duration of infection (outbreak) (57–58). The efficacy of
by sequestering zinc away from viral metalloproteins such topical application, together with in vitro results (48, 54),
as HCV NS5A (45), or 2) indirectly antiviral by acting as suggest that free zinc may indeed coat HSV virions, thus
zinc chaperones and facilitating antiviral signaling. Further, preventing infection. Further research into this molecular
metallothioneins possess antiviral properties against other mechanism is warranted.
viruses as well, as demonstrated in an antiviral screen Apart from HCMV mentioned above, the effect of zinc
of 380 human ISGs performed by Schoggins et al. (46). on other members of the Herpesviridae family remains
Overexpression of multiple members of the MT1 family unknown because of a lack of clinical data. Mechanistically,
inhibited replication of flaviviruses including yellow fever zinc ions have been shown to inhibit Varicella-Zoster virus by
virus and HCV, as well as the alphavirus Venezuelan equine inactivating free virus in vitro (59). Both HSV and Varicella-
encephalitis virus. This effect was not observed in West Zoster virus belong to the Alphaherpesvirinae subfamily,
Nile virus, and Chikungunya virus. These data indicate that reflecting their genetic relatedness, and similar mechanism
metallothioneins, like many ISGs, are selectively antiviral, of inhibition.
698 Read et al.

TABLE 1 In vitro studies assessing the antiviral efficacy of zinc1
Virus Antiviral effect Zinc Effective dose Reference

Coronavirus Inhibition of RdRp template binding and elongation PT + Zn(OAc)2 2–320 μM PT + 2–500 μM Zn (60)
Encephalomyocarditis virus Inhibition of viral polyprotein cleavage ZnCl2 0.4–1.5 mM (61)
Inhibition of viral polyprotein cleavage ZnCl2 0.1–1 mM (62)
Inhibition of viral polyprotein tertiary structure PT, HK 5–20 μM PT, 60–125 μM HK (63)
Inhibition of viral polyprotein tertiary structure PDTC 15–125 μM PDTC (63)
Foot and mouth disease virus Inhibition of viral polyprotein cleavage ZnCl2 , Zn(OAc)2 0.1–2 mM (64)
Inhibition of viral RNA and procapsid synthesis ZnCl2 10–150 μM (65)
Hepatitis C virus Inhibition of RNA polymerase ZnCl2 60–300 μM (66)
Inhibition of viral replication ZnCl2 , ZnSO4 50–150 μM (67)
Metallothionein-dependent inhibition of viral replication ZnSO4 50 μM (34)
Herpes simplex virus Viral protein synthesis ZnSO4 N/A (53)
Inhibition of viral DNA polymerase Zn(OAc)2 0.1–2 mM (52)
Free virus inactivation ZnSO4 0.1–6 mM (48)
Free virus inactivation Zn(Glu)2 , Zn(Lac)2 1–50 mM (54)
Inhibition of protein ubiquitination and NF-κB activity PT 1.2–18.9 mM (41)
Human immunodeficiency virus HIV protease inhibition Not listed 0.2–2 mM (68)
Inhibition of viral transcription and particle production ZnCl2 70–700 μM (69)
Inhibition of reverse transcriptase ZnCl2 25–800 μM (70)
Human papilloma virus Stimulates proviral transcription factor activity, reversed N/A N/A (19)
by EVER2
Inhibition of viral protein E6 and E7 synthesis stimulating CIZAR 500–750 μM (71)
apoptosis
Respiratory syncytial virus Reduction in viral titer and plaque count ZnCl2 , Zn(OAc)2 , Zn(Lac)2 0.01–10 mM (72)
Rhinovirus Inhibition of viral polyprotein cleavage ZnCl2 100–800 μM (73, 74)
Inhibition of viral polyprotein cleavage ZnCl2 0.1–1.2 mM (61)
Inhibition of viral polymerase not listed >0.6 μM (75)
Inhibition of viral polyprotein processing PT, HK 5–20 μM PT, 60–125 μM HK (63)
Inhibition of viral polyprotein processing PDTC 15–125 μM PDTC (63)
Semliki Forest virus Inhibition of endosomal membrane fusion ZnCl2 25–100 μM (76)
Inhibition of endosomal membrane fusion ZnCl2 2 mM (77)
Sindbis virus Inhibition of viral particle production and polyprotein ZnCl2 0.1–1.8 mM (78)
cleavage
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus Inhibition of viral RNA and protein synthesis ZnCl2 , ZnSO4 10–200 μM (79)
Vaccinia virus Inhibition of RNA synthesis and viral yield ZnSO4 100–300 μM (80)
Inhibition of viral particle production and polyprotein ZnCl2 50–400 μM (81)
cleavage
Inhibition of viral topoisomerase Not listed 2.5 mM (82)
Varicella-zoster virus Free virus inactivation Zn(Pic)2 , Zn(Asp)2 10 μM (59)
1
CIZAR, zinc citrate compound; HK, hinokitiol; N/A, not applicable; PDTC, pyrrolidine-dithiocarbamate; PT, pyrithione; RdRp, RNA-dependent RNA polymerate; Zn(Asp)2 , zinc aspartate; ZnCl2 , zinc chloride; Zn(Glu)2 , zinc gluconate; Zn(Lac)2 , zinc
lactate; Zn(OAc)2 , zinc acetate; Zn(Pic)2 , zinc picolinate; ZnSO4 , zinc sulfate.
Zinc as an antiviral
699
700
Read et al.
TABLE 2 Human clinical studies using zinc as an antiviral therapy 1
Viral infection/condition Antiviral/therapeutic effect Effective dose Treatment Reference

Torque teno virus Reduced viral load following stem cell transplant 600 mg ZnSO4 /d Oral (83)
Herpes simplex Reduced duration and severity of outbreak ZnO/glycine cream (0.3% ionic Zn) Topical (57)
Reduction in outbreak recurrence 0.025% ZnSO4 solution Topical (84)
Reduction in outbreak recurrence 1–4% ZnSO4 solution Topical (58)
Experimental rhinovirus Reduced duration of illness with Zn(Glu)2 only Zn(Glu)2 (13.3 mg) or Zn(OAc)2 (5/11.5 mg) lozenges, every 2–3 h/d Lozenge (85)
Common cold Reduced symptom severity, frequency, and duration ZGG lozenges containing 23 mg Zn, every 2 h/d Lozenge (86)
Reduced symptom severity, frequency, and duration ZGG lozenges containing 24 mg Zn, every 2–3 h/d (Max 8) Lozenge (87)
Reduced duration of symptoms ZGG lozenges containing 13 mg Zn, every 2 h/d Lozenge (88)
Reduced symptom severity and duration Zn(OAc)2 lozenges each containing 9 mg Zn, every 2 h/d Lozenge (89)
Reduced symptom severity and duration Zn(OAc)2 lozenges each containing 13 mg Zn, every 2–3 h/d Lozenge (90)
No effect on duration or severity Zn(Glu)2 (13.3 mg) or Zn(OAc)2 (5/11.5 mg) lozenges, every 2–3 h/d Lozenge (85)
Reduced symptom severity and duration Zn(OAc)2 lozenges each containing 13 mg Zn, every 2–3 h/d Lozenge (91)
Viral warts Improved clearance of warts after 1–2 mo 10 mg/ kg ZnSO4 to a maximum dose of 600 mg/d Oral (92)
Clearance of warts based on concentration of zinc used 3 × 5 or 10% ZnSO4 /d Topical (93)
Improved clearance of warts after 1–2 mo 10 mg/ kg ZnSO4 to a maximum dose of 600 mg/d Oral (94)
No benefit 10 mg/ kg ZnSO4 /d Oral (95)
Resolution of 88% of lesions after 6 wk/3 sessions Up to 3 intralesional injections with 2% ZnSO4 Injection (96)
Laryngeal papillomatosis Resolution of papillomatosis (2 case studies) 10 mg/ kg ZnSO4 /d Oral (97)
HIV Reduced infection, increased CD4 T cell count 200 mg/d ZnSO4 /d Oral (98)
Increased CD4 T cell count 45 mg Zn(Glu)2 every 8 h for 15 d, then 15 mg for 15 d Oral (99)
Reduced incidence of diarrhea 10 mg elemental zinc as ZnSO4 /d Oral (100)
No benefit 25 mg/d ZnSO4 /d Oral (101)
Chronic hepatitis C virus Enhanced response to IFN treatment 2 × 75 mg polaprezinc/d Oral (102)
No benefit to IFN treatment response 5 × 78 mg Zn(Glu)2 /d Oral (103)
Reduced serum AST, ALT, and ferritin 3 × 75 mg polaprezinc/d Oral (104)
Reduced serum ALT and Th2 cells (%) 2 × 75 mg polaprezinc/d Oral (105)
Reduced incidence of HCC (albumin-dependent) 2 × 150 mg polaprezinc/d Oral (106)
1
ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; ZGG, zinc gluconate/glycine; Zn(Glu)2 , zinc gluconate; ZnO, zinc oxide; Zn(OAc)2 , zinc acetate; ZnSO4 , zinc sulfate.

Picornaviridae. hepatotrophic virus, HCV. The effect of zinc on insect-borne
It was clear as early as 1974 that zinc possessed an inhibitory flaviviruses is scarce; however, in vitro studies by our group
effect on picornovirus polyprotein processing (73). Before (34) and others (67) have demonstrated that zinc salts can
1980, zinc inhibition of picornovirus proteases from human reduce HCV replication (∼50% at 100 μM ZnSO4 ), perhaps
rhinovirus isolates (73, 74), encephalomyocarditis virus (62), by inhibiting the HCV RdRp, as shown in E. coli [half
poliovirus (61), and foot and mouth disease virus (64, 65) maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) ∼60 μM] (66).
had all been demonstrated. More recent studies using zinc Although this is a potential mechanism, it has not been
ionophores have illustrated that zinc interferes with the examined in eukaryotic cells in which zinc homeostasis is
autocatalytic processing of the viral protease 3CDpro into significantly different.
3Cpro in the picornavirus coxsackievirus B3, thus inhibiting If left untreated, HCV becomes a chronic hepatic infection
processing of the viral polyprotein (107). However, this was in around two-thirds of individuals (112), resulting in a
not the case for encephalomyocarditis virus, where zinc significant reduction in plasma zinc (113). Consequently,

appeared to inhibit the tertiary structure within the viral zinc supplementation in HCV studies have focused on
polyprotein (107). Together, these data suggest that zinc may improved patient outcomes, particularly decreased liver
interfere with proteolytic processing of the viral polyprotein inflammation, and enhanced response to antiviral treatment.
because of misfolding, or through direct actions on the viral Supplementation with 150 mg/d polaprezinc (a bioavailable
protease 3CDpro . zinc l-carnosine chelate) has been shown to reduce markers
Clinical studies using zinc supplementation are primarily of hepatic inflammation alanine aminotransferase and aspar-
limited to rhinovirus infection, and are often grouped tate aminotransferase alone (105), and in combination with
with other “common cold” viruses such as influenza and the antiviral treatment IFN-α (106). Moreover, polaprezinc
coronaviruses. The majority of studies use zinc lozenges with significantly improved the rate of viral clearance, particularly
various zinc formulations and concentrations, possibly ex- in patients with lower viral loads at baseline (102). The
plaining the large variability in results [extensively reviewed mechanisms underlying these observations remain uncer-
in (108) and (109)]. Importantly, the amount of ionic zinc tain; however, are likely a combination of direct antiviral
present at the site of infection (oral and nasal mucosa) is effects and strengthening of the antiviral response. Zinc
highly correlated to the study outcome (51, 108), and is supplementation and the antiviral response is reviewed
dependent on the zinc formulation. At a physiological pH below.
and 37◦ C, zinc gluconate for example, releases high amounts
of ionic zinc, whereas zinc aspartate releases none (108). Togaviridae.
Upon examining only the relevant studies where high doses Like flaviviruses, togaviruses primarily consist of arthropod-
of ionic zinc were used, a clear reduction in cold duration borne viruses such as Semliki Forest virus, Western equine
of 42% was calculated (109). Whether this was caused by encephalitis virus, and Chikungunya virus. Viral infection
viral inhibition, improved local immune response, or an occurs by receptor-mediated endocytosis, followed by fusion
amelioration of symptoms remains uncertain. of virus and endosomal membranes, and particle release
into the cytoplasm (114). Using liposome (76), red blood
Other respiratory tract infections: influenza, coronavirus, cell (115), and BHK-21 (77) cell model systems, zinc has
and metapneumovirus. been shown to efficiently inhibit membrane fusion of Semliki
Few studies have examined the antiviral effects of zinc on Forest virus and sindbis viruses. Zinc ions interfere with
other respiratory viruses. In vitro replication of influenza membrane fusion by binding to a specific histidine residue
(PR/8/34) is significantly inhibited by the addition of the revealed on the viral E1 protein at low endosomal pH (77).
zinc ionophore pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (110), perhaps Unfortunately, the in vivo relevance of this model is unclear
through inhibition of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase because of the high concentration of zinc (>1 mM) used.
(RdRp), as had been suggested 30 y earlier (111). In similar Notably, concentrated zinc is present in vesicular zincosomes
fashion, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coron- that are thought to serve as intracellular zinc storage vesicles
avirus RdRp template binding and elongation was inhibited (116). Similar to the mechanism used by macrophages to
by zinc in Vero-E6 cells (60). Moreover, zinc salts were shown inhibit intracellular Mycobacterium spp., zincosome fusion to
to inhibit respiratory syncytial virus, even while zinc was viral endosomes may inhibit key aspects of the viral life cycle
incubated with HEp-2 cells only before infection, and then such as togavirus membrane fusion.
removed (72). The authors suggest that this indicates an
inhibitory mechanism similar to HSV by preventing viral Retroviridae: HIV.
membrane fusion; however, no measures were taken to assess Retroviruses are named after their ability to transcribe RNA
changes in intracellular zinc content, nor inhibition of other into DNA using their unique reverse transcriptase (RT),
aspects of the viral life cycle. consequently allowing integration of retroviral DNA into
the host genome. The integrated provirus can then establish
Flaviviridae: a focus on HCV. a latent infection for the life of the host and is a major
Flaviviruses represent a number of insect-borne viruses barrier to virus cure strategies, particularly for HIV-1 (117).
including dengue and West Nile virus, as well as the Similar to viral RdRps, zinc has also been identified as

an inhibitor of retrovirus RTs (118, 119). Fenstermacher appears to enhance HPV replication (see Zinc homeostasis
and DeStefano demonstrated in 2011 that Zn2+ cations and viral infection), exogenous zinc treatment (CIZAR, zinc
can displace Mg2+ ions from HIV-1 RT, promoting the chloride and citric acid anhydrous) can effectively inhibit
formation of an excessively stable, but incredibly slow and production of viral oncogenic proteins E6 and E7 (71). The
inefficient replication complex (70). Zinc was also shown inhibition of E6 and E7 by zinc results in apoptosis of
to inhibit the HIV-1 protease in 1991 (68), and to inhibit cervical carcinoma cells, as they regain the function of tumor
viral transcription in 1999 (69), but has received little suppressors p53 and pRb (71). The mechanism by which zinc
attention since, with the exception of molecular simulation downregulates E6 and E7 expression is unknown, but may be
experiments that identified the zinc-binding sites at the preceded by a zinc-driven blockade in another component of
catalytic aspartate-25 residue (120). As stated above, HIV can the viral life cycle.
also stimulate zinc influx into monocytes (33), which may It would appear that both topical and oral zinc supple-
appear contradictory based on its antiretroviral properties. mentation strategies have proven tremendously effective for

Latently infected monocytes and macrophages, however, can cutaneous and genital warts. Unfortunately, the vast majority
act as viral reservoirs for HIV (121), and could therefore of studies are either underpowered, lacking suitable controls,
benefit from zinc-mediated inhibition of cell death. In fact, or single case studies. Nonetheless, a recent systematic review
unlike the majority of CD4+ T cells, low levels of replication concluded that zinc supplementation was the most effective
in macrophages do not result in cell death (122), making systemic treatment for cutaneous warts, when compared to
them a viable reservoir, in addition to long-lived resting other available options (131). It should be noted, however,
CD4+ T cells, for viral recrudescence after cessation of that individuals with persistent viral warts are often zinc-
antiretroviral treatment. deficient or have lower concentrations than their healthy
Zinc deficiency is common in HIV-infected individuals, counterparts (132). In fact, studies demonstrating the most
where it is associated with inflammation (123), immunologi- significant responses to zinc treatment had engaged patients
cal failure (124), and death (125). A recent Cochrane Review that were primarily zinc-deficient (>70 μg/dL) (92, 94).
examined the role of micronutrient supplementation in Nonetheless, 78% (94) and 100% (92) of patients showed
people living with HIV (126). Although a number of studies clearance of lesions in response to oral zinc sulfate (10 mg/kg
demonstrated beneficial effects of zinc supplementation, up to 600 mg/d) compared to 13% and 0% of the placebo
the majority were underpowered. The authors concluded group, respectively. Topical zinc formulations have also
that zinc supplementation probably increases blood zinc proved efficacious for treatment of viral warts. A small study
concentration (moderate certainty), and may increase CD4+ using a 4-wk topical 10% zinc sulfate regimen for plane warts
counts (low certainty). demonstrated an 86% response rate (6/7), compared to a 10%
Unlike zinc supplements, prophylactic zinc gels have response rate (1/10) in the control group (93).
shown a substantial benefit to limit HIV infection in vivo. Recent work suggests that treatment of vaginal HPV
Complete protection against vaginal SHIV-RT (a simian infections with topical zinc formulations may benefit the
HIV virus expressing the human RT) infection in macaques millions of women that remain unvaccinated against HPV.
was obtained by pretreating animals with an antiviral gel A recent pilot study demonstrated that intravaginal infusion
containing 14 mM zinc acetate and 50 μM MIV-150, a reverse of 500 μM zinc citrate in women diagnosed with high-risk
transcriptase inhibitor (127). When used alone, zinc acetate is HPV resulted in a 64% clearance rate, compared to 15%
a potent antiviral, providing 66% protection against SHIV-RT in the control group (133). Additional studies in mice have
vaginal infection (56) and an EC50 <100 μM in peripheral demonstrated that MZC, a formulation containing MIV-50,
blood mononuclear cells against a range of HIV strains zinc acetate, and carrageenan, efficiently inhibited vaginal
(128). Importantly, zinc treatment did not affect viral titers and anorectal HPV-16 pseudoviral particle infection (134).
in macaques that became infected, nor did it result in zinc In summary, it is evident that zinc possesses antiviral
resistant HIV mutants with conserved pol (RT) mutations. properties against a number of viral species. Although
These data suggest that zinc may not interfere with the mechanistic studies are lacking, zinc appears to inhibit viral
HIV RT, but instead inactivate free virus or prevent viral protease and polymerase enzymatic processes, as well as
attachment/penetration as reported for HSV (48, 54). physical processes such as virus attachment, infection, and
uncoating (Figure 1). Unfortunately, these mechanisms have
Papillomaviridae. not been well scrutinized in clinical studies, where zinc
HPVs are oncogenic viruses that infect basal epithelial may provide inexpensive and effective adjunct treatments for
cells, where they stimulate proliferation resulting in warts. many viral infections.
Although cutaneous warts are usually self-limiting and
harmless, mucosal strains of HPV (e.g. high risk HPV-16 The role of zinc in antiviral immune signaling
and -18) are a primary cause of cervical cancers (129). Ionic zinc possesses unique and distinct antiviral properties
HPV oncoproteins E6 and E7 in particular, are significant against a number of human viruses; however, the antiviral
drivers of cell proliferation and resistance to cell death by immune response led by IFNs is invariably required to clear
stimulating the degradation of tumor suppressor p53 and infections. Zinc has been shown to contribute to a number
pRb, respectively [reviewed in (130)]. Although nuclear zinc of innate and adaptive immune signaling pathways that have
702 Read et al.

FIGURE 1 The diverse stages of viral replication cycles that are inhibited by zinc. In vitro studies have demonstrated a number of
mechanisms by which zinc interferes with the viral replication cycle. These include free virus inactivation (1), inhibition of viral uncoating
(2), viral genome transcription (3), and viral protein translation and polyprotein processing (4). No studies to date, however, have
demonstrated zinc-mediated inhibition of virus assembly and/or particle release. CV, coronavirus; DdDp, DNA-dependent DNA
polymerase; EMCV, encephalomyocarditis virus; FMDV, foot and mouth disease virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HIV, human immunodeficiency
virus; HPV, human papilloma virus; HRV, human rhinovirus; HSV, herpes simplex virus; PV, polio virus; RdRp, RNA-dependent RNA
polymerase; RT, reverse transcriptase; SARS, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus; SFV, Semliki Forest virus; SV, sindbis virus; VZV,
varicella-zoster virus; Zn, zinc.
been comprehensively reviewed recently (135). As such, this tracts (137). Although both IFN types bind unique receptors,
review will focus specifically on the role of zinc in the they activate a common signaling cascade where STAT1
immune response to viruses. and STAT2 heterodimerize and bind IRF9, followed by
Viral infections are recognized by a number of innate translocation into the nucleus and subsequent binding of the
immune receptors termed pattern recognition receptors IFN-sensitive response element that is present in hundreds
(PRRs). These include the cell surface and endosomal Toll- of gene promoters. As stated previously, these ISGs possess
like receptors (TLRs), as well as a variety of cytosolic numerous roles including immune cell chemotaxis and
PRRs such as RIGI, MDA5, and IFI16 that primarily bind activation, as well as numerous antiviral mechanisms to
viral nucleic acids (136). Following ligand binding, PRRs inhibit viral replication within infected and neighboring cells.
share a number of downstream signaling intermediates,
that ultimately activate both inflammatory (NF-κB, AP1)
and innate immune (IRF1/3/7) transcription factors. These Zinc and pathogen recognition.
transcription factors cooperate to induce expression of IFNs, Upon recognition of microbial antigens by TLRs, a rapid
of which there are 3 types: type I (IFN-α and IFN-β), type and transient influx of free zinc ions occurs. Interestingly,
II (IFN-γ ), and type III (IFN-λs). Type I and III IFNs this has been demonstrated in response to viral stimuli,
activate very similar antiviral signaling pathways; however, imiquimod, ssRNA40 (TLR7), and CpG (TLR9), but not
the type I IFN response is ubiquitous, whereas the type III polyI: C (TLR3) in the mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cell
IFN response is limited to a subset of immune cells, as well line (138). In response to TLR7 activation, zinc was shown
as epithelial cells of the liver, gastrointestinal, and pulmonary to reduce the production of type I IFNs and ISGs CD80

and CD86. Based on results using other stimuli, the authors with ISG expression in HCV (151), we showed that serum
suggest that zinc can inhibit IRF3-, and perhaps IRF7- zinc was the driver of hepatic metallothionein expression.
dependent IFNB production, by limiting activation and/or Although zinc had minimal effect on IFN-α signaling, it
nuclear translocation (138). The role of the zinc influx in could almost ablate IFN-λ3 signaling at a concentration of
this context remains undefined, but may reflect a regulatory 50 μM, resulting in a significant reduction in its antiviral
mechanism to prevent excessive IFN production. activity (28). Interestingly, we found no inhibition of IFN-
Although no direct inhibition of IRF signaling by zinc λ1 activity using 50 μM ZnSO4 , suggesting a highly specific
has been demonstrated, zinc can modulate a number of interaction. The mechanism by which zinc interferes with
factors upstream of IRF activation. For example, the IκB the IFN:receptor interaction remains uncertain; however, we
kinase (IKK) members IKKα and IKKβ are inhibited by have ruled out an effect of zinc on IFN-λ3 disulfide bond
zinc, albeit at high concentrations of ∼0.5 μM (139). formation.
IKKα has been shown to activate IRF7 in response to Type I and III IFNs bind to unique receptor complexes

TLR7/9 stimulation (140), whereas IKKβ (141), IKKε and composed of IFN-α receptors IFNAR1/IFNAR2 and IFN-λ
TANK-binding kinase-1 (TBK1) (142) can activate IRF3 receptors IFNLR1/IL10RB, respectively, but signal via almost
following TLR3 stimuli. Zinc can also stimulate expression identical pathways. Consequently, zinc may act to reinforce
of the deubiquitinating enzyme A20 (43) to inhibit the the shared IFN signaling cascade by inhibiting protein
pathogen response. A20 is a regulator of NF-κB- (143), tyrosine phosphatase enzymatic activity (152). Following
TLR3- (144), and RIGI-mediated (145) IFN production, receptor engagement by IFNs, intracellular Janus protein
most likely by targeting PRR signaling components TIR- tyrosine kinases Jak1 and Tyk2 become phosphorylated,
domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β (TRIF), which in turn phosphorylate STAT molecules to stimulate
TNF Receptor Associated Factor (TRAF) 2, and TRAF6. ISG expression. By dephosphorylating these key signaling
A20-deficient cells are hyper-responsive to viral infection, molecules, a number of phosphatases have been shown to
possess increased activation of NF-κB, IRF3, and IRF7, and “put the brakes” on IFN signaling. Phosphatases tyrosine-
improved viral clearance (146). protein phosphatase non-receptor type 6 (SHP1), type 11
(SHP2), and protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) have all been
Zinc and the interferon response. shown to inhibit JAK-STAT phosphorylation (153–155),
After pathogen recognition, NF-κB, AP1, and IRF3/7 bind and are all inhibited by zinc ions, predominantly in the
IFN promoters to stimulate type I/III IFN production. Zinc nanomolar range (156–158). Interestingly, PP2A can also
plays a significant role in the response to IFNs by modulating inhibit the phosphorylation of IRF3, thus regulating antigen
secretion, cytokine potency, and receptor binding, as well as recognition by PRRs (159). Conversely, the tumor suppressor
influencing signaling intermediates and pathway inhibitors. phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN) stimulates IRF3
A recent study has demonstrated that intracellular zinc activation by removing inhibitory phosphorylation at Ser97
can reduce IFN secretion by destabilizing sortilin mRNA (160), and is also inhibited by zinc at nanomolar concen-
transcripts (147). Sortilin is an endosomal protein that trations (161). Zinc inhibits numerous pro- and antiviral
facilitates secretion of cytokines such as IFN-γ and IL6 (148), phosphatases, with the net effect on virus recognition and
and its depletion results in a significant reduction in secretion response being undefined, which clearly requires further
of IFN-α. Consequently, because sortilin ensures trafficking study.
and secretion of numerous cytokines, it is possible that zinc To enable a highly controlled IFN response, negative
also inhibits the secretion of other IFNs. regulators of IFN signaling are often ISGs. These include
Structural studies have demonstrated that zinc ions can the suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS-1 and SOCS-
mediate dimerization of IFNA molecules (149). Nonetheless, 3), which bind and inhibit JAK protein signaling, thus
apart from crystallization studies, dimers were difficult to preventing signaling from numerous inflammatory (IL-
generate despite using concentrated IFN (50 μM) and zinc 6) and antiviral stimuli (162). Interestingly, zinc-driven
(1 mM). It is therefore likely that the circulating active activation of the MTF-1 transcription factor can induce
form of IFN-α is monomeric. A single study performed in expression of SOCS-3 in HepG2 cells (163). The zinc
2001 showed that zinc can increase the antiviral activity of importer ZIP-14, which is responsible for zinc influx
IFN-α 10-fold against rhinovirus challenge (150). Although following inflammatory stimuli, was required for SOCS-3
this study drew radical conclusions, antiviral activity was expression, and may represent yet another zinc-mediated
based on cytopathic effect alone, and its results have not mechanism to limit the inflammatory response. Although
been reproduced since. Moreover, zinc was added before the transporter responsible for hepatic zinc influx following
viral infection, which is known to interfere with rhinovirus IFN stimulation remains unknown, it is perceivable that
polyprotein processing (73, 74), as reviewed above. ZIP-14 may drive zinc influx and subsequent SOCS-3
Unlike type I IFNs, a recent study by our group has expression.
shown that zinc can inhibit IFN-λ3 signaling, most likely by
preventing receptor binding and subsequent signaling (28).
Upon demonstrating in 2014 that metallothionein expression
was IFNL genotype-dependent, and inversely associated
704 Read et al.

Zinc deficiency caused by disease, age, and lifestyle context of chronic viral infection. Oral zinc supplementation
factors: lessons from supplementation may act in a synergistic manner when co-administered
Zinc status is primarily determined by dietary zinc intake; with antiviral therapy and contribute to improved clinical
however, additional factors such as dietary composition, outcomes.
alcohol intake, and disease state can significantly reduce zinc
uptake and storage, or increase zinc excretion (164). With
respect to dietary composition, zinc supplementation as part Vaccination studies.
of a meal can significantly reduce zinc absorption when Zinc supplementation during vaccination strategies has
compared to water-based solutions of zinc (164). Moreover, provided an opportunity to examine the role of zinc in the
dietary phytate, a natural chelator of zinc ions that is present humoral response to viruses. A particular focus has been
in corn, rice, and cereals, can severely restrict zinc absorption applied to the effect of zinc supplementation on rotavirus
(165). Consequently, diets containing high phytate: zinc vaccination because of the high rate of mortality associated

molar ratios, can result in zinc deficiency, even with adequate with childhood diarrhea in developing countries. Unfortu-
zinc intake. Unfortunately, rural diets in low-income nations nately, although zinc deficiency is associated with increased
are often zinc-poor and phytate-rich because of a dietary risk of rotavirus gastroenteritis (178), it does not greatly
reliance on rice and vegetables. increase the development of humoral immunity followed
Aged individuals are also significantly more susceptible to by vaccination (rotarix), as defined by seroconversion rate
zinc deficiency, increasing their likelihood of acquiring life- (179). Nonetheless, a pooled analysis of randomized trials
threatening viral infections (166). Ex vivo, zinc supplementa- performed in 2000, demonstrated that zinc supplementation
tion has been shown to improve leukocyte IFN-α production shortens the length of diarrheal episodes and reduced the rate
(167) and to reduce mononuclear cell TNF production (168). of treatment failure or death by 42% in zinc-deficient children
Year-long supplementation with 45 mg elemental zinc/d in (180).
elderly subjects (aged 55–87 y), has also demonstrated a Comparable studies of supplementation with zinc before
dramatic reduction in the incidence of infection as well as vaccination have produced similar disappointing results.
plasma oxidative stress markers (168). Zinc supplementation did not improve seroconversion fol-
Alcoholism can stimulate severe zinc deficiency devel- lowing administration of the oral poliovirus vaccine in
oped via numerous sociological and physiological mecha- infants (181), nor did it improve the immunological response
nisms, with factors including but not limited to 1) increased to HBV (182) or influenza vaccination (183) in the elderly.
urinary zinc excretion (169), 2) reduced zinc intake (poor Although there remains little evidence that zinc improves
diet) (170), 3) reduced zinc absorption (171), and 4) and a viral vaccination responses, a small number of studies suggest
reduction in hepatic zinc stores (172). Alcohol also stimulates that zinc may improve antibody titers and antibacterial re-
microbial dysbiosis and gastrointestinal permeability (173), a sponses to pneumococcus (184) and cholera infections (185).
phenotype that can increase the likelihood of viral infection
in the gut (174). Importantly, dietary zinc supplementation
can improve intestinal barrier dysfunction as a result of Conclusions and Future Perspectives
alcohol and microbial infection (175, 176). The tight regulation of zinc homeostasis both systemically
As previously discussed, zinc deficiency is common and intracellularly indicates that zinc plays an essential
among chronic infections such as HPV, HCV, and HIV (113, role in human health. Although zinc is a component of
123). Consequently, a number of studies have examined ∼10% of the human proteome, zinc in different forms (free
the effects of zinc supplementation on antiviral immunity, compared with protein-bound) can stimulate a variety of
inflammation, and treatment response. As described above, signaling events, including the antiviral response. In vitro
zinc supplementation can improve HCV treatment response studies suggest that free zinc may possess potent antiviral
and liver inflammation caused by chronic infection. In effects, and are supported by trials of creams, lozenges,
addition, long-term zinc treatment over 7 y has been shown and supplements with high free zinc content. Moreover,
to reduce the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma progression in zinc-binding proteins such as the metallothioneins may
chronic HCV patients, as assessed by multivariate analysis, possess antiviral roles, although their specific function
compared to controls (P < 0.05) (105). Zinc supplementation remains uncertain. Nonetheless, zinc treatment applied at a
has also been assessed as an adjunct therapy to antiretroviral therapeutic dose and in the right form has the potential to
administration in patients with HIV. One study reported drastically improve the clearance of both chronic and acute
a 4-fold reduction in the rate of immune failure, as well as viral infections, as well as their accompanying pathologies
decreased diarrhea in patients treated with zinc compared and symptoms. Consequently, the role of zinc as an antiviral
to controls (P < 0.05 for both groups) (124). A more can be separated into 2 categories: 1) zinc supplementation
recent study revealed an increase in CD4+ T cell count in implemented to improve the antiviral response and systemic
patients treated with a combination of zinc and antiretroviral immunity in patients with zinc deficiency, and 2) zinc
therapy, compared to patients on antiretroviral therapy alone treatment performed to specifically inhibit viral replication
(P < 0.05) (177). Taken together, these data indicate that zinc or infection-related symptoms (75, 78–82, 83, 85–91, 95–101,
deficiency is associated with greater disease activity in the 103, 104).

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The Role of Zinc in Antiviral Immunity

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Introduction for cellular processes, including growth and development, as

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Zinc as an antiviral 697

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698 Read et al.

Virus Antiviral eﬀect Zinc Eﬀective dose Reference

Viral infection/condition Antiviral/therapeutic eﬀect Eﬀective dose Treatment Reference

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Zinc as an antiviral 701

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702 Read et al.

Zinc as an antiviral 703

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704 Read et al.

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Zinc as an antiviral 705

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706 Read et al.

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Zinc as an antiviral 707

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708 Read et al.

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Zinc as an antiviral 709

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