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Project Management: A Managerial Approach

Article · January 1996

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Module: Running a Project from A to Z
Hungary 2005

Further Reading
Project management. A managerial approach

Jack R. MEREDITH, Samuel J. MANTEL

Wiley Text Books, 2002 (5th Edition)

The book is primarily intended for use as a college textbook for teaching project management at
the advanced undergraduate or master's level.In contrast to the books that are about project
management, this book teaches students how to do project management.
The book addresses project management from a management perspective rather than a cookbook,
special area treatise, or collection of loosely associated articles. It addresses the basic nature of
managing all types of projects. It deals with the problems of selecting projects, initiating them, and
operating and controlling them. It discusses the demands made on the project manager and the
nature of the manager's interaction with the rest of the parent organization. It covers the difficult
problems associated with conducting a project using people and organizations that represent
different cultures and may be separated by considerable distances. It even covers the issues arising
when the decision is made to terminate a project.

ISBN: 0471073237
The Project Management Memory Jogger

Paula MARTIN & Karen TATE

GOAL/QPC, Methuen, 1997

The Project Management Memory Jogger(TM) is the most cost-effective way to ensure that
your project teams achieve high-quality results. It provides every member of your
organization with an easy-to-use roadmap for managing all types of projects. Whether your
team is planning the construction of a new facility or implementing a customer feedback
system, this pocket guide helps you avoid typical problems and pitfalls and create
successful project outcomes every time. It is packed with useful information on everything
from project concept to completion

ISBN: 1-57681-001-1
The Definitive Guide to Project
Management
NOKES, S. & GREENWOOD, Alan

FT Prentice Hall, London, 2003

This book is designed to put you on a fast-track to managing projects of every shape and
size with speed and accuracy. The Definitive Guide to Project Management will show you,
step by step, how to deliver the right projects in the right way at the right time, while
keeping your life in balance. Using the principles critical chain management, the authors
help you master the essentials of good project management and then explore the
situations where good projects and good business meet. It is practical, to the point, and can
be used immediately. An essential companion if you want projects to be a source of
inspiration not perspiration.

ISBN: 0 273 66397 6

 Page 2

LIGHTHOUSE
“Lighthouse” will be a regular section of On Target. It’s goal is to allow local members to share
experiences in project management, and in the process make us all just a little more aware that what we
encounter in our jobs is not necessarily unique. Lighthouse will also provide the opportunity for you to
obtain points toward PMP certification each time one of your articles is published. We look forward to
receiving your article for use in this section. Please see the last page of this newsletter for forwarding
information. When local member project experiences are not available, national articles will be used for
education.

Managing Projects across Multi-National Cultures,

A Unique Experience
Dr. Alaa A. Zeitoun, Ph.D., PMP, International Institute for Learning, Inc.

Why Is Managing across the Globe Unique?

What Is a Global Project?
The managing of global projects is a unique experience that does
A “Global Project” could be defined as a project that crosses the
not compare to managing any of the projects within one culture.
boundaries of more than one nation. This is the kind of project
There are typical elements of various grouping of countries.
that deals with a variety of cultural differences, backgrounds,
These countries differ in their sophistication in formal project
political systems, and languages or at least dialects. One very
management, their readiness for project work, and their methods
key aspect of Global Projects is continuous change. The “Tides
for approaching the implementation of projects under the
of Change” are stirred by several human and regional
variables of these various cultures.
characteristics that are so numerous to be able to uncover every
one of them. An example of a Global Project is the design,
Challenges in Managing Global Projects
manufacturing, shipping, installation, and operating of a material
handling system plant for an Australian company done by a According to studying a group of forty project managers
United States-based company. representing many industries such as Telecommunication,
construction, Information Technology, software development,
What Is Global Project Management? and product development, the following was noted as the key
challenges facing this group.
Based on the definition of a Global Project, “Global Project
Management” is the management of those Global Projects • difference in laws
considering the unique constraints faced by those projects. An • geography/location/time
• language/localization
example of Global Project Management is the managing of the
• work customs “siesta”
above-stated project in Australia. The project complexity was • gender stereotypes
doubled due to the difference in understanding of the Statement • holidays/calendars
of Work, although both the Australian customer and the United • customs (bribes)/exports/logistics
States (U.S.) contractor spoke English! • infrastructure (no reliable phone service)/AC/DC
The customer anticipated higher and different performance in • ownership without presence
several of the key devices. To make things worse as pertaining to • meetings/teleconferences
• gaining trust of natives
the scope, after initial designs were made, the customer visited
• non-verbal/verbal differences between cultures
the U.S., and several major changes were made that could have • currency exchange
affected the project even further. There were also the various • class/structure position
logistic challenges from specific issues to consider in shipment • confidentiality/trade laws
such as packing methods and rollers greasing to handle the • interaction/integration of operations
weeks on the boats. There is also the challenge of having two • support infrastructure
project managers, one on-site and the other in the U.S. This • safety/terrorism
made the decision-making process and the smooth directing of • software/hardware compatibility
the project a bit challenging. • E-mail delays
• data security.
(Continued on page 3)
 Page 3
(Continued from page 2) events such as the collapse of communism and the creation of
the European Union (EU) help shape the boundaries of change
Tools to Deal with These Global Challenges that we face.
The group addressed potential methods to allow us to deal with The emergence of new markets presents enormous opportunities
these global challenges in the managing of various projects. for global expansion. For any organization involved in
• use lessons learned international business, managing the mechanics of immigration
• knowledge and acceptance of differences procedures is essential if foreign nationals are to legally enter the
• hire locally country and be allowed to stay in any capacity. By the year
• cultural awareness 2000, Internet commerce revenues are projected to be close to
• attitude adjustment $60 billion.
• communication protocol
Global efforts require a project leader who is sensitive to the
• standardization
• insurance values of other cultures and technologically savvy, with
• training excellent negotiation skills. Project leaders need to understand
• partnerships/joint ventures the cultural bases of their team members, the areas of
• cash fund intersection with other cultures represented on
• cultural exchange the team, and the areas in which values are widely divergent.
• overcommunicate
The project leader needs to factor the varied work styles of the
• selective skills
• advanced technology team into his equation for project success. The diverging
• situational awareness perceptions are further complicated by a culture’s sense of time.
• translators/interpreters Some Latin Americans tend to be more luxurious in how they
• shared communication responsibility meet appointments—a 1 P.M. meeting can really mean it will
• “set the stage” start at 1:30 or perhaps not at all, whereas it could be an insult to
• don’t make assumptions. a Japanese host to be even a few minutes late to a meeting. In
Looking at the key lessons learned from organizations that have general, North Americans and Europeans tend to attack
excelled in project management across the globe will enable problems head-on. Asians and Indians tend to approach
companies to draw some trends for the global organizations of problems more indirectly. Accountability means so many
the future. A company such as Bechtel or Hochtief could be used different things across the multi-cultures. There is a need to
as a benchmark for what the proper culture to support global develop a personal rapport with the individuals with whom one
projects could look like. will be doing business.

What Is Affecting Global Projects Market? Global Project Manager’s Skills

Among some of the key parameters affecting the managing of Cultural Sensitivity Skills are crucial for the Global Project
global projects is the key question regarding how to identify Manager. There needs to be an understanding of the large and
major political and economic issues and events that influence small issues that could cause offense to individuals on the team
global competitiveness and marketing. Foreign exchange, with different backgrounds.
international credit, trade finance, and letters of credit are unique
Listening Skills are also fundamental. If the project managers
aspects of financing global projects. Those involved in
listen, they have the advantage; if they speak, others have it.
international business must know how to recognize and
Two types of listening are affecting international projects.
capitalize on differences in people and cultures. Key elements
Reflective listening is the simple act of rephrasing or even
are communication, motivation, and flexibility. To create a
parroting what one’s counterpart has said. Active listening
common culture, there needs to be a focus on raising cultural
involves a more proactive approach to assuring the speaker and
issues as discussion points, developing common language and
the listener that one has not only heard what has been said but
procedures, handling body language and unspoken cues, and
wants to know more about a subject in a way that is not invasive.
becoming more flexible without compromising strategic goals.
This is especially valuable in global interactions. The need for
Joint ventures enable organizations to take advantage of Negotiation Skills is no surprise in the global context. Project
opportunities beyond their individual capabilities and can management is ultimately expectation management. Negotiation
rapidly push companies into untapped markets. Trust is the key ultimately involves the art of stepping into the shoes of another,
foundation to a successful joint venture. Checklists could be of understanding the what’s-in-it-for-me factor of the other side,
used to insure that the needs of the venture parties have been and then making decisions based on that alternate perspective.
explored and met. Working in the “global village” forces us to Relationship comes above all else.
explore the economic, political, and cultural differences. Recent
(Continued on page 4)
 Page 4
(Continued from page 3) tracking, and control possibly difficult. Also, authoritarianism
does not allow for questioning. Decision-making is difficult.
Technology Decisions have to be made by the ones in authority positions.
There is continuously a changing set of needs for the This has an impact on trying to reach consensus in various
organizations working across different parts of the globe and project situations.
some newly generated challenges with this process. Looking at Project Management Practice
the technologies available and the move toward the knowledge The macroeconomic stability and greater foreign competition
era could be a major driving factor for the success of the are promoting the intensification of the use of project
globalization of the future. Some of the key tools that stand out management in Latin America. There is a big need for raising
are: the bar in the skills and preparation of project managers in Latin
• The Conference call—Conference calls transmit voice and countries. This makes it a great growing global market for
emotion, so the individuals on the project team could develop various industries.
the habit of communicating with their counterparts.
Among the industries using modern project management in the
• Videoconferencing—It adds the picture piece, but it is still
not a cost-effective medium presently. region today are the construction, infrastructure, oil refining, and
• Electronic Bulletin Board—It is an excellent tool for chemical companies. Strong global partners are driving the use
documenting and using lessons learned. of project management practices and are emphasizing the
Technology is only an enabler so we still need to have a project importance of the discipline.
kick-off meeting that is face to face. Trust is developed and is The Project Management Certification has little value at this
crucial to providing the commitment to present one’s best self to time but should grow steadily in value in the near future. Several
another. chapters of the Project Management Institute are starting in
Global project team members who are stationed in several Latin America, which should facilitate the wheels of change in
countries and in several time zones come from different cultures these countries.
and may have never met. Tools to improve the communication
are intranet sites, Internet, E-mail, and teleconferencing. With an United States and Canada
intranet site, team members could collectively review and Culture
exchange ideas. The intranet thus acts as a great brainstorming
Generally the project managers and project teams are task
medium. The internet is one of the least expensive tools, costing
oriented. There is a great sense of urgency. There is no room for
less than a beverage monthly bill. A strong, yet flexible project
schedule slippage and missed appointments. This could create
management is required. Doing things right the first time is even
some form of rigidity, especially when it comes to dealing with
more crucial on global projects.
other cultures in other parts of the globe. Americans are so
friendly and tend to like people to agree with them. Both
Mexico and Latin America
countries are driven by achievements, with Canadians giving
Culture more emphasis to the personality aspects. Americans tend to
Mexicans and Latin Americans are concerned about their respect individuals based on their professional accomplishments
families, friends, and hobbies. So in order to communicate on a more than on their character. There is a good amount of
project to Latinos, we need to relate to them in those terms. emphasis on competition, especially in the U.S.
Because of the instability in many Latin American economies, Canadians are an example of people trying to search for a
business people are not as interested in stable industry growth as common culture. They are trying to join the English and French
in the U.S. People could easily change from poor to rich and majorities in a single political enterprise. Each of those
vice versa overnight. Most Latinos blame outside forces for the majorities has its power, language, culture, customs, and
changes that happen to them. They seem to be okay with taking perspectives.
what comes there way regardless.
Most people in this region are pragmatic and do not like
Mexicans and Latinos are formal and elaborate. Shaking hands interpersonal conflicts that make them feel uncomfortable.
is common in meeting and departing. The region societies are There is a belief that conflict and the views of others could
still stratified. Workers don’t have the proper industrial skills, hinder one’s ability for achieving various life and career goals.
and there is also a shortage of managers and managing skills.
Several of these issues are changing, and there is a growing
middle class. People are generally warm, friendly, and Project Management Practice
hospitable. They are personable and like to know about their The discipline of managing by projects and the managing of
visitor’s family, hobbies, and other interests. entire organizations on the basis of projects is growing steadily
The Mañana Concept means some time in the future. There is a in the region. The heavy users of project management discipline
different sense of urgency and a different pace to when things in the region are engineering and construction, defense and
have to take place. This makes the discipline of scheduling, (Continued on page 5)
 Page 5
(Continued from page 4) Africa
aerospace, capital projects, pharmaceuticals, and a growing
trend in telecommunication, especially in Canada due to its Culture
geography that lends itself to satellite and telecommunications The view of the concept of time has a serious impact on the
installations. managing of projects in Africa. Time is viewed as a flexible
commodity. There is more emphasis on people first, and if
There is a clear value for certification that is continuously
project managers are trying to hurry, this could be viewed with
growing in the U.S. and Canada. United States and Canadian
suspicion. Africans want to sit and talk and get to know the
practitioners and several other global practitioners have led the
person well before discussing project issues. This is changing in
efforts for the development and maintenance of the PMBOK
the major metropolitan areas due to the encounters with the
Guide. The PMP Certification is now repositioned to be the
Westerns on various projects. Being late to project meetings is a
doorway to many other certifications in order to meet industry
common thing and is commonly referred to as “African time.”
and global needs.
There is also corruption in some of the African governments on
The Middle East all levels. This makes it hard to know what to expect in terms of
setting up the infrastructure for projects in those countries. In
Culture addition, the task orientation is different with less emphasis on
Not all people in the Middle East are Arabs, which creates a task and more on relationships.
challenge in dealing with a variety of cultures in that part of the
There is a strong belief in Africa that the older one gets, the
world. Arabic is considered a divine language since it is the
wiser one becomes. This may make it difficult to work with the
language of the Koran, and the Koran is the word of God as
African counterpart and get the same respect if the project
revealed by the last and the greatest of his prophets, Muhammad.
manager is not old enough. There is also a differentiation
Some of the characteristics to consider when working with between the home and business life. This means that project
project people in the Middle East include their love to ramble work should be discussed either in the office or in a restaurant
and not getting to the point quickly. They love compliments and without reference to the home life. This also means that in an
are great in flattery. It is probably unwise to accept “yes” or “no” African home, there is no business discussions expected.
without repeating to emphasize the answer. Arabs especially find
Project Management Practice
bluntness disrespectful, which is why they usually respond in an
agreeable manner. It is highly appreciated when there is an Some of the countries in the region are mono-product
attempt to use the local language. The Middle Eastern people are economies. This could be a dangerous economic situation that
very emotional. contributes to the overall stability of the region. This also
indicates the need for diversifying to a wide range of industries
As we work on projects in the Middle East, it is recommended to to facilitate the growth required. Users of project management
maintain strong eye contact. Crossing legs with the sole of feet practice include oil/gas, construction, telecommunication, and
pointing to your partner is considered impolite. Although mining.
Americans would keep about a thirty-inch distance in various
conversations, the distance goes down to about fifteen inches in Certification and global standards are becoming extremely
the Middle East. important to the region. This is useful to assess people who are
sent to the region on contracts and to protect the industry from
Project Management Practice unqualified, inexperienced people misrepresenting the project
The profession is growing in the Middle East in varied degrees. management profession.
The accountability of the project managers and other key
stakeholders has to be raised to meet the challenges forced on Asia Pacific
the projects by the environment of the practice. Several users of
modern project management exist in the region. These include Culture
construction, high-tech, process petroleum, communication, and They are remarkable and unique people. Their subtle, ample
manufacturing. In some of the region countries, there is a culture illustrates the differences and diversity of oriental
difference in the practice between the private and public sectors cultures. This is one part of the world where the training and
with the public sector lagging behind in most cases. understanding of the culture is even more important than in other
parts of the world. Communication could tend to be indirect
Certification is becoming very important to the region. The
with a formal politeness. Eating is ritualistic and time
growth of existing chapters and the starting of some new
consuming, and there is a lot of alcohol drinking in the
potential chapters could lead the efforts of getting the discipline
facilitation of relationship building prior to various project
widely exposed. The area should encounter a major growth in
occasions. Similar to the Africans, there is a lot of respect for
this field.
the senior people. There is typically a long time needed to make
decisions. But once a decision is made, the team is ready to go
about meeting the deliverables as agreed on. There is resistance
(Continued on page 8)
 Page 8
(Continued from page 5) cultures existing in this region. The International Project
to insisting on deadline pressures. Although agreement on Management Association (IPMA) is working closely now with
deadlines has been made, this is driven more by the desire to the global village to move ahead toward common guidelines for
achieve harmony. the practice of global projects.
Project Management Practice
Eastern and Central Europe
In most parts of the region, engineering and construction seem to
be on the mature scale in the implementation of modern project Culture
management. Other industries are getting accustomed to using Several changes are taking place in the way things used to be
the discipline, such as information systems, manufacturing, and after the changing situation with the former Soviet Union. There
slowly in the public sector. are, however, some things that will be slow to change. The
Global standards could be very beneficial to the region if they selection of project managers and other managers still has a
are used as a broad guideline and as a referral vehicle. Japan has primary focus on engineering
taken some steps recently in the certification area, such as the degrees. There is a limited amount of flexibility in organization
category of project engineering as part of the state qualification structures. In cases of career path promotions, there is much
of professional engineers. more emphasis on the previous experience than on the future
potential.
Western Europe
There is a great focus on bonuses, a percentage of their total
Culture salary, since there are not many other options to motivate project
Social classes are seen in some parts of Western Europe. These team members. There are some issues that make it difficult for
classes typically categorize people according to their project managers to work with their counterparts in Eastern and
professional background. This may create some stereotypes that Central Europe. Among these issues is the need for involving
would have an impact on the functioning of various project more people in making project decisions; negotiation for project
teams. On the other hand, several of the European nations are deliverables is formal, project risk is avoided, and government
friendly. They are likely to be interested in a person who regulations have a potential big impact on the project.
disagrees with them. There is an emphasis on the person and Project Management Practice
personality and being more inner-oriented. This also is reflected The need for project management discipline is generally
in the respect, based on character, for team members. Boasting growing. All industries are using some part of the project
project accomplishments is considered a weakness and a sign of management discipline. Several newly privatized companies are
immaturity. Humor is also used to give flavor to project in big need of the concepts and the approach. The educational
situations. Europeans typically add a touch of cynicism to their opportunities are scarce, and the market is in need of several
humor and will not hesitate to make fun of organizations and steps in that growth direction.
people.
Global standards could act as a catalyst to speed up the process
There is a lower level of accountability in the project sponsor’s of spreading the knowledge and the value of the practice.
level than is typically found in the U.S. There is an autocratic Certification will not solve the immediate need for proper
managerial style evident in senior executives’ styles. Also, implementation but could be a step toward the professionalism
executives tend to use their personal life examples in their that is required in the field.
business life.
As when it comes to team motivation, there is a big emphasis on Australia
the quality of life. Europeans have a great value for free time and
Culture
vacations. There is a very small chance that they will be willing
to sacrifice the enjoyment of life for dedication to work. Teams The culture surrounding the implementation of project
are also accustomed to conflict and are not much concerned management in this region has several of the features of Western
about the negative reactions from those with whom they are in Europe, Canada, and the U.S. combined. Australia has a vast
conflict. amount of resources that is being tapped to make the culture
shift required to strengthen the support for project management.
Project Management Practice
Project Management Practice
There is major growth and a move toward maturity in project
The profession is maturing across most parts of Western Europe. management in Australia. Among the industries that are using
Most industries are using modern project management project management heavily are civil and building construction
principles. and information technology.
Agreeing on Global Standards for the practice of man-aging Global standards to the profession are likely to gain wide
projects could be useful, especially if there is a focus on acceptance in Australia. Certification is very important but
separating the “must have” from the “nice to have” aspects. This
(Continued on page 9)
allows for accommodating the various needs of the different
 Page 9
• Know what days of the week people work and the times of
(Continued from page 8) the day.
should be competency based, related to knowledge, skill, and • Get a feel for how people spend their free time.
• Find out if alcohol is permitted.
attribute. AIPM has managed to achieve the endorsement of the
• Understand the religious key practices.
National Competency Standards for assessing project • Understand if there is more emphasis on groups rather than
management operations to various levels of competency. on the individual.
• Understand the social classes that may be existing.
The Global Project Manager’s Checklist for • Understand if men and women are treated equally.
Working across Cultures • Find out what kind of humor is accepted.
• Investigate the preventive measures necessary to maintain
In conclusion, the following checklist is thought of as a useful good health.
tool in aiding the Project Manager to approach global projects. • Anticipate possible miscommunication problems.
The project manager could use it to systematically prepare for • Get a pulse of your attitude toward the people.
the unique challenges faced with these projects. The Project Manager skills and knowledge required to handle
• Make no assumptions. multinational projects are unique. A great deal of cultural
• Clearly identify the purpose of your trip. sensitivity, flexibility in approach, strong project management
• Know the background and responsibilities of the people knowledge, and the making of no fatal assumptions is crucial
you’ll be meeting. for maintaining the critical success factors for global projects.
• Understand the politics of the country you are visiting and if References
politics is a proper topic for discussion.
• Know the basic history and the main cities. Harris, Philip R., and Robert T. Moran. 1981. Managing Cultural Differences.
Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing Company.
• Verify what is the proper speaking distance between people.
• Understand the greeting habits. Experience, Cooperation, and the Future—The Global Status of the Project
Management Profession. 1996. The Global Project Management Forum,

Proceedings of the 29th Annual Project Management Institute 1998 Seminars & Symposium
Long Beach, California, USA: Papers Presented October 9 to 15, 1998

What is DEP?
by Kris Schulz - Administration
I had the privilege of attending the PMI Council of Chapter program is now in the Beta testing phase and will be available
Presidents meeting in Long Beach CA the week of October 5, to all PMI Chapters and SIGs by year-end.
1998. While there I had an opportunity to learn about several What does this mean for individual PMI members? Soon each
ways that PMI National is trying to move our organization into of you will have the ability to update member information and
st
the 21 century. One such initiative is the Data Exchange renew yearly membership electronically (via credit card
Program (DEP). payment). Your records and renewals will be updated
The purpose of DEP is to facilitate the exchange of information immediately and you will receive confirmation directly from
between PMI Headquarters, Chapters & SIGs; allow editing of PMI Headquarters.
member data that can be transmitted back to PMI Headquarters; I urge each of you to watch for an announcement from PMI
and to allow customer reporting by the Chapters and SIGs. Headquarters regarding the implementation of DEP. If you
Many volunteer and staff hours have been spent to determine the have any questions regarding this program, please contact me
needs of both the membership and PMI Headquarters. The via e-mail at [email protected].

Chapter Board Positions and Responsibilities

All positions will be available for reelection

Chapter President Disburse all funds; Maintain all required banking relationships;
Nominees: Mary Lonski, PMP In conjunction with the President and VP of Administration;
maintain all required fillings with the State of Michigan; Prepare
Vice President of Finance and present regular reports to inform the board and the chapter
Duties: Prepare and maintain the budget for the Chapter; of the status of chapter finances versus plan; In conjunction with
Receive all incoming funds and deposit them appropriately; the rest of the board, explore alternatives for increasing
revenues and reducing costs.
Nominees::Ruben Balangue, PMP
(Continued on page 10)
Managing Cross-Cultural Differences in International Projects
by Lionel Laroche, Ph.D., P.Eng.
President, ITAP Canada

Differences in approaches, values and expectations between customers, suppliers and team
members with different cultural backgrounds have lead to many project failures. By
understanding the impact of cross-cultural differences, engineers can increase the probability of
an international venture’s success —from setting up a new plant abroad to selling advanced
equipment, products or services to non-Canadian clients.

The rapid globalization of the world’s economy has had a significant impact on the way
Canadian engineers work, bringing them more frequently in contact with non-Canadian clients,
suppliers and peers. While offering opportunities, globalization also poses significant challenges
for Canadian engineers.

Engineers are trained to focus on technical data, scientific evidence and hard facts. Because the
laws of physics are universal, they tend to expect that nationality and cultural differences will not
play a significant role in the practice of engineering. After all, a car is a car and it performs the
same transportation function the world over.

Yet car designs differ significantly from country to country. For example, the models sold by
General Motors and Ford in Europe are quite different from their North American counterparts.
Few people mistake cars designed by such Italian manufacturers as Ferrari and Lamborghini
with cars designed by such Swedish manufacturers as Volvo and Saab. The unique
characteristics of these car models are the result of differences in the approaches, values and
preferences of both engineers and consumers. In fact, cross-cultural differences have a
significant impact on the engineering profession as a whole, which goes well beyond the design,
development and manufacturing of products.

Communication

Miscommunication across cultural lines is usually the most important cause of cross -cultural
problems in multinational projects. Miscommunication can have several sources, including:

• differences in body language or gestures. The same gesture can have

different meanings in different parts of the world. For example, Bulgarians shake
their heads up and down to mean no. In addition, the way people count on their
fingers is not universal: The Chinese count from one to ten on one hand, and eight
is displayed by extending the thumb and the finger next to it. The same gesture is
interpreted as meaning two in France and as pointing a gun in North America.

• different meanings for the same word. Like gestures, words can have different
meanings or connotations in different parts of the world. The French word "char"
means Army tank in France and car in Quebec. The word "exciting" has different
connotations in British English and in North American English. While North
American executives talk about "exciting challenges" repeatedly, British executives
use this word to describe only children’s activities (children do exciting things in
England, not executives).

• different assumptions made in the same situation. The same event can be
interpreted many different ways depending on where one comes from. For
example, although the sight of a black cat is considered a lucky event in Britain, it
is considered unlucky in many other countries. Dragons are viewed positively in
China, but negatively in Europe and North America.

These examples illustrate dissimilarities between cultures that are both large and simple in the
sense that they focus on a single cultural aspect that keeps the same meaning regardless of
context. As a result, such variations in communication will often be identified on the spot. By
contrast, subtle or complex differences are often identified much later in the communication
process, when corrective action requires considerable effort and money. Sometimes, this
realization takes place so late that there is not enough time to address it, resulting in a missed
deadline.

In extreme cases, miscommunication can lead to casualties. For example, a few years ago, a
plane crash in the northeastern United States was caused--at least in part--by
miscommunication between the pilot and air traffic controller. The plane was running short on
fuel. But somehow the pilot did not manage to communicate the urgency of the situation to the
air traffic controller, who put the plane on a holding pattern because of airport congestion. The
plane then crashed when it ran out of fuel.

Standards

Different countries use different standards and measurement systems. These differences are
well known in the case of measurements for temperature (Fahrenheit versus Celsius degrees)
and pressure (pound per square inch versus Pascal). Other variations in the use of standards
are not as well known and can result in significant difficulties. For example, differences in power
frequency have led European users of high-tech American equipment to purchase dedicated
power generators that deliver the right voltage frequency for the equipment, i.e. 60 Hz versus 50
Hz.

In another case, a British pulp and paper mill sent back to a United States manufacturer a set of
right-handed motors, even though they were the correct ones for the intended use. The British
engineers were expecting a set of left-handed motors, and therefore rejected the motors without
opening the crates. Eventually, the British and American engineers working on this project
realized that the reference directions for the motors are the exact opposite in the British and
American pulp and paper industries, thereby creating the problem.

Approaches to Problem Solving

The approaches used by engineers of different cultural backgrounds to tackle the same
technical problem are likely to differ widely. The type of approach used to solve engineering
problems is often a reflection of what is emphasized in educational curricula leading to
engineering degrees in various countries. In France and Greece, for example, engineers tend to
emphasize theoretical or mathematical approaches over experimental or numerical ones. Other
countries, such as Canada and the United States, tend to favor experimental or numerical
approaches.

Although there is no absolute "right way" to approach technical problems, issues are likely to
arise when engineers with different inclinations work together to solve them. A French engineer
is likely to approach a new problem by writing down all of the relevant differential equations and
then trying to simplify them to obtain an analytical solution. Meanwhile, a Canadian engineer is
likely to start from the simplest expression of the problem and build a model (either physical or
numerical) of it. When French and Canadian engineers work together, they are both likely to feel
that the other is wasting time by approaching the problem from the wrong angle.

On a practical basis, the approaches used by engineers in different countries can also depend
on the types of resources available. For example, high labour costs and the availability of skilled
workers make process automation and the use of heavy equipment valuable in developed
countries, while using large numbers of unskilled workers may be a preferred approach in some
developing countries.

Cross-cultural Differences & Engineering Firms

Cross-cultural issues also arise at the organizational level, because companies in different
countries organize their daily business differently. Some of the most noticeable differences
include the:

• relative hierarchy of departments. The relative power of the various

departments within a corporation is often a function of the country where the
corporation has its headquarters. For example, the manufacturing departments of
German-based companies have influence over their marketing and sales
 counterparts that many Canadian and American manufacturing departments can
only dream of. German manufacturing departments are often able to limit the
number of products offered to a few options, thereby optimizing production and
improving the quality of the products offered. By contrast, Canadian and American
manufacturing departments tend to follow the lead of marketing and sales
departments, which tend to favour a larger number of product options since this
increases the probability of attracting a broader group of customers.

These differences in the way products are manufactured and marketed create the
need for different approaches to selling products and services. The same type of
argument cannot be used to win customers in North America and Germany –
whether through sales presentations or general marketing efforts. While North
American customers look for flexibility and response speed in the products and
services they purchase, German customers want durability, reliability, and quality.

• way information is shared and distributed. The way information moves within
a company varies significantly from country to country. For example, in Germany,
the flow of information tends to be fairly compartmentalized. Information flows
within departments along hierarchical lines, and does not flow easily within a given
hierarchical level or from department to department. In addition, Germans tend to
share information with only those people they believe need to know the
information. In Canadian companies, information tends to move within departments
and to cross departmental boundaries more freely. It also tends to flow along the
lines of communication networks used by individual employees.

As a result, when working with German engineers as suppliers, partners or

customers, Canadian engineers are likely to receive less information than they
would generally expect. A Canadian engineer supplying products or services to a
German company may not receive all of the information he or she believes is
necessary to fulfill orders or complete projects on time, resulting in either missed
deadlines or incomplete orders.

• hiring process. Cross-cultural differences are fairly significant in this area. For
example, people interviewed for positions in France will be asked personal
questions that are considered illegal in Canada, such as their age, marital status
and number of children, while German interviewers routinely ask candidates for the
profession of their parents.

More importantly, there are significant differences in the types of skills that
companies in different countries look for in candidates. In France, for example,
large corporations expect their engineers to work for them throughout much of their
careers. They therefore tend to hire graduate engineers who appear to have long-
term potential and create jobs for these engineers. As a result, large French
companies tend to emphasize specific technical knowledge less and soft skills
more than Canadian ones.

For their part, Canadian companies tend to look for engineers who have the
technical skills required to fill an existing vacant position. They also do not expect
their engineer employees to remain with the company throughout their careers.

These differences in the hiring process for engineers can lead to frustration. When
Canadian engineers interact with French engineers who are fresh out of school,
they are likely to feel that these engineers do not have the same level of
knowledge as Canadian engineers with a similar level of seniority. This impression
is often justified. However, it’s best to keep in mind that these engineers were not
hired for their specific technical knowledge, and that allowances will have to be
made to keep a project running smoothly.

Avoiding cross-cultural pitfalls

Canadian engineers working with foreign clients, suppliers or peers can prevent many cross-
cultural issues from turning into problems by paying an unusual amount of attention to proper
communication. Here are a few tips that will help avoid miscommunication:

• Clarify: When in doubt, ask; if not, ask anyway. It’s important to ensure that your
foreign colleagues have understood everything you meant to say and nothing else.
Ask them to feed you back what you have told them in their own words. This will
help you discover and address any major misunderstandings.

• Get into the details: Although it’s often tempting to agree on general principles
and leave details to further discussions for brevity’s sake, this can create major
problems at later stages. Indeed, an agreement on general principles may turn out
to be empty, if it is not tested through negotiation on the finer details.

• Summarize: The time taken to summarize the decisions made during a meeting
and to issue minutes to all participants is often a good investment. It helps to
prevent future challenges of decisions reached at meetings and to ensure that
action items agreed to at meetings are actually implemented.

• Simplify: Use simple words that are easily understood and be consistent. Using
synonyms can confuse your non-Canadian counterparts unnecessarily, particularly
if they are not native English speakers. For similar reasons, technical jargon should
be avoided where possible and explained clearly when it must be used.

Breaking into Foreign Markets

Strategies that engineering firms can use to avoid cross-cultural problems while breaking into
foreign markets include hiring foreign engineers, which can be very effective when a company
has decided that a given country or countries will play a major role in its future. In this case,
hiring engineers with the right technical background who have lived and worked in the targeted
country or region, and therefore understand the culture, can be a tremendous asset to a
company. Indeed, these people have the knowledge and experience needed to understand how
to handle delicate cross-cultural situations and avoid faux pas.

This solution has some possible limitations, however. Important business transactions are often
handled at high levels within the company. Although it is relatively easy to locate and hire entry-
level engineers from a given country or region, finding engineers with many years of experience
in a given field can be quite challenging. In addition, depending on the circumstances, people
who have the appropriate cultural experience may not be able to share their knowledge with
others in the organization, thereby reducing the speed of organizational learning.

Cross-cultural training organizations can also shorten the learning curve by delivering training to
companies in a timely and targeted fashion. The necessary cross-cultural information should be
shared with all employees involved in international ventures, rather than being limited to those
who have already had experience with them. Cross-cultural training organizations are experts in
the area of cross-cultural relationships and can provide training on many topics, including how
to:

• do business in a given country or region;

• make presentations in a given country of region;
• select the right people for international assignments;
• prepare employees for expatriate assignments; and
• improve the productivity of multinational teams.

Finding Local Partners

Setting up agreements with local partners, in the form of joint ventures or licenses, or purchasing
a local company can be effective ways of combining strengths. This approach can be very
effective when your firm is trying to break into a new market quickly, since it will enable your
company to benefit from the knowledge and experience of its partners. In many cases, this
approach works best when combined with one or more of the strategies mentioned above, since
finding and working with the right partners often requires knowledge about the targeted country
and its culture.
 Patent protection

To achieve the desired level of protection for their intellectual property, engineering firms need to
be aware of the differences in patent systems that exist around the world. For example, the
United States have a "first-to-invent" policy, while the Japanese and the Europeans have a "first-
to-file" policy.

The "first-to-file" patent system does not require the company that files the patent to be the
original inventor of the technology for which the patent is being sought. As a result, a company
can receive a patent for an invention that was made in another country, but is not protected by
patent in the country where the company is located. This situation occurred in the case of the
invention of high temperature superconducting materials. Although the initial discovery was
made in the United States, the Japanese patent is held by two Japanese researchers who
obtained enough information about this invention to file a patent application in Japan.

Taking Advantage of Cultural Diversity

When managed effectively, the diversity of approaches that exist around the world can lead to
significant improvements in both work processes and outputs. One way to take advantage of
cross-cultural differences was devised by a captain of the French Foreign Legion. When faced
with significant problems, he would pair someone from a northern European country (like
Germany) with someone from a southern European country (like France or Italy). The south
European individual would take the lead during the brainstorming part of the problem-solving
process, when potential solutions are generated and compared. The north European person
would then take the lead during the implementation phase. This strategy enabled the captain to
take advantage of both the "theoretical" bent of French and Italians and the attention to detail
and execution typically shown by Germans.

References

1. Ricks, David A. Blunders in International Business , Blackwell Business Press, 1993.

2. Hall, Edward T. and Mildred Reed. Understanding Cultural Differences: Germans, French,
and Americans, Intercultural Press, 1990.
3. Boils-Boissier, Danièle, Personal Communication, 1998.

This article first appeared in the November / December 1998 issue of Engineering Dimensions,
the magazine of the Association of Professional Engineers of Ontario and is reprinted with their
authorization.

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 The Virtual Project Manager
Phillip D. Ellis, PMP, Distribution Architect International

Keywords: Virtual Organization, Leadership, Team Development

Increasingly, corporations are becoming virtual in nature; daily decisions. These issues play a significant part in the
customers, suppliers and employees are no longer in the VPM’s ability to lead and guide the team’s activities.
same city but in different time-zones and continents. “The Decision tools provide a mechanism by which remote
virtual corporation is a temporary network of indepen- team members can make the right choices on daily basis.
dent companies...”1 Hand-in-hand with the Virtual cor- The type of decision tool suggested here can be a group
poration is the Virtual Project Manager, and her enablers of questions which focus around the projects objectives
are leadership and technology. With communication tools and goals. They can be very simple such as:
exploding and maturing exponentially, the project man- • Which objective does this activity support?
ager of these virtual corporations must learn to not only • Is this activity necessary to achieve the projects goal?
embrace but fully utilize emerging technologies and adjust However, these questions set down by the VPM must
her management style. be clear and concise, misinterpretation will lead to mis-
This paper will explore the project manager’s role in a guided effort, financial waste and ambiguity in the pro-
virtual corporation and how technology will support the jects results.
activities of project management in this new paradigm. It Trust is the second part of the virtual leadership equa-
will also discuss how culture can hamper or support the tion. Trust does not come quickly and in many cultures
use of new technologies in project management. must be earned over a long period of time. The technolo-
gy section below discusses some simple techniques which
can help develop relationships and trust between team
The Virtual Project Manager member, however, the trust must start at the top with the
VPM. The VPM must do two things to start the trust;
The Virtual Project Manager (VPM) will need to be more bring everyone together at least once and be an idea
of a leader and technologist in order to successfully man- champion.
age her projects. In the virtual corporation, gone are the As every project manager would agree, a critical success
days when a project manager’s power/authority was de- factor to every project is the kick-off meeting, even more
fined absolutely and succinctly. Leadership, not manage- so with the virtual project. Albeit expensive, this is the
ment, is the style of a successful VPM and technology will perfect time to bring all the team members together,
be her supporting conduit. preferably in a neutral and convenient location for all
members. Members need to recognize from the start that
Managing the Virtual Project
there is a real person behind the e-mail and voice on the
The virtual project poses a unique management situation telephone. The perfect venue to establish this is the kick-
to the VPM. The VPM must be more of a leader in her off meeting . Here people will put name-to-face and be-
management style rather than the controller or supervisor gin to build relationships and trust. This is nothing new to
not only with the team members but also the project’s standard project management practices but exponentially
sponsor. Obviously, in the more traditional project, where important to the success of the virtual project when this
all the team members are under one roof or in the same may be the only time the virtual team members have face-
metropolitan area, a project manager exercises, in some to-face interaction.
cases daily, control and direction of the team’s activities. Being an idea champion supports the success of the
This is a luxury the VPM does not have and she must al- project and minimizes the “trust trap.” If members believe
ter her style to lead rather than control. that they can freely discuss their ideas with the VPM with-
In order to effectively lead the virtual team, the team out being shut down or ignored, they are more apt to do
members must have the same vision, trust for each other so not only with the VPM but also with each other. The
and the VPM, and decision tools to guide them through trust trap is an occurrence of locale. We fall into this trap

PROJECT MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE 27th Annual Seminar/Symposium

Boston, Massachusetts: Papers Presented October 7 to 9, 1996
when we put more emphasis on those close to us, those PCs are not equipped to do this effectively. Without the
team members we see most often. Hence those member proper video environment pictures are fuzzy and video is
more remote, more out of sight - out of mind, tend to choppy and distorted. Groupware applications are very
contribute less to the project and will become more of an resource intensive and without enough memory or pro-
entity than a team member. Each team member regardless cessing power these types of applications may not run at
of locale must believe that his or her idea will be heard all or so slowly that they are useless to the user.
with open ears and developed to the benefit of the pro- Training the virtual team on new applications or hard-
ject. ware has additional challenges. In addition to standard
training issues such as time and quality, it is practically im-
Technology
possible to bring all members together to be trained on the
The VPM must be technologist in that technology, espe- product at the same time. To this point, training will have
cially communication tools, will provide a supporting pil- to be modified and out-sourced to multiple vendors to en-
lar to the successful completion of the project. For exam- sure that all team members are educated in a timely fash-
ple the VPM must go beyond merely attaching files to an ion. Some team members such as senior executives or iso-
e-mail. Capturing and embedding objects such as voice lated individuals may need one-on-one, while others may
comments or full motion video into documents such as have specific language requirements. Training can cost as
mail memos, Gantt and Monte Carlo charts will be an much as ten times the initial hardware/software invest-
everyday occurrence. The benefits of this capability are ment but is essential to the team’s and project’s success.
discussed below. Conversely, the VPM must be able to
Culture Vs. Technology
“play back” such objects. It goes with out saying that the
VPM will have technologist (a.k.a. nerds) on the team Training is only the start at fully embracing new tech-
which will embrace new technology, and others which will nologies such as groupware. The virtual team’s comput-
resist for a variety of reasons. ing paradigm must also mature in order to fully utilize ap-
plications such as Lotus’s Notes. “..The implementation
of such technologies [groupware] is more difficult and
Virtual Project Management Tools yields more unintended consequences than is typically ac-
knowledged. ”2 The Virtual Project Manager needs to un-
Tools such as Lotus Notes, Netscape and Java provide a derstand the issues surrounding the use of new technolo-
vehicle for individuals to better communicate and inte- gies and its ramifications on corporate culture, work
grate, regardless of geographic location or hardware plat- practices and social interaction.
form. They provide the seamless transparent integration People are comfortable using “me” applications such as
that the computer industry has been promising us for the a wordprocessor or spreadsheet for work they need to ac-
last 20 years!!! complish for their specific job. Alien is the thought
Due to the dynamic nature of the of the virtual corpo- process of using an application for work that the team
ration, more emphasis is placed on real-time communica- needs to accomplish. Training can help them use the tool
tion. The amount of real-time communication possible is but the culture of how we use computers must to shift
limited by time zone differences and geographic distance. from a “me” focus to an “us” model. Corporation policy
Groupware and Internet applications support a group of can support and encourage this shift but total envelop-
people working on the same project and can enable them ment of the team-application concept is slow. Some cor-
to communicate more effectively. porations have experienced a two year maturation process
and this is about the shortest cycle-time experienced! The
Virtual Cost
VPM needs to understand that this paradigm shift does
There is no virtual question about it, there is a financial not happen overnight and must be supportive through her
and schedule price to pay for the benefit of virtual com- own actions and evangelism.
munication and it is in hardware and training. The team
member’s hardware may have to be upgraded to take full
advantage of new communication and application soft- Virtual Project Team (VPT)
ware, but it doesn’t stop there. Without proper and suffi-
cient training, team members will not use the new tool ef- The PM of tomorrow will no longer call weekly status
ficiently if at all. meetings where all of the team members meet in the same
Embedding pictures, sound or full motion video re- room but rather the same forum. The Virtual Team will be
quires a very sophisticated PC, most 486 and 68000 based more geographically dispersed, diverse in culture, and var-

PROJECT MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE 27th Annual Seminar/Symposium

Boston, Massachusetts: Papers Presented October 7 to 9, 1996
ied in disciplines. With this in mind the Virtual Project this type of negative communication must not be con-
Manager will need to understand this diversity and be able doned on the virtual project. The second communication
to use it to the advantage of the project. policy for every Virtual team must be: Don’t use voice
mail to blast or rant at another team member.
Communications on the team
As every project manager would agree, concise, continu-
ous and timely communication is a critical success factor Virtual Project Management
for every project regardless of its geographic make-up.
“Communication of key project information to involved Since the very nature of the virtual corporation is tempo-
parties is a critical element of successful project manage- rary, more emphasis is put on reducing cycle-time and
ment.”3 In this case , communication will come in one of shortening the time to market. These have significant ram-
three forms; e-mail, face-to-face, and voice mail. How ifications on how the project is managed and how scope
these conduits are used can be a key performance indica- change is administered.
tor as to the success of your team but they will need guid-
Scope change
ance.
Policy one, with respect to e-mail, definitions and ex- We have all heard the statement, “If it isn’t in writing - It
pectations need to be defined by the project manager on didn’t happen and won’t happen” This is an excellent pol-
day one. Specifically, what is acceptable response time to icy when time is not an issue. In the virtual project, time
information or requests sent by e-mail. However, the pro- to market is a critical success factor and in order to meet
jects team will undoubtedly receive numerous electronic this criteria documentation becomes less important. This
memos everyday and without a quick visual key some concept may seem unthinkable to many project managers
memos are read too late if at all! Team members need to but the VPM must be more flexible to accommodate the
see a key or symbol, which is used with consistency, and dynamics of the virtual corporation and its projects.
suggests the level of urgency. For example by prefacing the
Closing the Loop
subject header with codes such as A1, A2, or A3, will
quickly identify to the recipient expected response time Another term for closing the loop is prototype and it takes
and urgency. In this case, A1 indicates an action item or on more importance in virtual project management. With
request for information on the same day. Whereas A2 tells team members being diverse in culture and location, am-
the reader this memo requires a three day turn around, biguity can become a critical failure factor. By proto-typ-
while A3 indicates that the memo is merely FYI and is to ing, this ambiguity can be minimized and ensure project
be read sometime in the next five business days. objectives are met the first time. Don’t simply describe the
Using a system similar to one described above provides end results in a scope of work document but provide a ve-
two benefits to the virtual team members. First, it sets hicle by which team members can provide prototypes to
clear and concise expectations, A memo marked A1 has ensure details were understood completely.
an expectation of same day responses and tells the receiv-
Virtual War Room
er read me before that next meeting. Second, It helps the
team members orchestrate their day more effectively. Almost every project has an area designated as its war
Knowing that a memo is only FYI with just a glance allows room, obviously, this is not possible in the virtual corpo-
the reader to focus on more time sensitive matters. ration. The war room of the virtual project takes on a dif-
The other one way conduit of communication most ferent environment. It will become an electronic room or
widely used is Voice mail (V-Mail). This tool supports the forum rather than a physical space. The virtual war room
virtual team in a similar manner but is more timely than can be a discussion applet in Notes or an interactive chat
e-mail. Teams members can leave messages and action room on the net. It will continue to be dynamic, it must
items for other members regardless of time-zone or coun- be, but will not be face-to-face but keyboard-to-keyboard.
try. Unfortunately, V-Mail is too often ignored or used to The virtual war room’s foundation will be dependent on
blast another member. The VPM has very difficult time the technology used by the team and will remain an im-
developing trust as it is on a virtual team, using v-mail to portant venue for the project.
rant and rave only diminishes that trust. Without the op-
portunity to defend or explain the situation in two-way
conversation its usefulness is limited if any. This use of V-
Mail chips away at the trust built up between team mem-
bers and is destructive to the team. The bottom line is that

PROJECT MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE 27th Annual Seminar/Symposium

Boston, Massachusetts: Papers Presented October 7 to 9, 1996
 Critical Failure Factors (CFF’s) Look into and get educated on tools such as CU/See
Me or Lotus Notes
Where managing the virtual project breaks down is at the Add pictures to your existing e-mail
top and bottom of the resource chain. As with any other Develop a Virtual War room
project, the sponsor and team members can make or break Upgrade Hardware
the success of a project. Sound
With out a single vision or using the decision tool as Video
needed, member’s actions will become diluted and ener- Connectivity
gy will be applied toward the wrong activities. Activities Memory
which do not support the projects objects or goals. In ad- Processor
dition, the communication policies described above may Training, Training, Training
be viewed as another passing fad and not adhered to. The CFF’s
VPM can not allow her communication policies to be ig- Casual usage of available technology
nored and must continuously monitor compliance. Not planning for culture change
Managing the virtual sponsor can be much more diffi- The V-Teams
cult and trying, especially if the sponsor doesn’t have the
same vision or understanding of virtual project manage- Single vision
ment methodology. Often, for whatever reason, histori- Shared Responsibility
cally stakeholders want the project manager to be located Kick-off Meeting
near them (i.e. within strangling distance.) However, in Personal commitment
this virtual paradigm the VPM’s location is less relevant to Decision tools
a successful project. Using the technology tools highlight- Defined communication policy
ed above, the VPM is only a page or phone call away. Re- Closed-loop quality program
quiring the VPM to be in arms reach can negatively im- CFF’s
pact her ability to manage a virtual project. Not using the decision tool
This is not to say that the VPM is not as critical to the Not authorized or empowered to get the job done
success (or failure) of the virtual project. If the basics de- Voice mail ranting
scribed above are not executed from the beginning of the The VPM
project, it probably will not be as successful, if at all, to
which the VPM is accountable. Spend time getting to know the team members
Spend more time in field
Build Trust
With all this said... Less Documentation
Understand Culture Change
Virtual project management is still prepubescent. As tech- Evangelize Technology
nology develops so will our ability to more effectively Champion Ideas
manage geographically diverse projects. As technology ad- CFF’s
vances so must our skills to manage team members, the Micro-Management
concept of resource management will be replaced with Un-educated Sponsor
guidance and leadership. Leadership, not control and em- “Trust-trap”
bracing new technology not casual usage will be the suc-
cessful attributes of the Virtual Project Manager. References
Of course you realize that PMI will now have to offer The Virtual Corporation, Business Week, February 8, 1993,
a new certification , the Virtual Project Management Pro- pp 98.
fessional (VPMP), well maybe not.... Learning from Notes: Organizational Issues in Groupware
Implementation, ACM 1992 Conference on Computer-Sup-
ported Cooperative Work.
Virtual Project Management Road Map Project Management in the Information Age, Jon Reingold,
PM NETWORK, May 1996, pp 19.

Technology
Get on the net!

PROJECT MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE 27th Annual Seminar/Symposium

Boston, Massachusetts: Papers Presented October 7 to 9, 1996

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