Topic 2: Ecosystems and ecology

2.1 Species and populations

Species, Habitat, Niche
Ecosystem
→ a community of interdependent organisms (biotic) and their interactions with the physical environment (abiotic) they inhabit.
Species
→ a group of organisms sharing common characteristics that can interbreed and produce offspring that also produce young.
Limitations: doesn’t classify extinct populations, doesn’t account for asexual organisms
Habitat → environment in which a species lives, where an organism can find food, shelter, protection, mates.
Niche
→ the set of biotic and abiotic conditions and resources that an organism or population responds to (not just habitat, but how an
organism interacts with others). No two species can have the same niche.
Fundamental Niche: full range of conditions/resources an organism can survive and reproduce in.
Realised Niche: actual conditions a species exists in due to biotic interactions.
→ different niches can still share the same habitat due to space, behaviour patterns etc
Abiotic Factors
The nonliving, physical factors that influence organisms and ecosystems.
Eg. temperature, sunlight, pH, precipitation, soil, landscape/topography.
→ there are upper/lower level limits beyond which a population cannot survive (optimal range → physiological stress → intolerance)
Population Interactions
Predation → when one animal or plant hunts and eats another organism.
→ predator-prey relationships are controlled by negative feedback mechanisms
→ as prey increases, after time so do predators. Increase in predators reduces number of prey.
→ predation benefits prey - removes old/sick individuals, leaving superior breeding pool
Herbivory → where an animal feeds on a plant - the animal is known as a herbivore.
→ the plants as a food source affect the carrying capacity of the environment for the herbivore
Eg. hippopotamus grazing on vegetation / zooplankton feeding on phytoplankton
Parasitism → where one organism benefits at the expense of another (the host), type of symbiotic relationship
→ endoparasites live inside hosts, ecto parasites live on the surface of hosts
Eg. tapeworms (endoparasites) and ticks/mites (ectoparasites)
Eg. plants such as the Rafflesia flower via root systems
Mutualism → another form of symbiosis where both species benefit
Eg. coral reefs: zooxanthellae live within coral animal (polyp; they photosynthesise to produce food for themselves and the polyp; in
exchange they are protected.
Disease → aka. pathogen - can be bacteria, virus, fungi - reduces carrying capacity of infected organism.
Eg. Dutch elm disease, caused by fungus clogging vascular tissues in tree, preventing water movement.
Competition → demand by individuals for limited environmental resources
→ can be intraspecific (within a species) or interspecific (between diff species)
→ the degree to which niches (inter) overlap determines the level of competitive exclusion

Population Growth
Population
→ group of organisms in the same species living in the same area at the same time, capable of interbreeding.
→ abundance of resources affects population structure over time.
S Population Curve (aka sigmoid curve)
 Rapid initial growth, then slowing as carrying capacity is reached, where population
fluctuates around K.
→ divided into lag phase, exponential growth phase, transitional phase, stationary phase

J Population Curve
Increasingly rapid exponential growth with no signs of slowing, exhibited by
organisms that produce rapidly.
→ controlled by favourable abiotic components, results in a population crash

Limiting Factors → slow population growth as carrying capacity is reached

Density-Dependent Factors - lower birth rate/raise death rate as population grows
Density-Independent Factors - affect a population regardless of density, abiotic factors

2.2 Communities and ecosystems

Communities and Ecosystems
Community → all populations living and interacting in a common habitat at a specific time (only biotic)
→ involves many interactions among species, communities with higher diversities are more stable and resilient to disturbances.
Ecosystem → a community and the physical environment it interacts with (biotic interacting w/ abiotic)
→ divided into terrestrial, marine, and freshwater, defined uniquely by various abiotic factors
Photosynthesis and Respiration
→ all organisms respire, only producers photosynthesise
Photosynthesis → process by which a plant converts light energy from the Sun into usable chemical energy stored in organic matter.
Produces the raw material for biomass.
Inputs: sunlight as energy, CO2, H2O
Outputs: glucose (foundation for other organic molecules)
Transformations: light energy → chemical energy stored in biomass

Respiration → conversion of organic matter to carbon dioxide and water in all living organisms, releasing energy for life processes.
“Wasted” energy is lost as heat, increasing the entropy in the ecosystem while allowing organisms to maintain low entropy.
Inputs: organic matter (glucose) and oxygen
Outputs: release of energy to maintain order (counteract entropy) and heat
Transformations: stored chemical energy → kinetic energy and heat energy

Feeding Relationships
Producers
→ autotrophs - organisms that convert abiotic components (sunlight) into living matter. Support the ecosystem through constant
input of energy and new biomass.
→ convert sunlight energy to chemical energy using photosynthetic pigments
Consumers
→ heterotrophs - organisms that eat other organisms to obtain energy and matter
→ pass energy and biomass from producers through to apex predators
Decomposers
→ break down tissue of dead organic matter and release nutrients for reabsorption by producers
→ improves the ability of soil to retain nutrients - the organic byproducts of decomposed matter contribute to the humus in soil
→ essential for cycling matter within ecosystems, esp. in carbon and nitrogen cycles
As solar radiation (insolation) enters the atmosphere, some energy becomes unavailable for ecosystems as the energy is absorbed by
inorganic matter / reflected back into the atmosphere.
Trophic Levels, Food Chains, Food Webs
Flows of energy and matter can be shown through food chains. Interconnected chains form food webs.
→ the position an organism occupies is known as its trophic level. Producers form the first trophic level.
→ organisms can occupy different trophic levels depending on which food chain it is in
→ decomposers feed at every level of the food chain
Producer → Primary consumer → Secondary consumer → Tertiary consumer
Autotroph → Herbivore → Omnivore/carnivore → Carnivore
Efficiency of Energy Transfers Through an Ecosystem
Only ~10% of energy is transferred to the next trophic level - trophic efficiency = 10%.
→ 2nd law of thermodynamics states energy transformations inefficient, so energy is lost at each level
→ most energy is lost as heat energy through respiration
→ each trophic level has a smaller energy pool from which it can withdraw energy, thus limiting the No. of trophic levels in food web
Pyramids of Numbers, Biomass, Productivity
Ecological Pyramids
→ models showing the quantitative differences between the trophic levels of an ecosystem, measured for a given area and time.
Shows feeding relationships in a community.
Pyramid of Numbers → records number of individuals at each trophic level in an ecosystem
→ numbers tend to decrease along food chain and pyramid tends to narrow at apex
→ can be inverted when size of individuals at lower trophic levels is large (eg. tree)
Advantages: easy method of comparing changes in population numbers over different times
Disadvantages: numbers too great to be accurate, doesn’t represent energy flow accurately
Pyramid of Biomass → the standing stock or storage of each trophic level
→ measured in g m-2 (grams per m2) or j m-2 (joules per m2)
→ can depend on seasonal variations as they are a snapshot in certain time
Advantages: overcomes problems w/ pyramid of numbers
Disadvantages: only uses sample populations, organisms must be killed to measure dry mass, subject to seasonal variations, gives no
indication of productivity over time
Pyramid of Productivity → shows flow of energy through trophic levels, the rate at which biomass is being generated.
→ measured in g m-2 yr-1 (energy per unit area per unit time)
→ shows amount of energy available as food to next trophic level, more useful in measuring a system’s changes over time
→ always show a decrease, as transfer of energy is inefficient
Advantages: shows rate of productivity of a system
Relevance of Thermodynamics
First Law → energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.
→ Solar energy is absorbed by plants and converted to stored chemical energy. Chemical energy is used and lost as heat energy.
Second Law → energy transformations result in a loss of energy, leaving less energy to maintain order, thus increasing entropy over
time.
→ Energy is transferred when trophic levels feed off one another, thus more energy is lost through each trophic level.
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
Bioaccumulation → build up of persistent / non-biodegradable pollutants within an organism/trophic level because it cannot be
broken down.
Biomagnification → increase in concentration of persistent / non-biodegradable pollutant along a food chain.
***biomagnification does not occur due to higher trophic levels eating more - the respiration of biodegradable biomass leaves non-
biodegradable toxin in higher concentration.
Impact of Pollutant → DDT, a non-biodegradable pollutant used as a pesticide by farmers.
→ producers take in DDT, organisms in 2nd trophic level retain the pesticide in their body tissue from the producers
(bioaccumulation) as it is unable to be broken down
→ process continues, with more DDT accumulated at each level. Top carnivores are ultimate accumulators, and are the most
vulnerable to ecosystem disruption due to their small population and high doses of toxins they receive.
2.3 Flows of energy and matter
Transfer and Transformation of Energy
→ 51% of available energy from sun does not reach producers
→ 49% absorbed by ground - only 0.06% of all radiation is captured by chloroplasts
Producers convert light energy to chemical energy, which is then available for other organisms to use; all energy is lost from an
ecosystem in the form of heat → Ecological efficiency = energy used for growth (biomass development) x 100
Energy supplied
Energy Pathways →
1. Light → chemical
2. Transfer of chemical from one trophic level to another
3. Conversion of visible light and UV to heat energy
4. Re-radiation of heat energy to atmosphere

Primary and Secondary Productivity

Primary Productivity (PP) → the gain by producers in energy/biomass per unit area per unit time.
→ depends on amount of sunlight, availability of factors needed for growth, ability of producers to use energy to create organic
molecules
→ highest growth occurs in optimal conditions (warm, high nutrients, water etc eg. tropical rainforests)
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) → mass of glucose created by photosynthesis per area per time.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP) → gain by producers in energy/biomass after accounting for loss of energy through respiration.
Represents potential energy available for next level of consumers. NPP = GPP - R.

Secondary Productivity (SP) → the biomass gained by heterotrophs through feeding and absorption, measured in unit mass/energy
per unit area per unit time.
→ depends on amount of food present and efficiency of energy conversion to new biomass
Gross Secondary Productivity (GSP) → total biomass assimilated by consumers. GSP = FOOD EATEN - FAECAL LOSS.
Net Secondary Productivity (NSP) → gain by consumers in energy/biomass after allowing for respiration. Represents amount of
potential energy available for next trophic level. Aka. assimilation. NSP = GSP - R

Maximum Sustainable Yields

Rate of increase in natural capital that can be exploited without depleting original stock.
→ equivalent to NP (whether NPP or NSP) of a system - net productivity is amount of energy stored as new biomass; removal
of biomass above max sustainable yield reduces natural capital and is unsustainable.
Nutrient Cycles
→ Energy flows; matter cycles between abiotic and biotic environments in an ecosystem.
Factors Affecting Nutrient Cycles → soil erosion, runoff, amount of rainfall, decomposition, plant density etc.
→ Nutrients can be stored in organic (plants and animals) or inorganic (rocks etc.) matter.
→ Macronutrients are needed in large quantities, eg. carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen

Carbon Cycle →
Carbon - essential in ecosystems, forms a key component of all biological molecules (proteins, fats etc)
→ can be stored in trees, fossil fuels, limestone for long periods of time as well as organic matter
Storages:
organic → organisms (plants + animals
Inorganic → atmosphere, soil, oceans, fossil fuels
Flows: transfers → herbivores x producers, carnivores x herbivores, decomposers x dead organic matter
→ CO2 in atmosphere dissolves into oceans
transformations → photosynthesis (carbon dioxide turned into glucose + oxygen)
→ respiration (organic matter turned into carbon dioxide
→ combustion (biomass is turned into carbon dioxide)
→ fossilisation (dead organic matter turned into fossil fuels via pressure and decay)

Nitrogen Cycle →
Nitrogen - building block for amino acids and DNA
→ most abundant gas in atmosphere (80%) but largely inaccessible due to its stability and can only be converted by certain organisms
Storages: organic → organisms
Inorganic → soil, fossil fuels, bodies of water, atmosphere
Flows: transfers → herbivores x producers, carnivores x herbivores, decomposers x dead organic matter
→ plants absorbing nitrates through roots, metabolic waste products from organism (excretion)
transformations → fixation of nitrogen from atmosphere by lighting and nitrifying bacteria
→ nitrifying bacteria transforms ammonium ions into nitrite → nitrate
→ denitrifying bacteria transforms nitrates back to nitrogen
→ decomposers break organic nitrogen (proteins) into ammonia
→ nitrogen from nitrates used by plants to make amino acids and protein (assimilation)
Impact of Human Activities on Energy Flows and Matter Cycles
→ combustion of fossil fuels, urbanisation, agriculture, deforestation impact both energy and matter flows

Energy Flows
→ industrial revolution increased use of fossil fuels, allowing humans access to energy trapped in oil, coal etc.
→ amount of energy available to humans increased, increasing agricultural output
→ however, changes in ‘energy budget’ lead to climate change, reduction of natural capital etc
→ combustion of fossil fuels alters the way light energy interacts w/ surface of planet and atmosphere
→ increased CO2 → increasing temp → reduction in ice → less reflected sun energy → more GHG
→ pollution → increased trapping of solar radiation → more heat

Matter Cycles
→ timber harvesting interferes w/ nutrient cycling through decomposition
→ removal of trees = canopy cannot intercept rainfall and rich floor litter is washed away
→ trees often cleared to grow oil palm (for food, domestic products and biofuel), thus increasing need for fertiliser in nutrient poor
rainforest soil to produce yields
→ fertilisers contain nitrates, leading to contamination of nearby bodies of water (eutrophication)
→ harvested crops are transported, along w/ sequestered nitrogen, altering storages
→ burning fossil fuels reduces storages of non-renewable energy and increases storage of carbon in atmosphere

2.4 Biomes, zonation and succession

Biomes
Biome → collections of ecosystems that share distinctive abiotic factors, species and climatic conditions.
→ influenced by rainfall, insolation and temperature
→ water and insolation needed for photosynthesis, which determines productivity
→ water needed for transpiration and cell turgidity
→ temperature affects rate at which photosynthesis progresses (chemical reaction)
→ 5 classes: terrestrial (forest, desert, grassland, tundra), marine and freshwater (aquatic)
→ each biome has unique limiting factors, biodiversity and limiting factors
Tricellular Model of Atmospheric Circulation → explains differences in temp + precipitation and how they influence the structure and
productivity of different biomes.
→ latitude and atmospheric circulation are the primary factors affecting insolation, temp, and precip.
→ the higher the latitude, the colder the temperatures
→ areas around equator receive the most insolation / unit area of earth
→ polar areas have more atmosphere to pass through, = more loss of energy and cooler temps

Different Biomes
→ distribution, structure, biodiversity, productivity (climate = temperature, precipitation, insolation only) DTPIPBS
Tropical Rainforest
→ distribution: band around equator, within tropics of cancer and capricorn
→ temperature: high and consistent yearly (~26°C)
→ precipitation: high (2500mm yr-1 +)
→ insolation: high, little to no seasonal variation. Provides year round growing season.
→ productivity: comprises 40% of NPP 4 terrestrial ecosystems. High photosynthesis & NPP caused by low latitude & direct sunlight.
→ biodiversity: high, up to 480 species / hectare, estimated half of world’s species in rainforest canopy. High diversity due to high
climate factors year round.
→ structure: stratified tree canopy, many niches. Only ~1% of light on canopy reaches forest floor, canopy has highest NPP.
→ soil low in nutrients, majority stored in trees. High rates of decay maintain rates of growth.
→ heavy rains can result in nutrients being washed away, which limits PP.
→ canopy usually protects soils from rainfall, but logging causes soils to be eroded rapidly
***→ high light intensity → high temps → high NPP → high resources → high complexity of habitats → high biodiversity ***

Temperate Forest
→ distribution: between 40° - 60°N of equator
→ temperature: cold winters, warm summers
→ precipitation: between 500-1500mm yr-1, determines whether temperate forests or grasslands develop
→ insolation: varies according to tilt of Earth, limits growing season
→ productivity: lower compared to rainforests due to power temps and rainfall. Second highest NPP in all biomes.
→ biodiversity: lower than rainforests, forests usually dominated by one species (90% of forests may consist of only 6 species)
→ structure: less stratification and layering, less dense canopy, reduces species diversity and complexity of niches
→ two types of trees (evergreen, deciduous - deciduous lose their leaves in winter)
→ forest floor leaf layer increases insulation and nutrients when it decays in warm temperatures

Deserts
→ distribution: 30° N and S
→ temperature: high during day (45-49°C), low at night (10-0°C)
→ precipitation: low - 250mm yr-1, often very uneven
→ insolation: high (air is dry after leaving tropics)
→ productivity: lack of water limits photosynthesis and NPP, results in sparse vegetation
→ biodiversity: xerophytic species (adapted to fluctuations in temp and scarcity of water), reptiles most common vertebrates due to
cold-blooded metabolism, cacti reduce surface area for transpiration via spines
→ structure: soil can be rich in nutrients as there is no leaching, decomposition is low due to lack of water

Tundra
→ distribution: high altitudes, the north polar region
→ temperature: low for majority of year, -50°C, warmer during 6 week period.
→ precipitation: low, water mainly stored in ice
→ insolation: short days, limited sunlight; almost 24h of sunlight during summer. Life increases during summer.
→ productivity: very low due to variable light intensity, rainfall and temperatures affecting race of photosynthesis
→ biodiversity: low, very few species adapted to cold conditions - large animals to reduce heat loss
→ structure: low temperatures lead to low cycling of minerals → peat bogs form in carbon sinks

Effect of Climate Change On Biome Distribution

→ increases in CO2 and other GHG increases mean global temperature, affecting rainfall patterns
→ climate change alters biome distribution
Spatial and Temporal Changes in Communities
→ spatial changes occur along environmental gradients due to changes in altitude, latitude, distance from sea
→ temporal changes occur as a community develops from early to later stages

Zonation
→ the arrangement or pattern of communities in bands in response to a change in environmental factors over distance (eg. altitude,
latitude, distance from shore
Case Study: Rocky Shores
→ organisms high on shore exposed to air for long periods of time, have adapted to withstand changes in salt concentration and
temperature
→ organisms low on shore are covered by seawater, experience less variation in temperature and salt concentration, with greater
wave stress

Succession
→ change over time in an ecosystem involving pioneer / intermediate / climax communities
→ each distinct community in the succession is a seral stage
→ succession explains how ecosystems develop from a bare substrate over time
→ lithosere (bare rock)
→ fresh water (hydrosere)
→ dry habitat (xerosere)

pioneer community: first stage of ecological succession - species able to withstand difficult conditions
climax community: final stage of succession, more stable than earlier stages, in equilibrium
primary succession: occurs on previously uncolonised substrate (eg. rock)
secondary succession: occurs in places where a previous community has been destroyed. Faster than primary succession due to soil
and seed bank.

→ one species changes the habitat they colonise and make it more suitable for new species
→ lichens, moss etc. are good pioneer species as they photosynthesise and are effective at absorbing water; they need no soil to
survive. When they decompose they form simple soil for other intermediate species.
→ newer species more able to trap light for photosynthesis and outcompete previous species

→ final stage is climax community, species of larger biomass increase, decomposers break down soil for other species etc.
1. Bare, inorganic surface
2. Colonisation by lichens, dead organic material results
3. Further weathering, beginnings of soil formation
4. Growth of small herbaceous plants, competition between pioneer species
5. Larger plants grow in more nutrient rich soil
6. Climax community dominated by shrubs and trees

Case Study: Primary Succession on Shingle Ridge

→ lichens and mosses pioneer species that photosynthesise and trap water on nutrient-poor shingle
→ pioneer species trap particles blowing by and weather the rock
→ decomposition of pioneers results in a thin layer of soil
→ red fescue colonise area, roots trap soil and prevent erosion, pioneers begin to be outcompeted
→ xerophytic plants eg. sea kale prevent water loss, nitrogen-fixing plants eg. rest harrow increase soil nutrients
→ decomposition continues and allows growth of larger plants eg. shrub community of bramble
→ climax community of temperate forest (oak/sycamore) develops, shrubs are replaced by shade-adapted species like ferns

Case Study: Secondary Succession in Yellowstone, 1988

Fires in Yellowstone National Park wiped out many aspects of the park’s forest - some fires burned soil and ground biomass, some
burned the canopy. Fires burned for several months.
→ recovery began almost immediately with herbaceous fireweed as a pioneer species
→ lodgepole pines, though a climax species, are serotinous, allowing fast regeneration in burned areas
→ comprising 80% of park’s forests, they only release seeds when high temperatures eg. fires create favourable open canopies for
seedling establishment
→ aspen, wildflowers had an increase in productivity as nutrients were released from forest litter during burning
→ soil depth only charred to 14mm, leaving diverse root systems unharmed
→ minimal overall loss of wildlife from fires, only browsers eg. moose populations declining
→ other k-strategists eg. elk, bison, deer rebounded due to rapid plant growth, birds able to find ants and worms easily in newly
uncovered soil
→ as pine, larkspur, aspen and other climax species increased, other animals began migrating to the area

Changes Through Succession → productivity, mineral cycles, diversity etc. all change during succession.
GPP → pioneer communities have low GPP because of the low density in producers. Climax communities have high GPP as there is an
increased consumer community.
NPP → high in pioneer communities as community respiration is low (low # organisms). High NPP means biomass is continuing to
accumulate. Approaches zero in climax community as GPP is balanced by increased respiration
Production/Respiration Ratio: when production = respiration, P/R = 1
when P/R is greater than 1, biomass increases
when P/R is less than 1, biomass depletes
Pioneer communities have low GPP and high NPP due to lowered rates of respiration, P/R is greater than 1.
Climax communities have high GPP but increased respiration, therefore low NPP, P/R approaches 1.
Diversity → pioneer communities have low biomass, low species diversity and few niches. Climax community have complex niches
and more biomass; the increase in niches leads to habitat and species diversity. Complex interactions result in a steady-state
equilibrium
Mineral Cycling → pioneer communities have open systems, carbon/nitrogen cycles easily. Climax communities have closed systems
as the role of decomposition in cycling nutrients from soil to biomass increases.

Climax Communities → a community of organisms that is in steady-state equilibrium with natural environmental conditions. It is the
endpoint of ecological succession.
→ greater biomass, high species, habitat and genetic diversity
→ favourable soil conditions and structure (deeper, greater water retention/aeration)
→ more k-strategist organisms (taller plants etc)
→ greater community complexity, resilience and stability
→ climax communities are more stable as greater energy pathway and biodiversity means species can turn to alternate food sources
in the event of a shock; nutrient cycles are self sustaining.

r and K-strategist Species → species can be determined by how rapidly they produce, the degree of parental care, and the type of
environments they are most suited to.
*species that lie in between are C-strategists.
r-strategists K-strategists

→ opportunistic, fast rates (r) of increase, inhabit rapidly → slow growing organisms limited by carrying capacity (K). inhabit
changing + unpredictable environments (ie. pioneer stable environments/later seral stages (ie. climax communities).
communities), produce many small offspring that mature Offspring mature slowly and species is vulnerable to high death
quickly. Little to no parental care. rates.

● Colonisers ● Dominant species

● Highly adaptable ● Specialist, susceptible to change
● Rapid growth/development ● Slow growth/development
● Short lifespans ● Long lifespans
● Small size, many offspring ● Large size, few offspring
● Early, high reproduction ● Delayed reproduction
● Type III survivorship ● Type I or II survivorship
● Suited to pioneer communities ● Suited to climax communities
 ● Continuous J-curve population ● S-population curve

r- and K- Selection Theory → 1. In disturbed habitats, natural selection favours individuals with high reproductive rates over those
with slower reproductive rates, but better competitive ability, as they can respond quickly. 2. In predictable environments, species
that maximise natural resources and produce few young are more favoured.

Survivorship Curves → show changes in survivorship of a species’s lifespan

→ r-strategists produce large numbers of offspring to colonise new
habitats quickly and make use of limited resources
→ most individuals die very young, those that survive live long

→ K-strategists produce small numbers of offspring to increase their

survival rate and live in climax communities.
→ almost all individuals survive for potential lifespan and die
roughly simultaneously

Impact of Human Activities On Succession → interrupted succession = plagioclimax. Human disturbance can halt the process of
succession and divert it so a different stable state other than a climax community is reached.
→ activity modifies the ecosystem (eg. use of fire, grazing, agriculture, deforestation, overfishing); depending on the resilience of an
ecosystem changes may be more or less permanent.
Eg. deforestation of tropical rainforest biome
→ increased demand for meat demands land for cattle ranching and agriculture, 90% of the reason why land is deforested in the
Amazon. Results in habitat destruction and loss of climax community.
→ replacement with agricultural system affects global biodiversity, weather, sedimentation patterns
→ CO2 released returns to atmosphere

2.5 Investigating ecosystems

Ecosystems can be better understood to the investigation and quantification of their components.
Standardized methods and studies allow ecosystems to be modelled, monitored, and evaluated over time.
Identifying Organisms in Ecosystems → can use a dichotomous key, a stepwise tool for identification of unfamiliar organisms.
Limitations: keys examine physical rather than behavioural characteristic
→often use technical terms only understood by experts
→ may not be a key for the type of organism available
→ some features of organisms are difficult to identify in wild
Measuring Abiotic Components of Ecosystem
MARINE → salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, wave action, temperature
FRESH WATER → turbidity, dissolved oxygen, pH, flow velocity, temperature
TERRESTRIAL → light intensity, slope, wind speed, temperature, mineral content, drainage, soil moisture
Measurements must be repeated to increase reliability of data. Errors in sampling may result in inaccuracy rep of an environment. **
Light → measured using a light meter, meter must be held at a fixed height and at the same angle.
Limitations: cloud cover/other changes in light means value must be taken at same time of day and same atmospheric conditions.
Temperature → measured using electronic thermometer with probes, soil / air / water. Data loggers allow long term fluctuations to
be considered.
Limitations: if thermometer depth is not consistent, problems arise
pH → using pH meter or data logger. Values change depending on fresh/salt water, probe must be cleaned between readings.
Turbidity → measured using secchi disc lowered into water - cloudy water = high turbidity, clear water = low turbidity. Indirectly
corresponds to rate of photosynthesis.
Limitations: Sun glare on water, subjective nature of eyesight.
Measuring Biotic Components of Ecosystem
Estimating Abundance of Organisms
motile → pitfall traps, nets, light interception traps, small mammal traps & non-motile → quadrats, point frames
Abundance → the relative representation of a species in an ecosystem. Can be done by directly counting # organisms (non-motile) or
indirectly estimating using Lincoln index (motile).
Lincoln Index → estimates total population size of a motile animal - ‘capture-mark-release-recapture’ technique. [indirect]
N1 = number in first sample
N2 = number in second sample
Nm = number caught in second sample that were marked

Limitations: animals may move in/out of sample area, seasonal variations may affect population size. Density of a species’ population
may differ in different habitats.

Direct Methods For Estimating Motile Animal Abundance

→ actual counts+sampling to give a relative abundance of different animals in a sample.
Limitations: sample size and collection methods must be standardised, some animals may remain hidden / unsampled.
Eg. canopy fogging to knock insects into collection trays, number can be extrapolated
Quadrats [Non-motile] → limits the sampling area when measuring non-motile organisms. A square frame.
→ random sampling: if habitat is same throughout, quadrats should be located at random.
→ stratified random sampling: if two/more areas of habitat, results from both areas should be obtained.
→ systematic sampling: if area occurs along environmental gradient, quadrats should be placed at set distances along a
transect. Continuous sampling occurs across the whole length of the transect.
Limitations: often subjective - mistakes easy to make in identifying, difficult to measure plant colonies

Population density → (total number of a species in all quadrats)

(area of one quadrat) x (total number of quadrats)
Percentage cover → estimate of an area in a quadrat covered by the organism in question
Percentage frequency → number of actual occurrences
Number of possible occurrences
Abundance Scales → DAFOR - Dominant, Abundant, Frequent, Occasional, Rare

Estimating Biomass of Trophic Levels

Biomass → a measurement of dry mass (mass - water content), indicates the total energy within a living organism. The greater the
mass, the greater the amount of energy. Measured in g / m -2.
→ mass of one/the average of a few organisms x total number of organisms
Limitations: involves killing living organisms. Biomass of root systems difficult to measure.
Species Richness and Diversity
Richness → number of species in a community
Diversity → a species’ relative abundance in each area.
Evenness → Similar in the number of species in a community
Simpson’s Diversity Index
D → diversity

N → total number of organisms of all species found

n → number of individuals of a species

→ The higher the value of D, the greater species diversity and the more stable the ecosystem/population. Only useful when
comparing similar habitats or ecosystems, as diversity is relative, not absolute.
Measuring Changes in Ecosystems
Changes Along Environmental Gradient
→ grid quadrat, point quadrats → line transect, belt transect (continuous or interrupted)
→ transects should be controlled for atmospheric conditions and repeated to ensure reliability.
Systematic sampling: Show zonation of species along some environmental gradient. e.g. down a seashore, down a mountain

Topic 3: Biodiversity and conservation

3.1 An introduction to biodiversity
Biodiversity → the variety of life on earth (ie. species, habitat and genetic diversity).
→ often used to evaluate the health and complexity of an ecological area
Species Diversity → the variety of species per unit area - includes # species present and their relative abundance.
→ higher the species diversity = greater ability to support different niches
→ measured in richness (number of species) and evenness (relative proportions)
→ community with high evenness has a similar abundance of all species; low evenness means one or few
dominant species, indicating lower complexity.
→ Simpson’s Diversity (D) can be used to compare communities:
→ low D can indicate pollution, eutrophication, recent disturbances
→ high D suggests a stable and mature site
Habitat Diversity → the range of different habitats in an ecosystem or biome, indicating niche variety
Genetic Diversity → the range of genetic material present in a population of a species
→ genes: sections of DNA found in the nucleus of all cells
→ gene pool: different types of gene found within every individual of a species. A large gene pool leads to high
genetic diversity; low genetic diversity makes species prone to extinction.

Overview of Biodiversity → conservation of habitat diversity leads to conservation of species and genetic diversity - diverse habitats
have a diverse variety of species, which tend to have different genes

Conservation of Biodiversity → conservation aims...

● to protect habitats, ecosystems and species from human disturbances
● to slow the rate of extinction caused by unsustainable exploitation of natural resources
● to maintain biotic interactions between species
→ the quantification of biodiversity is crucial so high biodiversity can be identified, explored and conserved
→ human activity causes disturbance that can remove an ecosystem from steady-state equilibrium
→ measuring biodiversity vital to identify endemic species and their habitats that should be protected

3.2 Origins of biodiversity

Biodiversity Arising From Evolutionary Processes
Evolution → the cumulative, gradual change in the genetic composition of a species over many successive generations, giving rise to a
species different from the common ancestor.
→ evidence for evolution can be found in fossil records
Natural Selection → an evolutionary driving force - the selection of beneficial biological variations best suited to survival in a given
environment.
1. Species over-reproduce
2. Genetic variation (genetic diversity / mutation) occurs randomly in a species
3. Natural variation makes some individuals fitter for survival than others
4. Selection occurs as fitter individuals have a survival advantage and are more likely to live to reproduce
5. Offspring of fitter individuals more likely to inherit the advantageous gene, adaptation more likely to be passed to
subsequent generations
→ mutations that give advantages are selected for - the individual will have better competitive advantages and will survive long
enough to pass on the trait
→ mutations that give disadvantages are selected against - mutations that make and individual less suited to the environment make
survival more difficult
→ variation arises randomly and can either be beneficial, damaging or have no impact on survival

Isolation and Formation of New Species

Reproductive Isolation → must occur between populations so genes cannot be exchanged between them. If the environments of
isolated populations are different, natural selection will form new species.
Speciation → the formation of a new species when populations of a species become isolated and evolve differently.
Geographic Isolation → a physical barrier that causes a population to become separated. Without this, new species cannot form as
genes from populations continue to mix.
1. Two populations of one species interbreed - gene flow occurs
2. Populations separated by geographical barrier and cannot interbreed; species develops own variations as gene flow is
interrupted
3. Two separate species develop in response to different selection pressures - environmental changes produce new challenges
to species and natural selection takes place
4. Even without a barrier, species are now genetically distinct and can no longer interbreed
→ during the ice ages, a fall in sea levels (decrease in temperature and water locked in glaciers) lead to a land bridge forming
between Alaska and Siberia. When sea levels rose, the areas became isolated again.

Plate Tectonics
Tectonic Plates → have moved throughout time, creating physical barriers and land bridges that lead to gene pool isolation and
speciation
Plate Tectonics: the movement of plates → move parallel to, be pushed under or collide with each other.
→ during Palaeozoic and Mesozoic eras, land mass existed as supercontinent Pangaea
→ Pangaea later split to form Gondwana and Laurasia
→ the different species found on different land masses can be explained by the movement apart and formation of land bridges of
these plates - plate movement across Earth allows new habitats to form.

Plate Boundary Types

Divergent Boundary → constructive - new crust being formed
Convergent Boundary → destructive - crust being destroyed
Transform Boundary → conservative, friction is created

Continental-Continental Divergent Boundary

→ continental plates diverge and form rift valleys
→ deep lakes/seas can form in the gaps, the creation of new aquatic habitats drives speciation. Magma from rift can create new land,
giving more opportunities for evolution
Oceanic-Continental Convergent Boundary
→ subduction of denser oceanic crust beneath less dense continental crust
→ leads to new island arcs and mountain areas forming as magma rises from subduction zone. Often volcanic.

Oceanic-Oceanic Convergent Boundary

→ oceanic crust subducted beneath oceanic crust
→ rising magma causes volcanic activity and new islands to form, providing new habitats and driving speciation
Continental-Continental Convergent Boundary
→ continental plates collide and increase plate thickness
→ new mountain ranges are formed - habitats at different altitudes contribute to biodiversity

Mass Extinctions
Mass Extinction → a period where at least 75% of total species on Earth were wiped out at the same time. Species disappear in a
geologically short time period due to abiotic phenomena.
→ all mass extinctions have resulted in an increase in biodiversity - the large-scale loss of species left new opportunities for surviving
populations to undergo adaptive radiation and fill different niches
Ordovician - Silurian Extinction
→ 439 million years ago, killed 86% of all species
→ causes: drop in sea levels as glaciers formed; rise in sea levels as glaciers melted
Late Devonian Extinction
→ 364 million years ago, killed 75% of all species
→ causes: global cooling followed by global warming

Permian - Triassic Extinction

→ 251 million years ago, killed 96% of all species
→ causes: debated - some believe flood volcanism destroyed algae and plants and reduced oxygen in sea. Others believe tectonics
and movement of Pangaea may have lead to environmental changes on the landmass, decreasing the quantity of shallow seas and
exposing isolated areas and organisms to increased competition.
End Triassic Extinction
→ 199 million years ago, killed 80% of all species
→ causes: flood volcanism (lava) erupting from opening in Atlantic, leading to climate change
Cretaceous Tertiary Extinction
→ 65 million years ago, killed 76% of all species
→ causes: impact of miles wide asteroid created crater in Gulf of Mexico - dust thrown into atmosphere by impact could have
reduced sunlight, limiting productivity and dropping temperature. Plate tectonics and re-arrangement of world’s land masses could
have resulted in climatic changes that deteriorated habitats.

3.3 Threats to biodiversity

Number of Species on Earth → estimates vary considerably, as they are based on models and limited classification data. As a result,
many habitats and groups are significantly under-recorded.
→ current consensus at ~9 million species
→ most described species are larger organisms, mostly animals, easier to study
→ most diverse groups (insects, bacteria, fungi) are most difficult to study
→ of 1.8 million described species, 1% are vertebrates, yet they are the most studied
Rates of Species Loss → ~30,000 - 60,000 species a year, 100 - 100,000x greater than background extinction rate
→ existing species must be identified and named in order to understand extinction
→ humans contribute greatly to diversity loss, eg. mammals 1 every 200 years should be lost, yet 90 species extinct in past 400 years.
Causes of Species Loss
Natural Causes → typically hazard events eg. volcanoes, ice ages, drought
Human Causes → habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, overharvesting, hunting all reduce diversity

Habitat Destruction → habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss

→ agricultural practices destroy native habitats and replace them with less diverse monocultures
→ non-specific pesticides often used in agriculture and wipe out both native and pest species
→ mining activities often destroy forests containing endangered species
→ plantation crops replace natural ecosystems
→ invasive species compete with endemic species, leading to extinction of native species
→ pollution eg. chemicals, plastics, oil spills damages habitats and kills organisms
→ overharvesting and hunting - animals are hunted for food, medicines etc

Threats to Tropical Biomes

Tropical Biomes → 5.9% of earth’s land surface, some of the most globally biodiverse areas. Unsustainable exploitation of these areas
results in loss of biodiversity and ability to perform ecological services.
→ ~1.5 ha of tropical rainforest is lost every 4 seconds.
→ includes rainforests, coral reef, mangrove forests
→ complex structure and warm, stable climate increase productivity and allow many niches to be supported.
→ perform crucial ecosystem functions eg. soil erosion prevention, controlling water cycle and weather, carbon sequestering etc.

Human Activity and Disturbance

→ deforestation and forest degradation driven by increasing demands for timber, beef, land for crops, and biofuels impact
rainforests
→ palm oil plantations replace a diverse climax community with a monoculture
→ large timber removal means fast growing species block out light for slower K-strategists
→ the rate of loss of biodiversity varies depending on the ecosystems present, protection policies available, environmental
viewpoints and stage of economic development

Example: Oil Palm Plantations

→ second most traded vegetable crop, comprises 90% of exports in Malaysia and Indonesia
→ projected 16.5 million hectares of oil palm in 2020 in Indonesia
→ 6.5 million hectares of oil palm in Borneo estimated to have destroyed 10 million ha of rainforest

Conflict Between Exploitation, Sustainable Development and Conservation

→ ecosystem exploitation often prevalent in LICs due to their need to provide income for local economies; HICs can preserve
ecosystems as they do not rely on them for income
→ argument to preserve biodiversity is different in LICs, where most tropical biomes are found
→ for sustainable development to occur in LICs towards becoming MICs, balance between using land for income and conservation
must be struck using local and governmental support.

Determining Conservation Status

The Red List → published by IUCN (international Union of Conservation of Nature), seeking to conserve genetic diversity through
awareness and providing a basis for conservation decision at local and global levels.
→ to identify species requiring conservation
→ to identify species with conservation status concern
→ to catalogue species facing a high risk of global extinction

Factors Determining Red List Conservation Status

→ population size: smaller populations have low genetic diversity, reducing their ability to adapt to changes
→ trophic level: top predators are highly sensitive to disturbances at lower trophic levels
→ reduction in population size: can indicate species is under threat
→ geographic range: species occupying a restricted habitat are likely to be wiped out
→ degree of specialisation: species with specific diet or habitat are threatened when their habitat is threatened
→ distribution: species in a small area are more threatened than those distributed widely
→ reproductive potential and behaviour: k-strategists take longer to recover from reductions in population
→ degree of habitat fragmentation: leads to islands within ecosystems and increases impact of edge effect
→ quality of habitat: poor quality habitats can support less species

Case Study: Extinct - Passenger Pigeon

Description → located in NA, once the most abundant bird, travelled in 3-5 billion flocks. Known for migratory habitats and was
adapted to reach speeds of 100 km/h.
Ecological Role → determined forest composition - forests dominated by white oaks as pigeons ate seeds of read oaks in spring,
leaving white oaks to germinate in fall
Pressures on Species → 19th century Europeans commercialised pigeon meat, mass hunting began depleting populations in 1800 and
intensified in 1890. Last bird was shot in 1901.
Consequences of Extinction → increase in # of white footed mouse as competition for food decreased, increase in mice linked to
increase of lyme disease as they are hosts
Species Restoration Strategies → genetic engineering to revive species

Case Study: Critically Endangered - North Atlantic Right Whale

Description → most endangered whale in world, currently 300 or less estimated. A migratory species.
Ecological Role → baleen whale, important predator of krill and other plankton, prevents populations from skyrocketing.
Pressures on Species → slow moving nature made it an attractive target for 19th century hunters - 10,000 whales killed. High
blubber content yielded whale oil and made carcasses float on surface of water. Current threats are vessel strikes and entanglement
in fishing equipment - extinction estimated in 190 years.
Species Restoration Strategies → International Convention for Regulation of Whaling in 1935 banned hunting of right whales, Marine
Mammal protection Act established in 1972. Climate change control can assist in managing changes in right whale’s food availability
(zooplankton).

Case Study: Improved By Intervention - Gray Wolf

Description → very widely distributed mammals, found primarily in Northern Hemisphere biomes. Live in packs of up to 36, have a
nomadic phase and stationary phase depending on when pups are reared.
Ecological Roles, Consequences of Extinction → apex predators and play a crucial role in regulating prey populations. Remove weaker
individuals to form a superior breeding pool. Extinction would result in an increase in prey and depletion of primary producers.
Pressures On Species → hunting increased mid 20th century due to human fears of livestock depleting, thousands of wolves were
hunted and in some regions entirely exterminated. Continued competition with humans for game species, as well as threat of habitat
fragmentation.
Species Restoration Strategies → hunting outlawed in 1970s, populations began to increase after this year. Legal protection and
recolonisation of former habitats stabilised populations, now classified as ‘least concern’.
Case Study: Threats to Area of Biological Significance → Great Barrier Reef
→ extremely diverse coral reef stretching along 2300 km of coast with high productivity.
→ 1500 species of fish, 359 types of coral, 6 of the 7 threatened species of turtle
→ tourism and fishing generates $1 billion AUD per year
→ crucial to Aboriginal culture and spirituality
Human Threats to GBR
→ tourism: though contributes to local economy, coral is fragile and tourists often break them off for souvenirs
→ overfishing: can disrupt balance of species in food chain; seafloor trawling leads to unintentional capture of other species and
damage to floor
→ land use: changes from subsistence agriculture to large scale farming needing fertilisers and pesticides - runoff causes increase of
nitrogen pollution by 3000%
→ deforestation: coastal mangrove removal leads to increase in sedimentation by 800% as mangroves typically filter sediment.
Pollution clouds water and reduces productivity.
→ global warming: increase in sea temperature has bleached 60% of the reef in 2002, causing loss of biodiversity
Natural Threats
→ climate change increases cyclones and El Niño which cause structural damage to coral
→ crown-of-thorns starfish prey on polyps (increased by removal of predators by humans)
Consequences
→ continued threats to reef can make damage irreversible
→ if system reaches tipping point, it will not be able to recover
→ loss of biodiversity & ecosystem services (eg. defence against sedimentation) leads to reduction in the value of the natural capital.

3.4 Conservation of biodiversity

Arguments to Preserve Biodiversity → can be aesthetic, ecological, economic, ethical and social
→ goods are easier to quantify than indirect values and services
Aesthetic Reasons → species/habitats are pleasant to look at
Ecological Reasons → habitats with endemic species must be preserved
→ higher biodiversity = more resilience & stability = continued ecosystem services in future
→ species extinctions have knock-on effects throughout food webs
Economic Reasons → value of ecotourism, genetic resources & commercial considerations of capital
→ genetic diversity can allow improvements in crops etc. to be made - a genetic resource
→ commercial resources (capital as medicines etc. or successful tourism)
Ethical Reasons → intrinsic value of a species - all have a right to survive, responsibility to protect for future
Social Reasons → ecosystems provide homes, livelihoods and cultural cohesion for indigenous peoples
Reasons to Conserve Rainforests (consider someone who relies on the forest vs. an outsider)
→ aesthetic: habitats & species pleasant to look at
→ ecological: life support functions - stabilising soil erosion, regulating temp and hydro cycles, sequestering carbon, maintaining
atmospheric balance of CO2
→ economic: natural capital (fuel, food, medicine, ecotourism) can bring in income
→ ethical: forests have intrinsic value & a necessity to be protected for future generations
→ social: spiritual, cultural, religious value to local indigenous communities
Conservation Organisations
→ can be international, governmental or non-governmental, with varying levels of success when approaching conservation due to
their use of media, their speed of response, diplomatic constraints, finances and influence.
NGOs eg. Greenpeace, WWF IGOs eg. United Nations Environment Programme

→ not run by, influenced or funded by governments → established through agreements to allow global cooperation
→ field based, gathering information to support their claims between governments
→ radical to spread their message and be heard → information from paid scientific research
→ less controversial, more conservative approach
Use of media → gain coverage through protests & campaigns Use of media → cooperates with media to effectively communicate
(charismatic species), putting pressure on governments policies and decisions to the public
Speed of response → fast, members already at consensus Speed of response → slow (bureaucratic), decisions directed by
regarding course of action governments & require consensus
Agenda → using public pressure and lobbying to influence Agenda → provides guidelines and implementing international
government policies and legislation conservation treaties
Funding → from private donations Funding → budget from national economies
Political pressures → environment focused, working towards Political pressures → can be politically/economically driven rather
idealistic conservation strategies than environmental

→ both provide information to educate public on environmental issues, publishing reports and data
→ both encourage partnerships between nations and organisations to conserve ecosystems
→ both monitor species and conservation areas at local, regional and global scales
International Conventions on Biodiversity
→ conventions aim to create collaboration between nations for biodiversity conservation
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)
→ founded in 1948, concerned with importance of conservation of resources for sustainable development
→ established Red List and World Conservation Strategy with the UNEP and WWF
→ World Conservation Strategy:
→ stresses importance of making the users of natural resources the guardians of those resources
1. maintaining essential life support systems and ecological processes (climate, water, soils)
2. Preserving genetic diversity
3. Using species and ecosystems sustainably
Conservation Approaches
→ 3 main types: habitat conservation, species based conservation, mixed approach
Local vs. Global → when problems are global, international cooperation is often useful and can motivate governments to take action
and honour their commitments (eg. global warming)
→ IGOs have the funding to mobilise and coordinate a united, transboundary response
→ global summits and conventions play a vital role in setting targets and shaping action (eg. 2000 Millennium Summit)
→ when problems are local, local populations should be involved in providing solutions
In-Situ Conservation → the conservation of species in their natural habitat
→ endangered animals & their habitats are protected, conserving many other species
Ex-Situ Conservation → the preservation of species outside their natural habitat
→ in botanic gardens, zoos, with captive breeding programmes
→ focuses on vulnerable species
 → aims to attract interest & public pressure in conservation, more funding
Habitat Conservation
→ buffers to human influence, area, edge effects, shape, corridors must be considered (BAESC)
Buffer Zones → successful areas are surrounded by buffers to minimise disturbances from outside influences
Area → larger conservation areas preferable to several smaller ones
→ they include more habitats, promoting large population sizes especially among large vertebrates
→ the best indication of reserve success is the population of individual species
→ several reserves allow habitats to guard against possible effects of fire etc. that could threaten species
Edge Effects → changes in abiotic factors at the edge of a protected area (eg. temp, humidity, wind)
→ edges attract species not found deeper within the reserve, leading to competition and an overall reduction in biodiversity
→ larger habitats reduce the perimeter relative to the area, minimising the edge effects
Shape → circles are the ideal shape as they have the lowest edge effects
→ long, thin reserves have large edge effects
→ depending on location of habitats, parks are usually irregular
Corridors → close, clumped conservation areas with corridors are better than fragmented areas
→ animals can migrate, disperse and recolonise in the event of a disturbance
→ corridors allow genetic flow through migration and seasonal movements, reducing barriers to movement like roads and car
collisions
→ strengths: protects whole ecosystem and complex relationships, ensuring long-term survival of species
→ allows research to take place in intact habitats, enhancing understanding of biodiversity
→ preserves many niches, prevents hunting and other disturbances
→ ecotourism and education raises awareness, generating profits to fund conservation programs
→ species that haven’t been discovered yes can still be protected
→ limitations: requires considerable funding and continuous protection to ensure minimal disturbance
→ difficult to establish due to conflicting EVSs
→ areas can become islands and lose biodiversity due to reduced gene flow and edge effects
Species Based Conservation
→ CITES, captive breeding, flagship species, keystone species
CITES (Convention On International Trade in Endangered Species
→ established in 1973, int’l agreement regulating trade in endangered species
→ while trade in plants & animals is worth billions, it reduces wild populations & exhausts species
→ strengths: CITES currently protects 35,000 species, with countries becoming voluntary members (monitoring trade, extracting fines
to discourage trade) - works transboundary
→ ensures the overall sustainability of international wildlife trade
→ appendix I (endangered & illegal trade)
→ appendix II (non-endangered & sustainable trade)
→ legally binding - participating countries must implement the convention
→ limitations: species can be re-classified as appendix II
→ penalties and fines may not be severe enough to deter smugglers
→ CITES lacks financial mechanisms for implementation at the national level
→ interpretations vary between countries
→ does not replace national legislation; countries must make their own laws to apply CITES
Captive Breeding & Reintroduction Programmes (Zoos)
→ facilities where animals are housed & breeding can take place
→ development level of country must be considered (can the programme be supported in the long term)
→ in situ or ex situ - habitat threatened species must be ex situ, species with local involvement can be in situ
→ ‘five freedoms’ - freedom from thirst, hunger, physical discomfort, injury & disease, fear & distress, freedom to express normal
behaviours
→ strengths: able to educate public about need for conservation by allowing them to empathise with wildlife
→ captive breeding can be used to increase population sizes of threatened species
→ offers a temporary protected area to maintain genetic diversity, animals reintroduced later
→ allows research to be conducted
→ limitations: captive animals have trouble re-adapting to the wild
→ not all species breed easily in captivity

→ habitats are very different from natural environment, species isolated from their typical niche -
→ ethical issues surrounding using captive animals for profit
→ popular species are not necessarily the ones at the most risk
Flagship Species
→ charismatic species designed to appeal to the public and protect other species in an area
→ iconic species allow conservation to catch attention and raise necessary funds for initiatives
→ strengths: money can be raised for conservation of other threatened but less appealing species
→ preserving the habitat of flagship species preserves other organisms in the same habitat
→ limitations: favours charismatic species at the expense of less publically attractive, more endangered species
→ does not guarantee habitat conservation - species may be preserved in zoos instead
Keystone Species
→ species vital for conserving the function of an ecosystem
→ limitations: species difficult to identify due to complexity of ecosystems
→ establishing protected areas rather than conserving individual species preserves complex interrelationships
→ keystone eg. agouti in SA feeding on the Brazil nut tree breaks open nut pods, burying seeds in forest floor and allowing them to
germinate. Other organisms dependent on trees for food + shelter.
Mixed Approach
→ combining both in-situ and ex-situ conservation (protected areas & zoos) is often most effective
→ eg. Giant Panda Conservation in Beijing Zoo
→ flagship species & on appendix I of CITES
→ successful breeding established in 1960s through artificial insemination and breeding
→ 56 conservation areas and nature reserves established & → Chengdu Panda Base does both in and ex situ conservation,
emphasising wildlife research, captive breeding and educational tourism;

Topic 8.1 - Human Population Dynamics

 I can calculate values of CBR, CDR, TFR, DT and NIR.
1. CBR - Number of births per thousand individuals in a population per year.
2. CDR - Number of deaths per thousand individuals in a population per year.
3. Natural increase rate = (Crude birth rate  crude death rate) / 10 
4. Doubling time = 70/NIR
5. TFR - 5 x (Number of births to women aged 15-19/number of women aged 15-19) + (Number of births to women aged 45-
49/number of women aged 45-49) 
- I can analyse age–gender pyramids and diagrams showing demographic transition models.
 Population pyramids are structures which show any measurable characteristic of the population; like sex, age, language,
religion and occupation.
1. a wide base indicates a high birth rate
2. narrowing base suggests falling birth rate
3. straight or near vertical sides reveal a low death rate
4. concave slopes characterize high death rates
5. bulges in the slope indicate immigration or in-migration
6. deficits in the slope indicate emigration or out-migration or age-specific or sex-specific deaths (epidemics, war)

Low Birth & Dates Rates:

 Birth rates decline - 1. Children are costly 2. Government look after people through pensions and health services 3. More
women want their own career 4. More widespread use of family planning 5. No need of child replacement.
 Death rates decline - 1. Clean water 2. Reliable food supply 3. Good hygiene & sanitation 4. Lower population densities 5.
Better healthcare 6. Rising living standards.
 Birth rate rises - 1. Labour 2. Look after them in old age 3. Continue family name 4. Prestige 5. Replace dead children
  Death rates rise - 1. Lack of clean water 2. Lack of food 3. Poor hygiene & sanitation 4. Overcrowding 5. Contagious disease 6.
Poverty

 I can discuss the use of models in predicting the growth of human populations.   
1. Includes computer simulations, statistical and/or demographic tables for LEDCs and MEDCs, age/sex pyramids and graphical
extrapolation of population curves..
2. Factors influencing birth rates include: population age-structure, women status, type of economy, wealth, religion, social
pressure, educational status, availability of contraceptives, desire for children, and the need for governmental policies such
as child benefits. It is very difficult to predict the population's birth rate changes in all of these factors.
3. Death rate is influenced by: age-structure of the population, availability of clean water, sanitation, adequate housing, reliable
food supply, prevalence of disease, provision of healthcare facilities, type of occupation, natural hazards, civil conflict/war,
and chance factors. This is also difficult to predict changes for as there are too many factors.

 I can explain the nature and implications of growth in human populations.

1. Human population growing means using much of the Earth’s finite resources (fossil fuels/minerals) = amount of
waste/pollution is on the rise. 
2. Certain living organisms act as indicator species, and their presence or absence shows the level of pollution in the air or
water. 
3. Due to the increased population large amounts of resources needed to fuel population growth.
   
 I can analyse the impact that national and international development policies can have on human population dynamics and
growth.   
Policies that reduce population growth rate:

 Pension schemes reduce parents reliance on their children for care when they are elderly.
 Taxes and poor job security can lead to a decision to have a smaller family.
 Any policy that stimulates economic growth usually leads to increased education and therefore knowledge of birth control.
 Urbanisation limits physical space to have a large family.
 Policies directed at educating and liberating women.

Policies that increase population growth rate:

- Agricultural development, improved public health and sanitation etc. may lower CDR and stimulate rapid growth without
lowering fertility (stage 2 of DTM)
- Lowering income tax or giving incentives and free education may increase CBR. E.g. Australian baby bonus
- Encourage immigration, particularly of workers. Especially if immigration is from less developed countries.

Pro Natalist: 1939 - France passed “Code de la famille” (complex pro natalist legislation) which included: 1. Offering cash incentives to
mothers who stayed at home to care for children. 2. Subsidizing holidays. 3. Banning the sale of contraceptives (repealed in 1967).

Anti-natalist: 1. China instilled an anti-natalist policy to combat population explosion (China has 7% of the world’s agricultural land
and 23% of the world’s population) + encourage economic development & improve living standards. 2. Between 1953 and 1964 the
population increased by 112 million as Mao Zedong encouraged larger families in an attempt to make China stronger, then 1979 (1
child policy introduction).

- I can discuss the cultural, historical, religious, social, political and economic factors that influence human population
dynamics.
1. Cultural: See that having more children help with working the land. While other cultures where women are employed and
education have low birth rates.
2. Historical: Similar to LEDCs 
3. Religious: LEDCs - Family planning. Most religions are pro-natalists. MEDCs - Secular 
4. Social:  LEDCS - Subordinate to men + deprived of many rights (owning property, having their own career & getting an
education) in many countries. Considered worthy for making children + social status depends on the number of children they
 produce (boys). MEDCS - Broke down discrimination barriers, allowed girls to get an education and capable of gaining status
outside of bearing children contributed towards very low fertility rates. 
5. Political: May be pro-natalist or anti-
6. Economic:  LEDCS - Children are an economic asset & work on the land as soon as they are able. More children mean more
help but more children need feeding. MEDCs - Children are dependent on their parents during their education and take
longer to contribute to society.

Topic 8.2 - Resource Use in Society       

 I can outline an example of how renewable and non-renewable natural capital has been mismanaged. 
- Renewable Natural Capital: African forests are significantly shrinking. Trees and vegetation cover are being cut down for
various uses. Most of the people use firewood as the energy source. Also, most of people’s livelihood depends on forests as
well as land, leading to the increased deforestation. Generally it is one the environmental challenges in Malawi and
developing countries at large. For example in Malawi about 10,000 ha.forests were being deforested annually between 1981
to 1985. This number continues through today. Local – Dead sea (water passing from Jordan valley + river).

- Non-renewable Natural Capital: At present, the most important energy sources used by the Indian population are non-
renewable sources of energy. Indian economy is largely based on fossil fuels, minerals and oil. The value increases because of
the large demand, but the supply is decreasing. This has resulted in more efforts to drill and search other territories. The
environment is being abused and this depletion of resources is one way of showing the effects. The consumption of
petroleum has multiplied itself almost thirty times in the post-independence era   Local – Disi project (350k cubic metres are
lost daily).

 I can explain the dynamic nature of the concept of natural capital.

- Cultural, economic, technological and other factors influence the status of a resource over time and space. For example,
uranium, due to the recently become a valuable resource. What this all means is that resources are dynamic, its status may
change, it might become valuable. Factors include – 1. Different society value resources differently. 2. Increase in demand
may increase the value of a resource. 3. Supply of resources may influence the value of a resource.

Topic 8.3 - Solid Domestic Waste

 I can evaluate SDW disposal options.
1. Recycling – 1. Materials are collected, separated and processed (success depends on energy/raw materials required to
product material) 2. Glass can be melted and re-shaped into new bottles/jars indefinitely (requires less energy than making
new bottles and jars). 3. Plastic 4. Paper 5. Metals (aluminium is the most common & cost effective material for recycling) 6.
Creates green jobs 7. requires public buy in 8. not always cost effective 9. high initial capital 10. products may not be as
durable.

2. Incineration – 1. SDW burned at very high temperatures 2. can be used to produce electricity (‘waste-to-energy’ plants) 3.
may produce dioxins and heavy metal deposits from materials burned 4. Takes up much less space than landfills 5. Ash often
used to build roads 6. Composting 7. Nutrients returned to soils in agriculture, parks, or home gardens 8. Used on large-scale
basis in many MEDC farming systems 9. Tricky problem with composting human waste from sewage systems 10. Air pollution
11. Ash needs to be disposed of 12. Requires high amount - initial capital.

3. Landfill – 1. Primary way SDW is disposed of 2. May have every category of SDW, including hazardous materials 3. Initially
cheap, but costs increasing rapidly as sites fill up 4. Good sites difficult to find 6. Methane from decomposition may be
captured for energy production 6. Risk of health problems 7. Releases greenhouse gases 8. Expensive to develop new sites.

4. Composting – 1. Reduces amount of waste in landfills 2. Done in house 3. Creates fertile soils 4. Attract pests if done
incorrectly 5. Requires public buy in

 I can compare and contrast pollution management strategies for SDW.

 1. Landfills:
- Advantages - Way of producing energy (in the form of methane) from waste 2. Efficient and fast 3. Labour required 4.
Creates land (Hong Kong/Singapore)
- Disadvantages – 1. Pollution of watercourses by leachate 2. Unpleasant odors 3. Increases vermin 4. Attract animals and
insect pests 5. Can cause disease/sickness/illnesses to spread 6. Produces methane which is a GHG/greenhouse gas 7. Takes
up land area 8. Potential of subsidence 9. Future building contamination.
2. Incineration
- Advantages – 1. Cheap way of producing energy from waste 2. energy can be fed into the grid 3. used to power the
incinerator 4. reduces bulk minimizing need for landfill 5. by-product 6. ash left over is a useful building material
3. Recycling:
- Advantages – 1. reduced amount of energy required to recycle compared with exploiting the resource 2. reduces amount of
material in landfill sites 3.can be used to make new products 4. largely prevents GHG/greenhouse gas emissions 5. creates
job opportunities 6. encourage local industries
- Disadvantages – 1. Requires energy 2. Involves transport of heavy/bulky goods 3. Produce toxic waste/pollutants 4.
Time/labour required

 I can evaluate, with reference to figure 3, pollution management strategies for SDW by considering recycling, incineration,
composting and landfills.
1. Human activity – 1. Reduces consumption 2. Compost food waste 3. Reduce packing 4. Reuse clothes/goods
2. Controlling release – 1. Separate wastes into different types 2. Legislate recycling + education 3. Tax SDW
3. Clean up & restoration – 1. Reclaim landfills 2. Use incineration for energy production 3. Collect plastic.

Topic 8.4 - Human Population Carrying Capacity

 I can evaluate the application of carrying capacity to local and global human populations. 
Write the answer for it in the back of the printed page
 I can compare and contrast the differences in the EF of two countries.
Bangladesh Built up land – 0.08 + Carbon 0.3 Cropland 0.35 Fishing ground 0.02 Forest product 0.08 Grazing land 0
Total = 0.8

USA Built up land: 0.09 + Carbon: 5.65 + Cropland: 1.06 + Fishing grounds: 0.13 + Forest products: 0.86
Grazing land: 0.32 = Total: 8.1

 I can evaluate how EVSs impact the EFs of individuals or populations.    
- Anthropocentric (sustainable management) in MEDCs.
- People do not want to lower their quality of living, this often outweighs the want to look after then environment.
- Individuals in MEDCs generally have a technocentric worldview, which encourages continued high consumption of resources,
in the expectation that technology will provide solutions to minimize the environmental impact.
- Individuals in LEDCs have not only had a historically low consumption of non-renewable resources, but have also adapted
environmental value systems that have encouraged working in balance with nature.

Application & Skills - 5.1.A1 Outline the transfers, transformations, inputs, outputs, flows and storages within soil systems.
There are four basic processes that occur in the formation of soils:

 inputs -  physical movement of material within soil.

 outputs - occur both from the surface and from the deep subsoil. Water lost by evapotranspiration
 translocations - translocation of materials within the soil profile is primarily due to gradients in water potential and chemical
concentrations within the soil pores.
 transformations - change of some soil constituent without any physical displacement.

The two driving forces for these processes are climate (temperature and precipitation) and organisms (plants and animals). Parent
material is usually a rather passive factor in affecting soil processes because parent materials are inherited from the geologic world.
Topography (or relief) is also rather passive in affecting soil processes, mainly by modifying the climatic influences of temperature
and precipitation.

5.1.A2 Explain how soil can be viewed as an ecosystem.

 Soil is the link between the air, water, rocks, and organisms, and is responsible for many different functions in the natural
world that we call ecosystem services. 
 These soil functions include: air quality and composition, temperature regulation, carbon and nutrient cycling, water cycling
and quality, natural "waste" (decomposition) treatment and recycling, and habitat for most living things and their food. 
 Billions of organisms inhabit the upper layers of the soil, where they break down dead organic matter, releasing the nutrients
necessary for plant growth. 
 The microorganisms include bacteria, actinomycetes, algae and fungi. 
 Macro-organisms include earthworms and arthropods such as insects/millipedes. 
 Each group plays a role in the soil ecosystem and can assist the organic farmer in producing a healthy crop. 
 Micro-organisms can be grouped according to their function: free-living decomposers convert organic matter into nutrients
for plants and other microorganisms, rhizosphere organisms are symbiotically associated with the plant roots & free-living
nitrogen fixers.

 
5.1.A3 Compare and contrast the structure and properties of sand, clay and loam soils, with reference to a soil texture diagram,
including their effect on primary productivity.
[Familiarity with the soil texture triangle diagram used for soil type classification based on the percentage of sand, silt, and clay in the
soil is required.]

 Compare and contrast different soil textures with reference to the soil triangle.
 Compare and contrast the properties of sand, clay and loam soils. 

Soil structure depends on:

 Soil texture ( the amount of sand and clay )

 dead organic matter
 earthworm activity

For optimum structure, variety of pure sizes are required to allow root prevention, free drainage and water storage. Pore spaces over
0.1 mm allow roots growth, oxygen diffusion and water movement whereas pore spaces below 0.5 mm help store water.
Clay:

 fertile in temperate locations

 in tropical areas clay is permeable and easily penetrated by roots
 nutrient deficient / easily  leached in tropics
 The more clay present in the soil the higher the force needed to pull a plough.

Different soil types have different levels of primary productivity:

 Sandy soil – low/clay soil – quite low/loam soil – high

Primary productivity of soil depends on:

 Mineral content/drainage/water-holding capacity/airspaces/biota/potential to hold organic materials

1. Shrinking limit: state which the soil passes from having a moist to a dry appearance.
2. Plastic limit: occurs when each ped is surrounded by a film of water sufficient to act as a lubricant.
3. Liquid limit: occurs when there is sufficient water to reduce cohesion between the peds.
4. Field capacity: the maximum amount of water  that a particular soil can hold.

 
5.2 - Terrestrial Food Production Systems & Food choices:

 5.2.A1 Analyse tables and graphs that illustrate the differences in inputs and outputs associated with food production
systems.

Terrestrial farming systems can be divided into several types

 Commercial farming in which farming is for profit. This usually involves one crop
 Subsistence farming in which food is produced only to feed the farmer and family. No sale for profit

Commercial and subsistence farming can be intensive or extensive

 Intensive farms generally take up a small area of land but aim to have very high outputs per unit area of land
 Extensive farms are usually large in comparison to the money and labor put into them
5.2.A2 Compare and contrast the inputs, outputs and system characteristics for two given food production systems.

 [Possible examples for contrasting terrestrial food production systems include North American cereal farming and
subsistence farming in Southeast Asia, or intensive beef production in South America and the Maasai tribal use of livestock.
These examples are not meant to be prescriptive and appropriate local examples are also encouraged.]

 The systems selected should be both terrestrial or aquatic. In addition, the inputs and outputs of the two systems should
differ qualitatively and quantitatively.
 The pair of examples could be North American cereal farming and subsistence farming in some parts of South-East Asia,
intensive beef production in the developed world and the Maasai tribal use of livestock, or commercial salmon farming in
Norway/Scotland and rice-fish farming in Thailand. Other local or global examples are equally valid.

Factors to be considered should include:

 inputs - fertilizers (artificial or organic); water (irrigation or rainfall); pest control (pesticides or natural predators); labour
(mechanized and fossil-fuel dependent or physical labour); seed (genetically modified organisms—GMOs—or conventional);
breeding stock (domestic or wild); livestock growth promoters (antibiotics or hormones vs organic or none)
 outputs -  outputs, such as food quality, food quantity, pollutants (air, soil, water), consumer health, soil quality (erosion,
degradation, fertility); common pollutants released from food production systems include fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides,
antibiotics, hormones and gases from the use of fossil fuels; transportation, processing and packaging of food may also lead
to further pollution from fossil fuels system characteristics—selective breeding, genetically engineered organisms,
monoculture versus polyculture, sustainability, 
 system characteristics - such as diversity (monoculture versus polyculture); sustainability; indigenous versus introduced crop
species socio-cultural—the Maasai cattle equals wealth and quantity is more important than quality;
 environmental impact—pollution (air, soil, water); habitat loss; biodiversity loss; soil erosion or degradation; desertification;
disease epidemics from high-density livestock farming
  socio-economic factors - arming for profit or subsistence, for export or local consumption, for quantity or quality; traditional
or commercial farming.

Terrestrial Systems -  (Intensive Charolais beef production in France):

  In Western Europe the Charolais beef is one of the beef brands chosen. Through selective breeding and genetic engineering
bloodlines that puts weight on exist but has a low fat cover. 
 Charolais lives under controlled conditions, they are fed with high proteins and treated with antibiotics to make sure they are
healthy. 
 Lots of energy is used in transporting and processing the finished meat.
 Cattle raised outdoors however grown on single monoculture ( cultivation of a single crop on a farm or in a region or country)
grassland in large fields with a high stock rate. 
 To keep the productivity of these fields going, large amounts of fertilizer are used. 
 This intensified farming in the 1940′s with the aim of producing cheaper meat has led to habitat loss as they have been
removed to make bigger fields.
 Eutrophication have increased as excess use of fertilizers/large amounts of slurry produced in the system enter water
courses, with fear of causing antibiotic resistance in human bacteria through bioaccumulation 

Inputs:

 energy for food distribution

 food supplements
 selective breeding and genetic engineering (system characteristics)
 indoor rearing
 fertilizers to maximize grass production
 antibiotics and hormones

Outputs:

 cheap meat (socio-cultural)

 habitat destruction to make bigger fields (environmental impact)
 antibiotic resistance
 Eutrophication

Nomadic cattle grazing of the Himba:

 The Charolais beef production can be contrasted with the Nomadic cattle grazing of the Himba. 
 The Himba people are from North West Namibia, surviving by being Nomadic hunters/grazers. 
 They also have a tight bond with the cattle they graze. 
 During the dry seasons the Himba move their cattle from area to area until the grass is used up until the rainy season, they go
to better pastures. 
 Cattle to the Himba are very important as they provide; meat, milk, skins and even dung for fires. 
 Prestige between the Himba is seen by how many cattle they have, not the size of the cattle. 
 The cattle during the dry season may start competing with herbivores.
 This has increased especially with global warming drought periods. This can lead to soil erosion as extra grazing pressure
removes the grasses that hold the top soil together.

Input:

 nomadic grazing moving from place to place so land has a chance to recover
 cattle survive on low grade natural forage with no supplements
 during drought cattle die as grass disappears adding patches of nutrients to the soil (environmental impact)

Outputs:

 Himba cattle provide meat, milk and fuel (dung)

 owning cattle gives status in community (socio-cultural)
  during drought times Himba cattle compete with wild grazers for food this can lead to soil erosion as well as food shortage
(environmental impact)"

 In aquatic systems, perhaps largely due to human tastes, most food is harvested from higher trophic levels where the total
storages are much smaller. Although energy conversions along the food chain may be more efficient in aquatic systems, the
initial fixing of available solar energy by primary producers tends to be less efficient due to the absorption and reflection of
light by water.

 The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that energy goes from a concentrated form (like the sun) to a dispersed form (like
heat), the availability of energy to do work therefore diminishes on the system becomes increasingly disorder. It explains how
energy transformations in living systems can lead to loss of energy from the system. The order in living systems is only
maintained by constant input of new energy from the sun.
Terrestrial farming systems are divided into two types:

 Commercial farming: for profit, often monoculture

 Subsistence farmer: produces only enough to feed their family with no sell for profit

Both commercial and subsistence can be intensive or extensive farms

 Intensive farms: take a small area of land for a high input

 Extensive farms: large in comparison to the money and labour put into it.

5.2.A3 Evaluate the relative environmental impacts of two given food production systems.

 Food production/supply chain have wide-ranging positive/negative impacts on the environment. 

 Negative impacts include escalating water and land use, soil erosion and degradation through loss of fertility or
desertification, loss of biodiversity, and intensive use of energy (for production, notably for fertiliser manufacture, and for
supply, especially in transport and refrigeration) with associated greenhouse gas emissions
 Factory farming reduces the amount of land needed for meat production but these farms are a serious air & water pollutant. 
 The waste of these animals ends up in nature and poses a constant risk of drinking water contamination and seriously affects
the air quality of the nearby areas. 
 One solution for the problem with animal waste lays in its use for production of biofuel which can then be used for
production of electricity but this practice is the exception rather than rule.
 Mass meat production has shown main contributors to carbon dioxide emissions which in turn are the main cause of climate
change. 
 The meat industry is estimated to be responsible for about 9 percent of total carbon dioxide emissions which are a result of
emissions of various gases from the farms as well as from the microbial activities after application of animal waste as
fertilizer.
 Animal husbandry poses a serious threat to the local ecosystems and biodiversity due to the use of the land for grazing and
animal feed production. 
 As much as one quarter of the Earth’s surface is used for grazing & about 1/3 of arable land is used to produce animal feed. 
 As a result, the wildlife species struggle with lack of habitat, while some are even threatened with extinction.

5.2.A4 Discuss the links that exist between sociocultural systems and food production systems.

This could be illustrated through the use of examples, such as: 

 the way in which the low population densities and belief systems of shifting cultivators links with the ecosystem of “slash and
burn” agriculture; 
 the relationship between high population densities, culture, soil fertility and the wetrice ecosystem of South-East Asia; 
 the link between the political economy of modern urban society, corporate capitalism and agro-ecosystems.
There are many factors that come into consideration as to the method and level of sustainability of food production methods.
Population density/size, culture, soil fertility, and method of agriculture are some of these factors.
 Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, then abandoned and allowed to
revert to their natural vegetation while the cultivator moves on to another plot. The period of cultivation is usually
terminated when the soil shows signs of exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds. The length of
time that a field is cultivated is usually shorter than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate by lying fallow.
 Of these cultivators, many use a practice of slash-and-burn as one element of their farming cycle. Others employ land
clearing without any burning, and some cultivators are purely migratory and do not use any cyclical method on a given plot.
Sometimes no slashing at all is needed where regrowth is purely of grasses, an outcome not uncommon when soils are near
exhaustion and need to lie fallow.
 One land-clearing system of shifting agriculture is the slash-and-burn method, which leaves only stumps and large trees in the
field after the standing vegetation has been cut down and burned, its ashes enriching the soil. Cultivation of the earth after
clearing is usually accomplished by hoe or digging stick and not by plough.

5.2. A5. Evaluate strategies to increase sustainability in terrestrial food production systems.

 Altering human activity/Local produce/Food Labels/Monitoring multi-nationals/Buffer zones (nutrient run-off)

 Oxford page 259-260

To achieve sustainable food production, many different factors need to be considered. These include:

 Political commitment to sustainable development with the will to make changes, such as new legislative and economic
support for sustainable farming systems.
 Understanding of the ecology of farming systems and how they are interconnected to the wider environment. This can be
used to inform policies and guidelines that support sustainable farming.
 Change in social and individual behavior.
 Local produce and use of farmers markets
 Growing indigenous crops
 Food Labels
 Monitoring multi-nationals
 Buffer zones (nutrient run-off/nitrification)
 Use of polyculture instead of monoculture farming involves growing multiple crops rather than focusing only on one. 
 Reduction of meat production. The ecological footprint of meat production is significantly greater than for crop production:
5.3.A1 Explain the relationship between soil ecosystem succession and soil fertility.
Fertile soils develop over a long time. This time is not a causative factor in determining fertile soils. It does not cause soils to change
but allows processes to operate. The amount of time required for soil formation varies from soil to soil
 
First, lichens, which grow on rock, appear in a destroyed region. The lichens help break down the rock. Then, as lichens die and
decompose, and weathering breaks apart rock, soil begins to form. As soil becomes richer, small plants like mosses and ferns appear,
and the lichens start to disappear. The soil continues to become richer as plants continue to die and decompose, and flowering plants
and grasses appear, bringing insects to the region. In time, shrubs and small trees cover the region, creating a suitable habitat for
reptiles, birds, and mammals. As the shrubs and trees grow, smaller plants die from lack of sunlight and add more organic material to
the soil. Eventually, the shrubs and trees die because taller trees cover the region. This all happens gradually over a long period of
time. 

5.3.A2 Discuss the influences of human activities on soil fertility and soil erosion.
 Soil is a non-renewable resource that once it is eroded it is not renewed.  Soil erosion is the permanent change of the main
characteristics of soil that could see it lose its fertility, pH, color, humus content or structure.  Soil erosion occurs naturally by
wind or harsh climatic conditions but human activities include overgrazing, overcropping and deforestation.
 Overgrazing occurs when farmers stock too many animals such as sheep, cattle or goats on their land.  The animals damage
the soil surface by eating the vegetation and either digging into wet soil or compacting dry soil with their hooves.
 Overcropping is when the land is being continuously under cultivation and is not allowed to lie fallow between crops.  This
constant farming of the land reduces the soils ability to produce valuable humus for soil fertility as it is constantly being
plowed or stripped for crop growth.  The soil becomes drier and less fertile.
 Deforestation is the cutting down of large areas of forests leaving an open, exposed landscape.  Deforestation occurs for
many reasons such as the sale of wood, charcoal or as a source of fuel, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock,
plantations of commodities, and settlements. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to
habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity (drying of soil). 
 Urbanization requires the removal of vegetation and top soil for construction. Heavy machinery compact the soil surface
making the soil impermeable to water. Water moves over the soil removing valuable topsoil
 Monoculture leads to soil exhaustion. These lost nutrients are replaced by the use of chemical and organic fertilizers but
quite expensive.