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　 ―

The Role of Extensive Reading in the

Development of Second Language
Proficiency in Secondary Level Educa-
tion
Susan A. J. Harris

Abstract
Extensive reading (ER) can play an important role in learners language education, and
as a consequence, ER should be a practical option for reading pedagogy in the foreign
language curriculum. This paper discusses the current reading context for second lan-
guage (L2) learners at secondary level education. Traditional and popular methodolo-
gies will be reviewed, in particular, the grammar-translation approach, comprehension
questions and language work, skills and strategies, intensive and extensive reading skills.
The discussion will survey the main principles of extensive reading, and the transfer of
reading skills between the first language (L1) and L2 will be addressed.

Aim of Paper
In this paper I will discuss the viability of introducing an extensive reading
(ER) programme into the English language curriculum in Japanese
secondary level education. I will focus in particular on the characteristics
of an ER programme, and suggest how the programme can improve and
stimulate the learning environment while increasing learners confidence.
Under the assumption that the school curriculum implements an ER
programme, I propose that learners would discover a renewed sense of
enjoyment and motivation while studying English.
In this paper I will also attempt to explore the current role of the
assistant English teacher (AET), who is employed on the Japanese English
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　 ― The Role of Extensive Reading in the Development of Second Language Proficiency in Secondary Level Education

Teaching, JET 1 programme (CLAIR, 2009). The AET is colloquially

referred to as a communicative language assistant, this paper will refer to
the AET as a JET. The JET has the potential to contribute more effectively
as a language resource than the current situation allows. In addition, I will
make the further assumption that providing the JET is fully integrated into
the English language curriculum, she can significantly contribute to the
improvement in learners English language competency.

Why Choose Extensive Reading?

Why is ER significant for English language teaching (ELT)? ER improves
language fluency as learners develop active and passive (sight) vocabulary
proficiency. ER pedagogy teaches learners to become more conscious of
written mistakes and develop a comprehensive awareness of grammatical
structures (Davis, 1995). Moreover, if an intensive reading (IR) programme
is implemented, learners can practice and apply the IR skills learnt in the
classroom during their ER activities. IR focuses learners on reading for
accuracy, learners are taught specific skills such as skimming and scanning,
and language points are analyzed in detail. On the other hand, ER gives
learners the opportunity to improve their language level in a comfortable
environment, in other words outside the classroom. An ER programme
encourages learners to self-select appealing graded readers without the
pressures of text analysis inherent to their academic studies.
An academic reading class syllabus often requires learners to get to grips
with complicated syntax and lexicon. In contrast, ER graded readers are
available in non-fiction and fiction series, whereby learners choose from a
variety of non-academic texts, for example detective stories or biographies.
Publishers produce a simplified ‘abridged’ (Hedge, 1985: 40) version of the
original story. The abridged text contains simplified syntax and lexicon.
Vocabulary density and complexity is reduced according to the level of
the graded reader series, hence the term graded reader. The ER programme
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　 ―

encourages learners to read texts at a lower level than their academic reading
requirements or competence. This leads to the question, why are learners
discouraged from choosing higher level graded-readers? Initially, while
learners read at a lower level they realize they can read fluently in the L2, in
contrast to their academic classroom experiences. As a result, learners feel
encouraged and experience pleasure at L2 reading for the first time.
The ER programme also improves learners confidence which is reflected
in the classroom. As a consequence, learners motivation improves as they
read a growing number of texts. During the ER process, learners are
exposed to a variety of texts, their socio-cultural knowledge increases and
learners develop a comprehensive schemata database (Nuttall, 1996). These
skills are important for developing reading fluency. The ER programme
allows learners to read at their own pace, which encourages the skill of
individualized reading, without the habitual dependency on a dictionary
to translate every other word. That is to say, learners apply IR skills and
strategies learnt in the classroom. Hedge (1985) proposes that ER develops
the autonomous learner, and Hedge further argues that this independent
language skill is the important path to successful L2 learning.

Traditional Reading Approaches

Traditional reading class syllabi are typically restrictive in learners choice of
reading material. Theorists and researchers support the view that learning
to read is divided into two main approaches: the bottom-up approach and
the top-down approach. Hudson (1998) proposes that learners transfer
reading skills from their L1 to their L2. Learners L1 literacy should be
included as part of the process of L2 reading. I will now briefly discuss the
two approaches.
The bottom-up approach is a detailed skills and strategy approach to
reading. The text is analyzed and discussed in detail and learners must
interpret the text precisely. A reader will cognitively process a text by
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　 ― The Role of Extensive Reading in the Development of Second Language Proficiency in Secondary Level Education

assessing words, phrases and sentences at text level. The bottom-up

approach requires the reader to depend on her ability to process a text
from a grammatical and structural level, thus providing the learner with a
comprehensive syntactical analysis of the text. The bottom-up process is
independent of context or discourse features, that is to say, socio-cultural
background and schemata are redundant. According to Hudson (1998)
poor readers rely heavily on context strategy in order to interpret a text.
In contrast, during the top-down approach a reader approaches the text
as a whole, drawing on her schemata and background knowledge in order
to make predictions and interpret meaning. Nuttall describes the top-down
approach succinctly as analysis with an ‘eagle’s eye view of text’ (1996:
17). On the other hand, Hudson (1998) further argues that the top-down
approach is a slower process because the reader must draw heavily on her
sociolinguistic knowledge, in addition to interpretation of text meaning.
In this case, in order to interpret a text successfully it would be efficient
to simultaneously employ both approaches to reading. Learners should
approach a text conscious of the schemata and also develop knowledge
of its’ lexis and syntax. As a result, the top-down approach is useful for
analysis of advanced academic texts, whereby learners partially rely on
schemata in order to interpret global meaning of text. If the learner is
unable to retrieve a framework from personal schemata, the next step
should be a detailed analysis of the syntaxical structure of text, employing
skills from the bottom-up approach.

Role of Schemata
Learning to read is a complicated process, not only do learners need
reference to a large sight vocabulary, syntax and structural competence,
but learners also need to have schemata awareness. A schema is a ‘mental
structure’ (Nuttall, 1996: 7) that I will otherwise classify as world knowledge.
Our schemata is constantly adjusting and developing according to life
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　 ―

experience. In order to exploit a text, learners need access to a store of

schemata while interpreting the text. On the other hand, when a learner
is unable to make reference to the context due to a lack of knowledge or
experience, the unavailability of the relevant schema will significantly impair
comprehension of text (Nuttall, 1996).

The Grammar-Translation Approach

The grammar-translation approach is particularly significant to the ER
programme proposal for Japanese secondary level education, since it has
been a popular approach for a significant period. The grammar-translation
approach has close associations with the bottom-up approach to reading,
whereby meaning of text is derived from analysis of the syntax at sentence
level (Bamford and Day, 1998). English pedagogy in secondary level
education is restricted to academic requirements in response to tertiary level
entrance examinations.

‘Grammar-translation continues to be widely used in some parts of the

world today where it reflects local educational practice and cultural values.
The aim of both language learning and character building…the goal of
preparing students for national or other examinations that include transla-
tion’ (Richards and Rodgers in Bamford and Day, 1998: 126).

Traditionally, receptive English skills, reading and listening were considered

more practical and desirable than productive skills, speaking and writing.

Comprehension Questions and Language Work

A second common approach to teaching reading is comprehension
questions and language work. The general principle behind this approach
supposes learners study short texts that teachers explicitly teach ‘word-by-
word’ (Bamford and Day, 1998: 125). The text is introduced to the class
and unfamiliar words are highlighted, learners are asked to read the text and
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answer comprehension questions for homework. In the succeeding class

the teacher elicits answers and introduces follow-up language exercises,
for example grammar and lexis explanation. Some authors argue that the
comprehension questions and language work approach to reading is similar
to the bottom-down approach of grammar-translation, which is typically
prevalent in EFL classrooms (Bamford and Day, 1998).

Skills and Strategies Approach

Skills and strategies is the third approach to reading, which reflects the top-
down approach. The third approach requires learners to recall background
knowledge and schemata as the teacher prompts learners to produce the
relevant background knowledge to help answer comprehension questions.
Learners answer questions in groups and work on tasks which provide the
teacher with evidence that learners have developed a global understanding
of the text (Bamford and Day, 1998). Wallace (1992) proposes that reading
across a variety of languages requires the use of the same reading strategies.
Reading is viewed as a ‘unitary process’ (Wallace, 1992: 42) in other words,
reading ability does not develop through a set of reading skills that claim to
produce effective readers, but effective readers use a number of strategies,
such as prediction, reflection, context, purpose and text-type analysis, in
order to successfully interpret a text.

ELT Reading Class Syllabus

ELT reading classes usually cover the four main reading approaches:
grammar-translation, comprehension questions and language work, skills
and strategies and intensive reading (Bamford and Day, 1998). The language
teacher at secondary level education is confined by the required educational
syllabus for her choice of material. The material is usually limited to
the recommended course syllabus textbook, which in most cases is an
academic text that learners find difficult to process. Learners who once
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had pleasurable reading experiences in their L1 are quickly disappointed

when they realize L2 reading classes do not mirror their previous L1 reading
expectations. Nonetheless, the goal of ER is to reinstate the pleasure
derived from reading in the L2.

Transference Between L1 and L2

As Krashen stated L1 vocabulary acquisition develops in ‘small increments’
(1989: 446). Other researchers propose that L1 reading habits are
cognitively similar to L2 reading (Alderson and Urquhart, 1984, Wallace,
1992). Krashen (1989) argues that learners learn new words in gradual
chunks. During this process, learners are exposed to a great number of
texts, the learner continuously acquires new vocabulary as they encounter
unfamiliar words.
‘The Clockwork Orange’ study (Krashen, 1989: 446) supports the theory
that extensive reading increases our lexis knowledge. This particular study
required L1 readers to read ‘The Clockwork Orange’ in a couple of days.
The respondents were later tested on the text’s Russian slang nadsat, which
they had no prior knowledge of. The results showed that respondents
successfully internalized the text’s lexis in one complete reading, moreover;
they were able to recognize nadsat from a particular context. The study is
conclusive evidence that extensive reading increases readers’ sight vocabulary
and improves the rate of readers’ schemata acquisition. This skill is useful
for comprehension of dense texts in the L2. Fluent L1 readers have a fully
developed sight vocabulary that enables them to automatically recognize
words, thus as Bamford and Day (1998) comment, freeing up the mind to
concentrate on text meaning.
It is not necessary for learners to compulsively learn and comprehend
complete lexis in a text, but it is necessary for learners to acquire competence
in the skill of automatic lexis recognition. In other words, learners should
recognize lexis from a particular syntax, discourse framework or schemata.
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　 ― The Role of Extensive Reading in the Development of Second Language Proficiency in Secondary Level Education

After the learner has repeatedly encountered a lexical item, it begins to feel
familiar. This process allows learners to develop a broad sight vocabulary.
Extensive reading provides learners with the ideal opportunity to increase
their sight vocabulary competence. Krashen’s input hypothesis (IH) theory
argues that reading is the means to achieve language competence:

‘We acquire language by understanding messages…. more precisely com-

prehensible input is the essential environmental ingredient…to language ac-
quisition, the best hypothesis is that competence in spelling and vocabulary
is most efficiently attained by comprehensible input in the form of reading’
(Krashen, 1989: 440).

The IH theory further supports the argument that extensive reading

improves all-round L2 proficiency.

Extensive Reading in Japan

English is learnt in Japan as a compulsory foreign language education.
Learners take an entrance examination during their secondary education
career, in order to enter tertiary education. As a result, it is not surprising
that less emphasis is placed on oral production of the language due to the
environmental circumstances. However, this defies the basic premise of
language learning that language is a constant dynamic state, it is constantly
changing according to its’ culture and environment. One of the most
effective ways to gain language competence is to live in the L2 country;
however, this is not attainable for the majority of L2 learners. As a
consequence, reading extensively in the L2 is the effective solution (Smith,
1983).

Availability of Texts
English texts are available in central locations and from city retailers,
however, local resources are unreliable, nonetheless, with the proliferation of
 ― 115
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the Internet and delivery services English texts are attainable. Care should
be taken when the motivated L2 learner is searching for ER texts from large
retailers. The choice may be overwhelming and paradoxically, the learner
may become de-motivated if she chooses an unsuitable text. Brown (2000)
comments that learners may have the misconceived belief that when they are
reading for pleasure, texts should be classics, however, classics are used as
academic texts. Reading above the learner’s level defeats the object of ER,
which is reading for pleasure at a lower level than learner’s L2 competence.
Unfortunately, classroom reading material is generally restricted to the
school curriculum and reading classes follow a prescribed text. School
libraries which lack a variety of extensive reading texts, negatively impact
the L2 reading experience for learners. Learners are unable to choose their
appropriate level or personal interest text. These learners are missing out
on the natural motivational aspects derived from pleasurable reading. Low-
level learners have a small vocabulary competence, they are often conscious
of their weaker language competence, and as a result, they have low
expectations of reading a whole text in the L2. In contrast, when a learner
is given a graded-reader within their vocabulary level i. e. a lower level text,
the learner derives a sense of achievement and enjoyment when they realize
they can comprehend a whole text in the L2 (West, 1950).

Attitudes to Reading in the Classroom

Learners are accustomed to intensive reading pedagogy in the classroom,
whereby grammatical form is the focus. By the time secondary learners
leave school and continue to tertiary education, their attitude to the
experience of reading can be negative. Some learners associate L2 reading
with difficulty and boredom. Japanese learners of English lack motivation
and few have the opportunity to develop L2 reading for pleasure during
their school career. It would therefore be beneficial for learners if the
Ministry of Education considered the implementation of an ER programme
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　 ― The Role of Extensive Reading in the Development of Second Language Proficiency in Secondary Level Education

within the English language curriculum in secondary level education.

According to Nobuyuki Hino (Brown, 2000) the grammar-translation
approach used in secondary school English reading classes is inadequate.
He proposes that the negative implications for learners, influences their
willingness to embrace extensive reading for pleasure. Learners experience
of reading is a grueling analysis of text, and the repetitive translation
techniques learnt are seldom successful at interpreting a text’s meaning.
Such negative experiences compound the positive implications for successful
implementation of an ER programme. The ER literature in Japan is mainly
relevant to learners at tertiary level education, whereby educators have
the opportunity to introduce and implement successful ER programmes.
Instructors encourage learners to make regular use of their personal ER
libraries or from departmental collections, with successful results. Reading
classes often centre on teaching intensive reading skills, and in some cases a
class reader is included as part of the syllabus (Brown, 2000, Mason, 1997,
Rosszell, 2000).

Extensive Reading and the JET Programme

The Japan English Teaching (JET) programme is an ideal resource primed
to help with the implementation of an ER wide programme across
secondary level education. The JET is usually a native English speaker, who
is sent to a junior or secondary high school on a yearly contract basis. In
this case, problems associated with continuity of an ER programme would
not be a concern, since each successor can maintain an established ER
programme. As a former JET, I view this proposal as an ideal opportunity
to fill the present gap in the system. The JET role has the potential to
embrace and manage an ER programme; in addition, the JET lesson is an
ideal resource to support English teachers during IR classes. The JET can
assist learners with their socio-cultural and background knowledge relevant
to each text. The present JET programme usually requires a JET to teach
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the same syllabus across the school timetable irregularly. Her classroom
visits are erratic, and thus it is feasible that she would have sufficient time
to take responsibility for an ER programme. I propose that the JET should
be in charge of a small area of the school library reserved for ER texts.
For example, during an ER programme pilot stage a small box of books
could be managed by the JET, or a library corner could be dedicated to a
collection of ER texts. Moreover, she could allocate whole JET lessons to
recycling and consolidating intensive reading skills and techniques.

Benefits of the JET’s Role

Preparation time for initiating and maintaining an ER programme can be
very time consuming, the initial implementation requires great patience
and enthusiasm from the teacher, which would place restraints on full-time
English teachers:

‘The idea of developing a set of work cards is an ambitious one and the
tasks itself is very demanding on teachers. It may take several years to build
up a full set, but…work cards provide valuable opportunities for individual-
izing reading which create confidence and pleasure’ (Hedge, 1985: 96).

The JET has no responsibilities, in contrast to the English teacher’s

heavy commitments. As a consequence, the JET can contribute to the
development of a comprehensive ER library system, for example she
can write work cards summarizing the background and contents of a
text. Providing the JET’s school duties are altered in order to include
responsibility for an ER programme, the burden on full-time English
teachers would be lifted. Moreover, the JET is usually a young graduate
direct from university, one whom is enthusiastic and committed, which are
the essential skills for managing a successful ER programme.
The foreign texts Japanese learners read may have unfamiliar cultural
topics; as a result it is the teacher’s responsibility to explain unfamiliar socio-
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cultural issues. In this case, the JET is a good resource to help learners
comprehend issues related to the JET’s specific culture. In the present
communicative learning environment a JET is frequently asked to speak ad-
hoc for 5 minutes. It would be more beneficial if these 5-minute speeches
were focused on pre-prepared material relevant to a particular socio-cultural
issue:

‘Where learners are far-removed from any English-speaking culture ……

the teacher is under pressure to make a story meaningful by explaining the
background and providing cross-cultural references’ (Hedge, 1985: 48).

In this instance, the JET has the potential to act as a pseudo cultural
educator on an ER programme.

Implementation of an ER Programme at Secondary Education

Hill (2001) argues that in order to maximize the benefits of an ER
programme the ideal circumstance is an institute which introduces an
extensive reading course in corporation with the school library, and
furthermore allows a class to use a class-reader. An extensive reading
course states that learners read 80 books within the duration of a course,
the course has 8 levels and learners are required to read 10 texts at different
levels. When the learner finishes a text, she answers questions on a work
card (Hill, 2001). The course length of a full ER course could cover the
whole period of secondary education in Japan, which is three years at state
schools. The school library should consist of a comprehensive collection
of graded-readers, including a range of text for different learner levels and
personal interest. Learners self-select readers, therefore, it is important
that the librarian chooses texts carefully. Texts should match the interests
and reading competence of the learners in order for learners to see an
improvement in their L2 competence (Nuttall, 1996). Nuttall has suggested
a clever acronym to consider while selecting readers from publishers.
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　 ―

‘“SAVE” Short. Books can be finished quickly, therefore avoids boredom

and discouragement.
Appealing.
Varied wide choice suitable for various needs.
Easy. The level must be easier than that of the current target language’
(Nuttall, 1996: 131)

Extensive reading texts available from publishers range from pre-beginner

(starter) to upper level. The Edinburgh Project in Extensive Reading,
EPER (IALS, 2008) has coordinated the graded reader learner levels with
the Cambridge, TOEFL and TOEIC appropriate testing requirements (Hill
in Ronan, 2000: 12) (see Appendix 1). This is a convenient resource for the
busy English teacher.

Limitations of an ER Programme
The research paradoxically states that reading classes are usually the last place
learners practice reading skills for language development (Hedge, 1985). In
light of this, an ER programme would give learners abundant opportunity
to devote time to extensive reading outside the classroom. Ironically
however, the main resistance to implementation of ER programmes comes
from teachers, whom are afraid of losing valuable class time when class
time is devoted to individual silent reading. Furthermore, some teachers
may feel uncomfortable due to their temporary redundancy. Discipline may
also be an issue for large classrooms. In Britain during the late 1970’s, this
issue arose in L1 classrooms. As a result, teachers were hesitant to spend
time on silent reading, and learners had few opportunities to read during
class time. However, it is not uncommon today for L1 learners to be given
silent reading time (Lunzer and Gardner, 1977). In addition, permission
for independent reading time may be difficult to obtain from the school
principle. Japanese secondary education is principally focused on the goal
of preparing learners for entrance examinations as previously discussed, as
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a result, the local Board of Education may view an ER programme as an

inappropriate distraction to the learner’s academic studies.
As discussed by Davis (1995) the initial costs of setting up an ER
programme can be expensive. Hill (2000) recommends a comprehensive
ER programme has an average of 160 graded readers at a cost of 5 English
pounds sterling2, if a published work card is included, the total cost is
800 pounds sterling (Hill, 2000). This initial expense is a short-coming
of the ER programme. Davis (1995) argues that not only the financial
burdens involved during the initial set-up period, but the potential lack of
commitment from involved teachers during this stage are limitations of the
programme. Davis (1995) raises the issue that an English course should
schedule curriculum time for independent reading on an ER programme.
This point is relevant to the proposal that a JET be involved in the
implementation of an ER programme.

Proposal for a Graded Reader

A JET visits a class sporadically and the class rarely follows a consistent
syllabus. Classes are mainly one-off lessons that focus on communicative
language learning. The use of a graded-reader in the JET classroom would
infuse a sense of continuity to the present arbitrary system. Moreover, a
graded-reader would give both learners and JET a continuous goal to focus
on, since the reader would act as a kernel to the JET lesson.
Prior to the selection of a class reader, it is important to gain a global
understanding of learners preferences (Hedge, 1985). There are numerous
ways to elicit learner feedback: questionnaires, Q&A sessions or informal
interviews. It is also possible to provide learners with sample graded-reader
material. Graded-readers give learners an opportunity to read fluently
about different cultures and learn about other young people’s activities and
experiences. Many publishers write graded-readers concerning issues global
to teenagers making it is easier for learners to relate to the characters in the
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text. In a mixed ability class it is advisable to choose a text from the upper-
lower level of the class average in order to avoid losing low-level learner’s
interest. It is particularly important that the correct level of graded-reader is
chosen because the aim of graded-readers is to read fluently without heavy
dependence on a dictionary, although some publishers include a glossary at
the back of graded-readers. In a mixed level class it is expected that there
will be lower or higher proficiencies than the class average. However, using
a graded-reader in the JET lesson would be advantageous since the ratio
of teacher to learner increases. A JET can devote individual attention to
the weaker learner, or prepare supplementary materials for bored stronger
learner.
Teachers can choose from many publishers, who offer a variety of texts
appropriate for first grade at secondary school. One example, ‘the Chemical
Secret’ (Vicary, 1991) is an interesting thriller suitable for both sexes. The
proposed reader has 1000 headwords3 that are aimed at intermediate readers.
Some graded-reader series supply teaching material and resources, such
as the Oxford Bookworm Series (OUP, 2009). The graded-reader lesson
promotes class discussion on relevant topics raised from the text. Rosszell
(2000) suggests that classroom follow-up activities consolidate a universal
appreciation and understanding of the text. In future JET lessons, the class
can continue to work through the text, meanwhile building up knowledge of
key language points. Learners gradually develop a greater sight vocabulary
and an increased sensitivity to grammatical errors in their written and oral
work.

Conclusion
Despite the inconclusive presentation of the ER literature in this paper,
there is a role for ER in the L2 secondary level Education in Japan. L2
learners can benefit from the pleasurable experience of reading texts
without the pressure of reading for academic purposes. If learners are
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　 ― The Role of Extensive Reading in the Development of Second Language Proficiency in Secondary Level Education

not enjoying ER texts, or if the text is higher than the learner expected,
the learners can stop reading, in contrast to reading academic texts. At the
time this paper was originally written (2001), the situation showed that the
proposal for an ER programme in Japanese secondary level education was
already overdue. Learners had a poor image of English, and reading was
viewed as another teacher-centered lesson focusing on grammar-translation,
in order to pass university entrance examinations. At present, it is an area
waiting for further, comprehensive quantitative research.
The introduction of the JET programme in the early 1980’s was viewed
as an innovative resource that aimed to rejuvenate ELT in Japan. However,
the presence of a native speaker in the classroom has its’ limitations,
moreover, the communicative teaching methodology employed on the
JET programme quickly becomes redundant. In addition, the ad-hoc
communicative teaching methodology is uninspiring for the JET, who
has aspirations of teaching more than pure imitation of a pseudo Brady
bunch character, or giving a Anne of Green Gables impersonation. An ER
programme could be the suitable solution, whereby the JET lesson is ideally
prepped to implement and maintain an ER programme. I am not suggesting
that the programme is without limitations as the discussion highlighted, and
the local Board of Education would need to make feasibility and financial
assessments for each school proposal. Nevertheless, an opportunity exists
for the introduction of ER programmes within the Japanese secondary level
environment, at least in a rudimentary format.
The brief discussion of successful ER programmes at tertiary level
education demonstrates that providing secondary level learners have the
opportunity to access ER programmes, they would be rewarded with a
renewed sense of enjoyment from reading in their L2. Moreover, learners
and teachers would witness the benefits of an ER programme due to
improved L2 competency.
 ― 123
　 ―

Notes
1　JET Programme was established in 1987 to promote cross-cultural understanding
between Japan and 38 other countries.
2　Prices circa year 2001.
3　Each graded-reader level has a vocabulary set with an appropriate level of vocabu-
lary that the learner should be familiar within her level.

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Carrell, P. L, Devine, J. and Eskey, D. E. (eds.) 1988. Interactive Approaches to Second
Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krashen, S. D. 1993. The Power of Reading: Insights from the Research. Englewood, CO: Li-
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Moran, C. and Williams, E. 1993. Survey review: recent materials for the teaching of
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 ― 125
　 ―

Appendix 1

Series G F E D C B A X
Heinemann Guided Starter Beginner Elemen- Intermedi- Upper
Readers Level Level tary Level ate Level Level

Longman Stage 2
Stage 1 Stage 4
Classics Stage3
Longman
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Originals
Oxford Bookworms
Black And Green Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6
Series
Oxford Delta
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
Readers
Oxford Progressive Grade Grade
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3
English readers 4 5
Penguin Readers Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6
Cambridge
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6
English Readers
Figure 1. Language Learner Literature Series by Level

Reading Average Vocab. Average Length Student

Cambridge TOEFL TOEIC
Level (head-words) (running words) Level
Inter-
E 600 3500 ― 350 150
Mediate 1
Inter-
D 900 8000 KET 400 300
mediate 2
Inter-
C 1400 14000 PET 450 450
mediate 3
B 1900 18000 Advanced 1 FCE 480 530
A 2600 25000 Advanced 2 CAE 520 650
X 3500 35000 Advanced 3 CPE 550 730
Figure 2. Levels for Language Learner Literature
(Brown, R. V. 2000: 90)