Unit 1 (Module Crop Sci 11) PDF

Unit 1: Nature & importance of agriculture
Unit 1: The nature and importance of agriculture
Introduction
―Agriculture is the backbone of the country‖. It plays a vital role in an
agricultural country. It provides food both for human and animals, could be a
source of employment and income.
This unit discusses the nature of Agriculture as a field of study, the nature and
features of Philippine Agricultural Systems, problems, status, and prospects of
Philippine Agriculture (AFMA, WTO, GATT, Biotechnology, Rice Tariffication
Law), agricultural development origin, domestication and history of some
important crops , world food situation and centers of production, Philippine
agriculture (national research centers) , and data and facts about Philippine
agriculture.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you are expected to:
1. Explain the nature of agriculture as a field of study;
2. Identify the problems and prospects of the Philippine agriculture; and
3. Relate the problems and prospect of the Philippine Agriculture to the
world agricultural production.
Activating Prior Knowledge

Do you wish to become rich? Did you ask yourself, why am I taking an
agriculture course? I hope this video presentation will help you answer these
questions. You can download/ view this from this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewSO2cVi8oM.
A video presentation of the Philippine Agriculture: The Past and Present will be
shown to you. You can download this video clip from this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YybnssCpO-Y.
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Topic 1. The nature of agriculture as field of study
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. Explain the concepts and importance of agriculture;
2. Discuss the features of agriculture as field of study; and
3. Cite the significant events happened in the start of agriculture.
Presentation of Content
Concept of Agriculture
Agriculture is the art and science of cultivating the soil, growing crops and raising
livestock. It includes the preparation of plant and animal products for people to
use and their distribution to markets. Agriculture provides most of the world’s
food and fabrics. Cotton, wool, and leather are all agricultural products.
Agriculture also provides wood for construction and paper products. These
products, as well as the agricultural methods used, may vary from one part of the
world to another ( www.national geographic.com).
The broad industry engaged in the production of plants and animals for food and
fiber, the provision for agricultural supplies and services, and the processing,
marketing and distribution of agricultural products. (Herren and Donahue, 1991).
Agriculture is one of the most important professions of the human being
throughout the whole world ( Encyclopedia Britannica). Agriculture or the
practice of profession in agriculture increases the amount of food grains and crops
production. This also helps a lot at the times of natural calamities when scarcity of
food grains is the main threat to any country, agriculture has a great role. This
enhances the yearly income of a certain country and that is why the government
of all the countries across the globe nurtures agriculture as one of their most
important sector. Agriculture helps the government to get benefits as far as the
taxes are concerned. Government always tries to invest lots of money in this field
so that the country can have a smooth growth (Crop Science Review
Manual,2016).
Agriculture could be referred to as the production, processing, promotion, and
distribution of agricultural products. The agriculture plays a critical role in the
entire life of a given country. Agriculture is the backbone of the economic system
of a given country (www.farmingportal.com).
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Agriculture is everything involved with growing plants and animals to be used for
something else. This is not the definition you’ll find in the dictionary, but it is
practical and accurate. It encompasses production agriculture, but also everything
before and after the farm too.
Agriculture includes science, technology, and engineering. It is the genetics work

used to improve the seeds and animals farmers purchase. It is the development,
design, production and sales of everything farmers use – tractors, equipment,
buildings, fertilizer, and more.
Agriculture includes business. It is the financial and legal aspects of acquiring

land and other assets needed to farm. It is the marketing, sales and distribution of
the plants and animals produced (www.iowaagliteracy.wordpress.com).
Why Did Agriculture Start? (adopted from ppt of Prof. Timi Mercado)
Many theories on the origin of agriculture presented by Harlan (1992) include the
following:
1. Agriculture as a divine gift
2. Agriculture as a discovery
3. Agriculture as a result of stress
4. Agriculture as an extension of gathering
When did agriculture start? (adopted from ppt of Prof. Timi Mercado)
The geologic event, the Ice Age, further explains the recent beginnings of
agriculture. Agriculture was not practiced until the climatically stable Holocene
warming. During the most recent glaciations, there was a warm period
sandwiched between the Oldest Dryas (18 000–14 600 BP) and Younger Dryas
(12 900–11 500 BP) cold periods. This warm period allowed hunting-gathering
which delayed the emergence of agriculture.
Where did agriculture start? (adopted from ppt of Prof. Timi Mercado)
Based on evidences (archaeological, botanical, linguistics, history, literature),
agriculture had been practiced in the following areas.
Near East – 8,000 to 9,000 B.C. in an area known as
the Fertile Crescent, which is often recognized as
“the cradle of civilization‖. Wheat and barley
farming pattern was established and spread overland
through Iran. Other crops include grapes, peaches,
apricots and melons.
Ethiopia – 9,000 years before present
Fig. 1 Map Showing Fertile Crescent
Source: www.getcliparts.com
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Southern Asia. First crops spread overland from Iraq and Iran in South Asia
about 5,000 years before present In Southern India and Ceylon, irrigation
reservoirs were constructed as early as 3,500 – 3,300 before present.
East Asia. There was diffusion of SW Asian wheat complex by mainland
diffusion. Crops like yams, bamboo, soybeans and rice are native to tropical Far
East region. Agriculture flowed from China and Thailand to Malaysia, Indonesia
and Philippines.
Southeast Asia - various crops including rice, banana, coconut, and yam
Pacific and Oceania. Agriculture in New Guinea and Pacific Islands remained
somewhat primitive until modern times. Crops are taro, yams, coconut, bananas,
sugarcane and breadfruit.
South America - indigenous crops like beans, potato, tomato, eggplant,
vegetables, peanut, pineapple and squash
Central America. Plant remains of corn and other crops were found dated 10600-
7600 years before present.
Start of Agriculture (www.nationalgeographic.com)
Over centuries, the growth of agriculture contributed to the rise of civilizations.
Before agriculture became widespread, people spent most of their lives searching
for food—hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants. About 11,500 years
ago, people gradually learned how to grow cereal and root crops, and settled
down to a life based on farming.
By 2,000 years ago, much of the Earth’s population had become dependent on
agriculture. Scholars are not sure why this shift to farming took place, but it may
have occurred because of climate change.
When people began growing crops, they also began herding and breeding wild
animals. Adapting wild plants and animals for people to use is called
domestication.
The first domesticated plant was probably rice or corn. Chinese farmers were
cultivating rice as early as 7500 BCE.
The first domesticated animals were dogs, which were used for hunting. Sheep
and goats were probably domesticated next. People also domesticated cattle and
pigs. Most of these animals had once been hunted for hides and meat. Now many
of them are also sources of milk, cheese, and butter. Eventually, people used
domesticated animals such as oxen for plowing, pulling, and transportation.
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Agriculture enabled people to produce surplus food. They could use this extra
food when crops failed or trade it for other goods. Food surpluses allowed people
to work at other tasks unrelated to farming.
Agriculture kept formerly nomadic people near their fields and led to the
development of permanent villages. These became linked through trade. New
economies were so successful in some areas that cities grew and civilizations
developed. The earliest civilizations based on intensive agriculture arose near the
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Mesopotamia (now Iraq and Iran) and along the
Nile River in Egypt.
Improved Technology
For thousands of years, agricultural development was very slow. One of the
earliest agricultural tools was fire. Native Americans used fire to control the
growth of berry-producing plants, which they knew grew quickly after a wildfire.
Farmers cultivated small plots of land by hand, using axes to clear away trees and
digging sticks to break up and till the soil. Over time, improved farming tools of
bone, stone, bronze, and iron were developed. New methods of storage evolved.
People began stockpiling foods in jars and clay-lined pits for use in times of
scarcity. They also began making clay pots and other vessels for carrying and
cooking food.
Around 5500 BCE, farmers in Mesopotamia developed simple irrigation systems.

By channeling water from streams onto their fields, farmers were able to settle in
areas once thought to be unsuited to agriculture. In Mesopotamia, and later in
Egypt and China, people organized themselves and worked together to build and
maintain better irrigation systems.
Early farmers also developed improved varieties of plants. For example, around
6000 BCE, a new variety of wheat arose in South Asia and Egypt. It was stronger
than previous cereal grains; its hulls were easier to remove and it could be made
into bread.
As the Romans expanded their empire, they adapted the best agricultural methods
of the people they conquered. They wrote manuals about the farming techniques
they observed in Africa and Asia, and adapted them to land in Europe.
The Chinese also adapted farming tools and methods from nearby empires. A
variety of rice from Vietnam ripened quickly and allowed farmers to harvest
several crops during a single growing season. This rice quickly became popular
throughout China.
Many medieval European farmers used an open-field system of planting. One

field would be planted in spring, another in autumn, and one would be left
unplanted, or fallow. This system preserved nutrients in the soil, increasing crop
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production.
The leaders of the Islamic Golden Age (which reached its height around 1000) in
North Africa and the Middle East made agriculture into a science. Islamic Golden
Age farmers learned crop rotation.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, explorers introduced new varieties of plants and
agricultural products into Europe. From Asia, they carried home coffee, tea, and
indigo, a plant used to make blue dye. From the Americas, they took plants such
as potatoes, tomatoes, corn (maize), beans, peanuts, and tobacco. Some of these
became staples and expanded people’s diets.
Machinery
A period of important agricultural development began in the early 1700s for Great
Britain and the Low Countries (Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands,
which lie below sea level). New agricultural inventions dramatically increased
food production in Europe and European colonies, particularly the United States
and Canada.
One of the most important of these developments was an improved horse-drawn

seed drill invented by Jethro Tull in England. Until that time, farmers sowed seeds
by hand. Tull’s drill made rows of holes for the seeds. By the end of the 18th
century, seed drilling was widely practiced in Europe.
Many machines were developed in the United States. The cotton gin, invented by
Eli Whitney in 1794, reduced the time needed to separate cotton fiber from seed.
In the 1830s, Cyrus McCormick’s mechanical reaper helped modernize the grain-
cutting process. At about the same time, John and Hiram Pitts introduced a horse-
powered thresher that shortened the process of separating grain and seed from
chaff and straw. John Deere’s steel plow, introduced in 1837, made it possible to
work the tough prairie soil with much less horsepower. Along with new machines,
there were several important advances in farming methods. By selectively
breeding animals (breeding those with desirable traits), farmers increased the size
and productivity of their livestock.
Cultures have been breeding animals for centuries—evidence suggests Mongolian

nomads were selectively breeding horses in the Bronze Age. Europeans began to
practice selective breeding on a large scale beginning in the 18th century. An
early example of this is the Leicester sheep, an animal selectively bred in England
for its quality meat and long, coarse wool.
Plants could also be selectively bred for certain qualities. In 1866, Gregor
Mendel’s studies in heredity were published in Austria. In experiments with pea
plants, Mendel learned how traits were passed from one generation to the next.
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His work paved the way for improving crops through genetics.
New crop rotation methods also evolved during this time. Many of these were
adopted over the next century or so throughout Europe. For example, the Norfolk
four-field system, developed in England, proved quite successful. It involved the
yearly rotation of several crops, including wheat, turnips, barley, clover, and
ryegrass. This added nutrients to the soil, enabling farmers to grow enough to sell
some of their harvest without having to leave any land unplanted.
Most of the world was not affected by these developments, however. Farmers in
Asia, Australia, Africa, and South America continued to use old ways of
agriculture.
Agricultural Science
In the early 1900s, an average farmer in the U.S. produced enough food to feed a
family of five. Many of today’s farmers can feed that family and a hundred other
people. How did this great leap in productivity come about? It happened largely
because of scientific advances and the development of new sources of power.
By the late 1950s, most farmers in developed countries were using both gasoline
and electricity to power machinery. Tractors had replaced draft animals and
steam-powered machinery. Farmers were using machines in almost every stage of
cultivation and livestock management.
Electricity first became a power source on farms in Japan and Germany in the
early 1900s. By 1960, most farms in the U.S. and other developed countries were
electrified. Electricity lit farm buildings and powered such machinery as water
pumps, milking machines, and feeding equipment. Today, electricity controls
entire environments in livestock barns and poultry houses.
Traditionally, farmers have used a variety of methods to protect their crops from
pests and diseases. They have put herb-based poisons on crops, handpicked
insects off plants, bred strong varieties of crops, and rotated crops to control
insects. Now, almost all farmers, especially in developed countries, rely on
chemicals to control pests. The definition of ―pest‖ ranges from insects to animals
such as rabbits and mice, as well as weeds and disease-causing organisms—
bacteria, viruses, and fungi. With the use of chemicals, crop losses and prices
have declined dramatically.
For thousands of years, farmers relied on natural fertilizer—materials such as

manure, wood ash, ground bones, fish or fish parts, and bird and bat waste called
guano—to replenish or increase nutrients in the soil.
In the early 1800s, scientists discovered which elements were most essential to
plant growth: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Later, fertilizer containing
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these elements was manufactured in the U.S. and in Europe. Now, many farmers
use chemical fertilizers with nitrates and phosphates because they greatly increase
crop yields.
However, pesticides and fertilizers have come with another set of problems. The
heavy reliance on chemicals has disturbed the environment, often destroying
helpful species of animals along with harmful ones. Chemical use may also pose a
health hazard to people, especially through contaminated water supplies.
Agricultural scientists are looking for safer chemicals to use as fertilizers and
pesticides. Some farmers use natural controls and rely less on chemicals.
Farming in Water
Agriculture includes such forms of cultivation as hydroponics and aquaculture.

Both involve farming in water.
Hydroponics is the science of growing plants in nutrient solutions. Just one acre
of nutrient solution can yield more than 50 times the amount of lettuce grown on
the same amount of soil.
Hydroponics is the growing of plants with their roots in a medium other than soil.
Sometimes, hydroponics is called soil less culture, because soil is not used.
Nutrients essential for plant growth and development are dissolved in water, and
the solution is delivered directly to the roots in a variety of ways. This technique
can provide a year-round supply of fresh vegetables in regions that experience
cold weather. Adoption of hydroponics reduces the transportation costs normally
required to move fresh vegetables over long distances (www.ars.usda.gov).
Aquaculture—primarily the cultivation of fish and shellfish—was practiced in

China, India, and Egypt thousands of years ago. It is now used in lakes, ponds, the
ocean, and other bodies of water throughout the world. Some forms of
aquaculture, such as shrimp farming, have become important industries in many
Asian and Latin American countries.
Climate change and improved technology are altering the way freshwater and
ocean fisheries operate. Global warming has pushed warm-water species toward
the poles and reduced the habitats of cold-water species. Traditional fishing
communities in both developed and developing countries find the number of fish
dwindling.
Bottom trawling has affected ocean ecosystems. In bottom trawling, enormous

nets are strung from fishing boats and dragged at the bottom of the ocean. The
nets catch halibut and squid, but also stir up sediment at the bottom of the ocean.
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This disturbs the marine life (plankton and algae) that forms the basis of the food
chain.
Genetic Modification
For centuries, people have bred new types of plants and animals by random
experimentation. During the 1950s and 1960s, scientists developed new strains of
high-yield wheat and rice. They introduced them into Mexico and parts of Asia.
As a result, production of grain soared in these areas. This bold experiment in
agriculture has been called the "Green Revolution."
With the successes of the Green Revolution came problems. To produce high
yields, the new strains required chemical fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation. In
many developing countries, independent farmers cannot afford the new
technology and big business has taken over agriculture. The new, high-production
crops also put stress on native plants and animals.
Later, scientists and farmers understood why the new strains developed. This gave
rise to a new green revolution: genetic modification of food.
Inside every cell are genes, material that determines many of the characteristics of
an organism. Genetics is the study of what characteristics organisms inherit and
how these traits are transmitted.
With a greater knowledge of genetics, people can scientifically select

characteristics they want to reproduce. New technology has revolutionized the
selective breeding process in both plants and animals.
Beginning in the 1970s, scientists found that they could rearrange genes and add
new ones to promote disease resistance, productivity, and other desired
characteristics in crops and livestock.
These genetically modified organisms (GMOs or GM foods) are now common

throughout the developed world. Biotechnology allows scientists to alter the DNA
of microbes, plants, and animals. GMOs that have genetic material, or DNA, from
other species are called transgenic organisms.
A gene from an Arctic plant, for example, could be added (spliced) into the DNA
of a strawberry plant to increase the strawberry’s resistance to cold and thus
extend its growing season. The strawberry would be a transgenic plant.
Businesses sell farmers genetically modified seeds that resist certain pesticides
and herbicides produced by the company. (Herbicides kill weeds and other plants
that threaten the crop.) With these seeds, farmers can use toxic chemicals without
harming the crop.
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Biotechnology has brought advances in animal husbandry (ranching, or the

raising of domestic animals). Today’s farm animals are larger and grow faster
than their ancestors.
Cattle, for example, are grazing animals. Their digestive system has evolved to
process grasses and other crops. Corn and other grains cause a cow’s digestive
system to become acidic. That makes it easier for dangerous bacteria (such as
E.coli) to develop. Bacterial infections can be harmful to the cow, and can also
infect their milk and meat consumed by people. Antibiotics are spliced into the
DNA of feed corn to prevent such infection. Antibiotics have been used since the
1950s to stimulate cattle growth. Over time, this practice has led to the
development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in cattle and people. Many cattle are
also given anabolic steroids, or growth hormones, to make them get bigger, faster.
The controversies surrounding GM foods are enormous. Farmers who grow GM

foods increase production with less labor and less land. Many consumers favor
GM foods. Vegetables and fruits last longer and are less likely to bruise. Meats
are fattier—more tender and salty.
Critics argue that GM foods have less nutritional value and decrease biodiversity.
The organic and "free-range" food industries have grown in opposition to "factory
farming."
Most of the world’s farmers live in developing countries in Africa, Asia, and
Latin America. Many of them cultivate land as their ancestors did hundreds or
even thousands of years ago. They do not use agricultural technology involving
expensive chemicals or production methods.
These people are subsistence farmers. They use the bulk of the food they produce
for themselves and their families, unlike commercial farmers, who only grow
crops to sell.
Methods of Cultivation
Agricultural methods often vary widely around the world, depending on climate,
terrain, traditions, and available technology.
Low-technology farming involves permanent crops: food grown on land that is

not replanted after each harvest. Citrus trees and coffee plants are examples of
permanent crops. Higher-technology farming involves crop rotation, which
requires knowledge of farmable land. Scholars and engineers not only use crop
rotation and irrigation, but plant crops according to the season, type of soil, and
amount of water needed.
In coastal West Africa, farmers, usually women, plant corn soon after the first
rains of the growing season. They often use an ancient method of clearing called
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slash-and-burn. First, the farmer cuts all the brush in her plot. When this
vegetation dries, she sets fire to it. The heat from the fire makes the soil easy to
turn, and the burned vegetation fertilizes it. The farmer then sows kernels of corn
saved from the previous year’s harvest.
Between rows of corn, the African farmer plants other staple crops: legumes, such
as peas, or root vegetables, such as yams. This practice of growing several crops
in the same plot is called intercropping. By covering most of the ground with
vegetation, intercropping prevents moisture loss and soil erosion from seasonal
rains.
Rain supplies water for the growing plants. The farmer weeds her plot with a hoe.
At harvest time, she and her family pick the corn, husk it, and spread the ears in
the sun to dry. They grind the dried corn to make porridge.
Traditionally, the African farmer uses the same plot for several years, until its
fertility declines. Then she moves to another plot, leaving the first to lie fallow for
up to 10 years. Now, an increasing population has caused fallow periods to be
reduced and has made permanent cultivation more common.
Agricultural methods used in the Corn Belt of the U.S. are very different. The
Corn Belt is the area of the northern Midwest where most of the nation’s corn
crop is grown. First of all, farmers rarely work alone—the size of American farms
requires a lot of labor. Soon after they harvest the corn in autumn, farmers work
leftover vegetation, or stubble, into the soil. In the spring, farmers work the soil
again, using an implement with rows of sharp-edged steel discs, called a disc
harrow. The discs cut into the soil, breaking it into smaller pieces and supplying it
with air.
Next, a tractor-pulled planter sows rows of seed. The machine makes furrows in
the soil, drops in kernels of high-yield, genetically modified corn, and covers
them with dirt. After the corn seeds have sprouted, another machine injects liquid
fertilizer into the ground.
The farmers then use chemicals to control weeds and pests, and loosen the soil
with a tractor-pulled cultivator during the harvesting season.
U.S. industrial farmers may plant a thousand acres of just corn. The practice of
specializing in a single crop is known as monoculture. To harvest the crop,
farmers use a mechanical harvester that picks the ears of corn and shells them into
a bin.
Little of the corn grown in the Corn Belt is for human consumption. Most of the
corn grown in the U.S. is for cattle feed and industrial uses, such as corn syrup
sweeteners.
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Livestock
From alpacas in Peru to zebus in India, billons of domesticated animals around

the world are raised and cared for in a variety of ways. In many countries,
domesticated animals are an important source of food.
In Nigeria, for example, the Fulani people have long been nomads. They move
with their cattle herds from one grazing area to another. The cattle feed on scrub
and grasses in land unsuitable for farming. The Fulani rely on cattle for milk, but
rarely slaughter their animals for meat.
Throughout the U.S., beef cattle are bred to grow quickly and yield large
quantities of fatty meat. When they are five to 12 months old, the animals are
shipped to feedlots. There, they are kept in pens and fed grain and vitamin
supplements until they reach market size. Then they are slaughtered.
The two ways of raising livestock are confronting each other in the developing
world. In Uganda, Ankole cattle have been bred to withstand the harsh climate of
Central Africa—their long, curved horns help distribute heat and their digestive
systems have adapted to poor nutrition and little water. However, the market for
milk has driven many Ugandan farmers to import Holstein cattle. Holsteins are
native to Northern Europe. Keeping them healthy in an equatorial region requires
a high amount of antibiotics, vaccines, and other chemicals. The Ankole, which
produce little milk and leaner meat, may be extinct within the century.
Many farmers throughout the world practice free-range poultry farming. The birds
forage for food in farms or community yards, eating whatever they find: seeds,
insects, household scraps, and surplus grain.
In many developed countries, poultry production has become a major agricultural

industry. Birds are given the same sort of vaccines and hormones used for cattle.
Chickens are bred for either eggs or meat. One poultry house may contain more
than a million birds. Often, machines automatically provide feed and water,
collect the eggs, and remove waste.
Fight Against Hunger
Food production must keep pace with population growth and distribution
methods. This is an enormous agricultural and political challenge.
The challenge is not food shortages but unequal distribution of the world’s food
supply. The ratio of population to farmable land has favored some countries more
than others. Some experts believe government policies in developed and
developing countries have hindered equal food distribution. Droughts, floods, and
other disasters continue to cause local food shortages.
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Overpopulation also contributes to unequal distribution of food resources. Much

of the population increase over the next 100 years will occur in developing
countries, where hunger is already a serious problem.
Exporting food or agricultural technology from countries with surpluses to those

with shortages will not solve the problem of world hunger. Poor countries do not
have the money to buy all the food they need and do not want to permanently rely
on other countries. Many developing countries also regard biodiversity as an
important resource and do not want to threaten it with GMOs.
Experts believe that the hunger problem will be solved in two ways. First, citizens
of all countries need to have the ability to grow or purchase their own food.
Second, citizens of all countries need to have responsible diets and spending
habits. What about addressing the problem of overpopulation?
Agricultural science will help countries adjust to healthier methods of food

production. Scientists are developing new high-yield varieties of crops that
require fewer fertilizers or pesticides. Such crops reduce the need for using costly
chemicals and trade.
The challenges of feeding the hungry cannot be met unless the world’s land and
water are safeguarded. Agricultural practices in developed and developing
countries have led to a severe loss of valuable topsoil, water, and other resources.
Many countries need better programs for replanting forests. Overpopulation has
pushed a growing number of farmers onto lands too fragile to sustain cultivation.
Demand for food has led to increased irrigation worldwide. In some areas,
irrigation has caused water tables to drop, rivers to run dry, and wells to go empty.
Agricultural chemicals that increase production often contaminate soil and
groundwater and disrupt food chains.
Agriculture does not have to harm the environment. By protecting the land, water,
and air, and by sharing knowledge and resources, people may yet find solutions
for the problem of world hunger.
Progress in Agriculture through Research
Tissue culture—Tissue culture is a very technical form of asexual reproduction.

As the name implies, small pieces of plant tissue are cultured, or grown, on an
artificial medium under sterile conditions. One advantage to tissue culture is that
thousands of identical plants can be produced from a small piece of plant tissue.
Tissue culture techniques are also used to grow plant and animal cells that have
been genetically modified in the laboratory. Cell culture techniques provide
scientists a rapid means of screening genetically modified cells to detect their
resistance to diseases, herbicides, or environmental stresses, such as salt
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accumulation and temperature extremes. Cells that survive the screening can be
regenerated into whole plants.
Artificial insemination- Superior animals are the products of superior parents.

Artificial insemination is the placing of semen in the female reproductive tract by
artificial techniques. With the introduction of artificial insemination, the transfer
of genes from a superior sire, or male parent, has increased dramatically. Through
modern techniques of semen collection, storage, and distribution, almost any
producer can have access to the best genes in the industry.
Precision technologies—The Global Positioning System (GPS), geographic

information systems(GIS),micro-computers, and machinery controllers are
precision technologies that have improved the efficiency of farming. Satellites
orbiting the earth are connected to a ground receiver in a field or on equipment.
The system locates exact points on GIS grid maps to control machinery operations
in the field. The technology is particularly useful for applying fertilizer and
obtaining harvest data (www.ars.usda.gov).
Application
Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper. Illustrate the following:
1. Concept of agriculture based on what you have read( before and
present);
2. Own concept about agriculture;
3. Concept of agriculture in the future
Feedback
Essay. Write your answer on a separate sheet of bond paper.
1. Discuss briefly the effect of agriculture in your life as:
a. Student
b. Son/daughter of your family
c. People in your community
2. What is your own concept about agriculture?
3. Discuss the significant event at the start of agriculture?
4. Why did you choose agriculture as your course?
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Topic 2. The nature and features of Philippine Agriculture
Learning Objectives
1. Describe the features of Philippine agriculture; and
2. Discuss the development of agriculture in the Philippines.
Philippines is located at the Southeasthern Asia, archipelago between the
Philippine Sea and the West Philippine Sea, east of Vietnam. It has a total area of
300,000 square kilometres which divided into land with an Area of 290,170
square kilometres and water with an area of 1,030 Square kilometres.
The Philippine agricultural land area is 9,671 million hectares which sub-divided
with the following:
Arable land – 4,936 million ha.
Permanent Crop Land – 4,225 million ha.
Permanent meadows/
pastures – 0.129 million ha.
Forest Land - 0.074 million ha.
Other Lands – 0.307 million ha.
Philippines Climate
The climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime. It is characterized
by relatively high temperature, high humidity and abundant rainfall. The country
has two marked seasons, dry and wet on the western shores facing the South
China Sea, where the dry season generally begins in December and ends in May,
with the wet season covering the rest of the year. The dry season shortens
progressively eastward, and the rain is heaviest along the eastern shores facing the
Pacific Ocean. From June to December, typhoons frequently strike the
archipelago at an average of 19 typhoons per year. The average monthly relative
humidity varies between 71% in March and 85% in September. The mean
temperature is between 25 to 27°C with a range of 21°C to 34°C. Monthly
average rainfall ranges from as low as 120 cm to as high as 270 cm.The
Philippine climate is classified into four types using the Corona system (Appendix
1). This is based on the prevalence of southwest and northwest monsoons and the
monthly distribution of rainfall.
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Characteristics of Philippine Agriculture
•Agricultural land area-9.671 M ha

•Cropping Intensity-1.26
•Land-man ratio of about 0.20 ha lower than world average of 0.28 ha
•>80% of agricultural area: planted to three crops –rice, corn and coconut
•General small-scale and dependent on manual labor
•Farmers are heterogeneous: commercial, semi-commercial, subsistence,
and landless farm workers
Man-land ratio. Population density (in agriculture: standing stock and

standing crop) is a measurement of population per unit area or unit
volume
Agriculture Gross Domestic Product

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the broadest quantitative measure of a
nation's total economic activity. More specifically, GDP represents the monetary
value of all goods and services produced within a nation's geographic borders
over a specified period of time.
17
Prospects of Philippine Agriculture

Liberalization of International Trade-Agriculture
- Agreement on Agriculture (AoA), implement under the
auspices of World Trade Organization
- Philippine Membership in WTO→ enactment of the AFMA to
modernize Philippine Agriculture
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
- Formed in 1947
- Outcome of the failure of different nations to create the
International Trade Organization
18
Philippines and the WTO
This page gathers key information on the Philippines' participation

in the WTO. The Philippines has been a WTO member since 1 January
1995 and a member of GATT since 27 December 1979.
Free trade has many advantages such as:
•Lower prices for consumers. Removing tariffs enables us to buy

cheaper imports.
•Free trade encourages greater competitiveness. Firms face a higher
incentive to cut costs. For example, a domestic monopoly may now
face competition from foreign firms.
•Law of comparative advantage states that free trade will enable an
increase in economic welfare. This is because countries can
specialize in producing goods where they have a lower opportunity
cost.
•Economies of scale. By encouraging free trade, firms can
specialize and produce a higher quantity. This enables more
economies of scale, this is important for industries with high fixed
costs, such as car and aeroplane manufacture.
•Free trade can help increase global economic growth.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT) was a multilateral

agreement regulating international trade. According to its preamble, its purpose
was the "substantial reduction of tariffs and other trade barriers and the
elimination of preferences, on a reciprocal and mutually advantageous basis." It
was negotiated during the United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment
and was the outcome of the failure of negotiating governments to create the
International Trade Organization (ITO). GATT was signed by 23 nations in
Geneva on October 30, 1947 and took effect on January 1, 1948. It lasted until the
signature by 123 nations in Marrakesh on April 14, 1994 of the Uruguay Round
Agreements, which established the World Trade Organization (WTO) on January
1, 1995.
World Trade Organization (WTO) replaced GATT in January 1, 1995 with
75 foundation nations and 153 member nations .Whereas GATT was a set
of rules agreed upon by nation, the WTO is an institutional body.
Philippine commitment towards the Liberalization of Agricultural Trade

•1996-Philippine Senate ratified country’s membership in WTO
•Local market became flooded w/ cheap agricultural imports while the
country’s imports were not able to penetrate rich countries’ markets
19
•As of 2004, accumulated trade deficits have already reached a very

high value of 9 B USD
•Agricultural liberalization caused significant decline in the agricultural
sector’s productivity (GDP)
•Overall number of jobs created in agriculture has fallen from 128,000
in 1006 to 44,000 in 2004
Stages of Development of Philippine Agriculture

Pre-colonial period
Indo-Malayan migrants brought with them wet-rice agriculture, with
carabao as a source of animal power for cultivation.
This type of agriculture predominated near bodies of water like rivers and
lakes.
Slash-and-burn or kaingin culture or non-plow farming predominated in
other areas.This indicated shifting agriculture rather than sedentary type of
rice culture and the tribes were mainly nomadic.No agricultural
specialization existed and the pattern of agriculture was chiefly
subsistence. The crops introduced were rice, gabi, yam, banana, corn
millet, coconut, citrus, ginger, clove, cinnamon, nutmeg.
Colonial period
This period introduced a non-producing class for which Filipinos
produced surpluses, leading to an increase in agricultural production.
The introduced crops were mulberry, cocoa, wheat, cucumber, cantaloupe,
watermelon, coffee, and other varieties of cereals, peas and vegetables.
The development of haciendas allowed for the introduction of
technological innovations in production and processing like steam or
hydraulic-powered sugar mills.
In March 6, 1909, the College of Agriculture was
founded in Los Baños as a unit of the University of the
Philippines. Consequently, science-based methods of
crop and animal production were introduced.
Post-war Period
Introduction of technological improvements such as 50’s campaign for use
of modern farm inputs and farm mechanization and 60’s building up of
market for tractors and power tillers.
20
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established. The

high yielding rice varieties which was also termed the green revolution
was also introduced. Further development and expansion of international
agricultural trading especially coconut and its by-products, tobacco, sugar,
pineapple, etc.
Focus of Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997 (AFMA)

 Food Security
 Poverty alleviation and social equity
 Income enhancement and profitability
 Global competitiveness
 People empowerment
 Protection from unfair competition
Components of AFMA:
 Production and Marketing Support Services

 Designation of Strategic Agriculture and Fisheries
Development Center
 Sustainable for economic scale production and agro-
industrial development
 Medium and Long-term Agriculture and Fisheries
Modernization Plan
 Global competitiveness, global climate change, WTO
concerns and CARP concerns
 Access to credit
 Small farmers involved in production, processing and
trading; small and medium enterprises involved in
agriculture
 Rehabilitation of existing irrigation system; promotion of
affordable and appropriate irrigation system and watershed
conservation
 Provision of timely and accurate market and trade
information system
 Supply, demand price and trends, product standards, etc.
 Other infrastructure requirements
Important Republic Acts Related To Agriculture
1. Republic Act 10068

a. Organic agriculture act of 2010.
2. Republic Act No.10659
a. Approved by the President on March 27, 2015
21
b.An act providing and supporting the competitiveness of the sugarcane

industry and for other purposes
2. Republic Act No. 10848

a. Approved By The President On May 23, 2016
b. An Act Further Extending The Period Of Implementation Of The
Agricultural Competitiveness Enhancement Fund (ACEF), Amending
For The Purpose Republic Act No. 8178, As Amended By Republic
Act No. 9496, Entitled: ―An Act Replacing Quantitative Import
Restrictions On Agricultural Products, Except Rice, With Tariffs,
Creating The Agricultural Competitiveness Enhancement Fund, And
For Other Purposes"

b. An Act Declaring Large-Scale Agricultural Smuggling As Economic
Sabotage, Prescribing Penalties Therefor And For Other Purposes

b. An Act Instituting The Philippine Halal Export Development And
Promotion Program, Creating For The Purpose The Philippine Halal
Export Development And Promotion Board, And For Other Purposes

b. An Act Providing For The Development And Promotion Of Farm
Tourism In The Philippines
Philippine National Research Centers

Agricultural Research in the Philippines has been established through schools and
research centers in both private and public sector. These are:
1. State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) offering degrees in agriculture
2. Department of Agriculture Research Networks
3. National commodity research centers
 FIDA- Fiber Industry Development Authority
 NTA- National Tobacco Administration
 PhilRice- Philippine Rice Research Institute
 SRA- Sugar Regulatory Administration
 PCA- Philippine Coconut Authority
 PRCRTC- Philippine Rootcrops Research and Training Center
 NPRCRTC- Northern Philippines Rootcrops Research and
Training Center
 NARC- National Abaca Research Center
 PRRI - Philippine Rubber Research Institute
22
4. Specialized discipline-oriented research centers

 IPB- Institute of Plant Breeding
 NCPC- National Crop protection Center
 NPGRL- National Plant Genetic Resource Laboratory
 PHTRC- Postharvest Horticulture Training and Research Center
 BIOTECH- National Institute of Molecular Biology and
Biotechnology
5. Private seed companies
 East West
 Monsanto
 Pioneer
 Syngenta
 SL-8 Agritech
 Allied Botanicals
Major International research organization mandated to do research and
development in crop species important to food and agriculture include the
following:
 IRRI- International Research Institute (Philippines)
 CIMMYT- Centro International de Mejoramiente de Maize y Trigo
(Mexico)
 ICRISAT- International Center for Semi and Tropics (India)
 CIAT- Centro de International de Agricultural Tropical (Columbia)
 ICARDA- International Center for Agriculture Research for Dry Areas
( Syria)
 ITTA- International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (Nigeria)
 ICRAF- International Center for Research on Agroforestry (Kenya)
 AVRDC- Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (Taiwan)
 Biodiversity International- for International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute (Italy)
Application
Directions: Use separate sheet of bond paper.
1. Write the highlights of agriculture development in the Philippines.
a. Pre-colonial period
___________________________________________________
b. Colonial Period
___________________________________________________
c. Post war period
___________________________________________________
23
2. List down all the local and international entities involved in research.
Feedback
Essay. Write your answer on a separate sheet of bond paper.
1. Discuss your point of view on one of the components of AFMA.
2. If you will be given an opportunity to create another agricultural
research center in our country, what would it be and why?
Topic 3. Data and Facts about Philippine Agriculture
Learning Objectives
1. Recall and explain the data and facts about Philippine agriculture from
previous years to present;
2. Compare the data about Philippine agriculture.
Economic Performance. The country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
increased by 6.2 percent in 2018. The Gross Value Added (GVA) in the
agriculture and fishing sector recorded a 0.8 percent increment during the year.
This sector contributed 8.1 percent to the GDP. In 2019 9.3% GDP (worldbank,
2019).
Production Performance in Agriculture. Agriculture grew by 0.59 percent in
2018. Gains in production were noted in livestock and poultry while declines in
outputs were registered in crops and fisheries. Crops registered a 0.99 percent
reduction in output. Palay and corn suffered as production dropped by 1.09
percent and 1.81 percent, respectively. Sugarcane production declined by15.56
percent. Coconut posted 4.82 percent growth in output. Increases in production
were noted in the other crops such as banana, pineapple, peanut, mongo, tomato,
eggplant, abaca and rubber ( see table 2.1). Meanwhile, downtrends in outputs
continued in coffee, mango, tobacco, cabbage and calamansi.
Livestock production increased by 1.90 percent in 2018 (see table 3.1). Hog and
dairy came up with corresponding output gains of 2.42 percent and 4.11 percent.
In contrast, production of carabao, cattle and goat went down by 0.88 percent,
1.12 percent and 0.50 percent, respectively. Poultry recorded a 5.75 percent
24
increment in production. Chicken production maintained its uptrend of 5.20

percent while that of duck continuously declined by 0.92 percent. Egg production
increased by 8.43 percent for chicken and by 2.60 percent for duck.
According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), the value of local
agricultural production grew 0.4 percent in the 4th quarter of 2019, lower than the
1.9 percent growth during the same period in 2018. The last quarter performance
brought the full-year average to 0.7 percent, slightly higher than the 0.6 percent
growth in 2018 but lower than the targeted 2 percent growth rate for the entire
2019. Philippine agriculture’s flat production lags significantly behind the
broader economy’s 5.9 percent growth in 2019, which itself was an eight-year
low.
Agriculture Secretary Dr. William Dar attributed the lower than expected
performance in the last quarter of 2019 to African Swine Fever (ASF),
compounded by the strong typhoons during the period. Prior to ASF being
confirmed in the Philippines in September 2019, pork and poultry production
were the bright spots in a persistently slow-growing agriculture sector. ASF
continued to spread through Luzon during this period, and hog farmers’
challenges were further compounded by restricted movement across provinces of
hogs, pork and pork products, and feed. The livestock sector declined 8.5 percent,
as hog production drove the decline with a 9.8 percent drop during the last quarter
of 2019. The livestock sector declined 1.0 percent for the entire year, reflecting
the same decline in hog production. For more information on ASF and its effect
on the swine industry, see Post’s latest Grain and Feed report.
In sharp contrast to pork, poultry production grew by 5.4 percent in the last
quarter of 2019, with chicken output increasing 4.1 percent. From 2018 to 2019,
Philippine poultry production surged 5.8 percent, with chicken increasing by 4.9
percent. All poultry components, except ducks, posted positive gains in 2019,
both as a continuation of a longer growth trend and a result of consumers looking
for non-pork sources of protein. Note, however, that ASF does not pose a risk to
human health.
Crop production expanded 1.0 percent during the last quarter, with paddy rice’s
4.7 percent growth offsetting the 8.2 percent decline in corn. An unusual number
of late-season typhoons hit the Philippines during this period, including Typhoons
Kammuri, Quiel, Ramon, and Ursula. Over the entire 2019, the crop sector
declined 0.8 percent, with rice contracting 1.3 percent and corn gaining 2.7
percent. This year also saw the passage of the Rice Tariffication Law, which
opened the Philippine market to imports, notably from its ASEAN neighbors and
pushed farm gate prices lower. For more information, see Post’s reports on the
Rice Tariffication Law and the implementing rules and regulations.
25
Fisheries production increased by 3.4 percent in the fourth quarter of 2019 and 1.9
percent during the entire year, continuing the Philippines’ growing demand for
protein.
Prices. In 2018, the prices received by farmers for their palay production were
higher by an average of 12.03 percent than the previous year’s record. Farm gate
prices went up by 13.27 percent for white corn grain and by 20.78 percent for
yellow corn grain. All livestock commodities exhibited increases in prices in
2018. Goat posted the highest price hike at 10.29 percent. For poultry, farm gate
prices of chicken (broiler) grew by 8.59 percent while that of duck went up by
12.20 percent in 2018. Average farm gate prices in the last quarter of 2019
declined 5.7 percent. Prices were down 5.0 percent for the entire year.
Agricultural Trade. The country’s earnings from agricultural exports, which

accounted for 8.83 percent of the total exports revenue, declined by 7.02 percent
in 2018. Fresh banana, coconut oil and tuna were the top agricultural export
products. These contributed 48.27 percent to the total value of agricultural
exports. The major export destinations were still China and Japan for fresh
banana, United States of America (USA) and the Netherlands for coconut oil, and
United Kingdom and Japan for tuna.
The 2018 expenditures for agricultural imports expanded by 19.89 percent. It
shared 12.50 percent to the country’s total value of imports. Wheat (including
spelt) and meslin, soyabean oil/cake meal, and milk and cream and cream
products recorded higher payments than their import values in the previous year.
Collectively, these shared 28.34 percent to the total value of agricultural imports.
USA was the top supplier of wheat (including spelt) and meslin and soyabean
oil/cake meal. The bulk of the imports of milk and cream and products were
sourced from New Zealand.
The Philippines continued to record a negative agricultural trade balance. While
it sustained an agricultural trade surplus with Japan, it remained to register trade
deficits with the other major trading partners such as Australia, ASEAN countries
and the European Union. After a series of trade deficits, the country had trade
surplus with the USA in 2018.
Employment. In 2018, a total of 43.46 million persons (see table 1.2) were in the
country’s labor force, of which 94.7 percent were employed. The agriculture
sector employed 10.00 million persons and it represented a share of 24.30 percent
to the national employment. In 2019, 25% (worldbank, 2019).
26
27
28
29
Application
Use a separate sheet of bond paper. List down the data from 2018-2019 on
the following:
Particular 2018 2019
GDP
Population
Employment(%)
Farm gate prices
Rice production
Corn production
Livestock production
Poultry production
Pork production
Chicken production
Feedback
Essay. Discuss briefly but substantially. Write your answer on a separate sheet of
bond paper.
1. Discuss the effect of ASF in the livestock production and to the economic
performance of agriculture.
2. If you are a policy maker, would you still agree or not to the rice
tariffication law? Why?
3. If you are going to estimate the production of crops (rice and corn), hog
and chicken in this pandemic period, what would it be and why?
Summary
 Agriculture is the art and science of cultivating the soil, growing crops and
raising livestock. It includes the preparation of plant and animal products
for people to use and their distribution to markets.
 Before agriculture became widespread, people spent most of their lives
searching for food hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants.
 The Philippines has been a WTO member since 1 January 1995 and a
member of GATT since 27 December 1979.
 Agricultural research in the Philippines has been established through
schools and research centers in both private and public sector
30
 The value of local agricultural production grew 0.4 percent in the 4th
quarter of 2019, lower than the 1.9 percent growth during the same period
in 2018 (PSA).
Reflection
Congratulations! You are about to finish the Unit I of this module. Write your
reflection by answering the questions below. Use a separate sheet of bond paper.
1. What topic/s surprised you in this unit?
2. What topic/s made you upset?
3. What topic/s can you share to others?
References
AgEdLibrary.com, 2006 The Importance of Agricultural Research
Mercado, T. _____. Fundamentals of Crop Science 11.ppt
Philippine Statistics Authority,2019. Selected statistics on agriculture
www.fas.usda.gov Performance of Philippine agriculture in 4th quarter 2019
www.farmingportal.com, The importance of agriculture
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/world-history-
beginnings/birth-agriculture-neolithic-revolution/a/where-did-agriculture-come-
from
https://medcraveonline.com/OAJS/OAJS-03-00127.pdf
www.worldbank.org Food security and covid-19 world bank group
31

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Unit 1: Nature & importance of agriculture

Unit 1: The nature and importance of agriculture

Activating Prior Knowledge

Topic 1. The nature of agriculture as field of study

Agriculture includes science, technology, and engineering. It is the genetics work

Agriculture includes business. It is the financial and legal aspects of acquiring

Start of Agriculture (www.nationalgeographic.com)

Over centuries, the growth of agriculture contributed to the rise of civilizations.

Around 5500 BCE, farmers in Mesopotamia developed simple irrigation systems.

Many medieval European farmers used an open-field system of planting. One

One of the most important of these developments was an improved horse-drawn

Cultures have been breeding animals for centuries—evidence suggests Mongolian

For thousands of years, farmers relied on natural fertilizer—materials such as

Agriculture includes such forms of cultivation as hydroponics and aquaculture.

Aquaculture—primarily the cultivation of fish and shellfish—was practiced in

Bottom trawling has affected ocean ecosystems. In bottom trawling, enormous

With a greater knowledge of genetics, people can scientifically select

These genetically modified organisms (GMOs or GM foods) are now common

Biotechnology has brought advances in animal husbandry (ranching, or the

The controversies surrounding GM foods are enormous. Farmers who grow GM

Low-technology farming involves permanent crops: food grown on land that is

From alpacas in Peru to zebus in India, billons of domesticated animals around

In many developed countries, poultry production has become a major agricultural

Fight Against Hunger

Overpopulation also contributes to unequal distribution of food resources. Much

Exporting food or agricultural technology from countries with surpluses to those

Agricultural science will help countries adjust to healthier methods of food

Progress in Agriculture through Research

Tissue culture—Tissue culture is a very technical form of asexual reproduction.

Artificial insemination- Superior animals are the products of superior parents.

Precision technologies—The Global Positioning System (GPS), geographic

Topic 2. The nature and features of Philippine Agriculture

Characteristics of Philippine Agriculture

•Agricultural land area-9.671 M ha

Man-land ratio. Population density (in agriculture: standing stock and

Agriculture Gross Domestic Product

Prospects of Philippine Agriculture

Philippines and the WTO

This page gathers key information on the Philippines' participation

Free trade has many advantages such as:

•Lower prices for consumers. Removing tariffs enables us to buy

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT) was a multilateral

Philippine commitment towards the Liberalization of Agricultural Trade

•As of 2004, accumulated trade deficits have already reached a very

Stages of Development of Philippine Agriculture

The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established. The

Focus of Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997 (AFMA)

 Production and Marketing Support Services

Important Republic Acts Related To Agriculture

1. Republic Act 10068

b.An act providing and supporting the competitiveness of the sugarcane

2. Republic Act No. 10848

3. Republic Act No. 10845

4. Republic Act No. 10817

5. Republic Act No. 10816

Philippine National Research Centers

4. Specialized discipline-oriented research centers

Topic 3. Data and Facts about Philippine Agriculture

increment in production. Chicken production maintained its uptrend of 5.20