Mekanisme Penguatan pada Logam

CACAT KRISTAL
 Point Defects

Atomic point defects.

Two most common point defects in compounds:

Schottky and Frenkel defects.

 Frenkel Defect : A cation vacancy – cation

interstitial pair
Point Defects

Interstices in FCC structure. (a)

Octahedral void. (b)‫‏‬Tetrahedral void.

Interstices in the BCC structure. (a)

Octahedral void. (b)‫‏‬Tetrahedral void.

Interstices in the HCP structure. (a)

Octahedral void. (b)‫‏‬Tetrahedral void.
Formation of Point Defects

Formation of point defects by the annihilation of

dislocations. (a) Row of vacancies. (b) Row of
interstitials.
 Point Defects in Alloys
Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A):
• Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)

OR

Substitutional solid soln. Interstitial solid soln.

(e.g., Cu in Ni) (e.g., C in Fe)
• Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new
phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
Second phase particle
--different composition
--often different structure.

7
 Imperfections in Solids
Conditions for substitutional solid solution (S.S.)
• W. Hume – Rothery rule
– 1. r (atomic radius) < 15%
– 2. Proximity in periodic table
• i.e., similar electronegativities
– 3. Same crystal structure for pure metals
– 4. Valency
• All else being equal, a metal will have a greater tendency
to dissolve a metal of higher valency than one of lower
valency

8
 Imperfections in Solids
Linear Defects (Dislocations)
– Are one-dimensional defects around which atoms are
misaligned
• Edge dislocation:
– extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal structure
– b  to dislocation line
• Screw dislocation:
– spiral planar ramp resulting from shear deformation
– b  to dislocation line
Burger’s vector, b: measure of lattice distortion

9
 Line Defects
Dislocations:
• are line defects,
• slip between crystal planes result when dislocations move,
• produce permanent (plastic) deformation.

Schematic of Zinc (HCP):

• before deformation • after tensile elongation

slip steps

Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.

10
DISLOKASI
Stress Required to Shear a Crystal
Theoretical Shear Strength of Some Materials
 Line Defects

(a) Rug with a fold.

Caterpillar with a hump.

Edge dislocation / Dislokasi Sisi
 SCREW DISLOCATION (DISLOKASI ULIR)

• AB = garis dislokasi ulir

• Garis dislokasi sejajar
dengan vektor Burgers
 Edge, Screw, and Mixed
Dislocations
Mixed

Edge

Screw
Adapted from Fig. 4.5, Callister 7e.

20
GERAK DISLOKASI
Penggolongan dislokasi dan material
 Density
(Kepadatan)
Dislokasi
Strengthening mechanisms and the consequent drop in ductility, here shown for copper
alloys. The mechanisms are frequently combined. The greater the strength, the lower the
ductility (the elongation to fracture, εf).
 1. STRAIN HARDENING
(Pengerasan Regangan)

• Mekanisme penguatan strain hardening berkaitan erat dengan

deformasi plastik  cold working (pengerjaan dingin)
• Deformasi plastik berhubungan dengan pergerakan dislokasi
• Kemampuan logam untuk berdeformasi plastik bergantung
pada pergerakan dislokasi
• Peningkatan kekuatan logam dikarenakan dislokasi sulit untuk
bergerak.
 LOCAL STRAIN FIELDS

• Atom-atom di atas garis dislokasi mengalami compression,

dan atom-atom di bawahnya mengalami tension
• Medan tegangan dan regangan menurun secara radial
terhadap garis dislokasi
 INTERAKSI DISLOKASI

• Medan regangan dari satu dislokasi dapat mempengaruhi dislokasi

tetangga
• Dislokasi yang bertanda sama akan saling tolak menolak
• Dislokasi yang berlainan tanda akan saling tarik menarik dan terjadi
anihilasi (Anihilasi : dislokasi yang berlainan tanda akan saling
meniadakan  mengurangi densitas dislokasi)
 SISTEM SLIP

• Dislokasi tidak bergerak dengan tingkat kemudahan

yang sama pada semua bidang dan arah kristalogtafi
• Dislokasi bergerak pada bidang dan arah yang
diinginkan yaitu bidang slip dan arah slip.
• Bidang slip adalah bidang dengan densitas atom yang
tertinggi  jarak antar atom paling kecil
• Arah slip adalah garis dengan high linear density
• Sistem slip adalah: kombinasi dari bidang slip dan arah
slip
 COLD WORK (%CW)

• Room temperature deformation.

• Common forming operations change the cross sectional
area:
-Forging force -Rolling
die
Ao blank Ad
Adapted from Fig.
11.7, Callister 6e.

-Drawing force -Extrusion

die Ad
Ao tensile
force
die

Ao  Ad
%CW  x100
Ao
Plastic deformation in the temperature range (0.3 – 0.5) Tm →‫‏‬COLD WORK

↑‫‏‬point‫‏‬defect‫‏‬density
Cold work

↑‫‏‬dislocation‫‏‬density

 Point defects and dislocations have strain energy associated with them
 (1 -10) % of the energy expended in plastic deformation is stored in the
form of strain energy

Annealed material Stronger material


Cold work

dislocation ~ (10  10 )
6 9
dislocation ~ (1012  1014 )
 DISLOCATIONS DURING COLD WORK
• Ti alloy after cold working:

• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
University.)
 RESULT OF COLD WORK
• Dislocation density (d) goes up:
Carefully prepared sample: d ~ 103 mm/mm3
Heavily deformed sample: d ~ 1010 mm/mm3
• Ways of measuring dislocation density:
40mm
Area, A dislocation Micrograph
pit adapted from Fig.
7.0, Callister 6e.
OR (Fig. 7.0 is
N dislocation courtesy of W.G.
Johnson, General
pits (revealed Electric Co.)
by etching)
 N
d
A
• Yield stress increases
as d increases:
 DISLOCATION-DISLOCATION TRAPPING
• Dislocations generate stress.
• This traps other dislocations.
Mekanisme perbanyakan dislokasi (Frank Read)
 IMPACT OF COLD WORK
• Yield strength increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases (dramatically).

Adapted from Fig. 7.18,

Callister 6e. (Fig. 7.18 is
from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection:
Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th
ed., B. Bardes (Ed.),
American Society for
Metals, 1978, p. 221.)
 COLD WORK ANALYSIS
• What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working?
ro2  rd2
%CW  x100  35.6%
2
ro

Adapted from Fig. 7.17, Callister 6e. (Fig. 7.17 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron and
Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook: Properties and
Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals,
1979, p. 276 and 327.)
RESUME : Peningkatan Kekuatan karena dislokasi = Strain
Hardening

• Logam sempurna tidak pernah ada  Logam selalu memiliki

cacat (dislokasi)
• Dislokasi akan bergerak jika ada gaya yang bekerja dari luar
 Dislokasi akan bergerak selama masih bisa bergerak
• Pergerakan dislokasi akan terhenti jika menemui hambatan 
dislokasi akan memperbanyak diri (mekanisme Frank-Read)
terjadi peningkatan densitas dislokasi
• Dislokasi akan semakin sukar bergerak  diperlukan gaya dari
luar lebih besar untuk menggerakan dislokasi  Kekuatan
material meningkat
2: SOLID SOLUTION
STRENGTHENING
 Relative
size
Interstitial
Compressive
Impurity Stress
Fields
Substitutional

Compressive stress
fields

 SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY Tensile Stress

 Foreign atom replacing the parent atom in the crystal Fields
 E.g. Cu sitting in the lattice site of FCC-Ni
 INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY
 Foreign atom sitting in the void of a crystal
 E.g. C sitting in the octahedral void in HT FCC-Fe
EXAMPLE: SOLID SOLUTION
STRENGTHENING IN COPPER
To solve the problem, the amount of C and N should be lowered by
adding elements such as Al, V, Ti, B to form carbides or nitrides.
3: PRECIPITATION HARDENING /
STRENGTHENING
“age hardening" is also used to designate this
procedure because the strength develops with time,
or as the alloy ages.
• Alloys that can be precipitation hardened
or age hardened:
 Copper-beryllium (Cu-Be)
 Copper-tin (Cu-Sn)
 Magnesium-aluminum (Mg-Al)
 Aluminum-copper (Al-Cu)
 High-strength aluminum alloys
Syarat:
1. Small particles of a different phase called precipitates are
uniformly dispersed in the matrix of the original phase
2. Syarat pada sistem diagram fasa paduan:
• Larutan padat
• Menghasilkan presipitat
3. Presipitat bersifat sangat keras
Mekanisme : Presipitat yang keras akan berperan sebagai
penghalang gerakan dislokasi (dislokasi tidak dapat memotong
presipitat)  dislokasi akan memperbanyak diri  densitas
dislokasi meningkat  perlu gaya dari luar lebih besar untuk
menggerakan dislokasi  Logam bertambah kuat
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).

1
• Result: y ~
S
 Phase Diagram for Precipitation Hardened Alloy
Criteria:
 Maximum solubility of 1
component in the other (M);
 Solubility limit that rapidly
decreases with decrease in
temperature (M→N).
Process:
 Solution Heat Treatment – first
heat treatment where all solute
atoms are dissolved to form a
single-phase solid solution.
 Heat to T0 and dissolve B phase.
 Rapidly quench to T1
 Nonequilibrium state (a phase
solid solution supersaturated with
B atoms; alloy is soft, weak-no
ppts).
 Precipitation Heat Treatment
 The supersaturated a solid
solution is usually heated to an
intermediate temperature T2
within the a+b region (diffusion
rates increase).
 The b precipitates (PPT) begin
to form as finely dispersed
particles. This process is
referred to as aging.
 After aging at T2, the alloy is
cooled to room temperature.
 Strength and hardness of the
alloy depend on the ppt
temperature (T2) and the aging
time at this temperature.
 Solution Heat Treatment
• Logam paduan yang masuk dalam kategori Heat treatable alloys
memperoleh peningkatan kekuatannya melalui tahapan proses
yaitu: solution heat treatment, quenching, and aging.
• Tujuan utamanya adalah untuk menghasilkan ukuran presipitat
sub-micron pada matrikx (contoh matrix aluminum) yang disebut
dengan precipitates tyang berpengaruh pada sifat akhir logam.
• While simple in concept, the process variations required
(depending on alloy, product form, desired final property
combinations, etc.) make it sufficiently complex that heat treating
has become a professional specialty.
• The first step in the heat treatment process is solution heat
treatment. The objective of this process step is to place the
elements into solution that will eventually be called upon for
precipitation hardening.
• Developing solution heat treatment times and temperatures has
typically involved extensive trial and error, partially due to the lack
of accurate process models.
 Aging-microstructure
• The supersaturated solid solution is
unstable and if, left alone, the excess q
will precipitate out of the a phase. This
process is called aging.
• Types of aging:
– Natural aging process occurs at room
temperature
– Artificial aging If solution heat treated,
requires heating to speed up the
precipitation
– Over aging
 Overaging
• After solution heat treatment the material is ductile,
since no precipitation has occurred. Therefore, it may
be worked easily.
• After a time the solute material precipitates and
hardening develops.
• As the composition reaches its saturated normal state,
the material reaches its maximum hardness.
• The precipitates, however, continue to grow. The fine
precipitates disappear. They have grown larger, and as
a result the tensile strength of the material decreases.
This is called overaging.
 Precipitation Heat Treatment
 PPT behavior is represented
in the diagram:
 With increasing time, the
hardness increases, reaching
a maximum (peak), then
decreasing in strength.
 The reduction in strength and
hardness after long periods is
overaging (continued particle
growth).

Small solute-enriched regions in a solid solution where the lattice is

identical or somewhat perturbed from that of the solid solution are called
Guinier-Preston zones.
Guinier-Preston (GP) zones - Tiny clusters of atoms that precipitate from
the matrix in the early stages of the age-hardening process.
Several stages in the formation of the equilibrium
PPT (q) phase.
(a) supersaturated a solid solution;
(b) transition (q”) PPT phase;
(c) equilibrium q phase within the a matrix phase.
 Hardness vs. Time
The hardness and tensile strength vary
during aging and overaging.
 Influence of Precipitation Heat Treatment on
Tensile Strength (TS), %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• TS peak with precipitation time. • %EL reaches minimum
• Increasing T accelerates with precipitation time.
process.
tensile strength (MPa)

%EL (2 in sample)
30
400 20
300
10
200 149°C 204°C 149°C
204°C
100 1min 1h 1day1mo1yr 0 1min 1h 1day1mo1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat tim
Effects of Temperature

 Characteristics of a 2014
aluminum alloy (0.9 wt% Si, 4.4
wt% Cu, 0.8 wt% Mn, 0.5 wt%
Mg) at 4 different aging
temperatures.
 Aluminum rivets
 Alloys that experience significant
precipitation hardening at room
temp, after short periods must be
quenched to and stored under
refrigerated conditions.
 Several aluminum alloys that are
used for rivets exhibit this
behavior. They are driven while
still soft, then allowed to age
harden at the normal room
temperature.
Precipitation Hardening pada Al-Cu
• Particles impede dislocation motion.
• Ex: Al-Cu system 700
T(°C) L CuAl2
• Procedure:
-- Pt A: solution heat treat
600 a a+L q+L
(get a solid solution) 500A q
-- Pt B: quench to room temp. a+q
(retain a solid solution) 400 C
-- Pt C: reheat to nucleate 300
small q particles within (Al) 0B 10 20 30 40 50 wt% Cu
a phase. composition range
available for precipitation hardening

Temp. At room temperature the stable state

Pt A (solution heat treat) of an aluminum-copper alloy is an
aluminum-rich‫‏‬solid‫‏‬solution‫(‏‬α)‫‏‬and‫‏‬
an intermetallic phase with a
tetragonal crystal structure having
Pt C (precipitate q) nominal composition CuAl2 (θ).‫‏‬

Time
Pt B
 Quenching
• Quenching is the second
step in the process.
• Its purpose is to retain the
dissolved alloying elements
in solution for subsequent
precipitation hardening.
• Generally the more rapid the
quench the better, from a
properties standpoint, but
this must be balanced
against the concerns of part
distortion and residual stress
if the quench is non-uniform.

Changes in Microstructure due to

quenching
 Aging or Age Hardening

 Because the precipitation process is one

of time and temperature, it is also called
AGING.
 Age hardening is the property
improvement of the material
 Artificial aging is carried out above room
temperature
 Natural aging: some aluminum alloys
harden and become stronger over time at
room temperature
Perubahan Struktur mikro selama aging

Age-hardening heat treatment phase diagram

FIGURE 4.22 The effect of aging time and temperature on the yield stress of 2014-T4 aluminum
alloy. Note that, for each temperature, there is an optimal aging time for maximum strength.
 SIMULATION:
PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
• View onto slip plane of Nimonic PE16
• Precipitate volume fraction: 10%

Simulation courtesy of Volker

Mohles, Institut für
Materialphysik der Universitåt,
Münster, Germany
(http://www.uni-
munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with
permission.
 APPLICATION:
PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from Fig.
11.0, Callister 5e.
(Fig. 11.0 is
courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing
Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig.
11.24, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 11.24 is
courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing
Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5mm
4. PENGHALUSAN BUTIR
(GRAIN REFINEMENT)
Hall-Petch Equation  yield  o + k y d 1/ 2
 GRAIN SIZE STRENGTHENING:
AN EXAMPLE
• Grain size controlled by heat treatment (e.g., cooling rate
during solidification, annealing)
• 70wt%Cu-30wt%Zn brass alloy
 yield  o + k y d 1/ 2

Adapted from Fig. 7.13,

Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.13 is adapted
from H. Suzuki, "The
Relation Between the
Structure and
Mechanical Properties
of Metals", Vol. II,
National Physical
Laboratory Symposium
No. 15, 1963, p. 524.)
 ANISOTROPY IN yield
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
-before rolling -after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister 6e. (Fig. 7.11 is
from W.G. Moffatt, G.W.
Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
p. 140, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1964.)

rolling direction
235 mm
-isotropic -anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
approx. spherical orientation and shape.
& randomly
oriented.
Resume Mekanisme Penguatan
• Dislocations motion correlates to plastic deformation.

• Strength is increased by making dislocation motion difficult.

• Particular ways to increase strength are to:

--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work
• Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size.