P D P: C I D, C M: Design of Coastal Roads

The University of the West Indies Organization of
American States
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME:

COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND
MAINTENANCE
A COURSE IN
COASTAL DEFENSE SYSTEMS II
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF COASTAL ROADS
RAYMOND CHARLES
Senior Lecturer, Head of Department,
Department of Civil Engineering
The University of the West Indies,
St. Augustine Campus,
Trinidad, West Indies
Organized by Department of Civil Engineering, The University of the West Indies, in conjunction with Old
Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA and Coastal Engineering Research Centre, US Army, Corps of Engineers,
Vicksburg, MS, USA.
Dominica, West Indies, July 30-August3, 2001

Design of Coastal Roads
Coastal Defense Systems II
CDCM Professional Development Programme, 2001
1. INTRODUCTION
Coastal roads constitute a major segment of national road networks in the Caribbean, that
not only provides access to fishing, residential, and tourism resources, but also because of
often encountered difficult terrain, to all other productive sectors and social communities on
a daily basis. Of the 40,000 km of paved road in the region, between 10 and 90 percent are
coastal roads. Generally, volcanic islands can have as much as 80 percent of their paved
roads as coastal ring roads because of the difficult inland terrain and patterns of human
settlements. Other islands such as Barbados, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago have
tolerable inland terrain that can provide affordable and reliable access to several parts of the
island territory, but still rely on 10 to 30 percent of their paved road network for vital access
to the coastal towns, villages (usually fishing) and beaches. Typically, the areas served in
the region include:
• Cities and towns;
• Industrial centres;
• Airports and seaports;
• Fishing villages;
• Inland agricultural parcels;
• Inland and coastal residential communities;
• Hotels;
• Beaches; and
• Eco resorts.
In the Caribbean coastal roads are a necessity of life.
2. TYPES OF COASTAL ROADS

2.1 Coastal Zone Areas
The coastal zone in this treatment of coastal roads is defined as the transition zone where the
land meets water, the region that is directly influenced by marine or lacustrine
hydrodynamic processes. The coastal zone extends offshore to the continental shelf break
and onshore to the first major change in topography above the reach of major storm waves.
Roads usually rely on solid ground for location and support, and so the geological
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appreciation of the coastal zone becomes necessary for use in the planning and design of
coastal roads. In this regard the geological appreciation presented in Part IV-1-2 of the CEM
2000 presents a suitable configuration of the coastal zone for landward design. The coastal
zone is divided into four subzones; the coast, the shore, the shoreface, and the continental
shelf (see Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 1 (IV-1-2). Definition of Terms and Features Describing the Coastal Zone.
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The Continental shelf (Figure 2) is the shallow seafloor that borders most continents
(Figure IV-1-3). The shelf floor extends from the toe of the shoreface to the shelf break
where the steeply inclined continental slope begins. It has been common practice to
subdivide the shelf into inner-, mid-, and outer zones, although there are no regularly
occurring geomorphic features on most shelves that suggest a basis for these subdivisions.
Although the term inner shelf has been widely used, it is seldom qualified beyond arbitrary
depth or distance boundaries. Site-specific shelf zonation can be based on project
requirements and local geologic conditions. Some coastal areas in the Caribbean do not
extend out to a significant continental shelf.
Figure 2. The Coastal Zone and Continental Shelf.
2.2 Road Classification Character

In the Caribbean, the location of coastal roads traverses all areas of the landward coastal
zone, and one road such as an Island ring road may, along its length, move from a safe
setback in the uplands or dune areas, to berm crests in a backshore or foreshore location, and
to bluffs and steep cliffs in the mountainous coastal regions. They are all defended in one
way or other from wave attack by either:
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• a land buffer, as in the case of conservative setbacks in the uplands from the
shoreline;
• a natural defense system such as a dune, embankment or bluff; or by
• a sea defense structure built to suit the integrity and function of the roadway.
In built-up areas, such as on promenades etc., they are located at the shoreface with some
form of vertical wall or constructed defense system.
Overall, the character of coastal roads may be classified by four distinct categories:
a) Natural: - These are roads built into the existing terrain, without the use of
built structures for defense. They are either located in a conservative setback
area or defended by the natural shore/coast formation, and their construction
present minimum disturbance to the physical and natural environment. This
type of coastal road often provides canopied views on flat terrain and
sweeping panoramic views on cliffs and large bluffs. Toe armouring may be
necessary for cliffs and bluffs.
b) Open: - Wherever the terrain demands and wave action permits, earthen
structures such as embankments may be employed to carry the coastal road,
with or without setback. These types are particularly suited to protected
alluvial gulfs and bays where the terrain is very flat, at or below mean sea
level, and wave action does not present the need for energy absorbing
structures. These roads facilitate wide views and are ideal for the provision of
aesthetically pleasing roadway geometrics.
c) Built: - A built coastal road is defended by an energy absorbing structure
such as armour revetment or a sea wall, and usually abuts the structure or
located within close reserve of it. These types are better suited to sub-urban
and built up residential and recreational areas, and large coastal areas lying
below sea level, as in the case of Guyana where the sea wall extends for 200
km along the coast defending some 200 km of coastal roads.
d) Urban: - These roads are found principally on downtown promenades, and
commercial areas, and the defense is usually through a slender vertical sea
wall. The road usually abuts the wall directly and the sea is sometimes
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within an arm’s length. These provide valuable commercial and recreational

appeal, for both cruise ship tourism and local residents, as is the case of the
Carenage in St. Georges Grenada, and other promenades in Dominica,
Tobago and Grenada. These roads are not to be confused with seaport roads.
The functional and hierarchical classification will obviously fall into the respective agency’s
policy and procedures for classification.
3. DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
3.1 Factors
The major factors to be considered in the design of a road are
a) Safety
b) Environmental Impact
c) Initial construction cost and life cycle cost
Safety involves the provision of adequate road geometrics and cross section, so that
accidents are minimised and accessibility/all-season passability is maintained. It also refers
to the reliability of the pavement structure, the stability of any roadside slopes, and the
probability of failure of the sea defense.
Environmental impact against wetlands, lagoons and estuaries, and the shorelands has to be
mitigated at the design stage. Particularly, the change drainage patterns and the potential for
upland flooding and coastal pollution, and the interaction of riverine and estuarine systems
with tidal changes at river outlets have to be carefully evaluated. At the construction stage,
the location of fill disposal sites and the biological pollution of the coastal waters are also of
concern.
Economic performance is normally at the helm of design activities. An economic analysis of
candidate design alternatives must be done on a life-cycle basis to establish the best
performing economic alternative and so the best form of investment, particularly when there
is Sectoral competition for the same funds and the investment has to be justified. Ideally the
designed alternatives must be safe and environmentally friendly.
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SHOREFACE
Figure3. Coastal Road Systems

(Photo: East Coast of Trinidad and Tobago)
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3.2 Design Subsystems

Because of their locations, coastal roads require the successful interaction of three basic
subsystems for the maintenance of accessibility and good ride comfort (see Figure 3). These
subsystems are:
• The roadway subsystem, inclusive of the vehicle, pavement structure, roadside
configuration, drainage and water crossing infrastructural elements;
• The ground support subsystem, embracing the roadway formation stability
against erosion, sliding and deformations; and
• The coastal defense subsystem as it applies to the protection and integrity of the
roadway and ground support system against wave attack.
Each of these systems must be safe, environmentally friendly, and optimum in cost
effectiveness, and as such the design procedures must account for these criteria.
4. PAVEMENT DESIGN
4.1 Types of Pavement Structures
Basically, all hard surfaced pavement types can be categorized into two groups, flexible and
rigid.
4.1.1 Flexible pavements are those that are surfaced with bituminous (or asphalt) materials in the
surface (or wearing) course. These can be either in the form of pavement surfaces such as a
Surfaced Dressed (SD) or bituminous surface course (BST) generally found on lower
volume (or lower traffic) roads. On the other hand, AC surface courses are generally used on
higher volume roads (see Figure 4(a)). These types of pavements are called "flexible" since
the total pavement structure "bends" or "deflects" due to traffic loads. Further, the flexible
pavement structure is generally composed of several layers of materials that can
accommodate this "flexing" (Figure 4(a)).
4.1.2 Rigid pavements are composed of a Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) surface course (Figure
4(b)) resting on a subbase or base. Such pavements are substantially "stiffer" than flexible
pavements due to the high modulus of elasticity of the PCC material. Further, these
pavements can have reinforcing steel that is generally used to reduce or eliminate "joints."
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(a) Flexible Pavement
(b) Rigid Pavement

Figure 4. Road Pavement Structures
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4.1.3 A Concrete Block Pavement (CBP) is made up of precisely dimensioned individual concrete
blocks that fit closely together to form a segment of pavement surface (see Figure 5). A
CBP surface course shares some similar performance characteristics with flexible pavement.
Common names for the concrete blocks include pavers, paving blocks, and interlocking
paving blocks. They find much use in parking aprons, promenades and roads in the built-up
and recreational areas of the coastal zone.
Figure 5. Concrete Block Pavement
4.1.4 The determination of the type of pavement structure type is of major importance in the
development of plans for any road paving project. The primary factors to be considered in
determining the pavement type include:
• Traffic, whether high volume or low volume, and traffic safety
• Strength of subgrade soils
• Environment (weather)
• Construction materials and their availability
• Construction factors, local capacity and foreign exchange component
• Life cycle performance
Other factors for consideration are:
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• Adjacent existing pavement structures

• Stage construction
• Conservation of aggregate or recycling opportunities
4.2 Design Policy

The major concerns of most road agencies in the provision of a road pavement is how much
it will cost to construct, what is the quality of ride and how much does it cost per year to
maintain. Additionally, the link between road condition and user costs is of prime
importance to users and the society as a whole. Design of road pavements must seek to
address these concerns and in accounting for many of the pavement selection factors the
procedure should incorporate:
i) Traffic loading
ii) Subgrade strength
iii) Construction Materials character
iv) Drainage (Environment)
v) Performance
vi) Reliability (Safety)
Different agencies have different measures of ride quality, and most converge on the
roughness or ride quality of the pavement. The International Roughness Index (IRI),
expressed as m/km, is a time-stable, absolute measure of roughness and is related to most of
the established roughness measures employed today. This is the measure of condition and
ride quality that is recommended and adopted in this manual. Ride quality and the IRI are
categorised in Table 1 into 6 levels, ranging from a very smooth ride to a very rough ride for
both paved and unpaved roads.
4.3 Traffic
Traffic volumes recommended for low-volume roads range from 50 to 1,000 vpd, with the
typical traffic stream considered catering for up to 60 percent trucks. For high volume
roads, the traffic is expressed in terms of the number of Equivalent Standard Axles Loads
(ESAL) as a measure of the damaging power of axle loads in the traffic stream. One passage
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of an 8,162 kg single axle load is considered to cause unit damage to the pavement structure.
High volume roads carry around a minimum of 500,000 ESALs over the design life of the
pavement structure. The average annual growth rates used are usually between 0 and 5
percent. The designer is strongly advised to conduct separate traffic surveys and analyses to
ascertain the appropriate values for the damaging power of the traffic stream..
Table 1: Relation Between Ride Quality and Road Roughness
RIDE QUALITY ROUGHNESS

Level 1 Recently paved roads in excellent condition. Very smooth ride. IRI
< 2.0m/km
Level 2 Paved road with a smooth ride, and maintains its profile. May have
slight distortions which do not affect surface drainage. IRI: 2.0 to
4.0 m/km.
Level 3 Paved road which presents a noticeable distorted profile, patches
or potholes affect less than half of the pavement surface and
impose slight reduction in speed. Slightly rough ride in places. IRI:
4.0 to 6.0 m/km
Level 4 Paved road whose surface is damaged and presents numerous
incidents of pavement failure and patching: distortions, ruts,
depressions, potholes, cracks, etc. failures remain light and impose
noticeable reduction in speed. Noticeably rough ride. IRI: 6.0 to
8.0 m/km
Level 5 Paved road whose surface is heavily deteriorated and presents
numerous incidents of major pavement failures that are severe
enough to impose a substantial reduction in speed. Very rough
ride. IRI: 8.0 to 10.0 m/km.
Level 6 Paved road whose surface is completely destroyed. Pavement
failures are such that vehicles can only travel with difficulty and in
so doing may incur tyre, suspension or even frame damage.
Extremely rough ride. IRI: 10.0 to 12.0 m/km.
The AASHTO 1996 Design Guide for pavements provides appropriate methodologies and
calculation procedures for the determination of suitable pavement structure configurations,
in terms of layer thicknesses required to carry the expected traffic loading. In this procedure,
ride quality is expressed in terms of the Present Serviceability Index (PSI), which ranges
from 4.0 to 4.5 for roads in excellent condition, to 2.0 to 2.5 for roads in poor condition and
in need of maintenance intervention. The difference between the limiting values indicates
the loss of serviceability.
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4.4 Subgrades
Very often the designer has no choice regarding subgrade, and the natural ground formation
has to be used. Accordingly, design guidelines are presented for soil subgrades ranging
from swampy to firm soils and cover a CBR range as follows:
a) CBR, < 2.0 % .......... Very soft ground;

b) CBR, 2.0 - 4.0 % .......... Soft ground;
c) CBR, 4.0 - 8.0 % .......... Medium hard ground; and
d) CBR, 8.0 - 12.0 % .......... Hard ground.
For very hard subgrades with CBR values greater than 12.0 percent, the design
recommendations for 12.0 % CBR can be used and should provide conservative designs.
4.5 Bases and Subbases

4.5.1 The road base is the backbone of the road pavement, and its performance usually dictates
the performance of the roadway. The general requirements of bases and subbases are:
• they should posses sufficient strength to sustain without failure the imposed traffic
stresses; and
• they should be of uniform and consistent quality so that they can be spread and
compacted without difficulty, to provide a road surface that will not be impaired by
the compacting effort of traffic.
4.5.2 Materials that are normally used for bases and subbases include pitrun gravels, volcanic
gravels such as tiff and tarish, marl, trap rock, quarry spoils, crushed slag and crushed rock.
In the Caribbean, marl, tiff, tarish and crushed volcanic andesites are frequently used in road
construction. Other regions and territories may also have suitable naturally occurring
materials that have been used successfully in low cost road construction and with which
they have developed the appropriate proficiency for their use. The scarcity of suitable
naturally-occurring materials in some regions often leads to the blending of two or more
types of materials or the stabilisation of available materials. Standard requirements may
include particle-size grading, durability, crushing strength, plasticity of the fine aggregate
and the CBR (see Table 2).
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4.5.3 The selected materials usually contain coarse and fine fractions and must conform to
standard property requirements as far as is possible. The maximum particle size is typically
about a quarter of the thickness of the compacted layer. Larger particles can hinder the
compaction and spoil the surface of the layer, and also tend to disintegrate because they
suffer the full force of the compaction plant. Generally a maximum particle size of 50 - 63
mm is considered adequate.
4.5.4 The grading envelopes in the specifications vary little from one another, generally reflecting
local experience. All are the result of a compromise between internal drainage and
compaction. Ideally, for roads in the shorelands, the material should be free-draining and
should posses a stable mineral skeleton. With low fines content the aggregate will have a
high proportion of air voids, and if well graded, should derive good to excellent grain to
grain contact. For roads in setback zones, sufficient fines should be present to afford dense,
tight base and subbase layers to be formed. The importance of a good grading and stable
packing for subbase and bases cannot be overemphasised.
4.5.5 Limits of plasticity are set to control the effect of volume changes occurring in clay soils
due to varying moisture contents in seasonal climates. Specifications based on temperate
climatic conditions require a maximum plasticity index of 6% and the liquid limit should be
less than 25%. For tropical conditions, the upper limit of plasticity index is raised to 12 to
15%, whilst the liquid limit can be raised to a maximum of 30 to 40%. The concept of
plasticity modulus based on the product of the plasticity index and the proportion of finer
material is considered to be a valuable one as it represents the effective contribution of the
plasticity of the fines to the performance of the whole material. For roads in the shorelands
the base and subbase should ideally be non-plastic.
4.5.6 The durability of the coarse fraction of the aggregate is related to the overall grading, and is
determined by tests such as the Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) or Aggregate Impact
Value (AIV), the 10 % Fines Aggregate Crushing Test (FACT), and the Los Angeles
Abrasion Test (LAA) (13). The recommended maximum value for the ACV is 35% and its
specification should be accompanied by the 10% FACT which can be as low as 50 kN for
low volume roads. The maximum LAA value can vary between 50% and 65% and the
upper limit depends upon the destabilising effect of the crushing of coarse particles (13).
The aggregate must also be sound, i.e. resistant to chloride and sulphate attack from
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seawater or agricultural leachings, and the Soundness test should be specified. Limiting
values vary between 12 % and 15 %.
4.5.7 For roads setback in the uplands, the compacted density of the subbase and base layers
should be at least equal to 95% of the maximum density of the material determined in the
laboratory at the appropriate level of compaction (either Standard or Modified). All
materials should contain moisture equal to or slightly below the optimum necessary to
insure that the design density requirements are obtained when materials are compacted.
CBR values of greater than 30% for subbase and 80% for base are generally specified, and
these values may be dropped to 20% for subbase and 50 to 60% for base in low volume
roads. The strength is best represented by the CBR which should be determined on
laboratory samples prepared at 95% of the maximum density obtained under heavy
compactive effort (BS 1377 Test 13, AASHTO T199, 4.5 kg rammer), and soaked for four
days. It is not always that available materials can meet the strength requirements and in
such cases, either increased layer thickness or stabilisation may be employed to improve the
layer response.
For roads in the shorelands, the open graded character of the base and subbase makes
conventional field and laboratory testing difficult and sometimes very expensive. Under
such conditions, field procedures involving proof rolling with a 10 tonne or 12 tonne axle
load is usually applied to establish weak compacted areas for repair. The rolled substrate
should show no visually detectable deformation under the axle loading. Generally, all open
graded surfaces should be tightened with coarse sands and chips during compaction and
before proof rolling.
4.6 Surfacings
Surfacings may be high-type asphaltic concrete (ACP) or Surface Dressed (SD), rigid PCC
slabs or CBP surface, depending on the traffic volumes and pavement gradient. Generally,
on steep gradients (> 10 %) SD surfacing tends to be stripped of chips very easily because
of the tractive forces exerted by vehicular traffic, and ACP is usually preferred. Otherwise,
SDs should be employed where traffic is less than 1,000 vehicles per day. For higher traffic
volumes dense graded asphalt concrete mixtures are preferred for ACP.
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Table 2 Recommended Base and Subbase Material Properties
Use Road-base Sub-base

Type of Road Minor Major Rural and Urban All
Traffic (x 106 ESALs) < 0.3 0.3 - 1 1-3 >3
Grading Grading Refer to current Agency specifications
modulus
< 1.5 (1)
Plasticity Index (%)
• Moist, wet tropical < 12 < 10 <6
• Seasonal tropical < 15 < 12 < 10 < 25
• Semi-arid & arid < 20 < 15 < 12
Plasticity Modulus (2)
• Moist, wet tropical < 300 < 200 < 150 < 500
• Seasonal tropical < 400 < 250 < 200 < 750
• Semi-arid & arid < 500 < 350 < 250 < 1250
CBR (%) > 45 (3) > 65 (4) > 80 (4) > 25 (3)
Durability
• Los Angles Abrasion
value (%) (5) < 65 < 50 n.s.
• 10% Fines Value (saturated) n.s. > 70 n.s.
(kN)
• Soundness (MgSo4)
Fine Aggregate n.s. > 12 n.s
Coarse Aggregate n.s > 15 n.s
n.s. - not specified
Notes:
300 − [ F 2 + F .425 + F .075]
1. Grading modulus =
100
where F2 is percentage passing 2 mm sieve
F.425 is percentage passing 0.425 mm sieve
F.075 is percentage passing 0.75 mm sieve
Values of grading modulus are between 0 and 3.
2. Plasticity modulus = plasticity index multiplied by percentage finer than 0.425 mm sieve.
3. CBR on samples compacted to 95% m.d.d. of modified AASHTO or BS (heavy) compaction and
soaked for 4 days.
4. CBR on samples compacted to 100% m.d.d. of modified AASHTO or BS (heavy) compaction and
soaked for 4 days.
5. Los Angles abrasion value on fraction coarser than 2 or 2.36 mm.
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Care is needed in the selection of binders for ACP and PCC pavement surfaces. In ACP on
shoreland roads a soft asphalt binder (100 – 120 Pen) is preferred so that longer service life
to hardening under saline attack (oxidation) is obtained. In PCC a sulphate resistant cement
binder is preferred for similar reasons. Setback roads in the uplands may employ 60-80 Pen
grade asphalt binder, and the PCC cement binder may be ordinary.
.
4.6 Flexible Pavement Thickness
High volume roads will require between two and three layers for effective performance, a
granular subbase, a granular or stabilised base and a stabilised surfacing (usually asphalt
concrete), depending on the strength of the subgrade soils.
The structural design of flexible pavements can be broadly divided into those with fewer
than 500,000 ESALs for the design period and those greater than 500,000 ESALs. Table 3
gives standard solutions determined by AASHTO procedures for high volume road
pavements, while Table 4 gives solutions for low volume roads.
With particular reference to the low volume roads, the ACI is the Agency Cost Index, and it
defines the relative level of life-cycle costs to the agency if the respective solution is
adopted. The Quality Level gives the level of ride comfort (see Table 3) and the Life-Cycle
Performance represents the percent of the design life over which the designated ride quality
is obtained. The addition of a 150 mm subbase can improve the ride quality by one level,
but the ACI increases to 1.3. Responsive maintenance activities include patching 50 %
potholes every year, and resealing damage when it approaches 30 % of the pavement
surface.
The designer may develop alternative solutions based on layer material substitution, but this
requires considerable experience with local materials and their physical and mechanical
character. Other solutions may be based on staged construction, where sufficient surfacing is
placed to cover a percentage of the design life, and at the end of that period the remaining
thickness for full design life is applied. In such alternative solutions, the base and subbase
layers must be designed for the full design life, and must also be constructed as designed.
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Table 3. High Volume Flexible Pavement Thickness
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Table 4. Low Volume Flexible Pavement Thickness

Traffic Subgrade Thickness A.C.I. Quality Life-Cycle
(vpd) (CBR%) (mm) Level Performance
> 1000 2 150 1.00 5 52.8%

200 0.99 5 75.4%
250 0.93 4 63.1%
300 0.83 4 59.0%
4 150 1.00 4 59.0%

200 0.93 4 77.7%
250 0.89 3 70.7%
300 0.87 3 86.0%
6 150 1.00 3 52.4%

200 0.95 3 80.4%
250 0.92 3 93.8%
300 0.90 3 98.2%
8 150 1.00 3 76.6%

200 0.96 3 92.7%
250 0.94 3 98.9%
300 0.92 3 99.6%
10 150 1.00 3 88.6%

200 0.97 3 97.2%
250 0.95 3 99.6%
300 0.94 2 56.7%
12 150 1.00 3 93.3%

200 0.97 3 98.7%
250 0.94 2 55.9%
300 0.86 2 62.4%
4.7 Rigid Pavement Thickness

It is advisable to use slab thicknesses of 200 mm or greater even if the ESAL levels would
suggest that lesser slab thicknesses would be adequate. A slab thickness of 200 mm or
greater provides some assurance of adequate long-term performance of periods of 30 to 40
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years given that the other design details are adequately accommodated. The long design
lives are intended to provide significant maintenance free service for the pavement.
In the past, base depths under rigid pavements were determined primarily by the
requirement for support of construction traffic. Currently, it is recognized that the base
course directly beneath PCC slabs is a critical element in the performance of PCCP. The use
of asphalt-stabilised base (ACB) is most effective in waterproofing the grade in shoreland
roads, when the grade is in reasonably good shape. The benefits of a waterproofing
treatment under the ultimate pavement is largely lost if an untreated base is placed directly
over the subgrade and then allowed to stand over the rainy season without protection.
Table 5 provides typical PCC slab thicknesses for various levels of ESALs and reliability
for high volume pavements. The input values used to produce the tables are shown at the
bottom.
Table 5. High Volume Rigid Pavement Thickness
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Low volume pavements are usually constructed with a minimum slab thickness of 112.5
mm, increasing to 150 mm as traffic volumes cross 1,000 vehicles per day. Detailed design
should be employed for intermediate volumes as may be appropriate.
4.7 Concrete Block Pavement Structure

4.7.1 Paver sizes are a nominal 100 x 200 mm (4 x 8 in.) with thicknesses from 60 to 100 mm.
They are usually laid manually but mechanical installation methods are also available. A 25
to 50 mm bedding sand layer is used under the pavers. They are set into the sand and then
vibrated into place which forces some sand into the joints between the pavers. Jointing sand
is then swept into the joints between the pavers and they are again vibrated to wedge the
jointing sand into place.
4.7.2 Although the pavers are not bonded together with mortar, they are able to transfer loads
sideways from one paver to the next. The friction of the sand in the joints provides an
avenue for shear transfer between the individual blocks. However, this shear transfer will
only be possible with narrow joints 1.5 to 3 mm wide. According to ASTM C936 (Standard
Specification for Solid Interlocking Concrete Paving Units), paver length and width
dimensions must be accurate to within 1.6 mm. Pavers are manufactured according to
ASTM C936 and must have an average compressive strength of 55 MPa (8,000 psi).
4.7.3 From the constructibility perspective, CBP is similar to other pavements with two
exceptions. First is the sand bedding layer, which can be dumped and then screeded
manually, or can be placed using a modified asphalt concrete spreader. Secondly the pavers
are usually laid manually but can also be placed using various machines specifically
designed for laying pavers. Although placement by either method is slow, completed and
compacted sections can be put into use immediately.
4.7.4 From the design perspective, CBP presents difficulties with respect to modeling using
analytical techniques such as layered elastic analysis. Conventional pavement materials
(asphalt concrete, portland cement concrete, crushed stone) are not truly elastic, but they can
be treated as such since their modulus of elasticity can be calculated fairly consistently.
Although the elastic modulus of the concrete pavers and the elastic modulus of the sand can
be measured individually, the composite system of pavers and sand in a CBP coupled with
the gradual stiffening over time of this composite system precludes consistent measurement
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of an effective or equivalent modulus of elasticity. However, layered elastic pavement

theory can be used to design block pavements if an effective modulus of elasticity for the
composite system can be determined.
4.7.5 From the performance perspective, a CBP may be preferable to conventional pavements for
some specific applications (e.g., ports and aircraft aprons). Measurement of a CBP's
performance is similar to that of either asphaltic concrete (AC) or portland cement concrete
(PCC). In addition, strict adherence to construction specifications and an experienced
supervisor is important in achieving a successful CBP project.
From the cost perspective, installation of CBP varies greatly and depends on several factors:
local labor cost, bedding sand thickness, paver size and shape, distance pavers must be
shipped from the manufacturer, amount of cutting required, and the size of the pavement.
5. REINFORCED SUBGRADES AND BASES

5.1 Function of Geotextiles
Where the subgrade soil CBR is less than 2 percent the use of bases reinforced with a
geotextile grid or fabric is recommended. It is also recommended for roads located in the
shorelands. ASTM defines a geotextile as “ Any permeable textile material used with
foundation, soil, earth or any other geotechnical-related material, as an integral part of a
man-made product structure or system”. The major actions of geotextiles are separation and
reinforcement.
Geotextile use in subgrades is generally confined to fabric, and provides the two basic
functions as follows:
a) Primary function: separation, filtration and drainage (Figure 6); and
b) Secondary function: reinforcement through membrane-type support of
wheel loads (Figures 6 & 7).
The principal type of action in bases is reinforcement by use of either fabric or grids and it
may be described as:
a) Base and subgrade restraint;
b) Lateral restraint;
c) Membrane-type support of wheel loads; and
21
d) Membrane-type support of the roadway system.
As the subgrade does not receive any structural support by the geotextile, aggregate
reductions are not normally expected. However an increase in subgrade CBR of 30 percent
above the equilibrium value is often used in design and leads to a reduction in base
thickness.
Wheel Load
Base Material
… … .. … … …
. … ….. …. …. . .. …
… … .. . … . … ..
Geotextile Tension in
Geotextile
Membrane Support
Figure 6. Membrane Type Support Offered by Geotextiles
5.2 Types of Geotextiles

The types of geotextiles that find widespread use in pavement structures are fabrics.
Geogrids are used mainly in edge and side slope stability of the pavement formation, and
can assist in maintaining base integrity under erosion and wave run up and overtopping for
roads in the shorelands. The major types of fabrics (Figure 8) in use today include:
a) Woven geotextiles composed of two sets of parallel yarns systematically
interfaced to form a planar structure;
b) Nonwoven geotextiles formed from fibers arranged, in an oriented or random
pattern, into a planar structure. The fibers are bonded together either by
chemical bonding, thermal bonding or mechanical bonding;
c) Composite geotextiles are multiple-layered combinations of the above and
are usually designed to perform specific functions; and
22
d) Webs or webbings are a kind of very coarse woven fabric made of strips a
few centimeters wide and look like a very coarse slit film woven fabric or
matting.
Return Fabric 1 m
In Shorelands
(a) Separation and Reinforcement
(b) Erosion Protection: Moderate Survivability
(c) Erosion Protection: High Survivability
(d) Embankment Design and Construction
Figure 7. Examples of Geotextile Use Shoreland Roads
23
Figure 8. Examples of Various Types of Geotextiles
The fibres are usually some type of polymer such as polypropylene, polyethylene and
polyester, and natural fibers are rarely ever used except for biodegradable fabric used in
temporary erosion control etc.
24
5.3 Property Requirements

The major requirements of geotextiles include survivability, filtration and drainage,
resistance to ultra violet light and workability.
5.3.1 Construction Survivability: - the geotextile must resist impact, punctures or abrasion stresses
caused by trucks, bulldozers, compaction machinery, or any other plant and equipment used
during construction. Typical survivability characterisation in terms of test property
requirements is given in Table 6. Recommended survivability requirements for subgrade
and base cover material construction are also given in Table 7.
5.3.2 Filtration and Drainage: - the pore size of the geotextile must be such that filtration
characteristics are optimised to reduce the potential for clogging and the range of openings
must be compared to the particle sizes of the subgrade to be filtered. Special continuous
filament, needle-punched, nonwoven geotextiles have been found to provide lateral drainage
and are ideally suited for aggregate with poor drainage characteristics.
5.3.3 Resistance to Ultra Violet Light: - all geotextiles degrade when exposed to sunlight during
construction for an extended time and strength retention with time must be known before
purchase and use. Ideally there should be no loss of strength for extended exposure to
sunlight.
TABLE 6. MINIMUM PROPERTIES REQUIRED FOR FABRIC SURVIVABILITY
Required Degree Grab Strength Puncture Burst Trap

of Fabric (minimum values) Strength2 Strength3 Tear4
Survivability N (lbs)_ N (lbs)
MPa (psi) N (lbs)
Very High 1200 (270) 495 (110) 2.95 (430) 337 (75)
High 800 (180) 335 (75) 2.00 (290) 225 (50)
Moderate 580 (130) 180 (40) 1.45 (210) 180 (40)
Low 400 (90) 135 (30) 1.00 (145) 135 (30)
Note:
1
All values represent minimum average roll values (i.e., any roll in a lot should meet or exceed the minimum values in
this table). Note: these values are normally 20%.
2
ASTM D-751-68, Tension Testing Machine with ring clamp, steel ball replaced with a 5/16 inch diameter solid steel
cylinder with flat tip centered within the ring clamp.
3
ASTM D-751-68, Diaphragm Test Method.
4
ASTM D-1117, either principal direction.
25
TABLE 7. REQUIRED FABRIC SURVIVABILITY
Subgrade Conditions Construction Equipment and 150mm To 300mm

Cover Material
(Initial Lift Thickness)
Low Ground Medium High Ground
Pressure Ground Pressure Pressure
Equipment Equipment Equipment
< 205 Mpa 205 - 345 Mpa > 345 Mpa
Subgrade has been cleared of all
obstacles except grass, weeds,
leaves, and fine wood debris.
Surface is smooth and level such Low Moderate High
than any shallow depressions and
humps do not exceed 150 mm -
depth and height. All larger
depressions are filled.
Alternatively, a smooth working
table may be placed.
Subgrade has been cleared of
obstacles larger than small - to
moderate sized tree limbs and
rocks. Tree trunks and stumps Moderate High Very High
should be removed or covered with
a partial working table.
Depressions and humps should not
exceed 500 mm. In depth and
height. Larger depressions should
be filled.
Minimal site preparation is
required. Trees may be felled,
delimbed, and left in place.
Stumps should be cut to project not
more than 150 mm and above
subgrade. Fabric may be draped High Very High Not
directly over the tree trunks, Recommended
stumps, large depressions and
humps, holes, stream channels, and
large boulders. Items should be
removed only if placing the fabric
and cover material over them will
distort the finished road surface.
Note:
1. Recommendations are for 150 mm. -300 m initial lift thickness.
1. For special construction techniques such as pre-rutting, increase fabric survivability requirement by 1
level.
3. Placement of excessive initial cover material thickness may cause bearing failure of soft subgrades.
26
5.3.4 Workability: - the fabric must be of a minimum stiffness to extract acceptable workability
during construction. Additionally the water absorption characteristics are very important as
a fabric that is hydrophilic (absorbs water easily) may suffer a loss of stiffness due to
increased weight. For wet environments a hydrophobic (repels water) fabric is
recommended. Minimum fabric stiffness should be 2,500 mg cm, and the bulk density
should normally be greater than 1.0 gm/cc.
6. ROAD GEOMETRICS.
The alignment of a roadway is a very important design feature that directly addresses the
physical integrity and safety aspects of roadway performance. It also provides for driving
comfort and economy in vehicle operation, and proper surface and roadside drainage. The
essential design elements for consideration are:
• Pavement surface crossfall
• Sight distances
• Horizontal and vertical curvature
• Gradients
• Phasing of horizontal and vertical curvature
6.1 Crossfall
6.1.1 The purpose of crossfall is to shed water from the carriageway and allow it to drain into side
ditches. This helps to prevent water from entering and weakening the pavement, for both
paved and unpaved roads.
There are two main considerations when designing the crossfall or camber of a road
pavement:
a) The slope must be adequate enough to provide for rapid disposal of the water falling
on the surface: and
b) The slope must not be so excessive as to become a hazard to traffic.
6.1.2 The minimum crossfall required is a function of the surface texture and the precision of
surface construction. For a given crossfall the smoother the surface the more efficient it is in
shedding water.
27
Values of crossfall normally range between 1.5 to 3.0 % for paved roads. The value of 3 %
is more likely to satisfy high intensity rainfall, and will allow for drainage even with some
surface deformation, but a value of 2.5 % is ideal for all weather. For unpaved roads, a
higher crossfall is necessary and 3 to 4 % would provide a satisfactory minimum for
working practice.
6.1.3 The crossfall of the shoulder should be sufficient to drain the paved surface. Shoulders
constructed of the same material as the running surface may have the same cross slope,
whilst gravel or earth shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 to 2 % steeper.
6.2 Sight Distances

6.2.1 Clear driver vision for a sufficient distance ahead is necessary for safe travel along a road.
The required sight distance will depend on the speed of the vehicle and the maneuver being
undertaken. If safety is to be built into the road, then sufficient sight distance must always
be available to enable a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching an
object in its path.
6.2.2 Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: the distance traversed by a vehicle from
the instant the driver sights an object requiring him to stop to the instant the brakes are
applied, and the distance required to stop after braking begins. The distance depends on the
assumed height above the road of both the driver’s eye and the object, which necessitates
the stop.
6.2.3 The longer the available sight distance, and the bigger the gaps in the opposing flow, the
greater the proportion of the vehicle population that will be able to overtake. However, not
all overtaking maneuvers are completed in the same time or distance, and even those on the
same stretch of road will show considerable variations. The time required to complete a
maneuvre over any distance depends on a number of factors including the speed and length
of the overtaken vehicle, and the speed and acceleration capabilities of the overtaking
vehicle.
6.2.4 There will normally be some sections of road, such as on bends and summit curves, where
there is insufficient sight distance for safe overtaking; these may be termed “non-
overtaking” sections. There will be other sections where sight distances will be sufficiently
long to allow virtually all vehicles the opportunity to overtake; these may be termed
28
“overtaking” sections. There are also sections of intermediate sight distance that will allow
some drivers to overtake. The longer the sight distance, the greater the proportion of the
vehicle population that will be able to overtake and long sight distances are therefore very
desirable. However, to provide sight distances long enough for overtaking on the entire
length of the road would be uneconomic, and it is usually better to designate some lengths
as “no-overtaking” sections which are designed solely for stopping sight distance (e.g. crest
curves). Wherever possible, “no-overtaking” sections should be followed by sections where
there is sufficient sight distance to allow overtaking. Recommended values are given in
Table 8.
Table 8: Recommended Sight Distances for Horizontal Curvature
Design Speed Sight Distance, m
km/hr Stopping Stopping Overtaking
(Single Lane) (Two lane)
30 46 23 N/A
40 68 34 N/A
50 96 48 140
60 128 64 180
70 N/A 84 240
85 N/A 119 320
100 N/A 162 430
120 N/A 229 590
6.3 Horizontal Curvature

6.3.1 The following points for consideration in horizontal design have been identified from
several design standards and are very useful in horizontal curvature design:
(i) Horizontal and vertical alignment features should be coordinated so as to avoid the
creation of hazards and visual defects.
(ii) Compound circular curves and abrupt reversals of alignment should be avoided.
(iii) Short tangent sections between adjacent curves in the same direction should be
avoided.
(iv) Large radius curves should be introduced with small deflection angles to avoid the
appearance of a ‘kink’.
29
(v) Curves should not end on structures such as bridges as they add cost and
complications to design and construction. (If curvature is unavoidable, a simple
curve of as large a radius as possible should be used).
(vi) Superelevation should remain a plane for the full width of the carriageway and may
be obtained by revolving the pavement about the profiles of:
(a) The centreline
(b) The inside edge
(c) The outside edge
(vii) On superelevated curves, the outer shoulders should be sloped upward at about the
same, or at a lesser rate, than the superelevation of the carriageway. Any shoulder,
which is sloped towards a paved carriageway, should also be paved to prevent loose
material washing over the surface.
(viii) For small changes in alignment, it is preferable, and usually more economical to
adopt a circular curve of large radius with adverse crossfall, than a short curve with
superelevation.
(ix) The minimum superelevation applied to a road should be the reverse crossfall.
6.3.2 As standards increase, it is necessary for minimum radii to reflect the higher speeds and the
critical design factor becomes the maximum lateral coefficient of friction between the tyre
and road surface (see Table 10). The required lateral friction may be reduced by
superelevating the road. Available side friction (f) decreases as speed increases and a
considerable safety margin is usually incorporated in design standards.
Table 10. Minimum Curve Radii
Design Speed Side Friction Minimum Horizontal Radius (m)
(km/h) Factor (f) Superelevation Zero
(paved) Superelevation
(unpaved)
30 0.33 16.5 21.5
40 0.30 31.5 42.0
50 0.25 56.2 78.7
60 0.23 85.9 123.3
70 0.20 128.6 192.9
85 0.18 203.2
100 0.15 315.0
120 0.15 453.5
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6.4 Vertical Curvature

6.4.1 The vertical profile of a road is normally composed of a series of tangents connected by
parabolas. There are two types of vertical curves; crest curves and sag curves. The design
of these curves is based on either a comfort criterion or a visibility criterion.
A stopping or overtaking sight distance, or a comfort criterion may determine the length of
crest curve. For minimum overtaking sight distance the required lengths of crest vertical
curves are substantially larger than those of stopping sight distance.
6.4.2 The length of sag curves may be determined by visibility criteria or comfort criteria. During
daylight, sag curves create no visibility problems, but at night the length of road illuminated
by a vehicle’s headlights may be critical.
The minimum length of vertical curve is equal to the algebraic difference in gradient times a
constant, K. This constant K is often quoted as defining the radius characteristics of a
vertical curve (see Table 9). Where the sight distance is greater than the length of vertical
curve - an uncommon occurrence - this direct proportionality does not hold true.
Table 9. Recommended Sight Distance for Vertical Curvature

Design Speed (km/h) Stopping Sight Overtaking Sight Distance
Distance K Value (m)
K value (m)
48 9 111
64 16 209
80 27 300
97 49 408
105 66 489
113 78 578
121 99 625
129 123 674
6.4.3 Minimum radius horizontal curves are undesirable at crests as the crest may mask the
sharpness of the horizontal curve. When vertical and horizontal curves occur in
combination or in close proximity to each other, it is desirable that the vertical curve should
be either wholly within or wholly outside the horizontal curve. With the vertical curve
within the horizontal curve, the horizontal curve becomes visible ahead of the crest.
31
6.4.4 Vertical curves are usually designed as parabolas. They are designed to meet either
minimum sight distance or comfort criteria. Sight distance for safe stopping is the more
stringent requirement.
6.4.5 For crest curves, safe stopping and safe overtaking values are usually calculated on the basis
of object and eye height criteria discussed earlier. Safer stopping sight distance is usually an
essential limitation although the concept of safe maneuvering sight distance may also be
applied. The cost of crest curve sight distances for safe overtaking is often prohibitive and
drivers are not necessarily aware of its availability since the subtleties of variations in road
marking to indicate safe overtaking are often not fully understood, even in developed
countries. Using small vertical curves allowing longer tangential gradient sections can
maximize overtaking. This principle is similar to that for the design of horizontal curvature.
6.4.6 Since designing crest vertical curves for overtaking sight distance is expensive and is not
justified in most cases, crest curves should be designed to give no more than the absolute
minimum stopping sight distance. Sag curves offer adequate visibility during daylight.
However, it is neither practical nor reliable to design them for visibility at night. Sag curves
should therefore be designed according to comfort criteria. On major rods a vertical
acceleration of therefore be designed according to comfort criteria. On major roads a
vertical acceleration of 0.05 g would be an appropriate maximum, whilst on other roads, the
maximum is often relaxed to 0.10g.
6.4.7 For sag curves, the effective range of headlamp beams has a general limit of 120-150 m for
an unlit object. This is normally insufficient to form the basis of curve design. Sag curves
are therefore generally based on comfort criteria, i.e. vertical acceleration, which falls within
the broad range of 0.03-0.10 g.
6.5 Gradients
6.5.1 There are two aspects to a design standard for gradients; the gradient itself, and the length of
the gradient. Many vehicles can tolerate a steep gradient for a short distance, but cannot
sustain speed if the gradient is long. For coastal roads in mountainous terrain appropriate
maximum gradients should be based upon traction ability, which will be different for 2-
wheel drive, 4-wheel drive and animal drawn vehicles.
32
6.5.2 A minimum slope is necessary to drain a pavement adequately. Although part of the
drainage requirement is provided by the crossfall, al longitudinal grade is desirable to assist
drainage, particularly for kerbed pavements.
6.5.3 Although speeds of cars will be lower on steep upgrades, large differences between speeds
of light vehicles and heavy vehicles will occur and truck speeds will be quite slow. It can be
considered important, therefore, to provide sufficiently adequate horizontal sight distance to
enable faster vehicle operators to recognise when they are catching up to a slow vehicle and
to adjust their speed accordingly.
6.5.4 The use of steeper gradients results in much shorter lengths of incline than the use of flatter
gradients. However, there are operational disbenefits of steep gradients such as greater use
of fuel, particularly for heavy vehicles, and additional delays caused by slow speeds.
6.5.5 Both gradient and length of gradient are important considerations in the design process,
although sometimes the gradient is one of the standards that may be relaxed to give greatest
economy with least loss of operational performance.
6.5.6 At the basic access level, gradients must be negotiable by the design vehicle, albeit at a very
low speed. If only 4-wheel drive vehicles use the road, the maximum gradient may be up to
20 percent. For traction requirements and maintenance reasons, it is recommended that all
gradients over 10 percent should be paved, or at least have paved wheel tracks.
6.5.7 As traffic flows increase, the economic benefits of reduced severity and length of gradient
will become larger because of the increased number of vehicles and associated operational
effects. Lower construction costs in flatter terrain will generally result in the economic
justification of higher standards of gradient under those conditions. Thus, in most
developed countries, maximum allowable gradients, which vary with design speed and
terrain, range from 3 % on high flow/high speed roads in level terrain to 16 % on low
flow/low speed roads in mountainous terrain, and can sometimes reach as high as 18 to 20
%. In general 4 to 8 % is considered a desirable maximum on roads with higher design
speeds. Values recommended on the basis of available standards are as shown in Table 11.
33
Table 11. Recommended Maximum Gradients

Design Speed (km/h) Maximum Gradient (%)
Desirable Absolute Maximum
30 10 20
40 8 16
50 8 16
60 7 12
70 6 10
85 5 10
100 4 8
120 4 8
6.6 Phasing of Alignment

The horizontal and vertical alignments should be in balance. A generous flowing alignment
in one plane is not compatible with small and frequent breaks in the other, and the provision
of horizontal and vertical elements of curves and tangents should be somewhat similar in
length.
Misphasing of alignment tends to create hazards and visual defects. The following
guidelines are recommended to avoid the common cases of misphasing.
• Provide sufficient separation between the ends of horizontal and vertical curves.
• Horizontal alignments should coincide with profile elements, both with respect to
position and length.
• Where alignment is particularly smooth and flowing and vertical curves are
exceptionally long, vertices should be shifted somewhat out of phase without
apparent distortion in some instances.
• Avoid sharp bends hidden behind a crest curve.
• In mountainous terrain, make both ends of vertical and horizontal curves coincident
or separate them if possible.
7. THE ENVIRONMENT
Environmental assessment has three major objectives: to help the managers of the road
development decide on a project design that takes environmental considerations into
account; to help the technical personnel responsible for execution of the road project
implement it with full knowledge of the environmental factors; and to inform the public
34
when the road project is likely to affect their environment and facilitate their participation in
the decision-making process
7.1 Environmental Assessment Study

There are five areas of investigation which are generally required to meet the above
mentioned objectives:
a) Analysis of baseline conditions.
b) Analysis of potential environmental impacts.
c) Consideration of alternatives.
d) Development of mitigation and compensation measures.
e) Design of monitoring and evaluation plans.
7.2 Analysis of Baseline Environmental Conditions

7.2.1 Baseline conditions define the characteristics of the existing environment and projected
future conditions assuming no project is undertaken. This provides the basis form which
project impact comparisons are made. Baseline studies usually involve:
• Collecting and analyzing existing basic documents: These may include
topographical maps, vegetation maps, aerial photographs, scientific and technical

documents, and past o current project appraisal reports.
• Assembling information from different sources: Technical, social, demographic and
economic information can be obtained from various government departments at

national, regional or local levels, and from other international, research, business,
professional or non-government organizations.
• Consultation with local residents and professionals: This can assist baseline data
gathering by validating information from other sources and identifying other

important local knowledge and gaps in technical data.
35
• Conducting field investigations: Including observations, analyses, and surveys.
These will be necessary where existing information is inadequate or incomplete, and

should be properly planned and designed by experienced professionals.
7.2.2 In effect, the baseline analysis should permit a comparison of project-induced environmental
changes with other expected environmental changes in the no-project situation. It should
take account of:
(a) Past rends in environmental quality over time;
(b) Community preferences or competing demands regarding resource utilization;
and
(c) Other current or proposed development programs and projects under study.
7.3.3 In assembling baseline data it is important to understand that wide variations can occur in
the natural environment over long time frames. In some cases, forest maturity and natural
processes such as fire can dramatically change animal habitats and human use of natural
resources from one generation to the next. Long-term studies, if they exist, can be
considerable value in supplementing current environmental study data.
7.3 Analysis of Potential Environmental Impact

7.3.1 Environmental impact analysis consists of comparing the expected evolution of the site with
and without the project. For each type of potential impact or environmental concern, the
analysis should predict the nature and the significance of the expected impacts, or explain
why no significant impact is anticipated. Some environmental effects are quantifiable,
while others may need to be described qualitatively.
7.3.2 The analysis of potential environmental impact should include at least the following factors:
a) Magnitude of impact: Quantification is relatively easy for physical effects (land
cleared, trees removed, homes affected), more difficult for the biological
environment (type of habitat lost), and very complex for the effects on people
affected and estimated economic losses, but wider effects on social and economic
welfare should be analyzed. For some impacts, only a description of the effect is
possible. Where effects can be quantified, relative indicators can help in analyzing
the significance of change in each case.
36
b) Time frame: Allowance should be made for both short-term and long-term impacts.
The loss of agricultural areas along the alignment of a road is an immediate impact.
The retreat of a mangrove swamp following modification to the water flow or the
modification of the saline threshold in an estuary generally only become apparent
some years after construction. Impacts that are sudden (hazardous waste spills) or
cumulative (contamination build-up in roadside soils and crops) should also be
considered.
c) Direct or Indirect Environmental Impacts: Direct impacts due to the presence of the
road project are relatively easy to identify. Indirect impacts are more difficult to analyze
but can ultimately be more important. A direct impact would be taking gravel material
from a borrow pit, while an indirect impact would be increased deforestation due to
easier transportation of logs. Possible impacts can be identified by considering each link
in the chain of events resulting from a road constriction or rehabilitation.
7.4 Consideration of Alternatives

7.4.1 Environmental assessment should be closely integrated the road planning process, so that
environmental factors are considered at each stage of the project analysis, and to take
advantage of various consultation forums.
7.4.2 Alternatives which prevent or avoid negative impacts often require changes to the location
of road construction or associated off-site activities. Consultation can help to identify
alternatives which are practical and sustainable, and have the support of various affected and
interested groups. The evaluation should avoid putting too much emphasis of resources on
alternatives which are unlikely to be affordable or viable. Opportunities for environmental
enhancement should also be considered.
7.4.3 The comparison of alternatives should take into account the different types of environmental
impacts, with solutions described where possible according to their advantages and
drawbacks. Because many impacts cannot readily be quantified or compared on similar
criteria, visual methods of presentation are often helpful. Environmental issues and impact
comparisons should be presented as objectively as possible, to inform and assist decision-
making without biasing the advice given.
37
7.5 Mitigation and Compensation Measures

7.5.1 The essential measures that should be employed in the mitigation of and compensation for
negative impacts include the following:
a) Avoidance of negative environmental impacts is the best approach, and often
depends on the location and scale of road works and related off-site construction and
traffic activities. Once a project alternative has been chosen, the environmental
assessment should concentrate on design details and other provisions for impact
mitigation or compensation. Some aspects of impact mitigation can be incorporated
at the design stage, and largely resolved before construction is commenced.
Examples include roadside drainage, noise barriers, access roads and footpaths.
.b) Mitigation is the lessening of negative environmental impacts, through changes in
the designing, construction practices, maintenance and operation of a road, and
additional actions taken to protect the natural and social environment, and
individuals adversely impacted by a project.
c) Compensation should be considered if impact-reducing steps are not possible or
sufficient, and can be material (reconstruction of homes or natural habitats) or
financial (compensation for loss of property), or both.
d) Consultation can help to ensure that mitigation and compensation measures truly
meet the needs of affected people and communities, and that longer-term actions in
both the natural and social environments are likely to be sustainable.
e) A principle of no net loss is a use full guideline for the design of mitigation and
compensation measures, especially those involving people. This requires both
immediate measures and continuing efforts to ensure that former productivity and
quality of life do not suffer as a result of the project.
7.5.2 Two additional factors to be considered in the design of mitigation and compensation plans
are:
• Some measures may themselves have negative effects. Social issues are the most
challenging, as perceptions of “winners” and “losers” can readily develop. Equitable
and balanced mitigation measures require considerable care and consultation in their
design and implementation.
38
• Some measures may not be the exclusive domain of the road agency. Government
departments, local authorities, neighbours, nearby businesses, non-government
organizations and the legal system may all be involved in their design and
implementation. Clear definition of responsibilities, funding and reporting
requirements can help to ensure the success of such measures.
7.6 Monitoring and Evaluation
7.6.1 Monitoring should not be confined to the road right of way, but should cover all sites
affected by the project, including borrow areas and quarries, disposal sites, waterway
diversions, materials treatment areas, access roads, and work camps.
Table 12. Checklist For Environmental Impact Study
Baseline or Initial Conditions
Cartographic background
Aerial photographic cover
Remote sensing cover
Statistical data
Bibliographic references
Physical environment (water, air, soil) depending on climatology, geology, hydrology, hydro-geology
Biological environment making up the ecosystem: fauna, flora, forests
Coastal environment, including marine biological and tourism/recreational environments
Socioeconomic factors: demography, land tenure, habitat, town planning, infrastructures, communications,
productive activities, leisure, tourism, health
Activities connected with consumption of resources (mining, fishing, logging)
Identification and characterization of ecological units and their interrelation
Landscape features
Traditions, customs, archaeology
Definition of Project
Geographic situation
Type of activity
Socioeconomic aspects (persons, affected, activities created)
Determination of nuisances like noise
Duration and time table of works
Induced effects of other sectors
Forecast Project Impacts and Benefits

Baseline projection without project
Baseline projection with alternative 1 (“what if scenarios”)
Baseline projection with alternative 2 (other scenarios)
Justification of the Alternative Retained

Choosing a solution that offers the best tradeoffs between technical, economic, social, and environmental
costs and benefits.
Mitigation
Preventive solutions (e.g. landscape, stabilize slopes)
Compensatory measures (e.g. indemnity, relocation)
39
7.6.2 Evaluation after project construction is completed is necessary. An evaluation report is

expected to test the validity of hypotheses formulated in the environmental impact study.
Such evaluation is not regulated by laws in most countries and is thus neglected in some
cases.
8. ESTUARIES AND RIVER CROSSINGS

8.1 Systems
8.1.1 Estuaries are confined bodies of water that occupy the drowned valleys of rivers that are not
currently building open-coast deltas. The most common definition of an estuary describes it
as a body of water where "...seawater is measurably diluted with fresh water derived from
land drainage" (Pritchard 1967). Therefore, estuaries would include bodies of water where
salinity ranges from 0.1 ‰ (parts per thousand) to about 35 ‰ (Figure IV-2-1). However,
this chemical-based definition does not adequately restrict estuaries to the setting of river
mouths, and allows, for example, lagoons behind barrier islands to be included. Dalrymple,
Zaitlin, and Boyd (1992) felt that the interaction between river and marine processes was an
attribute essential to all true estuaries. Therefore, they proposed a new geologically based
definition of estuary as:
...the seaward portion of a drowned valley system which receives sediment

from both fluvial and marine sources and which contains facies influenced by
tide, wave, and fluvial processes. The estuary is considered to extend from
the landward limit of tidal facies at its head to the seaward limit of coastal
facies at its mouth.
These limits are schematically shown in Figure 9.
8.1.2 Fluvial systems, such as rivers, swamps and lagoons, are controlled by their erosional base
level and the sediment supply. During periods of lowered sea level, rivers incise the lower
reaches of their valleys and discharge increasing amounts of sediment out onto the shelf. At
the lowest stands of sea level, estuaries almost disappear and are confined to river valleys
(Baeteman 1994). When sea level rises again, the valleys are flooded and the estuaries
reappear.
40
8.1.3 It is this interaction of riverine and estuarine systems that is of concern, particularly for the
design and construction of water crossings. Designs must be such that the saline balance in
the interaction of these systems is not significantly altered and hypersaline conditions not
developed, and wave exposure do not drown and destroy enveloping swamps and lagoons in
the upland of the estuary.
Figure 9. Plan View of Distribution of Energy and Physical Processes in Estuaries
41
8.2 Considerations
Generally, the largest mangrove swamps are found where there are extensive river systems
(e.g. Trinidad) or islands with low-relief coastal plains with substantial freshwater inflow
(e.g. Guadeloupe). In this sub-region the endangered West Indian manatee (Tricheus
manatus) that once ranged throughout the Lesser Antilles is now solely represented by about
a dozen adults in the Nariva Swamp on the East Coast of Trinidad. In the smaller islands of
the Eastern Caribbean spatial coverage by mangroves may be restricted and the trees often
show poor development in the form of low coastal scrub (e.g. Barbados, Dominica,
Montserrat, St. Vincent and the Grenadines). The main factors responsible for this are
limited freshwater runoff, hypersaline conditions, wave exposure and seasonal
hurricanes (see Figure 10). Preservation and conservation of the estuarine - riverine
systems should therefore occupy a very high priority in the water crossing design objectives,
if environmental conservation of rivers and wetlands is to be of effect. As a consequence,
the design of openings and pier support for bridges and large culverts therefore require
careful consideration, and the final form of the structure should be informed by the
hydrological and environmental assessment of the crossing and the possible impacts of the
design. The form of the crossing (and its supports) should be a resolution of hydrologic
efficiency and environmental balance.
(a) (b)
Figure 10. (a) Bridge Construction Over Estuary on the East Coast of Trinidad and Tobago
(b) Hypersaline Effect: Dying Mangrove upstream of the Estuary for (a)
42
8.3 Effect of Sea Level Rise

8.3.1 The principal effect of sea level rise is the loss of shoreland and its impact on setback or
shoreland construction in addition to the already determined from erosion caused by
extreme storm/hurricane events and annual rate of wave induced coastal erosion.
Figure 11. Erosional Response Model/Bruun Rule
The basic model often used to estimate erosion due to rising sea level is called the Bruun
Rule (Bruun 1962)(Figure 11), and it assumes that sediment eroded from the shoreface
is dispersed offshore. As water level rises, waves erode the upper beach, causing the
shoreline to recede. Conceptually, this erosion supplies sediment for upward building
for the outer part of the profile. The model assumes that the initial profile shape will be
reestablished farther inland but at a height above the original position equal to the rise in
water level z. Therefore, the retreat of the profile x or loss of shoreland can be calculated
from the following relationship (a modified version of the Bruun Rule):
where the terms x, z, X, and Z are shown in Figure
43
The effect will depend on the actual length of the equilibrium beach/shore profile and the
average slope of the seabed. Figure 12 shows the variation in profile retreat with rise in sea
level for a 1,000 m equilibrium profile length along varying slopes. The effect is greater for
milder beach profile slopes than for the steeper slopes.
28.0
26.0
24.0
22.0
Shoreland Erosion, m
Closure
20.0 Depth
18.0
20 m
16.0
14.0 30 m
12.0 40 m
10.0 50 m
8.0 60 m
6.0 80 m
4.0 100 m
2.0
0.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Sea Level Rise, m
Figure 12. Effect of Sea Level Rise on Shorelands

(1,000 m Equilibrium Profile Length)
Road setbacks need to be carefully evaluated, as in the Caribbean beach profiles can be
highly variable between the east coast and the west coast of respective Islands. A 100
percent increase in closure depth can result in a 100 percent reduction in shoreland erosion,
and the setbacks used on east coast may be relaxed on the west coast.
8.3.2 Unlike building developments and construction, the setback for roads depends on the
economic cost of coastal road type selection. For natural and open type coastal roads a
minimum setback of 15 m from the shoreline seems appropriate but this will depend on the
shoreline terrain: i.e. whether there is sufficient natural defense for the route which may be
located on a cliff, bluff, or on the shoreland and immediate uplands areas of the beach. For
built coastal roads setback is rarely employed and defense is provided by constructed
defense systems that will vary in cost with the type needed. An economic analysis of the
road is vital to support the correct decision.
44
45
Questions & Decisions 1 Questions & Decisions 2
･ Is the project justified ?- Are benefits ･ What standard of construction

great er than costs? should be used?
･ Which is the best investm ent if we ･ What standard and frequency of road
have a set of m utually exclusive m aintenance is required?
alternatives? ･ Should stage construction be used?
･ If funds are lim it ed, how should ･ Are com plem ent ary investm ents
different schem es be ranked? required?
･ When should the road be built?
Com ponent s of Econom ic Analysis Com ponents of Econom ic Analysis

1 2
･ Costs and Benefits are m easured in
･ Costs and Benefits are forecast over
m oney term s
the planning tim e horizon (usually
･ Road construction and m aintenance between 10 and 20 years)
cost s are com pared with estim ates of ･ Future Benefit s are valued less as tim e
the direct Prim ary Benefits going to progresses using the planning discount
road users rate
･ Secondary Benefits are usually ignored ･ Costs and Benefits are com pared using
･ Econom ic prices are used using decision criteria such as NPV, IRR, etc.
constant prices
46
Econom ic Prices Project Costs

･ Adjust for Taxes, Duties and Subsidies
･ Use t he planning discount rat e not t he financial ･ Managem ent
m arket rat e ･ Labour
･ If exchange rat e is overvalued, t hen value
Im port s and Export s m ore highly ･ Equipm ent
･ If t here is under em ploym ent of labour, t hen ･ Materials
Unskilled labour is valued less t han m arket rat e
･ Land
･ If t here is a short age t hen Skilled labour m ay be
valued at m ore t han m arket rat e
Prim ary Effects 1 Prim ary Effects 2
･ Reduced vehicle operating costs ･ Changes in road m aintenance

(VOC) costs
･ fuel and lubricants ･ Changes in accident rates
･ vehicle m aintenance
･ Increased travel
･ depreciation and interest
･ overheads ･ Environm ental effects
･ Reduced journey tim e ･ Change in value of goods m oved
･ drivers, passengers and goods
47
Coverage & Double

Secondary Effects
Count ing
Due to changes in: ･ Econom ic analysis should be designed
･ Agricultural output t o give m axim um coverage of benefit s
･ Services ･ Avoid double count ing: do not add
･ Industrial output prim ary and secondary benefit s (e.g.
･ Consum er behaviour increases in land values added t o
changes in t ransport cost s)
･ Land values
･ Consum er surplus approach should be
adequat e (in a perfect ly com pet it ive
econom y)
Econom ic Com parisons Traffic Cat egories

･ Econom ic analysis involves a com parison of
展 it h・and 展 ithout ・cases ･ Norm al t raffic: Exist ing t r affic and growt h
･ Forecast s are m ade of t raffic, road condit ion, t hat would occur on t he sam e road, wit h
VOC and road m aint enance for BOTH scenarios and wit hout t he invest m ent
･ An unrealist ic 展 it hout ・case (i.e. wit h litt le ･ Divert ed t raffic: Traffic divert ed from
m aintenance) can give a false result anot her road t o t he project road as a
･ A range of 展 ith invest m ent ・cases should be result of t he invest m ent
analysed to find the best solut ion ･ Generat ed t raffic: New t raffic induced by
･ A m inim um invest m ent approach oft en gives t he invest m ent
t he best econom ic result s and should be t est ed
48
Consumer Surplus Approach Est im at ing Benefit s

Total Benefits = Transport cost savings Norm al t raffic benefit s: t rips N * d 1 * (VOC1 - VOC2 )
for Normal traffic
Cost + Divert ed t raffic b enefit s: t rips D * ((d 1 * VOC1 )-(d 2 * VOC2 ))

Additional Benefits from
C1 Generated Traffic Generat ed t raffic b enefit s: t rip s G * d 2 * (VOC1 - VOC2 )/ 2
d1 = exist ing road lengt h d 2 new road lengt h

C2 VOC1 = vehicle operat ing cost s p er km
Demand Curve 努 it hout 琶nvest m ent
VOC2 = vehicle operat ing cost s p er km 努 ith・
investm ent
T1 T2 Traffic
VOC dat a relat es t o each road sect ion and it s condit ion
at t he t im e
Economic Decision Criteria Econom ic Decision Criteria

･ Net Present Value ･ Net Present Value/ Investm ent Cost
NPV = (B 1 - C1 )/ (1 + r) + (B 2 - C2 )/ (1 + r)2 + ・ (B n- Cn)/ (1 + r )n
NPV/ C = NPV/ Ci
･ Internal Rate of Return

To calculate IRR, solve for r, such that NPV = 0 ･ First Year Rate of Ret urn
FYRR = (B 1 - C1 ) / Ci
B 1 , B 2･ Bn = Benefits in years 1, 2 ・ n
B 1 , C1 = Benefits and Cost s in year 1
C1 , C2 ･ Cn = Costs in years 1, 2 ・ n
r = Planning discount rate aft er construction
n = Planning tim e horizon Ci = Road invest m ent costs
49
Present Value Present Value at 12.0% Discount Rate

Period Flow 1.00 in Year 1 = 1.00 in Year 1
0 A0 PV(A0) = A0 Year 2 0.89
Year 3 0.80
1 0.71
Year 4
2 1.00 in Year 5 = 0.64 in Year 1
3 Year 6 0.57
4 Year 7 0.51
5 A5 PV(A5) = A5 / (1 + i ) ^ 5 Year 8 0.45
6 Year 9 0.40
7 1.00 in Year 1 0 = 0.36 in Year 1
PV(Aj) = Aj / (1+ i ) ^ j
PV(Aj) = Present Value of Aj 1.00 in Year 15 = 0.20 in Year 1
Aj = Amount at year j
i = Discount rate 1.00 in Year 20 = 0.12 in Year 1
j = Year
Discount Rate Net Present Value & Internal Rate of Return
• The discount rate is opportunity cost of D isc ount

Rate (i) D isc o unt
Ne t
Pre se nt
capital in the public sector, ie the rate of 1 2 .0 % Rate (i) Pre se nt
return on marginal public sector I nves tm e nts

or
P ro fits
or Net
P re s ent
V alue P re se nt
0 .0 %
3 .0 %
7 5 00
6 3 26
investments Ye ar
a
Co sts B e ne fits
b c
B e nef its Fac to r
d = c-b e = 1 /(1 +i)^a
Value
f = d *e
6 .0 %
9 .0 %
5 2 81
4 3 47
• The discount rate to be used will be given 0 1 00 0 0 0 -1 0 0 00 1.00 0 0 -1 0 0 00

1 2 .0 %
1 5 .0 %
3 5 08
2 7 52
1 0 65 0 0 6 5 00 0.89 2 9 5 8 04 1 8 .0 % 2 0 68
by the planning authority responsible for 2 0 30 0 0 3 0 00 0.79 7 2 2 3 92 2 1 .0 % 1 4 47
3 0 30 0 0 3 0 00 0.71 1 8 2 1 35 2 4 .0 % 8 81
the project 4 0 50 0 0 5 0 00 0.63 5 5 3 1 78 2 7 .0 % 3 65
3 0 .0 % -1 09
• The World Bank traditionally has not 3 3 .0 % -5 44
T o tal 1 00 0 0 1 75 0 0 7 5 00 3 5 08 3 6 .0 % -9 44
calculated a discount rate for each project NP V = 3 5 08
3 9 .0 %
4 2 .0 %
-1 3 15
-1 6 57
but has used 10 to 12 percent as a I RR = 2 9.3%
4 5 .0 %
4 8 .0 %
-1 9 75
-2 2 71
notional opportunity cost of capital in
developing countries
50
Net Present Value & Internal Rate of Return NPV Decision Rule
1. If the NPV is positive, for the
• The Net Present Value (NPV) of a chosen discount rate, then the
project alternative relative to the without alternative is acceptable.
project alternative is the sum of the
discounted net annual benefits or costs. 2. If the NPV is negative, for the
chosen discount rate, then the
alternative is unacceptable.
• The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is the
discount rate at which NPV is zero. 3. If the NPV is zero, for the chosen
discount rate, then the alternative
is indifferent to the without project
alternative.
Internal Rate of Return Multiples Rates of Return

Net
8000 Year Benefits Multiple Rates of Return
0 -500
1 1150
2 -660 2.00
6000 NPV at 12% NPV at 12% 0.64
Discount Rate IRR #1 10%
0.00
IRR #2 20%
Net Present Value (M$)
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%

4000
Discount
-2.00
Rate NPV
Net Present Value (M$)

0% -10.0
2000
Internal Rate 2% -6.9
-4.00
of Reurn 4%
6%
-4.4
-2.5
8% -1.0 -6.00
0 10% -0.0
12% 0.6
0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0%
14% 0.9 -8.00
16% 0.9
-2000 18% 0.6
20% 0.0 -10.00
22% -0.8
24% -1.8
-4000 26% -3.0 -12.00
Discount Rate (%) 28% -4.4 Discount Rate (%)
30% -5.9
51
Benefits X Costs Net Benefits X Costs

8
120
7
100 Alternative B
6
Alternative B
Net Benefits (NPV)

80
5
Alternative A
Benefits
60 4
3
40
2
20
Alternative A 1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Costs Costs
Economic Comparison of Alternatives Ranking Projects by Economic Priority

• When comparing project-alternatives, • When comparing the economic priority
the Net Present Value (NPV) is used to of different projects, a recommended
select the optimal project-alternative economic indicator is the NPV per
(alternative with highest NPV) Investment ratio
• The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) or the Select ed NPV/ Investm ent
B/C ratio are not recommended to Alternative P
Project s 8.4 R
compare alternatives of a given project Overlay I
Alternatives NPV O
Projec 0.0 5.2 R
Optim al Reseal
t 3.7 I
Alternative:
6.7 T
Highest NPV 2.1
5.5 Y
Overlay
52
Bibliography
1. USACE, “Coastal Engineering Manual, CEM 2000, Part IV”, Veritech Inc., USA, 2001.
2. Charles, R., Kochhar, G. & Suite, W., “Infrastructure foe Development: A Policy
Agenda for The Caribbean”, Inter American Development Bank, Caribbean
development Bank, UWI Engineering Institute, 1997.
3. Charles, R. “ Design of Low Volume Low Cost Roads”, UWI-EDF Public Information
Series No. 1, European Development Fund, 1998.
4. AASHTO, “A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets”, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington D.C., 1985.
5. Cleveland D.E. et al, “Stopping Sight Distance Parameters”, Transportation Research
Record 1026, Washington D.C., TRB, National Research Council, 1985.
6. Boyce, A.M. et al, “A Review of Geometric Design and Standards for Rural Roads in
Developing Countries”, Transport Road Research Laboratory, TRRL Contractor Report
94, UK, 1988.
7. Lyby, S., “The Importance of Passing Sight Distances in Highway Design”, Proceedings
of the Symposium on Methods for Determining Geometric Road Design Standards,
OECD, Elsinore, Denmark, 1976.
8. Hills, B.L. et al, “Appropriate Geometric Design Standards for Roads in Developing
Countries”, International Conference on Roads and Development, L’Ecole Nationale des
Ponts et Chaussees, Paris, 1984.
9. Odier, L., et al, “Low Cost Roads: Design Construction and Maintenance”, UNESCO,
Butterworths, 1971.
10. NAASRA, “Interim Guide to the Geometric of Rural Roads”, National Association of
Australian State Road Authorities, Sydney, 1980.
11. Highway Research Board, “Report of Committee on Classification of Materials for
Subgrades and Granular Type Roads”, Proceedings Highway Research Board, Vol. 25,
1945.
12. Christopher, B.R. and Holtz, R.D., “Geotextile Engineering Manual”, Federal Highways
Administration, Report No. FHWA – TS-86/203, Washington D.C., 1985.
53
13. AASHTO, “Standard Specification for Highway Materials and Methods of Sampling
and Testing”, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
1985.
14. Charles, R., “The Equilibrium Strength of Clay Subgrades”, MPhil Thesis, University of
the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago, 1989.
15. Charman, J.H., “Laterites in Road pavements”, Overseas Development Administration,
Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Department of Transport and Road Research
Laboratory, Department of Transport CIRA Special Publication 47, 1988.
16. British Standards, “BS 812: Test Methods for Aggregates”, British Standards
Institution, 1985.
17. RRL, “Soil Mechanics for Engineers”, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Road Research Laboratory, UK, HMSO, 1952.
18. Pritchard, D. W.. "What is an Estuary? Physical Viewpoint," Estuaries, Publication 83,
G. H. Lauff, ed., American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington,
DC, 1967.
19. Dalrymple, R. W., Zaitlin, B. A., and Boyd, R. 1992. "Estuarine Facies
Models: Conceptual Basis and Stratigraphic Implications," Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, Vol 62, No. 6, pp 1130-1146.
20. Baeteman, C. 1994. Subsidence in coastal lowlands due to groundwater withdrawal: the
geological approach, "Coastal Hazards, Perception, Susceptibility and Mitigation,"
Finkl, C. W., Jr., (ed.), Journal of Coastal Research Special Issue No. 12, pp 61-75.
21. Bruun, P. M. 1962. "Sea-level Rise as a Cause of Shore Erosion," Proceedings, Journal
of the Waterways and Harbor Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 88,
No. WW1, pp 117-130.
54

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The University of the West Indies Organization of

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME:

DESIGN OF COASTAL ROADS

Dominica, West Indies, July 30-August3, 2001

2. TYPES OF COASTAL ROADS

Figure 2. The Coastal Zone and Continental Shelf.

2.2 Road Classification Character

within an arm’s length. These provide valuable commercial and recreational

Figure3. Coastal Road Systems

3.2 Design Subsystems

(a) Flexible Pavement

(b) Rigid Pavement

Figure 5. Concrete Block Pavement

Other factors for consideration are:

• Adjacent existing pavement structures

4.2 Design Policy

Table 1: Relation Between Ride Quality and Road Roughness

RIDE QUALITY ROUGHNESS

a) CBR, < 2.0 % .......... Very soft ground;

4.5 Bases and Subbases

Table 2 Recommended Base and Subbase Material Properties

Use Road-base Sub-base

Table 3. High Volume Flexible Pavement Thickness

Table 4. Low Volume Flexible Pavement Thickness

> 1000 2 150 1.00 5 52.8%

4 150 1.00 4 59.0%

6 150 1.00 3 52.4%

8 150 1.00 3 76.6%

10 150 1.00 3 88.6%

12 150 1.00 3 93.3%

4.7 Rigid Pavement Thickness

4.7 Concrete Block Pavement Structure

of an effective or equivalent modulus of elasticity. However, layered elastic pavement

5. REINFORCED SUBGRADES AND BASES

d) Membrane-type support of the roadway system.

Figure 6. Membrane Type Support Offered by Geotextiles

5.2 Types of Geotextiles

(a) Separation and Reinforcement

(b) Erosion Protection: Moderate Survivability

(c) Erosion Protection: High Survivability

(d) Embankment Design and Construction

Figure 7. Examples of Geotextile Use Shoreland Roads

Figure 8. Examples of Various Types of Geotextiles

5.3 Property Requirements

TABLE 6. MINIMUM PROPERTIES REQUIRED FOR FABRIC SURVIVABILITY

Required Degree Grab Strength Puncture Burst Trap

TABLE 7. REQUIRED FABRIC SURVIVABILITY

Subgrade Conditions Construction Equipment and 150mm To 300mm

6.2 Sight Distances

6.3 Horizontal Curvature

6.4 Vertical Curvature

Table 9. Recommended Sight Distance for Vertical Curvature

Table 11. Recommended Maximum Gradients

6.6 Phasing of Alignment

7.1 Environmental Assessment Study

7.2 Analysis of Baseline Environmental Conditions

• Collecting and analyzing existing basic documents: These may include

topographical maps, vegetation maps, aerial photographs, scientific and technical

• Assembling information from different sources: Technical, social, demographic and