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    Lesson 8:: Differnce Between Reason and Will

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    Maniya Dianne Reyes
    Kant's theory of ethics is based on the categorical imperative, which commands actions that can be willed as universal laws and that respect humanity as an end in itself. The categorical imperative has two formulations: first, that maxims of our actions must be capable of being willed as universal laws, and second, that people should always be treated as ends and never merely as means. From these formulations we derive perfect duties to never use people merely as means, and imperfect duties to sometimes act on maxims that further people's ends. For Kant, only acts done from duty, not merely in accordance with duty, have true moral worth.

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    Lesson 8:: Differnce Between Reason and Will

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    Maniya Dianne Reyes
    48 views15 pages
    Kant's theory of ethics is based on the categorical imperative, which commands actions that can be willed as universal laws and that respect humanity as an end in itself. The categorical imperative has two formulations: first, that maxims of our actions must be capable of being willed as universal laws, and second, that people should always be treated as ends and never merely as means. From these formulations we derive perfect duties to never use people merely as means, and imperfect duties to sometimes act on maxims that further people's ends. For Kant, only acts done from duty, not merely in accordance with duty, have true moral worth.

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    Kant's theory of ethics is based on the categorical imperative, which commands actions that can be willed as universal laws and that respect humanity as an end in itself. The categorical imperative has two formulations: first, that maxims of our actions must be capable of being willed as universal laws, and second, that people should always be treated as ends and never merely as means. From these formulations we derive perfect duties to never use people merely as means, and imperfect duties to sometimes act on maxims that further people's ends. For Kant, only acts done from duty, not merely in accordance with duty, have true moral worth.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    48 views15 pages

    Lesson 8:: Differnce Between Reason and Will

    Uploaded by

    Maniya Dianne Reyes
    Kant's theory of ethics is based on the categorical imperative, which commands actions that can be willed as universal laws and that respect humanity as an end in itself. The categorical imperative has two formulations: first, that maxims of our actions must be capable of being willed as universal laws, and second, that people should always be treated as ends and never merely as means. From these formulations we derive perfect duties to never use people merely as means, and imperfect duties to sometimes act on maxims that further people's ends. For Kant, only acts done from duty, not merely in accordance with duty, have true moral worth.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 15

    LESSON 8:

    DIFFERNCE BETWEEN
    REASON AND WILL
    IMMANUEL KANT
     He is one of the most influential philosophers in the history of
    Western philosophy.
     His contributions to metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and
    aesthetics have had a profound impact on almost every
    philosophical movement that followed him. One of his most
    important works is “The Critique of Pure Reason”.
     He is a German philosopher whose comprehensive and
    systematic work in epistemology (the theory of
    knowledge), ethics, and aesthetics greatly influenced all
    subsequent philosophy, especially the various schools
    of Kantianism and idealism.
     Kant was one of the foremost thinkers of
    the Enlightenment and arguably one of the greatest
    philosophers of all time.
    KANTIAN ETHICS (MAIN
    CONCEPTS)
    For Kantians, there are two questions that
    we must ask ourselves whenever we decide
    to act:

    1. Can I rationally think that everyone act


    as I propose to act? If the answer is no,
    then we must not perform the action.
    2. Does my action respect the goals of
    human beings rather than merely using
    them for my own purposes?
    KANTIAN ETHICS (MAIN
    CONCEPTS)
     Kant’s theory is an example of a
    deontological moral theory, according to
    these theories, the rightness or
    wrongness of actions does not depend
    on their consequences but on whether
    they fulfill our duty.
    KANTIAN ETHICS (MAIN
    CONCEPTS)
    • Kant’s theory is an example of a deontological
    moral theory, according to these theories, the
    rightness or wrongness of actions does not
    depend on their consequences but on
    whether they fulfill our duty.
    • Kant believed that there was a supreme
    principle of morality, and he referred to it as
    The Categorical Imperative.
    CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
    The primary formulation of Kant’s ethics is the categorical imperative, from which
    he derived four further formulations. Kant made a distinction between categorical
    and hypothetical imperatives.
    • A hypothetical imperative is one we must obey if we want to satisfy our
    desires: ‘go to the doctor’ is a hypothetical imperative because we are
    only obliged to obey it if we want to get well.
    • A categorical imperative bind us regardless of our desires: everyone
    has a duty to not lie, regardless of circumstances and even if it is in our
    interest to do so.
    Morality and imperatives: What do you mean for one's
    duty to be determined by the categorical imperative?
    What is an imperative? An imperative is a command. So, "Pay your taxes!" is an
    imperative, as are "Stop kicking me!" and "Don't kill animals!“

    Hypothetical Imperatives: these imperatives command conditionally on your having


    a relevant desire. E.g. “If you want to go to medical school, study biology in college.”
    If you don’t want to go to medical school, this command doesn’t apply to you.
    Another example, your father says, "if you are hungry, then go eat something!" - if
    you aren't hungry, then you are free to ignore the command.

    Categorical Imperatives: These command unconditionally. E.g. “Don’t cheat on


    your taxes.” Even if you want to cheat and doing so would serve your interests, you
    may not cheat.
    KANT FORMULATION OF
    CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
    1) First formulation (The Formula of Universal Law) C1]: "Act only on that maxim
    through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law [of
    nature].“
    a) What is a maxim? A maxim is the rule or principle on which you act.
    For example, I might make it my maxim to give at least as much to charity each
    year as I spend on eating out, or I might make it my maxim only to do what will
    benefit some member of my family.
    b) Basic idea: The command states, crudely, that you are not allowed to do anything
    yourself that you would not be willing to allow everyone else to do as well. You are not
    allowed to make exceptions for yourself.
    For example, if you expect other people to keep their promises, then you are
    obligated to keep your own promises.
    KANT FORMULATION OF
    CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
    c) More detail: More accurately, it commands that every maxim you act on must be
    such that you are willing to make it the case that everyone always act on that maxim
    when in a similar situation.

    For example, if I wanted to lie to get something I wanted, I would have to be


    willing to make it the case that everyone always lied to get what they wanted - but
    if this were to happen no one would ever believe you, so the lie would not work
    and you would not get what you wanted. So, if you willed that such a maxim (of
    lying) should become a universal law, then you would thwart your goal - thus, it is
    impermissible to lie, according to the categorical imperative. It is impermissible
    because the only way to lie is to make an exception for yourself.
    KANT FORMULATION OF
    CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
    2) First formulation (The Formula of the End in Itself) [CI2]: “So act as to treat
    humanity, both in your own person, and in the person of every other, always at the
    same time as an end, never simply as a means.”

     To use someone as a mere means is to involve them in a scheme of action to


    which they could not in principle consent. In typical transactions (e.g. the
    exchange of money for goods) people use each other as means but not as mere
    means. Each person assumes the other is acting out of his or her own motives
    and is not just a thing to be manipulated.
    KANT FORMULATION OF
    CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
    2) First formulation (The Formula of the End in Itself) [CI2]: “So act as to treat
    humanity, both in your own person, and in the person of every other, always at the
    same time as an end, never simply as a means.”

    For example: If George makes a promise to Joanne with the intention of


    breaking it, and Joanne accepts, then Joanne has been deceived as to
    George’s true maxim. Joanne cannot in principle consent to his scheme of
    action since she doesn’t even know what it is. She is being used as a mere
    means. Likewise, one cannot consent to coercion because consent requires
    having a choice.
    KANT FORMULATION OF
    CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
    Thus, we have two main duties that derive from the C2:

    (1) the perfect duty to act on no maxims that use people as mere means.
    (2) the imperfect duty to act on some maxims that foster peoples’ ends.

    Kant believed C1 and C2 to be equivalent; he thought that each implied


    exactly the same duties. We won’t concern ourselves with whether this is
    true (though it is plausible that they would have the same implications for the
    cases we have examined).
    KANT FORMULATION OF
    CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
     A perfect duty always holds true—there is a perfect duty to tell the truth, so we
    must never lie. An imperfect duty allows flexibility—beneficence is an imperfect
    duty because we are not obliged to be completely beneficent at all times but
    may choose the times and places in which we are.

     You have the basic definition in hand: a perfect duty is one which one must
    always do, and an imperfect duty is a duty which one must not ignore but
    admits of multiple means of fulfillment.
    GOOD WILL AND
    DUTY
     Kant began his ethical theory by arguing that the only virtue that can be
    unqualifiedly good is a good will. No other virtue has this status because
    every other virtue can be used to achieve immoral ends (the virtue of
    loyalty is not good if one is loyal to an evil person, for example).
     The good will is unique in that it is always good and maintains its moral
    value even when it fails to achieve its moral intentions. Kant regarded the
    good will as a single moral principle which freely chooses to use the other
    virtues for moral ends.
    GOOD WILL AND
    DUTY
     For Kant a good will is a broader conception than a will which acts from
    duty. A will which acts from duty is distinguishable as a will which
    overcomes hindrances in order to keep the moral law. A dutiful will is thus a
    special case of a good will which becomes visible in adverse conditions.
    Kant argues that only acts performed with regard to duty have moral worth.
    This is not to say that acts performed merely in accordance with duty are
    worthless (these still deserve approval and encouragement), but that
    special esteem is given to acts which are performed out of duty.

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