SPE/IADC 67818

Tortuosity versus Micro-Tortuosity - Why Little Things Mean a Lot

Tom M. Gaynor, David C-K Chen, Darren Stuart, and Blaine Comeaux, Sperry-Sun Drilling Services, a Halliburton
Company

Copyright 2001, SPE/IADC Drilling Conference

Lubinski et al.4,5 to develop a formula for determining the
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference held in minimum drift size for a hole drilled with a given collar and
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 27 February–1 March 2001.
bit combination (or the reverse). This became known as the
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE/IADC Program Committee following “crooked hole country” formula. Thus there was early
review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the
paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers or the recognition of the potential for problems due to the fact that
International Association of Drilling Contractors and are subject to correction by the author(s).
The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the SPE or IADC, the wellbore was not straight. This recognition predated the
their officers, or members. Papers presented at the SPE/IADC meetings are subject to
publication review by Editorial Committees of the SPE and IADC. Electronic reproduction,
first use of steerable motors by some 30 years.
distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written Today, several types of drilling tools are targeted at
consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print
is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The achieving reduced hole tortuosity as measured by survey
abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was data, with a view to reducing torque and drag. Obvious
presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax
01-972-952-9435. examples are adjustable gauge stabilizers and adjustable
gauge motors, and, more recently, rotary steerable systems.
Abstract In parallel, it is commonly suggested that bent-housing
Tortuosity is commonly defined as the amount by which the steerable motors increase tortuosity as measured by survey
actual well bore deviates from the planned trajectory. data by mixing high dogleg sliding footage and low dogleg
Elimination of excessive tortuosity has been regarded as a rotating footage. In brief, low dogleg equals low torque
critical success factor in extended reach drilling operations. equals “good”, high dogleg equals high torque equals “bad”.
In this paper the authors will refer to “micro-tortuosity”, not Recent evidence suggests that any torque and drag benefits
measurable by survey data, in which the hole axis is a helix derived from reducing dogleg as measured by survey data
instead of a straight line. It is argued that this is Lubinski’s (macro-tortuosity) are likely to be completely overwhelmed
“crooked hole” described in the early 1950’s. The paper by the torque and drag generated by poor wellbore quality
presents a study of micro-tortuosity using field data from (micro-tortuosity).
hundreds of wells. The paper details how and why micro-
tortuosity occurs and the negative impact micro-tortuosity In the last two years, over 200 wellbore sections have been
can have on the entire drilling operation. The paper also drilled using long gauge bits, primarily in pursuit of drilling
presents a solution that eliminates or drastically reduces improvements broadly encompassed by the term “hole
micro-tortuosity. quality”. Most of these bits have been run on steerable
Field results will be presented to demonstrate that micro- motors; some, on rotary steerable systems. Modeling,
tortuosity is in fact the dominant component of the total measuring, and comparing torque and drag values for
tortuosity. sections drilled with long gauge bits and with short gauge
bits immediately showed two surprising results. First, there is
Introduction no dramatic difference between the resulting torque and drag
Tortuosity has been recognized recently as one of the critical values for steerable motors versus rotary steerables when
factors in extended-reach well operations1,2,3. The effects both use similar bits. Secondly, there is a significant
include high torque and drag, poor hole cleaning, drillstring difference between torque and drag values for long gauge bit
buckling and loss of available drilled depth, etc. runs versus short gauge bit runs regardless of the method
Conventional wisdom has always held that tortuosity is most used to drive them. The use of long gauge bits also gives a
often generated by steerable motors while attempting to clear improvement in activities that might be expected to
correct the actual well trajectory back to the planned benefit from improved hole quality or reduced micro-
trajectory. However, in the early days of drilling in the mid- tortuosity. These include hole cleaning, logging operations,
continent area of the United States, drillers observed a resultant log quality, casing runs, and cementing operations.
problem with running tubulars into wells. A vertical well
drilled with a 12-1/4” bit would not drift 12-1/4”. This led Quantifying these differences by “back-calculating” the
friction factors commonly used in the torque and drag model
2 T. M. GAYNOR, D. C-K CHEN, D. STUART, AND B. COMEAUX SPE/IADC 67818

shows a general trend. The friction factors that give accurate Micro-Tortuosity (Tm) is defined as the tortuosity that occurs
results for long gauge bits are much lower than the values on a much smaller scale as compared to macro-tortuosity. We
necessary for obtaining accurate results when using short will demonstrate that the primary source of micro-tortuosity
gauge bits. Coupled with the observable field results, this is borehole spiraling, where the hole axis is helix instead of a
suggests that attention to hole quality is likely to have a far straight line. (Despite this the authors have stuck with the
greater effect on well design limits, particularly in extended commonly used term spiralling.) Micro-tortuosity differs
reach drilling, than will minute attention to matching from macro-tortuosity in that (i) it occurs on conventional
directional survey results to the ideal well proposal. assemblies as well as motor assemblies (and rotary
steerables, for that matter), and (ii) it creates a uniform
Thus, we believe that micro-tortuosity is far more important spiraled wellbore that can only be detected by advanced
than the commonly known “tortuosity” in determining the wireline survey techniques or MWD caliper tools. Unlike
resulting torque and drag and overall wellbore quality. In more randomly occurring (and easily measured) localized
addition, we will show that micro-tortuosity is highly washout, a spiraled borehole can last several thousand feet
dependent on the bit and we will discuss field results that and can occur across a range of different formations. The
support the contentions above. effect of washout is therefore considered minor in
comparison to the impact of thousands of feet of spiraled
Tortuosity vs. Micro-Tortuosity borehole. The authors also suggest that what has historically
To explain the difference between tortuosity and micro- been classified as “rugose”, “corrugated”, or “ledged” hole, is
tortuosity, we will first explain how tortuosities are defined more likely spiraled hole.
and measured.
Spiral hole was first mentioned by MacDonald and Lubinski
Planned Tortuosity (Tp) is the summation of the total in a paper in 19514. They reported that a spiral hole, though it
curvature (inclination and azimuth change) in the planned has no objective rate of change in angle, could develop
wellbore divided by the well depth. The result can be serious key seating difficulties, drill pipe wear on
expressed by either the radius of curvature or, as its intermediate casing, etc. Lubinski used the term “tight
reciprocal, in degrees per 100 feet so as to be consistent with spiral” to emphasize the high torque and drag associated with
measurements of dogleg severity. For example, in a well that the spiraled wellbore.
builds from vertical to 60 degrees with no change in azimuth,
the total curvature is equal to 60 degrees. If the total depth of We believe that the tortuosity (T) of the wellbore should
the well is 10,000 feet (3,048 meters) the Planned Tortuosity consist of the macro-tortuosity and the micro-tortuosity as
is 60/(10,000/100) or 0.6 degree/100 ft.
T = Macro-Tortuosity + Micro-Tortuosity
Tortuosity (T) is computed from the final well survey by
summing all the increments of curvature along the well and In the past, the micro-tortuosity associated with a spiraled
dividing by the well depth (total tortuosity), then subtracting hole has been lumped into the crude “friction factor” value in
the planned tortuosity. In conventional wisdom, tortuosity is torque and drag models. As a result, even with the
approximately the same as macro-tortuosity created by the introduction of new rotary steerable drilling systems which
local dogleg severity associated with the use of steerable should have minimized all the local dogleg severity (macro-
motors attempting to maintain or correct the actual well tortuosity), the observed field friction factors are still much
trajectory on course with the well plan. The recent higher than the coefficient of friction between steel and rock
development of rotary steerable drilling systems was to measured in a laboratory. This suggests that a significant
provide smooth wellbore curvature that potentially could portion of the torque and drag created by micro-tortuosity
minimize all the tortuosity. Thus conventionally, the still exists downhole. We believe that micro-tortuosity occurs
tortuosity (T) of the wellbore is equal to the total tortuosity in most of the wellbore in the form of hole spiraling. Only
(TT) minus planned tortuosity (Tp) or by recognizing and removing micro-tortuosity can one drill a
truly smooth wellbore. Based on the above hypothesis, the
T ≈ Macro-Tortuosity = TT - Tp (Conventional Wisdom) torque and drag (and the associated friction factor) in a
wellbore with little to no micro-tortuosity should approach a
In their paper describing wellbore profile optimization, level that is lower than has ever been seen before. We will
Banks, et al.1 stated that wells drilled without regard to demonstrate that in the following sections.
“smoothness” could have tortuosity values as high as
0.7°/100 ft while smoother wells could have values Mathematical Model of a Spiral Hole
approaching 0.3°/100 ft. The “smoothness” to which Banks, The geometry of a spiral wellbore as defined in a Cartesian
et al. were referring had to do with the “kinks” imposed in coordinate system is:
the process of trying to steer the well back to the desired well
plan with a steerable assembly. X= r *cos θ ------- (1)
SPE/IADC 67818 TORTUOSITY VERSUS MICRO-TORTUOSITY - WHY LITTLE THINGS MEAN A LOT 3

Y = r *sin θ ------- (2) collars. Using Eq. (6) the drift (new wellbore) is calculated to
be 8.31”, a 1.56”(16%) reduction in wellbore OD which is
and exactly the same magnitude measured by the wireline tool.
Z = P*θ /(2π) ------- (3) The reduction in the cross section area (drift vs hole size) is
calculated to be 22.32 in2 (29%). As a comparison, Figure 5
In which r and P are the radius and pitch of the spiral, shows a perfectly gauge hole drilled with a new steerable
respectively. The wellbore depth S can be calculated as system (a matched long gauge bit and positive displacement
mud motor). The entire 12,000 ft interval was drilled in only
S = [P2 +4 π2 r2 ]½ * z/P ------- (4) 2.7 days with no short trips

and the curvature of the spiral hole can be expressed as Although a spiral hole creates higher torque and drag, the
extra wellbore length due to spiraling is usually negligible.
For example, using the same parameters above in Eq. (4), S =
K = 4 π2 r / (P2 +4 π2 r2) ------- (5)
1.014 z, representing a 1.4% increase of wellbore length
drilled by the bit. Only for cases of very large radial
Thus, for a typical 5’ pitch and 0.5” radius helix, using Eq.
clearances (17-1/2” bits and 9-1/2“ collars) can the additional
(5) the wellbore curvature K is calculated to be 0.0656 1/ft or
length increase to perhaps 3%, or an extra 30 feet drilled per
a dogleg severity of 376 deg/100’.
1000 feet of hole.
Because of this high equivalent dogleg value, the drill collars
and drill pipe cannot possibly conform to the spiral. If the
Solution for Micro-Tortuosity: Long Gauge Bits
BHA is slick, the collars will lie on the crests but tool joints
The ability of any bit to move off the centerline of the
will tend to hang up. If the collars are stabilised, either the
wellbore is determined by the gauge length on the bit, the
BHA distorts to accommodate micro-tortuosity or the
amount of side cutting structure on the bit, and the
stabilisers attempt to ream the hole straight. Either way
stabilization of the bit and BHA. Other factors may play a
increased torque and drag is probable and this is not
role in reducing the tendency to move off center, such as
accounted for in T & D models
anti-whirl feature, but these factors are addressing symptoms
rather than causes.
The collars will act to limit the amount of lateral movement
of the bit off the centerline of the hole. Thus the spiral
The concept of preventing side-cutting to improve hole
amplitude will be determined by the relative size of the bit
quality is not new as machinists have taken advantage of it
and collars. This is exactly the function described by Woods
for years. A conventional twist drill for drilling through metal
and Lubinski5 in determining the maximum wellbore “drift”
is furnished with a cutting structure that cuts only in the
of a “crooked hole”. Lubinski calculated the maximum drift
direction of the tool’s long axis, and the spiral flutes serve
created in a crooked hole as
only to stabilize the cutting structure, and “burnish” the sides
of the hole. Until the flutes begin to stabilize the cutting
Drift = (Bit Diameter + Collar Diameter) /2 ------- (6)
structure, the drill will tend to precess in the same direction
as drill rotation. This can readily be observed using a
Figure 1 shows the two-dimensional schematic of Eq. (6) and
domestic electric drill, and explains why the hole being
the drill collars in a spiral hole.
drilled is often triangular until the stabilizing flutes begin to
control this movement. If they did not exist, the drill would
Figures 2 and 3 show two spiral borehole images taken from
continue to precess, and the resulting hole would be
the wireline CAST (Circumferential Acoustic Scanning Tool)
triangular in section, following a helical path.
tool in a well in South America. The evidence of hole
spiraling is presented in the strong diagonal response of the
Since the mechanics that governs machining metal is
CAST images running across the compressed and expanded
identical to that in rock, there is no reason to expect that
2-D images presented in tracks 1 and 2. The reverse 3-D
preventing fixed cutter bits contacting the side of a wellbore
image presented in track 3 clearly indicates the wellbore
will have any different result. Any tour of a machine shop
spiraling while it was being drilled. Note that the spiral
will immediately reveal that a drill press, designed only for
seemed to change its direction from time to time and had a
cutting tools that do not side cut (twist drills or reamers), is
pitch length was about 2 feet.
relatively slender. Milling machines, designed to cope with
side-cutting tools, are massive, with stiff, well-supported
Figure 4 shows a spiral hole detected by a differential caliper
spindles to give them the stiffness to resist side-cutting
tool on a wireline density measurement at a well in Gulf of
forces. This offers a possible explanation for the observation
Mexico. The log indicates that the hole is under gauge
that PDC bit tests carried out in laboratories (on rigs that are
approximately by 1.5” every 4 feet and rarely over gauge.
much more like milling machines than like drilling rigs),
This phenomenon is repeated over thousands of feet on this
produce results that have never been seen in the field. A drill
log. This section was drilled by a 9-7/8” bit and 6-3/4”
string can never approach the lateral and torsional stiffness of
4 T. M. GAYNOR, D. C-K CHEN, D. STUART, AND B. COMEAUX SPE/IADC 67818

a milling machine. However, a drill press, designed only to Quantifying Tortuosity and Micro-Tortuosity by the
drill holes – which is what we want to do – has no great Friction Factor
torsional, and often very little lateral stiffness. Instead, the There are several ways to quantify tortuosity, such as using
cutting tool provides the solution. The drilling equivalent of a the surface torque1 or using the friction factor in the torque
twist drill is a long gauge bit. and drag modeling as proposed in this paper. More than one
hundred wells have been analyzed where the friction factors
There is now abundant evidence that hole spiraling exists, were back-calculated, that is, the value of friction factor
whether this evidence is anecdotal, visual (from imaging necessary to generate model results that matched observed
tools) or by inductive reasoning from logs with an otherwise field data was calculated. All of the wells were drilled with
inexplicable periodic variation or tools with an otherwise conventional BHA’s, including motor and rotary assemblies.
inexplicable wear pattern. There is also abundant evidence
that long gauge bits minimize or more often eliminate hole Table 1 shows the results from the study. As can be seen
spiraling. Since the drilling industry depends on steering, if from the table, the friction factors can vary considerably,
“long gauge bits do not steer” then this piece of information depending on mud type and whether the hole is open or
is interesting, but has no practical application. Once it is cased. The friction factors are normally less in casing than in
discovered that long gauge bits can be made to steer, initially open hole. It has always been assumed that this was due
on specially designed motors, and subsequently on point-the- primarily to the lower relative coefficient of friction between
bit rotary steerable tools, then the information is worth re- steel on steel (drill pipe on casing) compared to steel on rock
examining. (open hole). We propose that a larger effect is the
elimination of micro-tortuosity (spiraling) once the casing
This solution can be demonstrated by recourse to Lubinski’s has been run. Our reasons for believing this will become
crooked hole equation in Eq. (6). It demonstrates that the clear shortly.
drift of a hole is controlled by the diameter of the drill collar
directly above the bit. A non-spiraled, high quality hole will These friction factors have been used for some time now for
have a drift diameter equal to its gauge, presumed to be the the purpose of predicting torque and drag on planned wells.
nominal bit diameter. It is easy to demonstrate that if the However, with the introduction of this new positive
collar directly above the bit is in fact the same diameter as displacement mud motor and long gauge PDC bit drilling
the bit, then drift equals hole gauge, and the hole must system6, it became apparent that the generic friction factors
possess no spiraling. Running 12 ¼” collars in 12 ¼” hole used for everyday wells were no longer applicable to wells
would pose problems. Running a bit with a 12 ¼” sleeve drilled using this new system. The pick-up, slack-off and
directly above the cutting structure (a long gauge bit) does torque values predicted using the conventional friction
not. factors were considerably higher than those observed in the
field, indicating that the friction factors were set too high for
When this thinking has been applied to oil field bit design, accurate torque and drag prediction for the new drilling
the results have been surprising. Straighter holes have system.
resulted in friction factors that defy conventional
expectations. Bit life has been extended greatly. Circulation In order to improve predictions when designing future wells
time as a percent of below-rotary hours has been reduced to that would utilize this new drilling system, we analyzed
10-12% on average, demonstrating the efficiency with which several North Sea runs that had been drilled with the system
the cuttings are being circulated out of the well. Short trips to determine an accurate friction factor. We found that on
have been reduced or eliminated. Log quality and ease of wells drilled with the new system and using pseudo oil based
running logging tools has been improved. Cement job mud, the average friction factor value was 0.12. This
success rate has been nearly 100%, with cement bond logs to compares to 0.17 for conventional assemblies with the same
demonstrate the high quality of the job. MWD and LWD mud type, a dramatic 30% reduction. As can be seen from
failures have been reduced due to the drastic reduction in Tables 1 and 2, the open hole friction factor value using this
downhole vibration. Lost-in-Hole risk has been reduced. new system is actually lower than the calculated casing
Entire hole intervals have been drilled in record times friction factor in conventional assemblies. This was a
repeatedly. surprising revelation. The authors suggest that the drag
measurements on which the casing friction factor is based are
It is important to note that the drilling system employed normally recorded soon after the casing is run, perhaps on the
required changes to the bit design as well as changes to the shoe drill-out run. This initially high drag value can be
positive displacement mud motor design. expected to drop with every rotating hour as the inside of the
casing becomes polished. Hence the friction will reduce with
While these benefits apply to the vast majority of wells being time giving a lower friction factor value. We have found
drilled today, the reduction in friction delivered by this new from further study that the open hole friction factor using this
system is of particular value for pushing the extended reach new system is almost identical to cased hole friction factor
envelope even further than previously thought possible. after polishing, further proof that the reduction must be down
SPE/IADC 67818 TORTUOSITY VERSUS MICRO-TORTUOSITY - WHY LITTLE THINGS MEAN A LOT 5

to micro-tortuosity. Figures 6 and 7 show “typical” calculated rotating ROP that is generally recognized as a universal
friction factor analyses using this new drilling system at two phenomenon. If spiraling could be eliminated, one would
North Sea wells. expect to see a resulting increase in sliding ROP relative to
rotating ROP. In fact, this is exactly what has been seen
In order to simulate tortuosity on well plans, a tortuosity when using the new drilling system that utilizing the long
scale factor is applied to the back-calculated actual friction gauge bit. In some areas sliding ROP has been increase to
factors (See Table 2). Normally for conventional assemblies, within 80% or more of the rotating ROP. Thus, the penalty
Halliburton has used a tortuosity scale factor value of 1.34. for sliding is reduced. This opens the door for the directional
Using this new drilling system, it was noted that the driller to spend more time keeping the well closer to the well
tortuosity scale factor was reduced to 1.14. This would mean plan while achieving a respectable ROP, thus reducing the
that in our example of Pseudo Oil Based Mud the planning macro-tortuosity in the well also.
friction factor when using this new system will only be 0.14
(0.12 x 1.14) as opposed to the “normal” value of 0.23 (0.17 • Stabilizer Wear
x 1.34) for conventional assemblies. Stabilizer hang up in spiral holes would also result in the
excessive wear on the leading and trailing edge of stabilizers
Field Examples of Micro-Tortuosity that has been observed on numerous wells. This is the area
Micro-tortuosity affects almost every aspect of drilling and that would contact the spiral every pitch, and also would tear
completing a well. Due to space limitations we have focused out the new formation when backreaming is done. The short
on the most important areas, based on the significance of the gauge bit that originally allowed the spiraling to occur would
impact on drilling time and cost. not perform this function, because at any point in the hole,
the bit will prefer to follow the relatively gauge hole it
• Bit Life and MWD/LWD Tool Reliability originally cut, and so will follow the spiral in and out of the
Bits that designed to cut away the side of the hole as well as hole. The job of backreaming is left to the stabilizers. A key
the hole in front of it tends to drill a spiral hole. They include identifier for spiralled hole is that stabiliser wear advances
short gauge length bits or bits with side-cutting structure7. along the hole axis, not perpendicular to it.
These types of bit are also prone to vibrations and “whirl”.
As most drillers are aware that impact damage is a primary • Torque and Drag
cause of PDC bit damage. Thus, spiral hole is often The torque and drag in the wellbore often determine the
associated with bit vibrations resulting in shorter bit life. success of drilling extended reach or horizontal wells. Torque
and drag data gathered from the new drilling system show a
The same vibration that destroys the bit also travels up the 40% reduction in the friction factor value required for the
drill string and can lead to a premature MWD/LWD failure. modeling. This is a result of eliminating micro-tortuosity.
By stopping the vibration before it can initiate, the
MWD/LWD system reliability should improve. Data from • Logging Tool Response
multiple incidents where vibration-related failures have Spiraled boreholes have long plagued wireline and LWD
occurred, utilizing the new drilling system has had a dramatic service companies and have led to totally ambiguous
impact on eliminating or reducing the frequency of tool responses from resistivity, density, neutron, and other
failure. logging sensors. This is due to the fact that the logging tool
will be supported on the low side of the hole by the peaks in
• Hole Cleaning the spiral. If the hole is in fact spiraled instead of corrugated,
Due to the rugosity of the spiral wellbore, cuttings will travel then the opposing side of the hole will be “in phase” rather
a tortuous path and will encounter a trough every 2 to 10 feet than “out of phase” as would be expected for a corrugated
(dependent on the actual pitch of the spiral). This will lead to hole. In simple language this means that opposite every peak
additional circulating time as well as extra time for on the low side will be a peak on the high side, not a valley.
backreaming and short trips in an attempt to dislodge the See Figures 1 to 3.
trapped cuttings. When using the new drilling system
(utilizing the long gauge bit), entire intervals have been Figure 4 illustrates a spiral hole detected by a differential
drilled without short trips and with greatly reduced wireline caliper tool. The borehole fluctuates between almost
circulating hours. In one instance, a 12,000-foot open hole perfectly gauge and 1.5” under-gauge. This is due to the fact
interval in the Gulf of Mexico was drilled with no short trips. that the caliper arm is regularly moving from a peak to a
The entire interval was drilled in only 2.7 days. valley on the high side. When it measures the peak, the tool
has its “back against the wall” at that point, so the distance is
• ROP exactly the bit diameter. At all other times its “back” is
Stabilizers will tend to hang up in a spiral hole, especially in spanning the valley between two peaks, and it is therefore
a non-rotating (“sliding”) mode. This mechanism explains unable to conform to the borehole center, and thus measures
the reduction in sliding rates of penetration (ROP) relative to
6 T. M. GAYNOR, D. C-K CHEN, D. STUART, AND B. COMEAUX SPE/IADC 67818

an undergauge hole. As a comparison, Figure 5 shows a 5. Field data using the new drilling system have shown a
perfectly gauge hole drilled with the new steerable system. much lower friction factor compared to that from any
existing drilling system. This suggests that only by
• Cementing removing micro-tortuosity, can one drill a truly smooth
The spiral borehole described above is equivalent to a wellbore, regardless of the technology employed to steer
continuous thread in the well. As previously described, a the well.
spiraled wellbore will have a drift diameter substantially less
than the bit gauge diameter. Running casing into a wellbore 6. By eliminating or reducing spiraling, nearly every facet
will create an annular space with a varying annular clearance of the drilling operation is quantifiably improved. None
at any given cross section. This might not create too many of these improvements can be realized by a likewise
problems as long as it is not continuous. Unfortunately, by reduction in steering-related macro-tortuosity
definition the spiraled borehole is continuous. The
consequences of this are that there could potentially be an 7. Micro-tortuosity should be routinely considered in
area of minimum cement thickness that wraps around the torque and drag modeling exercises. Until then the
casing in a continuous path from shoe to shoe. There are no industry will make decisions on field development that
cased hole logging tools in existence today that can measure are based on ERD limits susceptible to dramatic
this feature in a cement job, so it has escaped detection so far. improvement at little cost.

• Gravel Packing Acknowledgements

In gravel packing wells, and especially inclined wells, a good The authors would like to thank members of senior
distribution of gravel over the entire gravel pack interval is management from Sperry-Sun and Halliburton Energy
the design goal. A gravel pack screen that has been run in a Services for supporting the team during the development of
spiral wellbore faces the same annular clearance issues the new drilling system and for permission to prepare and
described above. The tortuous path the gravel is required to present this paper.
travel may well be the root cause of many of the early sand-
out problems that have been experienced. References
1. Banks, S. M., Hogg, T. W., and Thorogood, J. L., “Increasing
Conclusions Extended-Reach Capabilities Through Wellbore Profile
Optimization”, IADC/SPE #23850. 1992 IADC/SPE Drilling
1. Tortuosity has been redefined as having two
Conference in New Orleans, Louisiana.
components, macro- and micro-tortuosity. Macro-
tortuosity can be detected by examination of survey 2. Payne, M. L., and Abbassian, F. ”Advanced Torque and Drag
results. Micro-tortuosity is a smaller scale of dogleg that Considerations in Extended-Reach Wells” IADC/SPE #35102,
will not show up in MWD survey data. It can only be 1996 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference in New Orleans,
definitively detected by advanced wireline survey Louisiana.
techniques or MWD caliper tools.
3. Guild, G. J., Hill, T. H., and Summers, M. A. ”Designing and
2. Micro-tortuosity commonly exists in the form of hole Drilling Extended Reach Wells”, Petroleum Engineer
International January 1995, pp35- pp41.
spiraling. The pitch of the spiral appears to range
between 2 and 10 feet. Analysis of hundreds of wells 4. MacDonald, G. C., and Lubinski, A. “Straight-Hole Drilling in
indicates that micro-tortuosity exists in many of the Crooked-Hole Country”, Drilling and Production Practice, API
wells being drilled today 1951.

3. Friction factors back-calculated in the torque and drag 5. Woods, H. B. and Lubinski, A. “How to Determine Best Hole
model are used to quantify the micro-tortuosity. The data And Drill-Collar Size”, The Oil and Gas Journal, June 7, 1954.
indicate that Micro-tortuosity is a very important
component in total tortuosity, perhaps even the dominant 6. Gaynor, T. M., Chen, D. C-K, Maranuk, C., and Pruitt, J. “An
Improved Steerable System: Working Principles, Modeling,
component.
and Testing”, SPE #63248, 2000 SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition in Dallas, Texas.
4. Many factors contribute to hole spiraling or micro-
tortuosity but the most significant issue is the bit design. 7. Dykstra, M. W., Chen, D. C-K, Warren, T. M., and Zannoni, S.
There is abundant evidence that long gauge bits A. “Experimental Evaluations of Drill Bit and Drill String
eliminate hole spiraling. To exploit the benefits of long Dynamics”, SPE 28323, 1994 SPE Annual Technical
gauge bits, a new motor system has been designed to be Conference and Exhibition in New Orleans, Louisiana.
able to steer the long gauge bit. The same benefits are
available from “point-the-bit” rotary steerable tools.
SPE/IADC 67818 TORTUOSITY VERSUS MICRO-TORTUOSITY - WHY LITTLE THINGS MEAN A LOT 7

Table 1. Friction Factors from over 100 wells Drilled by Conventional Assemblies

Mud System Actual Planning Actual Planning

Casing Casing Open Hole Open Hole
F.F. F.F. F.F. F.F.

Water Based
Generic 0.18 0.24 0.24 0.32
Polyseal / Barasilc 0.25 0.34 0.30 0.40
Thixal 0.22 0.29 0.27 0.36

Pure Oil Based

0.10 0.13 0.12 0.16
Generic

Pseudo Oil Based

Generic 0.15 0.20 0.17 0.23
XP07 0.17 0.23 0.17 0.23
Petrofree 0.14 0.19 0.18 0.24
Ecomul 0.16 0.21 0.20 0.27

Table 2. Tortuosity Scale Factors and Friction Factors for the New Drilling System with Pseudo Oil Based Mud

Field Hole Hole Actual Planning Tortuosity

Inc. Size MD In MD Out Open Open Hole Scale Comments
MD MD Hole F.F. F.F. Factor

A 63° 12¼” 8817ft 18215ft 0.14 0.16 1.11 Friction Factor calculated
higher than normal due
to effect of 6 5/8” drill
pipe.
B 3°-76° 12¼” 3010ft 9213ft 0.10 0.11 1.08
C 50°-87° 8½” 2906m 4040m 0.14 0.16 1.13 Offshore Germany well.
D 41°-63° 8½” 7818ft 11590ft 0.06 0.06 1.03
D 58°-16° 8½” 8619ft 12970ft 0.01 0.01 1.06
E 18°-70° 8½” 6544ft 10078ft 0.05 0.07 1.26
F 39°-86° 6” 9990ft 13622ft 0.07 0.10 1.30 Torque showed 2200 ft-
lbs. more than expected.
Probably miss-
calibration.
8 T. M. GAYNOR, D. C-K CHEN, D. STUART, AND B. COMEAUX SPE/IADC 67818

FIGURE 1- Relationship between bit diameter and drill collar diameter creating
a self-limiting system as per Lubinski. The drill collar diameter determines the
DDC maximum lateral displacement of the bit from center. While superficially this
may appear to be simply the radial clearance, it is actually the radial clearance
divided by 2. Every displacement in one direction creates a limiting boundary
Ddrift on the opposite side of the hole, so the net result is that the bit can only move
half of the radial clearance in any given direction. There is no logical reason for
this motion to be confined to two dimensions since it is created with a rotating
(360°) drilling machine. Therefore it will naturally form a helix.
Dbit
SPE/IADC 67818 TORTUOSITY VERSUS MICRO-TORTUOSITY - WHY LITTLE THINGS MEAN A LOT 9

Figure 2 - Spiral Borehole #1 as shown by the 2D (Tracks 1 and 2) and 3D (Track 3) images obtained from a wireline CAST tool in a
Well in South America. The section was between depth of 11,108’ and 11,119’. Note the spiral changed direction at the depth about
11,115’ and had a pitch about 2’

Figure 3 - Spiral Borehole #2 as shown by the 2D (Tracks 1 and 2) and 3D (Track 3) images obtained from a wireline CAST tool in a
Well in South America. The section was between depth of 11,183’ and 11,194’.
10 T. M. GAYNOR, D. C-K CHEN, D. STUART, AND B. COMEAUX SPE/IADC 67818

DIFF CAL
INCHES
–20….……………………………………………………………..20

DEEP RES 24 NEUT POR CALIPER CALIPER

OHM-M % IN IN
.2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 20 60 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 23 –––––––––––––––––––– 3 3 –––––––––––––––––––– 23

DEEP RES 30 DEN POR BIT SIZE BIT SIZE

OHM-M % IN IN
.2 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 20 60 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0 23 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23

Figure 4 – Evidence of profound spiraling as detected Figure 5 – Typical example of extremely gauge hole. This
by a differential caliper tool on a wireline density hole quality was evident over thousands of feet. This well
measurement. The log indicates that the hole is under- was drilled with the new steerable system (a matched long
gauge approximately by 1.5” every 4 feet and rarely gauge bit and positive displacement mud motor). The
over gauge . The underage magnitude matches to that entire 12,000 ft interval was drilled in only 2.7 days with
calculated from Lubinski’s drift equation. This no short trips.
phenomenon is repeated over thousands of feet on this
l
SPE/IADC 67818 TORTUOSITY VERSUS MICRO-TORTUOSITY - WHY LITTLE THINGS MEAN A LOT 11

T&D Data from a North Sea Well Using the New Steerable Drilling System
270
Average pick-up friction factor 0.07 and 100
average slack-off friction factor 0.05
90
250
Average pick-up friction factor 0.09 and
average slack-off friction factor 0.03 80
230

70
210

60

190

50

170

40

150
30

130
20

110
10

90 0
7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 10500 11000 11500 12000
Depth (ft)
Pick Up (all weight values in klbs) Calibrated Pick Up (all weight values in klbs) ff=0.1 Pick Up (all weight values in klbs) ff=0.2
Slack Off (all weight values in klbs) Calibrated Slack Off (all weight values in klbs) ff=0.1 Slack Off (all weight values in klbs) ff=0.2
Rotating Off Bottom (klbs) Calculated Inc

Depth Inc Pick Up (all weight values in klbs) Slack Off (all weight values in klbs) Rotating Off Bottom (klbs)
feet degrees Actual Calibrated ff=0.1 ff=0.2 Calculated ff Actual Calibrated ff=0.1 ff=0.2 Calculated ff Actual Calculated
7818 41 190 191 182 182 0.19 105 106 110 110 0.19 140 141
7938 44 175 187 184 185 0.17 110 122 112 111 0.10 130 142
8261 54 172 187 188 190 0.08 110 125 114 112 0.00 130 145
8621 63 170 190 189 194 0.13 110 130 113 111 0.00 125 145
9127 63 170 181 191 197 0.00 110 121 114 110 0.00 135 146
9317 60 175 188 195 202 0.00 110 123 115 111 0.00 135 148
10074 63 180 195 205 214 0.00 115 130 119 114 0.00 140 155
10259 61 187 203 208 217 0.05 112 128 120 115 0.00 140 156
11117 62 200 219 220 232 0.09 110 129 124 118 0.02 145 164
11590 63 210 232 227 240 0.14 112 134 126 120 0.00 145 167

9 5/8" Casing set at 7813ft - friction factor calculated averaged as : 0.16

8½" Hole - friction factor calculated averaged as : 0.09 in pick-up and 0.03 in slack-off

Figure 6. Pick-Up and Slack-Off Weights from North Sea Well #1 using the New Steerable Drilling System
12 T. M. GAYNOR, D. C-K CHEN, D. STUART, AND B. COMEAUX SPE/IADC 67818

T&D Data from another North Sea Well Using the New Steerable Drilling System
225 100

215
90

205
Average pick-up friction factor 0.11 and 80
195 average slack-off friction factor 0.09
185 70

175
60

165
50
155

40
145

135 30

125
20

115

10
105

95 0
3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000
Depth (ft)
Pick Up (all weight values in klbs) Calibrated Pick Up (all weight values in klbs) ff=0.1 Pick Up (all weight values in klbs) ff=0.2
Slack Off (all weight values in klbs) Calibrated Slack Off (all weight values in klbs) ff=0.1 Slack Off (all weight values in klbs) ff=0.2
Rotating Off Bottom (klbs) Calculated Inc

Depth Inc Pick Up (all weight values in klbs) Slack Off (all weight values in klbs) Rotating Off Bottom (klbs)
feet degrees Actual Calibrated ff=0.1 ff=0.2 Calculated ff Actual Calibrated ff=0.1 ff=0.2 Calculated ff Actual Calculated
3166 11 95 105 105 106 0.09 90 100 100 100 0.10 93 103
3654 22 105 115 114 115 0.13 98 108 107 106 0.06 100 110
3940 28 108 117 118 120 0.05 100 109 109 107 0.12 105 114
4231 22 113 121 124 128 0.01 107 115 113 110 0.03 110 118
4611 17 124 132 134 139 0.06 111 119 120 116 0.12 119 127
5020 12 133 143 143 149 0.10 118 128 127 123 0.08 125 135
5650 3 150 162 158 165 0.16 125 137 138 132 0.12 135 147
5875 7 152 161 163 172 0.08 131 140 141 135 0.12 143 152
6505 20 173 181 176 188 0.14 143 151 149 141 0.08 154 162
6875 21 176 185 184 198 0.11 145 154 154 144 0.10 159 168
7158 26 182 192 189 205 0.12 149 159 157 147 0.08 162 172
7443 31 189 196 193 210 0.12 151 158 158 148 0.10 167 174
7720 42 193 202 197 215 0.13 150 159 159 147 0.10 167 176
7825 45 198 204 197 216 0.14 155 161 159 147 0.08 170 176
8298 61 194 198 197 218 0.11 152 156 156 143 0.10 170 174
8493 68 195 202 195 216 0.14 147 154 154 141 0.10 165 172
8875 76 185 190 190 213 0.10 142 147 148 135 0.11 162 167

13 3/8" Casing set at 2989ft - friction factor calculated averaged as : 0.09

12¼" Hole - friction factor calculated averaged as : 0.11 in pick-up and 0.09 in slack-off

Figure 7. Pick-Up and Slack-Off Weights from North Sea Well #2 using the New Steerable Drilling System