Cherubs…towards better English

FIGURES OF SPEECH

1. Alliteration
The repetition of an initial consonant sound. 

1. Anaphora
The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or
verses. (Contrast with epiphora and epistrophe.) 
2. Antithesis
The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases. 
3. Apostrophe
Breaking off discourse to address some absent person or thing, some abstract quality,
an inanimate object, or a nonexistent character. 
4. Assonance
Identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words. 
5. Chiasmus
A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced against the first
but with the parts reversed. 
6. Euphemism
The substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit. 
7. Hyperbole
An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis
or heightened effect. 
8. Irony
The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. Also, a statement or
situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the
idea. 
9. Litotes
A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is
expressed by negating its opposite. 
10. Metaphor
An implied comparison between two unlike things that actually have something
important in common. 
11. Metonymy
A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which

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it's closely associated; also, the rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly
by referring to things around it. 

1. Onomatopoeia
The use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they
refer to. 
2. Oxymoron
A figure of speech in which incongruous or contradictory terms appear side by side. 
3. Paradox
A statement that appears to contradict itself. 
4. PersonificationA figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is
endowed with human qualities or abilities.
5. Pun
A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on
the similar sense or sound of different words. 
6. Simile
A stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as") between two fundamentally
dissimilar things that have certain qualities in common. 
7. Synecdoche
A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole (for
example,ABCs for alphabet) or the whole for a part ("England won the World Cup in
1966"). 

1. Understatement
A figure of speech in which a writer or speaker deliberately makes a situation seem
less important or serious than it is.

SIMILE: A comparison between two objects of different kinds which have at least one
common point and usually introduced by words : like, as, so.

White as snow

Proud as a peacock

Bold as brass

Tough as leather

Clear as crystal
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Good as gold

Cool as cucumber

Red as snow

METAPHOR: an implied simile. But unlike simile the words; like, as, so are not used. In a
metaphor, the two objects compared as taken as one.

e.g.

The detective listened to her tales with a wooden face.

 She was fairly certain that life was a fashion show.

 The typical teenage boy’s room is a disaster area.
 What storms then shook the ocean of my sleep.
 The children were roses grown in concrete gardens, beautiful and forlorn.
 Kisses are the flowers of love in bloom.
 His cotton candy words did not appeal to her taste.
 Kathy arrived at the grocery store with an army of children.
 Her eyes were fireflies.
 He wanted to set sail on the ocean of love but he just wasted away in the desert.
 I was lost in a sea of nameless faces

PERSONIFICATION: Inanimate objects and ideas are given human quality as if they have
life and intelligence.

e.g. the sky was mad with fury

all the leaves were giggling

Death lays its icy hands on the king.

APOSTROPHE: A direct address to dead, absent, a personified object or idea.

e.g.

O death! Why don’t you come for me?

O God! Look what you have done!

HYPERBOLE: A statement is made emphatic by overstatement.

e.g. Ages have passed since I last saw you.

My grandmother is as old as the hills.

 Your suitcase weighs a ton!

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 She is as heavy as an elephant!

 I am dying of shame.
 I am trying to solve a million issues these days

EUPHEMISM: It consists of a description of an un-agreeable thing made agreeable by

better words.

e.g. He has been laid to rest.

She could not make it.

IRONY: Mode of speech I in which real meaning is exactly opposite of what is conveyed.

e.g. My trusted friend betrayed me.

 A man who is a traffic cop gets his license suspended for unpaid parking tickets.
An ambulance driver goes to a nightime bike accident scene and runs over the accident
victim because the victim has crawled to the center of the road with their bike

PUN: A pun consists of the use of a word in such a way that it is capable of more than one
application.

e.g.

 A vulture boards a plane, carrying two dead possums. The attendant looks at him and
says, "I'm sorry, sir, only one carry on allowed per passenger."
 Santa’s helpers are known as subordinate Clauses.
 She had a photographic memory but never developed it.
 The two pianists had a good marriage. They always were in a chord.
 I was struggling to figure out how lightning works then it struck me.
 I really wanted a camouflage shirt, but I couldn't find one.
 The grammarian was very logical. He had a lot of comma sense.
 A chicken farmer's favorite car is a coupe

JUXTAPOSITION:

It is a literary technique in which 2 or more ideas, places, characters or actions are placed side
by side. Generally used in a narrative on a poem for developing comparisons and contrasts. It
helps writers portray characters in great detail.

Charles Dickens uses the technique of juxtaposition in the opening line of his novel “A Tale
of Two Cities”:

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of

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Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair,
we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven,
we were all going direct the other way…”

IMAGERY: It is the literary term used for language in a description that appeals to our five
senses.

MAXIMS: It is a simple and a memorable statement, rule or action for leading a good life,
basically a saying.

e.g

Better safe than sorry.

You’re never too old to learn.

Opposites attract.

Nothing ventured, nothing gained.

SYMBOLISM: Use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities by giving them symbolic
meaning that are different from the literal sense. Generally it is an object representing another
to give it an entirely different meaning, which is deeper and more significant.

e.g. white dove-peace

red rose-love

black-evil, death, mourning

ladder- progress success

broken mirror- separation

Hypophora

Hypophora is a figure of speech in which a writer raises a question and then immediately
provides an answer to that question. Commonly, a question is asked in the first paragraph and
then the paragraph is used to answer the question. It is also known as antipophora or

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anthypophora. At first look, examples of hypophora may seem similar to rhetorical

question examples but there is a slight difference as explained below.

Difference between Hypophora and Rhetorical Question

The basic difference between hypophora and a rhetorical question is that in a rhetorical
question the answer is not provided by the writer since it does not require an answer. Such as,
“…..For if we lose the ability to perceive our faults, what is the good of living on?” (Marcus
Aurelius). However, in hypophora, the writer first poses a question and then answers that
question immediately such as in this example, “What should young people do with their lives
today? Many things, obviously. But the most daring thing is to create stable communities in
which the terrible disease of loneliness can be cured.” (Palm Sunday: An Autobiographical
Collage by Kurt Vonnegut)

Examples of Hypophora from Literature

Example #1

“Thirty-one cakes, dampened with whiskey, bask on window sills and shelves.
Who are they for? 
Friends. Not necessarily neighbor friends: indeed, the larger share is intended for persons
we’ve met maybe once, perhaps not at all. People who’ve struck our fancy. Like President
Roosevelt”.

(A Christmas Memory by Truman Capote)

In this example, the speaker raises a question in the beginning and then answers it in the
course of the passage. The question is shown in bold that is “Who are they for.” He wants to
heighten the effect of important topics by asking a question.

Example #2

“What made me take this trip to Africa? There is no quick explanation. Things got worse
and worse and worse and pretty soon they were too complicated.”

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(Henderson the Rain King by Saul Bellow)

In this passage, the writer asks the question and immediately explains. This creates a
rhetorical effect which lies in providing the answer that readers might expect to be given by a
writer.

Function of Hypophora
The major purpose of using hypophora is to create curiosity among the readers, while a well-
timed silence produces heightened effects and creates interest. It helps to capture the attention
of the audience. However, hypophora can also be employed to introduce new discussions or
topics of importance about which the readers might not have information. Also, it can be used
as a directional device to change the topic. It can raise that type of questions which readers
might already have on their minds and would like to get answers to. In addition, it is
frequently used in political speeches as well as literary works.

Tautology

Tautology is a repetitive use of phrases or words which have similar meanings. In simple
words, it is expressing the same thing, an idea or saying two or more times. The word
tautology is derived from the Greek word “tauto” (the same) and “logos” (a word or an idea).

A grammatical tautology means when an idea is repeated within a phrase, sentence or

paragraph to give an impression that the writer is providing extra information. Tautologies
are very common in the English language due to the large variety of words it has borrowed
from other languages. Given the fact that during its evolution the English language has been
greatly influenced by several other languages including Germanic and Latin, it is not
uncommon to find several exotic tautologies. Since English has the capacity to borrow words
from foreign languages, multiple similar words are used in it and this is how tautologies can
often be found in poetry as well as prose.

Types of Tautology

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There are several types of tautology which are commonly used in everyday life, in poetry, in
prose, in songs, and in discussions depending on the requirements of a situation. Some of the
common categories are:

1.Due to inadequacies in Language

2.Intentional ambiguities

3.Derision

4.As a Poetic Device

5.Psychological significance

6.Used by inept Speakers

Examples of Tautology in Literature

Tautology is often confused with repetition. Some authorities say the latter uses the same
words while the former uses words with similar meanings. That tautology is the repetition not
of words but of ideas. Others say, there is no clear distinction between the two. That
tautology includes the repetition of words. To understand this better, read the following
examples of Tautology.

Example #1

”Your acting is completely devoid of emotion.”

Devoid is defined as “completely empty”. Thus, completely devoid is an example of

Tautology.

Example #2

“Repeat that again” and “reiterate again”

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To repeat or reiterate something is to do or say something again.

Example #3

“Shout It Out Loud!” –

When a person shouts, it is always loud.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect.
The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with
contrasting meanings, e.g. “cruel kindness” or “living death”.

However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The contrasting ideas
may be spaced out in a sentence, e.g. “In order to lead, you must walk behind.”

Difference between Oxymoron and Paradox

It is important to understand the difference between a paradox and an oxymoron. A paradox

may consist of a sentence or even a group of sentences. An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a
combination of two contradictory or opposite words. A paradox seems contradictory to the
general truth but it does contain an implied truth. An oxymoron, however, may produce a
dramatic effect but does not make sense. Examples of oxymoron are found both in casual
conversations and in literature.

Common Examples of Oxymoron

 Open secret
 Tragic comedy
 Seriously funny
 Awfully pretty
 Foolish wisdom
 Original copies
 Liquid gas

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The above oxymoron examples produce a comical effect. Thus, it is a lot of fun to use them
in your everyday speech

Pathetic Fallacy

Pathetic fallacy is a literary device that attributes human qualities and emotions to inanimate
objects of nature. The word “pathetic” in the term is not used in the derogatory sense of being
miserable; rather, here, it stands for “imparting emotions to something else”.

Difference between Pathetic Fallacy and Personification

Generally, Pathetic fallacy is confused with personification. The fact is that they differ in
their function. Pathetic fallacy is a kind of personification that gives human emotions to
inanimate objects of nature for example referring to weather features reflecting a mood.
Personification, on the other hand, is a broader term. It gives human attributes to abstract
ideas, animate objects of nature or inanimate non-natural objects.

For example, the sentence “The somber clouds darkened our mood” is a pathetic fallacy as
human attributes are given to an inanimate object of nature reflecting a mood. But, “The
sparrow talked to us” is a personification because the animate object of nature “sparrow” is
given the human quality of “talking”.

Pathetic Fallacy Examples in Literature

Lets us analyze some examples of pathetic fallacy in literature:

Example #1

Shakespeare uses pathetic fallacy in his play “Macbeth” to describe the dark murder of
“Duncan”. In Act 2 Scene 3 “Lennox” says:

“The night has been unruly. Where we lay,

Our chimneys were blown down and, as they say,
Lamentings heard i’ th’ air, strange screams of death,
And prophesying with accents terrible
Of dire combustion and confused events
New hatched to the woeful time. The obscure bird

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Clamored the livelong night. Some say the Earth

Was feverous and did shake.”

The pathetic fallacy examples in the above lines describe the ominous atmosphere on the
night of the murder of “Duncan”. The “unruly” night, the “screams of death” in the air, and
the “feverous” earth depict the “evil” act of murder that happened a night before.

Example #2

Emily Bronte’s novel “Wuthering Heights” is full of pathetic fallacies. The title itself shows
the use of this device as “Wuthering Heights” means uproarious and aggressive weather that
represents the nature of its residents. There are lots of instances in the novel in which the
mood of nature portrays the nature of events in the narrative. For example, “Lockwood” is
trapped in a “snow storm” before the nightmare scene, the “wild and windy” night at the time
of Mr. Earnshaw’s death, the “violent thunderstorm” on the night Heathcliff leaves
Wuthering Heights, and the stormy weather outside when “Cathy” makes a choice between
“Heathcliff” and “Edgar” indicates her inner turmoil.

Parallelism

Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar
in their construction, sound, meaning or meter. Parallelism examples are found in literary
works as well as in ordinary conversations.

This method adds balance and rhythm to sentences giving ideas a smoother flow and thus can
be persuasive because of the repetition it employs. For example, “Alice ran into the room,
into the garden, and into our hearts.” We see the repetition of a phrase that not only gives the
sentence a balance but rhythm and flow as well. This repetition can also occur in similar
structured clauses e.g. “Whenever you need me, wherever you need me, I will be there for
you.”

Common Parallelism Examples

 Like father, like son.

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 The escaped prisoner was wanted dead or alive.

 Easy come, easy go.
 Whether in class, at work or at home, Shasta was always busy.
 Flying is fast, comfortable, and safe

Rhetoric

Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written

form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince,
influence or please anaudience.

For instance, a person gets on your nerves, you start feeling irritated, and you say, “Why
don’t you leave me alone?” By posing such a question, you do not ask for a reason. Instead,
you simply want him to stop irritating you. Thus, you direct language in a particular way for
effective communication or make use of rhetoric. A situation where you make use of rhetoric
is called a “rhetorical situation”.

Difference between Rhetorical Device and Figures of Speech

Rhetorical figures or devices are employed to achieve particular emphasis and effect.
Rhetorical devices, however, are different from “figures of speech”. Wherever and whenever
a figure of speech is used in written texts and speech, it alters meanings of words. For
example, the metaphor used in the expression “He is a tiger,” is a complete altered form of a
simple idea “He is brave.” Try to compare this example to the use of a rhetorical device in the
example below:

“I am never ever going to rob anyone for you and never, never ever give in to your sinful
wish.”

The repetition in the above example does lay emphasis on the statement but does not alter the
sense of it.

Common Rhetoric Examples

Below are a few examples on how rhetoric is employed by using various literary devices:

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 How did this idiot get elected? – A rhetorical question to convince others that the
“idiot” does not deserve to be elected.
 Here comes the Helen of our school. – An allusion to “Helen of Troy” to emphasize
the beauty of a girl.
 I would die if you asked me to sing in front of my parents – A hyperbole to persuade
others not to use force to make you do something which you don’t want to do.
 All blonde-haired people are dumb. – Using a stereotype to develop a general opinion
about a group.
 Bildungsroman
 Bildungsroman Definition

 Bildungsroman is a special kind of novel that focuses on the psychological

and moral growth of its maincharacter, from his or her youth to adulthood.
 A bildungsroman is a story of the growing up of a sensitive person, who looks for
answers to his questions through different experiences. Generally, such a novel starts
with a loss or a tragedy that disturbs the main character emotionally. He or she leaves
on a journey to fill that vacuum.

 Polysyndeton

 Definition of Polysyndeton

 Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used

in succession in order to achieve an artistic effect. Polysyndeton examples are found
in literature and in day-to-day conversations.

 The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning “bound together.” It
makes use of coordinating conjunctions like and, or, but, and nor (mostly and and or)
which are used to join successive words, phrases, or clauses in such a way that these
conjunctions are even used where they might have been omitted. For example, in the
sentence, “We have ships and men and money and stores,” the coordinating
conjunction “and” is used in quick succession to join words occurring together. In a
normal situation, the coordinating conjunction “and” is used to join the last two words
of the list, and the rest of the words in the list are separated or joined by a comma.

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 Polysyndeton vs. Asyndeton

 Polysyndeton is opposite to another stylistic device known as “asyndeton.” In an

asyndeton, the words in a list are separated by commas, and no conjunctions are used
to join the words in a list. Thomas S. Kane describes the difference between the two
devices, saying that they are nothing more than the techniques of handling a long
series of words or lists.

 Polysyndeton uses conjunctions after every word or term, while asyndeton uses no
conjunctions but only commas. For example: “Jane’s days became a blur of
meaningless events – wake up, brush teeth, make the coffee, get the mail, fix dinner,
watch TV. It was hard to keep depression at bay.”

 Examples of Polysyndeton in Literature

 Example #1: The Holy Bible, Joshua 7:24 (By the Prophet Joshua)

 “And Joshua, and all of Israel with him, took Achan the son of Zerah, and the silver,
and the garment, and the wedge of gold, and his sons, and his daughters, and his oxen,
and his asses, and his sheep, and his tent, and all that he had.”

 This is among the best examples of polysyndeton found in classical or religious text.
See how the conjunction “and” has been used in quick succession to join all the items
given in this text.

 Example #2: After the Storm (By Ernest Hemingway)

 “I said, ‘Who killed him?’ and he said ‘I don’t know who killed him, but he’s dead all
right,’ and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights or
windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all
blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango
Key and she was right only she was full of water.”

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 Hemingway has used “and” as a polysyndeton in this passage taken from “After the
Storm.” Using this literary device, Hemmingway is able to make his readers feel the
anxiety that his character is feeling.

 Example #3: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou)

 Maya Angelou, a popular female poet, is well known for her use of polysyndeton,
which can seem excessive at times. This is what she has written in her story I Know
Why the Caged Bird Sings.

 “Let the whitefolks have their money and power and segregation and sarcasm and big
houses and schools and lawns like carpets, and books, and mostly–mostly–let them
have their whiteness.”


 The continuity in the entire sentence is remarkable, and the rhythFunction of
Bildungsroman

 The bildungsroman novel depicts and criticizes those vices of society which cause the
protagonist to suffer. The novel conveys a sense of realism, because the protagonist is
a common sensitive person who is affected by the loss that they suffer, and this loss,
ultimately, changes the course of their life.

 In addition, the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist gives us a deep
insight into the character, and also helps to understand the conflict in his or her life.
As a result, we can identify ourselves with the coming-of-age characters, and feel
emotionally attached and interested as we see them pass different stages of their lives,
until they finally change for the good.

Asyndeton
Definition of Asyndeton

Asyndeton is derived from the Greek word asyndeton, which means “unconnected.” It is a

stylistic device used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between
the phrases, and in the sentence, yet maintain grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps
in reducing the indirect meaning of the phrase, and presents it in a concise form. It was first
used in Greek and Latin literature.

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Asyndeton

Definition of Asyndeton

Asyndeton is derived from the Greek word asyndeton, which means “unconnected.” It is a
stylistic device used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between
the phrases, and in the sentence, yet maintain grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps
in reducing the indirect meaning of the phrase, and presents it in a concise form. It was first
used in Greek and Latin literature.

Types of Asyndeton

Asyndeton examples may be classified into two types:

Used between words and phrases within a sentence

For example:

“Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils, Shrunk to this little measure?”

(Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1, by William Shakespeare)

Used between sentences or clauses

For example:

“Without looking, without making a sound, without talking”

(Oedipus at Colonus, by Sophecles)

Difference Between Syndeton and Asyndeton

Syndeton and asyndeton are opposite to one another. Syndeton includes the addition of
multiple conjunctions, such as in this example: “He eats and sleeps and drinks.” On the other
hand, asyndeton is the elimination, or leaving out, of conjunctions, such as in this example:
“He eats, sleeps, drinks.”

Each creates a completely different effect. Syndeton slows down the rhythm of speech, and
makes it moderate, whereas asyndeton speeds up the rhythm of the speech.

Examples of Asyndeton in Literature

Example #1: Othello (By William Shakespeare)

IAGO

“Call up her father.

Rouse him. Make after him, Poison his delight,

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Proclaim him in the streets. Incense her kinsmen,

And, though he in a fertile climate dwell…”

In this excerpt, Shakespeare has eliminated conjunctions deliberately. There is a shortage of

the conjunctions and, for, or, and but, which are required to join the sentences. Due to this,
the words have been emphasized, and feelings of anger and jealousy are articulated explicitly.

Example #2: The Scholar-Gipsy (By Matthew Arnold)

“Go, shepherd, and untie the wattled cotes!

No longer leave thy wistful flock unfed,

Nor let thy bawling fellows rack their throats,

Nor the cropp’d herbage shoot another head…

Thou hast not lived, why should’st thou perish, so?

Thou hadst one aim, one business, one desire;

Else wert thou long since numbered with the dead…”

This is a good example of asyndeton. The conjunctions are missing in the sentences, such as
the second and sixth lines are not connected with adjoining words. However, it produces
speed in the poem.

Polysyndeton

Definition of Polysyndeton

Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in

succession in order to achieve an artistic effect. Polysyndeton examples are found in literature
and in day-to-day conversations.

The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning “bound together.” It makes use of
coordinating conjunctions like and, or, but, and nor (mostly and and or) which are used to
join successive words, phrases, or clauses in such a way that these conjunctions are even used
where they might have been omitted. For example, in the sentence, “We have ships and men
and money and stores,” the coordinating conjunction “and” is used in quick succession to join
words occurring together. In a normal situation, the coordinating conjunction “and” is used to
join the last two words of the list, and the rest of the words in the list are separated or joined
by a comma.

Polysyndeton vs. Asyndeton

Polysyndeton is opposite to another stylistic device known as “asyndeton.” In an asyndeton,

the words in a list are separated by commas, and no conjunctions are used to join the words in

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a list. Thomas S. Kane describes the difference between the two devices, saying that they are
nothing more than the techniques of handling a long series of words or lists.

Polysyndeton uses conjunctions after every word or term, while asyndeton uses no
conjunctions but only commas. For example: “Jane’s days became a blur of meaningless
events – wake up, brush teeth, make the coffee, get the mail, fix dinner, watch TV. It was
hard to keep depression at bay.”

Examples of Polysyndeton in Literature

Example #1: The Holy Bible, Joshua 7:24 (By the Prophet Joshua)

“And Joshua, and all of Israel with him, took Achan the son of Zerah, and the silver, and the
garment, and the wedge of gold, and his sons, and his daughters, and his oxen, and his asses,
and his sheep, and his tent, and all that he had.”

This is among the best examples of polysyndeton found in classical or religious text. See how
the conjunction “and” has been used in quick succession to join all the items given in this
text.

Example #2: After the Storm (By Ernest Hemingway)

“I said, ‘Who killed him?’ and he said ‘I don’t know who killed him, but he’s dead all right,’
and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights or windows broke and
boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and
went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was right only she
was full of water.”

Hemingway has used “and” as a polysyndeton in this passage taken from “After the Storm.”
Using this literary device, Hemmingway is able to make his readers feel the anxiety that his
character is feeling.

Example #3: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (By Maya Angelou)

Maya Angelou, a popular female poet, is well known for her use of polysyndeton, which can
seem excessive at times. This is what she has written in her story I Know Why the Caged
Bird Sings.

“Let the whitefolks have their money and power and segregation and sarcasm and big houses
and schools and lawns like carpets, and books, and mostly–mostly–let them have their
whiteness.”
The continuity in the entire sentence is remarkable, and the rhythm is exhilarating.

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