Edexcel A Level 2 Biology Answers Combined FINAL PDF

Edexcel A level Answers to Student Book 2 questions
Biology
TOPIC 5 Energy for biological processes
5.1 Cellular respiration

5.1.1 Respiration in cells
1 It supplies energy in the form of ATP for all cellular reactions, and substrates for other metabolic pathways
including amino acids and fatty acids.
2 Strengths: succinct summary, sums up the necessary reactants, the desired product and the waste products, shows
the proportions of the reaction chemicals, etc.
Limitations: shows it as a single reaction, whereas it is actually a complex series of reactions, not balanced as
ATP suddenly appears on right-hand side of the reaction, does not show where in the process ATP is made, no
indication of enzymes involved, no indication that alternative substrates can be used, no mention of hydrogen
acceptors, coenzymes, etc. – any valid points.
3 (a) Respirometers look at carbon dioxide output and use that to calculate oxygen uptake during respiration.
Respirometers look at the whole organism – this gives an overall picture, but no detail of what is
happening in individual cells, whether carbon dioxide comes from aerobic or anaerobic respiration – any
valid point.
(b) Respirometer on the right – more sophisticated, capillary tubing so changes seen more easily, scale so
movements of fluid can be measured accurately and there is consistency between readings, use of KOH in
both tubes, three-way tap giving more control, any other sensible points.
4 Evidence to associate the substrate molecules or enzymes needed for particular stage of respiration with the
membranes or contents of a particular area of a mitochondrion. Blocking/poisoning one mechanism and
observing a build-up of product in a particular area of the mitochondrion, etc., electron micrograph evidence of
structures shown to be associated with stages of process, any other sensible points.
5.1.2 Glycolysis and anaerobic respiration

1 Diagram similar to fig A on 5.1.2 with annotations, such as the following:
• Glucose, 6C sugar, is starting point.
• ATP used to phosphorylate glucose – 2 phosphate groups added to give phosphorylated 6C sugar, one
reaction controlled by phosphofructokinase, rate-controlling reaction for the whole process of cellular
respiration.
• Phosphorylated 6C sugar splits to form 2 molecules of 3C glycerate-3-phosphate (GP).
• Each molecule of GP converted to pyruvic acid in a series of steps – for each molecule of GP, 2 hydrogen
atoms removed to reduce NAD, which is passed along electron transfer/transport system to produce 3
molecules of ATP, so 6 ATPs formed in total per glucose molecule.
• The initial phosphorylation reactions are reversed before the final intermediate is converted to pyruvate
and the phosphate group released is used to produce ATP from ADP.
• 2 molecules of pyruvate enter mitochondrion and go into Krebs cycle for every glucose molecule that
enters glycolysis.
• If insufficient oxygen, pyruvate converted to lactate or ethanol.
2 During the process 2 hydrogen atoms are removed from the 3C sugars and taken up by NAD to form reduced
NAD, which then enters the electron carrier system producing energy that is used to phosphorylate 3 molecules
of ADP. ATP made directly when the 3C sugar converted to pyruvate. Replaces the ATP used up in priming the
6C sugar, and the remainder is available as useful energy for cell metabolism, assuming the substrate moves on
and aerobic respiration takes place.
3 Calculations: glycolysis –150 kJ
Aerobic respiration –2880 kJ
150/2880 × 100 = 5.2%
Mean efficiency of anaerobic respiration in the muscles compared to aerobic respiration = 5.2%.
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Biology
4 During exercise muscles respire anaerobically, producing lactate, which builds up in muscles and is carried away
in the blood. When exercise stops, as well as the normal demands of the body, lactate must be oxidised to
pyruvate and glucose in the liver, ATP and phosphocreatine levels need to be restored, myoglobin needs to be
reoxygenated, metabolic reactions go faster due to the raised temperature, using more ATP. Therefore, the
oxygen demands of the body remain high for some time after the completion of the exercise. The rate of
breathing continues to be raised to supply the needs of the body, and the heart rate remains high to pump extra
oxygenated blood around the body and remove the excess carbon dioxide.
5.1.3 The Krebs cycle

1 Glycolysis: does not need oxygen for ATP to result, linear, relatively simple, takes place in cytoplasm, etc.
Krebs: cycle needs oxygen for ATP to result, cyclical, complex, takes place in mitochondria, etc.
2 Energy cannot be produced. The Krebs cycle produces ATP. The energy stored in the bonds of ATP can be used
to drive the reactions of metabolism in the cell. The Krebs cycle alone does not produce ATP – glycolysis also
provides ATP for the cell, the Krebs cycle directly produces very little ATP for the cell – it produces reduced
carrier molecules which then enter the electron transport chain, which in turn drives the production of ATP.
3 The answer should contain some or all of the following along with any other points from research:
Krebs used enzyme inhibitors to block particular enzymes or stages in the pathway, resulting in a build-up of the
reactants of that reaction and a lack of products compared with an analysis of the normal process. This enabled
Krebs and his team to work out exactly which chemicals are involved in a particular step of the process. Diagram
of lollipop apparatus? Used a multidisciplinary team – unusual at the time.
5.1.4 The electron transport chain

1 Answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid.
Diagram should show all the main stages of aerobic respiration: glycolysis, link reaction, Krebs cycle and
electron transport chain, making clear where and how many ATP molecules are used and formed, where reduced
NAD and reduced FAD are formed and oxidised, and where oxygen is used and carbon dioxide formed. An
indication of how many ATP molecules formed for each molecule of glucose respired could be included. Clarity
of information and of layout of diagram important for full marks.
2 Oxidation of glucose is a multi-step process during which the glucose molecule is split into 3C units, built back
into 6C molecules and then dismantled again. As hydrogen is removed it is used to reduce carrier molecules,
which feed into the electron transport. As the components of the chain are reduced and then oxidised again
sufficient energy is released to drive the production of ATP. By the end of the process glucose has been
completely oxidised to carbon dioxide and water.
3 (a) Krebs cycle is longer with a more complex series of reactions; glycolysis has to expend ATP to move
reduced NAD into the mitochondria to reach the electron transport chain; 1 hydrogen removed from each
3C sugar in glycolysis while 5 hydrogen atoms are passed into the electron transport chain from each 3C
pyruvate molecule that enters Krebs cycle; aerobic respiration involves complete oxidation of glucose
while anaerobic only partial breakdown. Any other valid points.
(b) ATP yields may not always be in whole numbers – current best estimates are that the oxidation of 2
molecules of reduced NAD supplies enough energy to make 5 molecules of ATP and oxidation of 2
molecules of reduced FAD produces about 3 molecules of ATP, giving an overall yield for aerobic
respiration of around 31 molecules of ATP. But proton gradients in the mitochondria can be used to drive
the active transport of several different molecules and ions through the inner membrane into the matrix,
and NADH can be used as a reducing agent for many different reactions. So depending on conditions in
cell the functional yield of ATP ranges from under 30 to 38 molecules.
Biology
4 Peter Mitchell proposed that protons are actively transported into the space between the inner and outer
mitochondrial membranes, using the energy provided as the electrons pass along the transport chain. The inner
mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to protons. This means that as a result of the active transport of the
protons there are different hydrogen ion concentrations on the two sides of the inner membrane. The membrane
space has a higher concentration of hydrogen ions than the matrix, so there is a concentration gradient across the
membrane. As a result of the different hydrogen ion concentrations there is also a pH gradient. And because
positive hydrogen ions are concentrated in the membrane space there is an electrochemical gradient too. All of
these factors mean that there is a tendency for the hydrogen ions to move back into the matrix. However, the
membrane is generally impermeable to hydrogen ions. The only way that they can move back into the matrix is
through special pores. These pores are found on the stalked particles, and the movement of the hydrogen ions
along their electrical, concentration and pH gradients is linked to an ATPase enzyme. The energy from the
gradients is used to drive the synthesis of ATP.
It is important because it provides a mechanism for the observed events, a mechanism which holds true and
works in a wide variety of cells, and it shows exactly how the removal of hydrogen atoms from glucose
molecules can result in the production of ATP.
5.1 Answers to Exam-style questions

1 A
2 B
3 C
4 (a) (i) Pyruvate/pyruvic acid.
(ii) 1. Stage 1;
2. Stage 3.
(b) (i) There is a series/sequence of (chemical) reactions, each step is controlled by an enzyme, the
product of one reaction is the substrate for the next.
(ii) Matrix of a mitochondrion.
(c) B, C, D and F.
5 (a) (i) W Carbon dioxide/CO2.
X Oxygen/O2/O/½O2.
(ii) G.
(iii) Two of B, C, D, E.
(iv) At least two from A, B and C.
(b) It is (re-)oxidised, idea that NAD+ is regenerated, used to reduce ethanal (to ethanol).
6 (a) (i) B Matrix;
C Crista/inner membrane.
(ii) C.
(b) (i) 1. Reference to reaction components used up/not available, for example glucose, ADP, phosphate;
2. No source of electrons/hydrogen to react with oxygen;
3. Yeast switch to anaerobic respiration/aerobic respiration stops;
4. This is because oxygen levels are too low;
5. Idea of oxygen dissolving into solution from the air, oxygen levels (in suspension) are
maintained.
(ii) 1. Antimycin A prevents electrons/H+ reaching oxygen/passing along chain;
2. Oxygen is not reduced/does not form water/does not act as (final) electron acceptor.
(iii) 1. ATP production decreases/slows down.
Then any two from:
2. Idea of electron transport chain is where (most) ATP is produced;
3. Oxidative phosphorylation (stops);
4. Krebs cycle (stops);
5. Idea that NADH cannot be reoxidised;
6. Reference to yeast switches to anaerobic respiration, ATP produced in glycolysis.
Biology
5.2 Photosynthesis
5.2.1 Photosynthesis in plants
1 Deserves: Most important reaction because almost all life on earth depends on it, only large-scale way in which
new organic molecules are synthesised in living organisms and the only way in which a new supply of ATP can
be built up. Any other valid point.
Does not deserve: Without respiration, cells die so photosynthesis cannot take place. Without synthesis of
proteins, there is no ATPase, so no ATP cycle. Almost impossible to rank reactions in terms of importance. Any
other valid point.
2 (a) Because not all the cells carry out photosynthesis – any parts of the plant that are not directly exposed to
light will not contain chlorophyll.
(b) Folded membranes give large surface area.
Enzymes on membranes and in stroma to carry out reactions.
Presence of several photosynthetic pigments to absorb different wavelengths of light. Any other valid
point.
3 None of the pigments absorb well in the green/yellow areas of the spectrum. As this light is not absorbed, it is
reflected, which is why plants appear green.
4 Rf for pigment X = 21/74 = 0.28 so pigment X is xanthophyll 1.
5.2.2 The biochemistry of photosynthesis

1
Cyclic photophosphorylation Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Only involves PSI Involves PSI and PSII
Electrons come from and return to chlorophyll in PSI Electrons lost on excitation from the chlorophyll
molecules in PSII are replaced by electrons from the
oxidation of water
No reduced NAD produced as electrons return to NAD reduced to reduced NAD during the process
chlorophyll
Only ATP formed ATP, reduced NAD and oxygen formed
2 The reactions take place in the absence of light – they are not catalysed or triggered by light. As long as the
enzymes of the cycle have a supply of reduced NAD and ATP they will continue with or without light.
The Calvin cycle continues in the absence of light, but it is dependent on the products of the light reactions for
its raw materials. Without light there is no long-term supply of reduced NAD or ATP and so the Calvin cycle
cannot continue without the light-dependent reactions – it is indirectly dependent on light.
3 Because it is the key molecule produced in photosynthesis on which the synthesis of all the other main molecules
needed by the plant depends. Not only glucose, but also polysaccharides, such as starch and cellulose, amino
acids and fatty acids for lipids.
4 In a biochemical process that depends on or is affected by a number of factors, the process will be limited by the
factor that is nearest to its minimum value.
The amount of light available affects the amount of chlorophyll that can be excited and therefore the amount of
reduced NAD and ADP produced in the light-dependent stage. If there is a low level of light insufficient reduced
NAD and ATP will be produced to allow the reactions of the light-independent stage to progress at their
maximum rate, so light is the limiting factor.
Low levels of carbon dioxide available for fixing in the Calvin cycle mean that the reactions cannot proceed at
the maximum rate. When this is the case, carbon dioxide is the limiting factor. In the natural situation of plants it
is most often carbon dioxide that is the limiting factor.
All of the Calvin cycle reactions and many of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis are controlled by
enzymes and are therefore sensitive to temperature. This means that even when the light and carbon dioxide
levels are suitable for a very high rate of photosynthesis, if the temperature is low the plant will be unable to take
advantage of the conditions.
By monitoring and controlling these three factors – raising or lowering levels artificially as needed, growers can
maximise the growth of their plants.
Biology

1 C
2 D
3 B
4 (a) Photolysis (of water).
(b) Light, enzyme, chlorophyll.
(c) 1. Passed to chlorophyll/photosystem/replace electrons lost by chlorophyll;
2. Light energy promotes electrons to higher energy level/excites electrons; electrons emitted;
3. ATP production;
4. Reduction of NADP, production of NADPH;
5. Reference to electron carriers/electron transport chain;
6. Reference to redox.
(d) GP is reduced using H from reduced NADP and ATP as source of energy.
(e) 10/12 of the GALP is used in regeneration of RuBP. The rest is used to form glucose and starch/other
organic chemicals.
5 (a) Thylakoid/granum membrane.
(b) A ATP;
B Reduced NADP.
(c) Photolysis.
(d) 1. Less carbohydrate production;
2. Less reduced NADP;
3. Less reduction of carbon dioxide;
4. Less ATP (to supply energy);
5. Less conversion of GP to GALP.
(e) (i) 1. Competition;
2. For light;
3. For carbon dioxide;
4. For space;
5. For water/ions;
6. Fewer resources for growth.
(ii) 1. Treat crop with atrazine;
2. (Non-resistant) weeds die;
3. Reference to reduced competition;
4. Produce atrazine-resistant crop;
5. Reference to selective breeding/genetic modification.
Biology
6 (a) X Chlorophyll;
Y NADP/NADP+.
(b) 1. Provides H, electrons;
2. Reference to reduction;
3. GP is reduced to produce GALP during light-independent stage/Calvin cycle.
(c) (i) Electrons return to chlorophyll (so there is fluorescence), carriers cannot accept/take up electrons
because electron carriers are reduced.
(ii) Carriers available again/electrons passed to NADP.
(d) 1. NADP stays reduced/NADPH not used
2. because no GP formed/available
3. because RuBP cannot take up CO2
4. because RUBISCO inactivated
5. (because NADPH not used) all electron carriers reduced/path B blocked
6. (therefore more) electrons return to chlorophyll/follow path A.
7 (a) A Thylakoid (membrane);
B Granum/grana.
(b) (i) 1. Combines with carbon dioxide/carbon dioxide acceptor (molecule);
2. Reference to fixation of carbon dioxide;
3. Reference to formation of 6C compound/GP.
(ii) 1. Reference to reduction (to GALP);
2. Reference to reduced NADP;
3. Reference to use of ATP.
(iii) 1. Regeneration of RuBP;
2. Formation of glucose/other organic compounds/produce biomass;
3. Correct reference to numbers (10/12 regeneration, 2/12 to glucose).
(c) Stroma.
8 (a) Stroma of chloroplast/stroma.
(b) NADPH, reduced NADP, NADPH2, NADPH + H+, NADPH + H, ATP.
(c) Idea of carbon dioxide fixation, carbon dioxide acceptor;
To form 6C compound/intermediate/molecule, to form 2 × 3C molecules/GP.
(d) (i) RuBP increases and GP decreases;
Description of one curve (for example, GP decreases and levels off, both quantities equal at 3.5
minutes, comparison of 2 gradients).
(ii) 1. RuBP rises because it is being regenerated/it accumulates;
2. RuBP rises because less CO2 to combine with it/for fixation;
3. GP falls because less is being formed;
4. GP falls because being used faster than it is being formed.
Biology
TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens
6.1 Bacteria and disease

6.1.1 Microbial techniques
1 (a) Add measured amount of sterile nutrient medium to a sterile flask and seal with sterile cotton wool →
take sample from starter culture using sterile pipette or loop sterilised in Bunsen flame and cooled →
remove cotton wool and add sample to broth as quickly as possible → close with fresh sterile cotton wool
→ label clearly → incubate at suitable temperature (below 25 °C in schools).
(b) Sterilise inoculating loop in hot Bunsen flame → cool in air → dip sterilised loop in starter culture → lift
lid of agar plate and streak with starter culture, taking care not to damage surface → close lid and seal
with pieces of tape → label clearly and turn upside down to avoid condensation → incubate at suitable
temperature (below 25 °C in schools).
2 Wash hands before handling cultures – to avoid culturing any potentially pathogenic bacteria on your hands.
Wash hands after handling cultures – to avoid transferring any potentially pathogenic microorganisms from the
culture to your own mouth, etc.
Sterilise all equipment to avoid contamination from pathogens in the lab.
Incubate at 25 °C or below to minimise chance of human pathogens growing (they grow best at around 37 °C).
Sterilise all cultures after working with them and dispose of them to avoid environmental contamination.
Any other sensible points.
3 To grow a pure culture of microorganisms, manipulate the medium in or on which they are grown. Nutritional
requirements of different microorganisms vary greatly so by manipulating the culture medium you can favour
the growth of some organisms and inhibit the growth of others. You may: control the range of nutrients
available; introduce selective growth inhibitors, antibiotics or antifungal chemicals; use indicator media that
cause certain types of bacteria to change colour. All of these media enable you to isolate and grow specific
organisms for pure cultures.
NOT oxygen levels as asks for media.
6.1.2 Measuring the growth of bacterial cultures

1 One curve is the turbidity of the culture and the other is the viable cell count using an alternative method. This is
used to produce a calibration curve that enables you to measure the turbidity of any other culture of the same
organism and work out bacterial numbers.
2 1:10, 1:100, 1:1000, 1:10 000, 1:100 000
3 Tube 4: 28.0 × 10 000 = 280 000 or 2.8 × 105
Tube 5: 3.0 × 100 000 = 300 000 or 3.0 × 105
4 Mean cell count in original sample = (2.63 × 105 + 2.8 × 105 + 3.0 × 105) / 3
= 8.43 × 105 / 3
= 2.81 × 105 per cm3
6.1.3 Patterns of growth in bacterial colonies

1 log2(2x) = log2(16 777 216)
x = 24
It will take 24 × 30 minutes = 12 hours for the population of the bacteria to reach 16 777 216.
If you need to show the population at each stage in time, then:
16 777 216 / 2 = 8 388 608 / 2 = 4 194 304 / 2 = 2 097 152 / 2 = 1 048 576 / 2 = 524 288 / 2 = 262 144 / 2
= 131 072 / 2 = 65 536 / 2 = 32 768 / 2 = 16 384 / 2 = 8192 / 2 = 4096 / 2 = 2048 / 2 = 1024 / 2 = 512 / 2
= 256 / 2 = 128 / 2 = 64 / 2 = 32 / 2 = 16 / 2 = 8 / 2 = 4 / 2 = 2 / 2 = 1
Biology

2 (a) Bacterial growth is very fast so numbers get very big, for example, in 12 hours from 1 to 16 777 216, and
it becomes impossible to show what is happening on a graph. Log numbers are used as the difference in
numbers from the initial organism to the millions or even billions of descendants is too great to represent
using standard numbers. In a logarithmic scale, the numbers on the scale are actually logarithms; usually
powers of 10.
(b) Graph using data – students show translation to logs and then plot of the graph with clearly labelled axes.
(c) Annotated sketch graph similar to fig B.
6.1.4 Bacteria as pathogens

1 Endotoxins are part of the structure of the bacterial cell walls so they cause a response in the area of the body
around the bacteria – hence it is often local to the site of infection. Exotoxins are usually soluble proteins
produced and released by bacteria into the body fluids and blood stream, so they are carried around the body and
often have effects far away from the original site of infection.
2
Staphylococcus spp. Salmonella spp. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Causes infections in joints, Causes gastroenteritis. Causes tuberculosis, often of
membranes around heart and Taken in through the mouth in lungs, sometimes other tissues.
brain, septicaemia, etc. Present in water or food contaminated with Taken into lungs by droplet
many people – get into body infected faeces. infection.
through wounds/damage or infect Invades the cells lining the gut. Invades cells of the lungs and
immunocompromised people. Endotoxins in the bacterial cell slowly multiplies, especially in
Produce exotoxins that are carried walls cause violent inflammatory people who are weak,
around the body and can cause response so the gut can no longer malnourished or
anything from mild symptoms, absorb water, causing diarrhoea. immunocompromised.
such as boils, to death. Can produce thick, waxy covering
that protects them from the
enzymes of the macrophages and
so allows them to remain in the
lungs dormant or growing slowly
for years until the person is
weakened when they grow and
divide fast, damaging the lungs
and causing tuberculosis.
3 Not everyone who has a disease visits a doctor or hospital. Not all diseases are specifically reported. Not all
deaths are correctly attributed to the cause. There are many parts of the world where diseases are not well
monitored. Any other sensible points that explain why disease figures are only approximate.
4 (a) June, July, August, September.
(b) The summer – people having barbeques where meat is not always cooked properly, extra meat fetched
from freezer and not defrosted properly, preparation of raw meat and salads together, people have more
salads – any sensible suggestions.
(c) Weather data – to see if the patterns in Salmonella infections showed correlation with spells of good
weather when people most likely to barbeque, picnic or eat salads. The times of dry sunny weather will
vary from year to year within the summer season.
6.1.5 Antibiotics – treating bacterial diseases

1 In 1901, 51.5% of all childhood deaths were due to communicable disease. In 2000, 7.4% of childhood deaths
were due to communicable diseases. Reduction = 44.1% so percentage reduction in childhood deaths from
communicable diseases = 44.1/51.5 × 100 = 85.6%.
2 (a) Any two suggestions from: interrupt metabolic pathways, inhibit protein synthesis, prevent cross-linking
in cell walls, damage the cell membrane, stop bacterial DNA from coiling so that it does not fit in the
bacterium – any other suitable suggestions.
(b) Bactericidal – kill bacteria. Bacteriostatic – stop bacteria from growing/reproducing.
(c) Concentration: some antibiotics are bacteriostatic at relatively low concentrations – sufficient to allow the
immune system to kick in – but in the case of a severe infection, a higher dose can be given: this is
bactericidal.
Biology
3 The following gives the bare bones; plus anything else they may discover.
Ronald Hare, one of Fleming’s young assistants, found that penicillin mould grows best at quite low
temperatures.
Dr Cecil Paine, another one of Alexander Fleming’s pupils, was the first person to try penicillin out on people. A
local miner got a stone in his eye and had a massive infection, which was making him blind. Paine washed the
eye with his penicillin extract – and it got better. Paine also used his penicillin wash to treat a tiny baby who had
picked up an eye infection as it was born. The baby was cured and its sight was saved. Paine never published
what he had done, but he talked to Howard Florey, a new professor at the university, who went on to follow up
the work.
Norman Heatley – a key man in the Oxford team. He worked out a way of making enough penicillin to try it out
and carried out the experiment. Eight mice were infected with bacteria that would kill them in 24 hours. Four
were given penicillin. The four treated mice stayed healthy – but the other four died. In 1940–41, Heatley
developed special pot vessels so he could grow more mould – and collect more penicillin. In just a few weeks
Heatley had made enough penicillin for Florey to try it out on a fully grown man.
Mary Hunt – brought in a mouldy melon she had found on a market stall. The mould was a new sort of
Penicillium, which produced much more penicillin than the original strain.
The new mould would also grow in big fermentation tanks, which was the breakthrough that enabled industrial
production to go ahead. Ms Hunt got the nickname ‘Mouldy Mary’.
6.1.6 Antibiotic resistance

1 Mutation causes a key change, such as changes to a process that affects the way the antibiotic works or the
structure of the wall.
Antibiotic is a selection factor by killing all bacteria that are sensitive to it.
Therefore rapid evolution of the resistant type as the most common form.
Include reference to bacterial transformation, etc.
2 (a) Keep antibiotic prescription to a minimum, ensure that patients complete the course, be especially careful
with the use of broad spectrum antibiotics in the case of C. difficile, etc. – any points relating to current
guidelines, which will change from year to year.
(b) Minimise exposure of bacteria to antibiotics – reduce likelihood of resistant mutation being selected for.
Make sure whole course used so that bacteria with only slightly increased resistance are definitely
killed/inactivated. Use appropriate antibiotic to ensure bacteria are killed, etc.
3 Affected by HAIs = 15 100 000 / 100 × 6 = 906 000 people.
A third of people carry MRSA so 15 100 000 / 100 × 33.3 = 5 028 300.
4 (a) Broad spectrum antibiotics wipe out large numbers of the normal gut flora so C. difficile can get
established, produce toxins and cause disease symptoms.
(b) Narrow spectrum antibiotics targeted at the organisms that are causing a specific infection are less likely
to have an impact on gut flora and so minimise opportunities for C. difficile to become established.
(c) The number of new antibiotics available is falling steadily. This means that as HAIs develop, there is a
reducing pool of antibiotics available to which the bacteria are not already resistant. This means that HAIs
may rapidly become untreatable.
Biology
5 Understanding the causes and methods of spread of HAIs means doctors, nurses and other health care
professionals can implement codes of practice that will reduce the spread of these conditions. Examples of good
practice include:
Doctors, nurses and other health care professionals washing their hands or using alcohol-based gels between
patients: this gets rid of bacteria on the skin and so reduces the chances of passing them on. Spores of C. difficile
are not destroyed by the alcohol gels so these are of limited use in outbreaks of C. difficile infection.
Clothing, etc. which might carry bacteria from patient to patient avoided, for example, long ties, wrist watches
and long sleeved shirts – the cuffs can carry bacteria.
Health professionals wear sterilised scrubs all of the time to avoid bringing in pathogens from the outside (no
evidence it makes any difference).
Monitoring patients for infection when admitting, and treating and nursing in isolation: avoids spread of
pathogens.
Encourage visitors to wash hands/use alcohol gels to minimise risk of bringing infection into hospital or taking
one out.
Thorough cleaning of hospital wards, toilets, bed pans, etc. is another way of preventing and controlling the
spread of disease by removing bacteria, faecal traces, etc.
Using chlorine-based disinfectant to be sure C. difficile is destroyed.
Any other valid points.

1 Any two correct boxes for 1 mark:
Stage of Gram staining Appearance of Gram-negative Appearance of Gram-positive
bacteria bacteria
Cells heat fixed onto slide Colourless Colourless
Slide flooded with crystal violet Purple Purple
Slide flooded with Gram’s iodine Purple Purple
Slide rinsed with alcohol or Colourless Purple
acetone
Slide counterstained with Pink/red Purple
safranin/carbol fuchsin
2 (a) (i) 1. L. bulgaricus grew best at pH 5;
2. L. bulgaricus could grow at pHs 5, 6 and 7 (and 8);
3. E. coli grew best at pH 7;
4. E. coli could grow at pHs 6, 7 and 8 (and 5);
5. Neither species could grow at pH 9.
(ii) 1. Idea that pH affects enzyme activity;
2. Enzymes can only work in narrow pH range;
3. Enzymes needed to replicate DNA/make protein;
4. L. bulgaricus adapted to grow in acidic conditions due to lactic acid production;
5. E. coli adapted to live in alkaline conditions.
(b) Use sterile conditions. Could have seen more colonies (on any one plate) as contaminants grew too, could
have seen colonies on plates where none were found before as the contaminants could grow at these pHs,
could have seen fewer colonies due to inhibition/competition.
Shake culture before sampling. Fewer colonies, as bacteria would have settled to bottom of container.
Spread samples over agar thoroughly. Fewer colonies seen due to bacteria on top of each other/inaccurate
counting due to overcrowding in one place.
Biology
3 (a) (i) 1. Generally, as bacteria numbers increase, pH decreases;

2. 0–{30/60/90/120} minutes: rapid increase in bacterial numbers as pH decreases at a rapid rate;
3. {90/120}–210 minutes: rate of increase in bacteria numbers decreases, whereas there is a small
decrease in pH;
4. After 210 minutes: no change in bacteria numbers and pH remains constant;
5. Credit manipulation of figures.
(ii) 1. Correct readings;
2. Correct substitution into formula;
3. Correct answer given as whole generations/rounded down.
(b) 1. Reference to production of lactic acid;
2. Idea that lactic acid causes drop in pH;
3. This causes coagulation of the (milk) proteins;
4. Resulting in thickening of yoghurt;
5. Idea that metabolites give (characteristic) flavour (of yoghurt).
4 (a) 1. Overall, the number of cases caused by Salmonella increased whereas those caused by Staphylococcus
decreased;
2. Between 1985 and (some of) 1988, more cases were caused by Staphylococcus;
3. After 1989/second part of 1988, more cases were caused by Salmonella;
4. There was a (very marked) increase in the number of cases caused by Salmonella from 1995 compared
with very little change in the number of cases caused by Staphylococcus;
5. Correct manipulation of figures to compare numbers of cases in a stated time period.
(b) One row = 1 mark.
Endotoxin Exotoxin
Lipopolysaccharide Protein
Released from dead bacteria/damaged cell wall Released from living bacteria
Delay in release Immediate release

Low toxicity High toxicity
Released from Gram-positive bacteria Released from Gram-negative and Gram-positive

bacteria
5 (a) 1. Reference to infection, bacteria entering cells, macrophages, tissues;
2. Reference to tissue destruction;
3. Credit correct details of tuberculosis.
(b) (i) 1. (Overall) decrease in number of cases;
2. Sharp/fast decrease between 1980 and 1984 to 1988;
3. Idea of fluctuation, smaller decrease between 1987/1988 and 2003/2004;
4. Correct manipulation of figures.
(ii) 1. Treatment is not improving;
2. Bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics;
3. Idea that pulmonary TB does not account for all/majority of deaths.
Biology
6 (a) Max three from:

1. C is bactericidal;
2. Bactericidal kills bacteria;
3. B is bacteriostatic;
4. Bacteriostatic prevents reproduction/growth.
(b) 1. Bacterium is no longer affected by antibiotic A;
2. Reference to mutation/changed gene/DNA;
3. Reference to resistance;
4. Reference to selection;
5. Reference to plasmid transmission/horizontal inheritance.
(c) 1. Lawn bacteria;
2. Reference agar plate;
3. Antibiotic in well/multidisc;
4. Incubation qualified;
5. Measurement of clear area;
6. Bigger area implies more effective;
7. Reference to safety/aseptic technique.
7 (a) 1. Reference to widespread/inappropriate/prophylactic antibiotic use;
2. Antibiotic as selection pressure;
3. Acts on natural variation;
4. Reference to resistance due to genetic mutation rate;
5. Resistant bacteria reproduce;
6. More bacteria have the resistance gene/increased frequency of resistance in population;
7. Reference to how resistance is acquired, for example, bacterial transformation plasmids.
(b) 1. Nutrient agar plate;
2. Lawned, inoculated, spread with bacterium;
3. Application of sample of antibiotic described;
4. Incubation described;
5. Reference to clear/inhibition zone.
Safe working
6. Reference to aseptic technique;
7. Petri dish not completely sealed;
8. Low temperature of incubation below 30 °C.
(NB max 4 marks, if no Safe working.)
6.2 Non-bacterial pathogens

6.2.1 Viruses as pathogens
1 Viruses not affected by antibiotics and there are no really effective anti-flu medicines so makes it impossible to
treat and cure.
2 Modes of transmission: various, largely linked to droplet infection: person to person, pigs and/or birds to people.
Direct contact with animal droppings or virus-filled mucus from the nose. Indirect – picking up viruses from
surfaces contaminated with the virus.
Mode of infection: infects ciliated epithelial cells of the breathing system. Viral RNA gets into the nucleus of the
host cells and takes over the biochemistry, producing new virus cells.
Pathogenic effect: The reaction of the body to the lysis of the cells causes many of the symptoms, for example,
fever and body exposed to risk of secondary infections.
Biology

3 The highest death rate by far was 1918–19 – after the Great War, so many young men depleted after fighting,
immune systems low, lack of food, sleep, etc., in very close contact so massive spread. People generally at low
ebb after war. No antibiotics to treat secondary infections. Through 20th and into 21st century general health
improved including nutrition and living standards so less overcrowding. Development of antibiotics to treat
secondary infections, which had often been fatal, flu vaccines to protect the elderly and immunocompromised.
Better awareness of early treatment, rest, etc. Any other sensible points.
6.2.2 Fungi as pathogens

1 Fungi are heterotrophic – they cannot make their own food – so if they live on a living organism they act as
parasites. So any fungi that live on organisms and are pathogenic will also be parasites.
2 Absorbs nutrients from the plant so that it does not grow as well and so reducing the yield; pustules break
epidermis so harder to control transpiration causing less efficient metabolism and entry to other pathogens.
Mycelium grows into phloem and takes products of photosynthesis from plant, weakens stems so plant more
likely to fall over or be damaged, so cannot be harvested. All affect overall yield. Any other sensible points.
3 Wheat stem rusts grow best in warm temperatures over 25–30 °C with mild nights (above 15 °C). As climate
changes, temperatures are increasing and so the range of wheat rusts will grow, and they will be able to grow
faster and better in warmer climates. Fungus needs water to germinate – many areas of the world are getting
wetter as well as warmer so this again increases likelihood of success of fungus. Increasing stormy weather and
winds increases spread of spores.
Relatively low tech control measures include spacing plants, reducing fertiliser use, using crops that mature in
the cooler times of the year, removing wild Berberis that acts as a reservoir, fungicides when really needed. High
tech – genetically modifying strains of wheat to be resistant to the rust.
6.2.3 Protozoa as pathogens

1 Students could approach this in a number of ways – look for coverage of the main stages in both humans and
mosquitoes and clarity of diagram.
2 Both involve infection of cells, reproduction of the pathogen in the cells and the destruction of the cells when the
new pathogens burst out. Both can involve different hosts.
However, influenza virus only affects ciliated epithelium of breathing system; malaria parasites affect blood,
liver and other tissues.
Influenza does not need two hosts, malaria parasite has to have human and mosquito, protozoan has a number of
life stages, and undergoes asexual and sexual reproduction, but does not affect the genetic material of the host
cells; viruses can only reproduce by taking over the genetic material of the host cells.
Influenza often leads to secondary infections that can kill, but is usually self-limiting over a few weeks. Malaria
lasts for years. There are vaccines against flu, but only just developing them against malaria.
3 Endemic diseases are particularly difficult to control because they are always present in the population; often
widespread, so any eradication programme covers a large area; pathogen is usually present in the environment,
so particularly difficult to track down and remove sources of infection, needs cooperation of large population
numbers to eradicate a pathogen or vector, protect a community by vaccination, or deliver and use effective
drugs; expensive because of the numbers involved.
4 Any three: for example, removal of vector, protection from vector, treating disease with medicines, vaccination
against disease, any other sensible suggestion – whichever chosen, student should show awareness of the
different social, ethical and economic implications.
5 Students should show scientific evidence for whichever methods and discuss cost/benefits, demonstrating
awareness of what this means.
Biology

1 A
2 C (statements 2, 3 and 4 are true).
3 (a) Aeciospores and urediniospores.
(b) Urediniospores and by the wind.
(c) (i) The (haploid) nuclei fuse to form one (diploid) nucleus.
(ii) Six from:
1: Cells divide by meiosis;
2: Crossing over of chromosomes, chiasmata form;
3: New gene combinations form;
4: Homologous chromosome pairs line up on equator of cell;
5: Recombinant chromosome pairs separate;
6: Chromosomes drawn to poles of cells;
7: Cytoplasm divides/cell walls form (once only for this mark);
8: Chromosome pairs line up on equator of cell;
9: Chromatids separate;
10: Cytoplasm divides/cells walls form (unless already awarded at 7);
11: Each new cell/basidiospore is haploid;
12: Each new cell/basidiospore is genetically different.
(d) Numbers of new strains decrease because genetic recombination (in sexual stage) would not happen.
4 (a) 1. Droplets in the air;
2. Virus-filled mucus from the nose;
3. Surfaces contaminated with virus/skin contact with virus-filled mucus;
(Cannot have animal droppings as question states humans).
(b) RNA.
(c) RNA is single stranded, so all the 14 000 bases are on just one single strand, so if the error rate is 1 in
10 000 and there are 14 000 bases then…
14000
Number of mutations per virus would be
1000
1.4 mutations (per virus).
(d) Four from:
1. Change in base sequence of mRNA;
2. Different tRNA binds at changed codon;
3. So different amino acid joins/primary structure of protein changed;
4. Protein folds differently/protein tertiary structure changes/shape of protein different;
5. Thus receptors on immune system cells/B cells/T helper cells no longer bind to protein.
(e) (i) Four from:
1. Mucus traps bacteria breathed in from air;
2. Ciliated epithelial cells move mucus away from lungs;
3. Normally, bacteria killed in stomach;
4. If mucus is not moved then bacteria able to multiply in lungs;
5. Bacteria infect/damage lung tissue.
(ii) Two from:
1. Cell recognition controlled by a protein receptor;
2. Mutation in RNA leads to incorrect protein formation;
3. Therefore receptor no longer binds to ciliated epithelial cells (thus no infection possible).
(f) Two from:
1. Antibiotics only work against bacteria;
2. Viral proteins unaffected by antibiotics;
3. Virus has no cell wall.
5 (a) In humans, hepatic/liver cells and red blood cells/erythrocytes are both destroyed, but in mosquitoes, no
cells are damaged.
Biology

(b) 1. Plasmodium are hidden in liver/red blood cells therefore inaccessible to cells of immune system/T
helper cells/B cells;
2. Plasmodium’s antigens change frequently, thus cannot be recognised by cells of immune system/T
helper cells/B cells.
(c) (i) The mosquito bites the human and the blood passes into the digestive system.
(ii) Three from:
1. Mosquito screens on doors/windows;
2. Sleep under mosquito nets;
3. Use insect repellents on skin;
4. Wear clothes with long sleeves/long trousers/cover up skin.
(d) (i) Two from:
1. Electron transport chain forms part of aerobic respiration;
2. Respiration is prevented;
3. No energy to undertake cell metabolic processes/Plasmodium dies.
(ii) Some human cytochrome c might be similar enough to Plasmodium’s to be inhibited.
6.3 The response to infection

6.3.1 Non-specific responses to infection
1 Lysozymes are enzymes which can destroy bacterial cell walls. Lysozymes are present in the mucus that lines
the respiratory system, the gut, the urinary and reproductive tracts, and they act to destroy bacteria – they are
particularly effective against Gram-positive bacteria. Lysozymes are also present in tears and they destroy
bacteria which might enter and infect the eyes.
2 Mast cells and damaged white blood cells release chemicals known as histamines which cause the blood vessels
in the area, particularly the arterioles, to dilate causing local heat and redness.
Heat reduces the efficiency of reproduction of pathogens.
Histamines also make the walls of the capillaries leaky so fluid including plasma, white blood cells and
antibodies is forced out of the capillaries causing swelling (oedema) and often pain.
White blood cells engulf pathogens by phagocytosis, antibodies inactivate pathogens, pain makes you take care
of injured site.
3 Because they simply react to non-self – the response is not specific to a particular pathogen.
4 (a) A raised temperature can help the body combat infection by lowering the reproduction rate of the
pathogens, and the immune system works better at higher temperatures and so will be more successful at
combating the infection.
(b) If body temperature rises above 40°C the denaturation of some enzymes may occur causing permanent
tissue damage. If the temperature is not lowered fairly quickly death may result.
Biology
6.3.2 The specific response to infection

1 Please use the diagram below to compare the student answer against.
2 The immune system responds to foreign antigens on the surface of pathogens. The cells of the body have
antigens which the immune system recognises as ‘self’ and so does not attack them.
3 An antibody is a special glycoprotein known as an immunoglobulin, released into the circulation by B cells. The
antibody binds to a specific antigen on the pathogen that has triggered the immune system, so it is destroyed in
one of several ways. The plasma cells that make antibodies only last a few days, but can produce up to 2000
antibody molecules per second while they are alive. Antibodies remain in the blood for varying lengths of time
and the memory cells may stay in the blood for years or even life. Antibodies work in several ways to greatly
reduce the ability of most pathogens to bind to their host cells:
When antibodies bind to the antigens on pathogens, the microorganisms agglutinate or clump together,
preventing them spreading through the body and making it easier for them to be engulfed by phagocytes.
The antibody acts as an opsonin, a chemical which makes an antigen or pathogen more easily recognisable by
phagocytes.
Antibodies neutralise the effects of bacterial toxins by binding to them.
Biology
4 B cells have receptor proteins which recognise the antigens on the surface of invading pathogens. They give rise
to clones of cells which produce antibodies to a specific pathogen.
T cells come in two types. T helper cells produce chemicals which stimulate the production of antibodies. T
killer cells produce chemicals which destroy pathogens.
5 The primary immune response involves the production of antibodies by the plasma cells produced from the B
effector cells, stimulated by the T helper cells, and it is extremely effective. It takes days or even weeks for the
primary immune response to become fully active against a particular pathogen. Disease symptoms develop so we
are ill when pathogens are reproducing freely inside our bodies before the immune system can deal with it. The
secondary immune response is much faster. When the B-cell antigen-presenting cell divides, it also produces B
memory cells that are very long-lived. They enable the body to respond very rapidly to a second invasion by the
same antigen. When you have had a disease once, you usually do not catch it again because when you do
encounter it, the B memory cells help you produce the antibodies against it so rapidly that it is destroyed before
the symptoms of the disease develop.
6.3.3 Developing immunity

1 NAI: Infected by pathogen which may reproduce and cause symptoms of disease. Immune system is activated,
immune cascade initiated, B cells, antibodies and T cells produced which destroy pathogen. Immunological
memory ensures that if pathogen is met again immune system activated before disease results.
NPI: Antibodies against various diseases passed from mother to baby through placenta or in breast milk.
API: Antibodies produced in one individual or animal are given to another individual if they have come into
contact with a particularly dangerous pathogen, for example, tetanus.
AAI: Expose immune system to attenuated pathogen (dead, inactivated toxin, attenuated live organism, protein
coat fragment or DNA fragment). Stimulates immune response and immunological memory ensures that if live
pathogen is encountered, B cells, T cells and antibodies would deal with it before it can cause symptoms of
disease. For example, vaccination against polio, whooping cough, etc.
2 Herd immunity occurs when enough of a population is vaccinated against a disease for it to be eradicated,
eliminated or simply controlled. When this proportion is reached it makes it very difficult for the disease to
spread because so few people are vulnerable to it. Herd immunity is important because it can effectively stop the
spread of a disease through a community. As many people as possible must be vaccinated to protect both
individuals against the disease, and people who cannot be or have not been vaccinated including very young
babies, very old people, people with compromised immune systems and people who are very ill with other
diseases. The percentage of the population that needs to be vaccinated to give herd immunity varies from one
disease to another, depending on factors such as how the disease is spread and how infectious it is.
3 (a) Not immune to that disease, therefore if they meet the pathogen in this country or abroad likely to become
ill and may be permanently damaged or die.
(b) If child not vaccinated may carry infection or become ill and put other unvaccinated children, for
example, those allergic to eggs or with compromised immune systems – at risk of disease.
(c) From an individual point of view, completely ethical – in fact it could be regarded as unethical if parents
did not have a choice over their children’s treatment. But from a societal point of view it could be argued
that it is unethical that individuals through ignorance, misconceptions, laziness or indifference could
compromise not only the health of their own children, but also the health of society as a whole and the
weakest members of it by threatening the concept of herd immunity. So, from this perspective, it is
unethical that parents can deny their child immunisation.
4 A link between vaccine and brain damage suggested. Media took hold of the story and published it. Ignored the
fact that whooping cough was known to cause brain damage in some children with a quantified risk. Parents
panicked, vaccine uptake fell, children began to get whooping cough again, cases of damage caused by the
disease began to be seen again. The scare was shown to be no more than a correlation which had caught the eye
of a doctor who became convinced of the problem in spite of all evidence to the contrary. It took years for public
confidence in the vaccine to be restored.
Material on MMR as produced by students.
Biology

1 C
2 B
3 (a) 1. Response of immune system/body’s immune cells;
2. To antigen;
3. Producing antibodies;
4. and T killer cells.
(b) 1. Memory cells produced;
2. Response more rapid (on reinfection)/faster antibody production;
3. Prevents symptoms;
4. Higher concentrations of antibodies produced;
5. Antibodies produced for longer;
6. Reference to secondary response.
(c) 1. Population can be protected more quickly;
2. Possible to keep high levels of immunity/herd immunity;
3. Distribution more reliable/possible to remote areas;
4. Reference to example of distribution benefit;
5. Allows rapid response to change in pathogens.
(d) 1. Also T memory cells;
2. More lymphocytes to combat infection;
3. Virus infects body cells;
4. Antibodies only destroy virus in blood;
5. T killer cells destroy virally infected cells;
6. Virus cannot spread/hide inside cells.
4 (a)
Active Passive
Natural Q P
Artificial R S
(b) (i) 1. Antigen must be present;

2. (Both) T and B cells must be present.
(ii) X: no B cells to produce antibody;
Y: (no T cells) because there are no helper cells.
(c) No humoral response/no antibody production/no T killer cells/no cell-mediated response/no cytokines.
(d) 1. Gametes correct (AB, Ab, aB, ab);
2. Genotypes correct (9A_B_, 3A_bb, 3aaB_, 1aabb);
3. (Probability) 7/16/43.75%/0.4375.
Biology
5 (a) Two from:

1. Persistent cough;
2. Blood in sputum;
3. Fever;
4. Weight loss;
5. Tubercles in lungs.
(b) (i) Allow converse:
1. More T helper cells/macrophages/all types of cells; no/little effect on T killer cells;
2. Credit manipulation of figures, for example, T helper cells increased by 1.9 × 106.
(ii) 1. T killer cells destroy body cells/do not destroy bacteria;
2. (Destroy cells) cytolytic;
3. TB is bacterial so T killers not activated.
(iii) 1. T helper cells needed for immune response;
2. Fewer will reduce response;
3. Reference to antibody production;
4. Reference to B cell activation;
5. Fewer macrophages to destroy bacteria.
(c) 1. TB dormant in lungs/controlled by immune system;
2. Risk of TB becoming active;
3. If immune control reduced by drug.
Biology
TOPIC 7 Modern genetics
7.1 Using gene sequencing

7.1.1 PCR
1 Polymerase chain reaction uses the normal replication of DNA, using the enzyme DNA polymerase. By mixing
all the ingredients together at the beginning and then changing the temperature of the mixture in the PCR
machine, a tiny amount of DNA can be amplified to produce millions of identical molecules very quickly and
efficiently. The reactants – the DNA sample which is to be amplified, DNA polymerase, primers (small
sequences of DNA which must join to the beginning of the separated DNA strands before copying can begin)
and a good supply of the four nucleotide bases – are mixed together in a PCR vial and placed in a PCR machine.
The reaction mixture is first heated to 90–95 °C for about 30 seconds, which causes the DNA strands to separate
as the hydrogen bonds holding them together break down. The mixture is then cooled down to 55–60 °C when
the primers bind (or anneal) to the single DNA strands. Finally, the mixture is heated up again to 75 °C for at
least a minute. This is the optimum temperature for the DNA polymerase enzyme which builds up
complementary strands of DNA identical to the original molecule.
These three basic steps are repeated around 30 times to give around 1 billion copies of the original DNA.
2 To separate the DNA strands requires temperatures of around 90 °C, which denatures the DNA polymerase of
most organisms. Any replication process requires repeated changes of temperature and high temperatures so
could not be automated as the enzymes were denatured in each heating cycle. The enzymes of bacteria found in
hot springs are not denatured by heat as the bacteria live at high temperatures. By using DNA polymerase from
hot spring bacteria, the process of DNA polymerisation could be automated and repeated many times because the
enzymes remained active throughout the constant temperature changes and high temperature. This made it
possible to amplify small DNA samples.
3 PCR enables scientists to amplify tiny specimens of DNA to produce enough to carry out DNA profiling. This is
very important in forensic investigations as often only minute traces of DNA are left at crime scenes or left in
cold investigations. By using PCR the DNA can be amplified to give enough to develop a profile that can be
used to prove an individual guilty or innocent.
7.1.2 DNA sequencing

1 A terminator base is a modified version of one of the four nucleotide bases adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine
(C) and guanine (G) that halts the build-up of a DNA chain once it is added because no more bases can be added
to the terminator base. For example, a T terminator stops DNA synthesis where a T base would be added, a G
terminator stops it where a G base would go and so on. Each type of terminator base has a fluorescent tag in a
specific colour and these allow scientists to identify the bases in the DNA sequence.
2 The process has been automated, along with improvements in technology and computing power. Millions of
DNA fragments are now sequenced at the same time and the results analysed by computers, not people.
3 DNA barcoding for identifying species and working out evolutionary relationships, analysing and understanding
gene expression – knowing the DNA sequence of genes and the proteins they produce, disease management –
understanding genetic basis of non-communicable diseases, sequencing the genomes of pathogens to identify
them and identify the most effective antibiotic – any other sensible points.
Biology
7.1.3 DNA profiling

1 DNA profiling is the production of an analysis of the DNA of an individual based on mini- or micro-satellite
groupings from a limited number of introns, which can be compared with similar profiles from other individuals.
2 To produce a DNA profile, the strands of DNA from a sample are chopped up into fragments using restriction
endonucleases which cut the DNA at particular points in the intron sequences. Different restriction enzymes cut
DNA molecules into fragments at specific base sequences known as recognition sites, which are found at either
side of mini- and micro-satellite units, leaving repeated sequences intact.
The different length fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis, by their mass and overall charge. The DNA
fragments are placed in wells in an agarose gel medium in a buffering solution (to maintain a constant pH). The
gel contains a dye which binds to the DNA fragments in the gel. The dye will fluoresce when placed under UV
light, which makes the DNA bands visible when the electrophoresis is complete. The most commonly used dye
is EtBr (ethidium bromide).
A different dye is also added to the DNA samples to show the position of the samples as they move through the
gel.
An electric current is passed through the apparatus and the DNA fragments move through the medium at
different rates depending on their mass and charge. They all move towards the positive anode, because of the
negative charge on the phosphate groups. Known DNA fragments are usually placed in a control well.
Once the electrophoresis is complete the plate is placed under UV light – the DNA fragments fluoresce and show
up clearly so they can be identified. This is the original method of DNA fingerprinting, which needs a relatively
large sample of DNA. It shows up large DNA fragments containing a minimum of 50 base pairs – in other
words, mini-satellites. The resultant DNA profile (fingerprint) looks very like a supermarket bar code. However,
smaller regions of DNA (micro-satellites) and specific genes can now be identified using extensions of this
technique.
3 (a) Traces of biological material are used as sources of DNA which is amplified using PCR and then used to
produce a profile. Because the chances of two individuals having the same DNA profile are incredibly
low, if the DNA profile of a suspect matches DNA from the crime scene this is taken as strong evidence
of their involvement in some way.
(b) Only identical twins have identical DNA profiles, but family members show many more similarities than
non-related people. So if the DNA at a crime is checked, if DNA from another family member is on the
database, siblings and/or parents and children could come up as identical depending on the number of
introns used in the profile. The more intron regions that are used in a profile, the less likely it is that
family members will appear as the same person. If there is confusion, more introns are analysed and
differences will appear. However, close family matches can be helpful as they can lead police to the right
suspect, even if their DNA is not on the database, through family links.

1 C
2 A
3 (a) 1. Breaks/disrupts hydrogen bonds between bases/nucleotides;
2. Strands separate;
3. to expose base (sequences).
(b) 1. Short sections/lengths of nucleotides/10–40 nucleotides;
2. Single-stranded;
3. Reference to sequence of bases/nucleotides complementary to those on DNA;
4. Select target section of DNA;
5. Reference to primer starting polymerase reaction.
(c) Bacterial process slower/takes longer/takes days; chance of error/difficult.
Biology
4 (a) (i) C.
(ii) B.
(iii) 1. (S/suspect) 3;
2. (S3) matches all/9 of the bands in the sample;
3. DNA profiling assumes every individual’s DNA is unique/different;
4. apart from identical twins;
5. Reference to DNA profiling analyses the introns/non-coding blocks/STR/short tandem repeats;
6. Non-coding DNA very variable/hypervariable;
7. Large number of introns/non-coding blocks;
8. Idea of many combinations (at each locus).
(b) 1. Reference to DNA profiling has several stages;
2. Reference to artefacts/contamination can arise at any stage;
3. Only a few sequences/small portion of DNA analysed;
4. Reference to possibility of two identical profiles from unrelated individuals;
5. Identical twins/closely-related individuals may show same profile.
(c) 1. Comparisons made between DNA from fossils and other organisms;
2. to find genetic relationships/how closely related;
3. Reference to used in taxonomy/classification;
4. to understand evolutionary lines/to determine common ancestor.
5 (a) 1. Amylose has straight/unbranched/helical (chain), amylopectin has branched (chain);
2. There are only 1–4 (glycosidic) links/bonds in amylose, whereas there are 1–4 and 1–6 links/bonds in
amylopectin.
(b) 1. Digested/broken down to give glucose;
2. Glucose is respired;
3. Reference to source of energy.
(c) (i) 1. Idea that gene/DNA extraction/yield from bacteria may be very small;
2. PCR used to magnify/increase quantity of gene/DNA;
3. to produce enough for commercial use.
(ii) 1. Abiotic factors are non-living/physical factors;
2. that (might) affect growth of plants;
3. Reference to differences/variation in yields in different regions;
4. in all three varieties;
5. Use of manipulated figures.
(iii) 1. In some regions, hybrids increase yield by more than 100%/more than double yield (compared
with traditional varieties);
2. Idea that extra additional yield using Bt GM varieties is relatively little compared with hybrids;
3. Cost/availability of GM seed;
4. Other reasons, for example, ethical, benefits of the hybrid (such as taste, disease resistance).
7.2 Factors affecting gene expression

7.2.1 Transcription factors and gene expression
1 Gene expression is when the protein coded for by a gene is synthesised.
2 A transcription factor is a protein that binds to the DNA in the nucleus and affects the way the information is
transcribed. Transcription factors switch specific genes on or off. Transcription factors work in a variety of ways.
They are important because they are the most widely used way of controlling the expression of individual genes,
and so they play a major role in the body, in the differentiation and functioning of cells.
Biology

3 Promoter sequences are usually found just above the starting point for transcription upstream of the gene – in
other words, the 5 end of a DNA strand or sequence of bases. When a transcription factor binds to a DNA
promoter sequence, it can stimulate the start of transcription of that area of the DNA. Enhancer sequences are
areas of DNA linked to the structure of the chromatin. When a transcription factor binds to an enhancer
sequence, it will make the chromatin structure more open and available to RNA polymerase – or it may cause the
chromatin structure to tighten up, so less gene expression is possible.
4 In a multicellular organism genome analysis shows every cell contains the same genetic information, but the
microscopic evidence shows they differentiate and develop into organs and tissues where the shape of the cell
and the arrangement of the organelles will differ. These different types of cells produce more and more proteins
specific to their cell type, for example, different hormones. These differences are evidence that different genes
are expressed in different cells of the same organism. Presence of different proteins in cells of the same organism
is demonstrated by protein gel electrophoresis and this shows:
Almost all cells have ‘housekeeping’ proteins in common, for example, the structural proteins of the membranes
and the enzymes involved in cellular respiration.
Each different cell type also produces specific proteins that relate to the particular function of the cell. For
example, the enzymes needed to produce haemoglobin and indeed haemoglobin are only found associated with
red blood cells.
These differences in the proteins are evidence for different genes being expressed and suppressed in different
types of cells.
7.2.2 Spliceosomes and epigenetics

1 When RNA is transcribed from the DNA of a gene in the nucleus both the introns and the exons are transcribed.
The introns and sometimes some of the exons have to be removed from this pre-mRNA before it can be
translated at the ribosomes. This cutting and pasting of the pre-mRNA is carried out by enzymes called
spliceosomes. Once the introns have been removed, the spliceosomes may join up the exons in a variety of ways
to produce different strands of mRNA for translation. This is known as RNA splicing, and the variations in the
mRNA that result may code for different amino acids in the amino acid chain and so for different proteins. This
is one of the ways in which a single gene in the DNA can code for a number of different proteins at the
ribosomes.
2 Epigenetics is the study of genetic control by factors other than the base sequences of the DNA and ways in
which environmental factors can result in changes that affect future generations, for example, RNA splicing,
DNA methylation, DNA demethylation and histone modification.
3
Similarities Differences
 Both involve the addition of a methyl group  In histone methylation a methyl group is
(–CH3). added to a lysine in the histone. In DNA
 Both can cause inactivation of a gene and methylation the addition of the methyl group
even silencing of a whole chromosome. always occurs at the site where cytosine
 Any other sensible points. occurs next to guanine in the DNA chain, with
a phosphate bond between them (a CpG site).
 Histones are positively charged proteins
involved in the structure of chromatin. DNA,
the material of inheritance, wraps around the
histones in chromatin.
 Histone methylation can cause inactivation or
activation of a region of DNA (often
inactivation). DNA methylation always
silences a gene, sequence of genes or whole
chromosome.
 Any other sensible points.
Biology
7.2.3 Stem cells and differentiation

1
Embryonic stem cells Adult stem cells
Pluripotent – can form most cells. Multipotent – can form a limited number of specific
cells.
Sourced from embryos either from abortions or
unwanted in IVF – or produced by therapeutic Sourced from adult tissues (small numbers).
cloning.
Relatively hard to extract and difficult to grow in the
Relatively easy to obtain. laboratory.
Difficult to control differentiation into specific cell Differentiate into limited number of cell types.
types.
If an individual has a genetic problem it will be present
Risk of cancer developing. in their own adult stem cells.
Ethical issues with use of embryos as the source. No rejection issues as own cells used.
No ethical issues as no embryonic tissue involved.

2 Totipotency is the potential to form all known cell types in an organism. Animal cells are totipotent in the
earliest embryo cells; plant cells remain totipotent throughout life.
Pluripotency is the potential to form most of the cell types needed in an entire organism. Animal cells become
pluripotent early in embryo development around the blastocyst stage.
Multipotency is the potential to form a limited number of differentiated cell types within a mature organism.
Adult stem cells are multipotent.
3 Cell determination: cells in the early embryo become predestined to form particular cell types and tissues as a
result of their position in the embryo.
Cell differentiation is the process by which different genes are switched on or off within the nucleus resulting in
very specific types of cells, making specific proteins for the job they need to do.
4 They have short life cycles so differentiation happens fast. Changes can be made and observed very quickly.
Relatively few ethical considerations with using them, especially fruit flies as they are invertebrates. The
embryos are easy to observe as they are free-living. They are cheap to buy, easy to keep and their genomes are
well understood. Frogs are used less often than fruit flies as they are vertebrates, but their embryos are much
easier to handle, operate on and observe as they are larger.
5 If you understand how differentiation works you can intervene if things go wrong in embryonic development.
If you understand control mechanisms you can use them in embryonic stem cells or adult stem cells to produce
new tissues or organs for people with different diseases, to grow new neurones, etc.
Any sensible points.
Biology
7.2.4 Therapeutic uses for stem cells

1 Being able to direct stem cells to make a particular type of differentiated cell or tissue.
2 Ethical issues: human life is sacred, embryos are humans with rights and so should never be used experimentally
or as source of cells, etc. Cannot be answered by scientific argument because based on belief not evidence. Any
other well-argued points.
3 Umbilical cord – Advantages: no ethical issues of embryo involvement; reduced problems of rejection; any valid
point. Disadvantages: umbilical blood has to be stored (cost implications); carries any genetic disease.
Adult tissue: multipotent rather than pluripotent unless new technique is developed successfully, so limited range
of cells to be produced; adult stem cells are rare and difficult to grow; technique for converting to iPS very new.
Any valid points.
4 Look for evidence that the student understands both the biological advantages and disadvantages, and potential
benefits and pitfalls, of different methods, and the current consensus on chances of success, etc. Look for clarity
of thought, good expression and clear communication.

1 D
2 B
3 (a) (i) Use a water bath/description of using a water bath.
(ii) 1. Maintain a constant pH throughout the experiment
2. to provide a particular pH/control pH;
3. Enzymes are sensitive to pH/work within a narrow pH range/only work at a certain pH/each one
has a specific pH optimum.
(iii) 1. Gene/allele for β-galactosidase switched on/induced/turned on/expressed/transcribed;
2. Switched on/induced by lactose;
3. Yellow colour appears when ONPG is broken down (to a yellow substance);
4. β-galactosidase only produced when lactose is present.
(b) (i) 1. (Depending on the source) the enzymes/β-galactosidase differ in temperature optima/work best
at different temperatures;
2. P. haloplanktis has a temperature optimum of 15/16°C whereas that of E. coli is over 35°C;
3. P. haloplanktis is adapted for/has evolved in a cold climate; the P. haloplanktis (used in the
experiment) came from a cold place/had been (recently) exposed to low temperature (and become
cold-adapted through environment).
(ii) 1. Less energy needed (to warm the milk);
2. The milk is less likely to go off during the process (due to microbial action); enzymes more
stable/last longer at low temperatures.
Biology
4 (a) (i) Mitosis/cloning.

(ii) 1. Not all/different genes are switched on or off/active/activated;
2. Correct and appropriate reference to factors/mechanisms for gene switching;
3. For example, reference to promoters/transcription factors.
(iii) 1. If you (suffered an accident/disease/deterioration) and needed to replace damaged brain cells;
2. Would be genetically the same as the rest of your cells;
3. Able to replace more than one kind of brain cell;
4. Goes on generating new cells as required.
(b) (i) 1. Embryonic cells are easier to work with than adult stem cells;
2. Embryonic cells are (relatively) undifferentiated whereas adult stem cells are/appear to be less
so;
3. Embryonic stem cells are totipotent/pluripotent/able to become any kind of cell in the body, but
adult stem cells are multipotent/able to become only a limited number of cell types;
4. Embryonic stem cells have a wider range of clinical applications/adult stem cells have a
narrower range of clinical applications.
(ii) Against
Credit any three of the points below:
1. Embryonic stem cells (are taken from embryos) which (are to be considered) unborn children;
2. Use of stem cells is thus effectively murder/lack of respect for embryo as a (potential) human;
3. A lot of current (embryonic) stem cell treatment is fraudulent/badly regulated/exploits
suffering/encourages IVF clinics to ‘create’ more ‘spare’ embryos;
4. If we wait a few years longer we shall have the same benefits through adult stem cells;
5. Not enough funding for alternatives, for example adult stem cells;
6. An embryo becomes a new human at the moment of conception.
The fourth mark is for attempting to balance opposing points of view whilst thoughtfully coming
down on one side, for example, “Even though it may benefit people this does not justify taking the
life of an unborn child”.
For
Credit any three of the points below:
1. Offers prospect of treatment to many suffering people;
2. Research using alternatives, for example adult stem cells, progressing more slowly than that
with embryonic stem cells;
3. If we ban it in the UK it will still happen in other countries;
4. It uses spare IVF embryos which would alternatively be destroyed;
5. Research with embryonic stem cells is needed to develop use of adult stem cells;
6. An embryo is not a new human until it is viable.
The fourth mark is for attempting to balance opposing points of view whilst thoughtfully coming
down on one side, for example, “Alleviation of suffering in people (who have already been born)
is (ethically) more important than destroying embryos”.
Biology
5 (a) 1. A cell which can divide

2. and can differentiate/change into different types of cell/has not yet differentiated;
3. Primal cells/reference to having retained the ability to divide/differentiate from an earlier stage.
(b) 1. Adult stem cells are pluripotent/multipotent
2. whereas embryonic cells are totipotent;
3. Adult stem cells can only develop into certain cells (whereas) embryonic stem cells can develop into
any kind of cell.
(c) 1. Does not involve the ethical issues associated with embryonic stem cells;
2. Can use patients’ own stem cells therefore no immunity problem;
3. Easier to obtain.
(d) 1. Overcomes problem of shortage of donors;
2. Can use patients’ own stem cells therefore no immunity problem;
3. Any necessary surgery is less invasive/drastic/life-threatening/has a shorter recovery time;
4. (Probably) less expensive.
(e) 1. By fertilisation
2. of ova by sperm
3. in vitro/in a test tube/ova removed from (or outside) woman’s body;
4. (Usually) surplus/spare fertilised ova from IVF treatment.
6 (a) (i) 1. Idea that cell B can give rise to many cell types;
2. Idea that cell B cannot give rise to embryonic cells.
(ii) (Red) bone marrow (of long bones/ribs).
(iii) 1. Different genes active in different cells/different genes active at different times/some genes
active or inactive;
2. Active genes make mRNA;
3. Active genes make proteins/polypeptides;
4. (Proteins) control cell processes;
5. Idea of permanent change (to cell).
(b) B.
7 (a) 1. Protein released from ribosome;
2. Enters the rER lumen;
3. Becomes packaged into (rER) vesicles;
4. Vesicles/proteins move to Golgi (apparatus); vesicles fuse with/protein enters Golgi;
5. Protein modified/carbohydrate added/named carbohydrate added;
6. Then become packaged into (secretory) vesicles;
7. Glycoprotein becomes part of (vesicle) membrane;
8. Vesicles move towards/fuse with the cell (surface) membrane.
(b) (i) 1. Totipotent (stem cells) can give rise to all/any/216 cell types;
2. (Stem cells) are undifferentiated/unspecialised;
3. Can keep dividing.
(ii) They can give rise to white blood cells.
(iii) Possible route to infection/rejection by recipient/increased chance of becoming cancerous.
7.3 Gene technology

7.3.1 Producing recombinant DNA
1 Either synthesis of an artificial copy of desired gene or restriction endonucleases chop up healthy DNA to isolate
desired gene leaving sticky ends → integrate new gene into vector, for example, DNA ligases attach the new
DNA segment into the DNA of the plasmid or virus to be used as a vector → the vector is used to introduce the
new DNA to the host cell → once vector in host, nucleus forms recombinant DNA.
Biology

2 Usually attempts are made to genetically modify a lot of organisms, but relatively few attempts are successful.
With bacteria, replica plating allows the identification of those organisms that have been successfully genetically
modified so that they can be isolated and grown into pure cultures of GM organisms. Often a gene giving a
colour change with a particular medium, or an inability to survive in a medium with particular amino acids or
other nutrients missing, is engineered into the organism with the desirable gene. This gives a way of identifying
successfully modified organisms. A mixture of bacteria is grown on complete medium and a replica plate of
colonies in the same positions is grown on an amino acid-deficient medium. The colonies that are missing in the
replica plate are those that have been successfully engineered. Those colonies are then removed from the master
plate and grown on as pure cultures of the GM organisms.
3 They are all effective at getting new DNA into a host cell, but they have different advantages and disadvantages.
• Plasmids (bacterial DNA) are particularly useful in bacteria as they pass into the host cell and can
combine with or work independently of the main host DNA. They are not helpful in engineering animals
as plasmids are not part of animal genetics.
• Harmless viruses infect cells and insert their genetic material into the host cell DNA. This makes them
useful for inserting desirable genes into human cells where the viral DNA with the new gene combines
with the host DNA. However, this method is limited as viruses must be harmless and must be effective at
inserting their DNA in a range of hosts.
• Gene guns – the required DNA is shot into the cell at high speed, carried on minute gold or tungsten
pellets. Some cells survive and accept the DNA as part of their genetic material. Used relatively
successfully on plant cells.
• Liposomes are lipid spheres which fuse with cell membranes and allow new DNA into the cell –
hopefully some of this makes it to the nucleus to fuse with the host DNA. There are hopes that this
technique will work for human cells as relatively non-invasive.
7.3.2 Gene technology in plants

1 Genetic modification of plants and microorganisms usually involves a plasmid. In plants the plasmids usually
come from Agrobacterium tumefaciens; in microorganisms they come from wide range of organisms. In plants
the new genes are usually from a closely related species of plant, although also from animals, etc. In
microorganisms, the genes inserted are often human genes to make human proteins for medicines, or genes from
other organisms to make enzymes, etc. for biotechnology.
Insertion of new genes into microorganisms is often done to directly benefit humans with no benefit to
microorganisms, for example, production of insulin or penicillin.
Insertion of new genes into plants often directly benefits the plants, for example, drought resistance, containing a
pesticide, etc., and indirectly benefits people through higher yields, etc.
2 The changed balance of fatty acids in soya beans benefits the producers because there is a higher percentage of
oleic acid. This does not oxidise easily so the soya beans and their products last longer before going off. This
benefits the producers.
Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid and there is some evidence that it is better for the health than linoleic
acid. So using products made with the modified soya beans means consumers have potential health benefits as
well as possible price reductions because the beans have a longer shelf life.
3 Any three sensible points, for example:
GM crops can be engineered to give much higher yields so much more food can be grown using the same
amount of land.
GM crops can be engineered to contain specific levels of nutrients and so aspects of malnutrition, for example,
lack of protein or vitamins, could be overcome by a GM version of a normal staple crop.
Crops can be engineered to withstand extremes of weather, such as flooding or drought, enabling food to be
grown successfully in spite of possible climate changes and extreme weather events.
Crops can be engineered to produce their own pesticides/fertiliser and so reduce production costs and pollution,
keeping soil and environment healthier.
Biology

7.3.3 The gene technology debate
1 Many people think that the use of GM bacteria in the production of drugs such as insulin is a very good thing
that does not damage the bacteria, but that brings a lot of benefit to many people and makes a number of drugs
more accessible to people.
Some people think that changing the genetic material of any organisms is interfering with nature/the will of their
God and feel it is unethical and wrong, even if it does save many lives and improve the quality of life of many
people.
Any other sensible and well-expressed positions.
2 Look for evidence of research from a reputable site and an evaluation of the available evidence.
3 Clear statements of arguments for – permanent cure, not passed on, cost/benefit of no treatment versus germ line
therapy, etc. and against – what else will be engineered? ‘playing God’, potential impact on individual of
invasive treatment to zygote, etc. Any valid points clearly presented. Personal opinion expressed and validated.
4 Look for ‘Research Poster’ presentation – data, text and images to support evidence on both sides of the debate
or one side argued clearly and cogently. And sources used should be referenced on the poster.
5 Look for understanding from students of the issues of public debate on gene technology – with examples of the
problems of lack of knowledge and understanding, such as the fears over eating engineered genes when everyone
digests DNA from a wide range of organisms every day, etc. Look at disadvantages of not using gene
technology, for example, Europe and UK being left behind, advantages of GM crops in US, Africa, Indian sub-
continent, etc.; plus advantages – not rushing into new technology before risks properly assessed, etc. Role of
media could be discussed. Reward thoughtful points, balance, evidence and clear communication.

1 D
2 B
3 C
4 (a) A Reverse transcriptase;
B DNA polymerase.
(b) 1. Plasmid opened/cut using endonuclease;
2. Reference to sticky ends;
3. (Ends of ) DNA complementary to plasmid;
4. Joins by hydrogen bonding;
5. Correct reference to (DNA) ligase/formation of phosphodiester bonds.
(c) 1. Idea of marker gene;
2. (Marker gene) fluorescence/can be for antibiotic resistance.
5 (a) Reference to (yeast is) genetically-modified/genetically-engineered/reference to
vegetarians/vegans/religious groups concerned by use of animal/calf.
(b) The points have to be within the context of the flow diagram.
1. cDNA produced by reverse transcriptase;
2. Using mRNA as template;
3. Vector/plasmid/(yeast) DNA opened/cut by restriction enzyme/endonuclease;
4. Reference to sticky ends;
5. cDNA and vector/plasmid/(yeast) DNA joined/bonded/annealed/inserted by ligase;
6. Reference to polymerase used to amplify multiply cDNA
Biology
6 (a) 1. Improves yield of cotton;

2. Saves the cost of buying/applying insecticides;
3. Increases the farmer’s income/profit;
4. Less harmful to humans/wildlife than chemical sprays.
(b) Similarities:
1. Plants with desired characteristics are selected;
2. New (desirable combinations) of characteristics/genes are produced/hybridisation;
3. Done deliberately to improve yield/usefulness.
Differences:
1. Conventional plant breeding is done by transferring pollen/reference to GM techniques;
2. (Genetic) change achieved more quickly/much less hit and miss using GM;
3. Can combine genes from a wider range of sources (whereas in conventional method hybridisation is
only possible between plants of same/similar species)/transfer of genes from a bacterium to a plant (as in
this example) not possible with conventional method.
(c) To gain full (four) marks candidates must include a rebuttal item i.e. one which recognises an opposing
argument, but attempts to place it in perspective.
If a candidate says ‘for’, arguments against do not count (and vice versa for ‘against’).
An exceptional answer which balances a series of opposing points of view and really argues that it is
impossible to come down on either side may gain full marks if they have included four points.
For GM crops
Maximum of three points from 1 to 7
1. Little/no convincing evidence that GM is harmful;
2. Widely used in North America/USA/India;
3. Great potential in GM to increase crop yields /reduce food prices/feed more people (in a starving
world)/help economy of developing nations;
4. Potential to reduce dependency on chemical pesticides;
5. Can reduce damage to environment/make agriculture more sustainable;
6. Better that GM research takes place in places like UK where it can be properly regulated rather than
left to rogue states/whether UK develops GM or not other countries will do it anyway;
7. Same basic idea as conventional crop breeding and we have been doing that for thousands of years.
Rebuttal arguments
8. Some cases where GM has not been a success, but this does not prove that there is anything wrong with
GM in general (just needs more research);
9. There could be (as yet undiscovered) risks with GM, but the potential is so enormous that we cannot
afford/not ethical to ignore.
Against GM crops
Maximum of three points from 1 to 7
1. Not all GM crop projects have been a success/reference to specific example which has not been
successful;
2. Genes/pollen may get transferred to other organisms (with unforeseeable consequences);
3. (Potential for) exploitation of developing world farmers by international biotech companies;
4. Reliance on small number of (GM) strains would mean less genetic diversity/scope for natural
selection/evolution;
5. Impossible to be sure there may not be serious consequences in future;
6. Cannot be controlled properly/might get into the wrong hands;
7. GM is different to conventional means (with example – for example, can transfer genes between
bacteria and plants).
Rebuttal arguments
8. Some examples where GM has been a success, but we cannot afford to take the risk;
9. Maybe in future GM may be useful, but we should wait until we know more about it/we do not need it
– can use conventional methods of crop breeding.
Biology
TOPIC 8 Origins of genetic variation
8.1 Genetic information

8.1.1 Origins of genetic variation
1
Method of introducing genetic How it works
variation in sexual
reproduction
Meiosis – independent assortment The components of the maternal and paternal chromosome pairs are
of alleles (random assortment) randomly distributed into the gametes. As a result any gamete may have
all, none or any combination of the haploid number of chromosomes that
are maternal (or paternal). This means each gamete has a different
mixture of maternal and paternal chromosomes.
Meiosis – crossing over Large multi-enzyme complexes ‘cut and join’ bits of the maternal and
(recombination) paternal chromatids together at the chiasmata. Sections of the maternal
and paternal origin chromatids are spliced together leading to added
genetic variation as new combinations of alleles arise.
Mutation These are changes in the DNA, e.g. point mutations, chromosomal
mutations or whole chromosome mutations, that result in different alleles
and new proteins being made.
Fertilisation The pairs that reproduce sexually are random and the particular gametes
that fuse out of the millions made are also random so this introduces
considerable variation.
2 Genetic variation means that any combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes can be present in a
particular gamete. This usually means that the different ova fertilised by different sperm to produce two siblings
will carry a different combination of chromosomes and so the siblings will look different from both the parents
and each other. However, random assortment can mean that two ova both carry all or most of their 23
chromosomes from the maternal side. Similarly some sperm will carry similar combinations of chromosomes. If
two siblings are produced from ova with a similar mixture of chromosomes, and especially if those
chromosomes code for a number of dominant phenotypic features seen in the mother, you can get two siblings
who both look very like each other and their mother as a result of many random processes.
8.1.2 Transfer of genetic information

1 Homozygous: both alleles for a gene code for the same version of the characteristic;
Heterozygous: the two alleles for a gene code for different versions of a characteristic;
Dominant: an allele which is expressed whether the individual is homozygous or
heterozygous;
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed in the phenotype when the
individual is homozygous for the allele.
Biology
3 It distinguishes a heterozygous individual from a homozygous dominant individual, which are phenotypically the
same, because when crossed with a homozygous recessive organism, if one parent is homozygous dominant, all
the offspring will have the dominant phenotype. On the other hand, when a homozygous recessive organism is
crossed with a heterozygous individual about half of the offspring will show the recessive phenotype.
4 They reproduce quickly, produce many offspring, are cheap to culture and have easily distinguishable
characteristics. There are no ethical issues with using them in this way.
8.1.3 Mendelian genetics and beyond

1 (a) Genetic diagram showing F1 and F2 results for chosen trait. This will give 3 : 1 ratio of F2 phenotypes.
Mendel’s results for each trait are close to this, but not exact due to experimental variation.
(b) Answer may support or be against adjusting results, but must be supported by suitable argument, such as:
yes, because Mendel’s results gave us clear laws of inheritance on which to base genetics; no, because
adjusting results may give the wrong answer and affect that area of research for a long time.
2 (a) Woman: AA or AO; man: BB or BO.
(b) Universal donor is blood group O.
This is homozygous recessive so there is no chance of their children being a universal donor unless the
parental genotypes are AO and BO.
The gametes will be A or O and B or O.
A O
B AB BO
O AO OO
So if the parents are AO and BO, there is a 1 in 4 chance that any of their children will have blood group
O and be a universal donor.
Biology

3 (a) That they are codominant.
(b) Palomino horses are CH Ch.
Cross between two palomino horses:
CH Ch
H
C CH CH CH Ch
Ch CH Ch Ch Ch
Offspring genotypes 1 CH CH : 2 CH Ch : 1 Ch Ch.

Offspring phenotypes 1chestnut: 2 palomino : 1 cream.
So the chance of two palomino horses having a palomino foal are 1 in 2.
4 People with blood group A will have A antigens on their erythrocytes and antibody B in the blood plasma.
People with blood group B will have B antigens on their erythrocytes and A antibodies in the plasma.
Someone with blood group A can receive blood groups A and O, because blood group A has the same antigens
and antibodies as they have. Blood group O has no antigens on the red blood cells and so does not trigger
agglutination – it can be given to anyone. Blood group A can be donated to people who are blood group A (the
same) or to people with blood group AB. Because they have both A and B antigens on the erythrocytes, they
have no antibodies and so can receive any blood.
For the same reasons, someone who is blood group B can receive blood from another blood group B individual
or blood group O. They can donate to people who have blood group B or group AB.
8.1.4 Dihybrid inheritance of unlinked genes

1 The genotype of an organism is its genetic makeup. The phenotype of an organism is the characteristics that
result from the expression of the genotype. To produce F1 plants a gardener will often use a true-breeding
homozygous dominant plant crossed with a plant that is homozygous for a recessive phenotype. If an organism is
homozygous, both alleles for a characteristic are the same. If it is heterozygous, the two alleles are different. A
dominant phenotype is expressed even if it is only coded for by one allele. A recessive phenotype only appears if
coded for by two alleles. If plants are true-breeding they are homozygous and if crossed with themselves they
will produce the same phenotype generation after generation.
However, if a homozygous plant for a dominant characteristic is crossed with a homozygous plant for the
recessive characteristic, all of the offspring, known as the F1 or first filial generation, will have the dominant
phenotype.
Plants from these seeds cannot be used as stock plants for breeding in the next year because they will all contain
a recessive allele and therefore they would not breed true. If they were crossed, 25% of the offspring would show
the recessive phenotype.
Student could produce sample Punnett square to demonstrate – give extra credit.
2 (a) Long wings L are dominant, vestigial wings l are the recessive phenotype.
Grey bodies G are the dominant phenotype, ebony bodies g are recessive.
Heterozygote for both characteristics is LlGg.
Homozygote for both recessive characteristics is llgg.
LG Lg lG lg
Lg LlGg Llgg llGg llgg
Ratio of genotypes: LlGg : Llgg : llGg : llgg.

Ratio of phenotypes: 1 long wing, grey body : 1 long wing, ebony body : 1 vestigial wing, grey body : 1
vestigial wing, ebony body.
Biology
(b) The heterozygote makes every combination of alleles possible. The homozygous recessive allows all of the
different phenotypes to be expressed.
Mating is random, mutations in individual gametes, statistically need huge numbers to get ratios, some flies die
and/or escape before counting, any other sensible point.
3 Heterozygous round yellow has genotype RrYy.
We know it is a heterozygote cross so make the assumption that the ratio of offspring is
9 : 3 : 3 : 1 round yellow : wrinkled yellow : round green : wrinkled green.
Phenotype Hypothesis Observed Expected O−E (O − E)2 (O − E)2
E
Round, yellow 9 219 225 219 − 225 = −6 −62 = 36 36/225 = 0.16
Round , green 3 81 75 81 − 75 = 6 2
6 = 36 36/75 = 0.48
Wrinkled, yellow 3 69 75 69 − 75 = −6 2
−6 = 36 36/75 = 0.48
Wrinkled, green 1 31 25 31 − 25 = 6 2
6 = 36 36/25 = 1.44
χ2 = 0.16 + 0.48 + 0.48 + 1.44 = 2.56.

The value of χ2 for this experiment is 2.56. There are 4 pieces of observed information so subtracting 1 gives us 3
degrees of freedom.
Using the chi-squared table we can see that any number higher than 7.82 relates to a probability less than 0.05,
indicating a statistically significant difference between observed and expected results. However, our χ2 value is
2.56, so the probability is greater than 0.05, indicating that there is no significant difference between our
predicted and observed results.
8.1.5 Gene linkage

1 (a) Heterozygote for long wings and broad body has linked genes so only two possible gametes LB and lb.
In a cross with homozygous recessive LBlb × llbb:
LB Lb
Lb LlBb llbb
Offspring LlBb or llbb in 1 : 1 ratio.

(b) Heterozygote for long wings and grey body – genes not linked so four possible gametes LG, Lg, lG and
lg.
LG Lg lG lg
Lg LlGg Llgg llGg llgg
Offspring LlGg, Llgg, llGg or llgg in 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 ratio.

The differences are due to the linkages between the genes in the first cross that makes them act like a
single gene rather than two.
2 (a) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 would be the normal ratio of offspring in a dihybrid heterozygote cross when there was no
linkage between the genes. Student may show using a Punnett square – give extra credit if so.
(b) The gene for eye colour is sex-linked, but the gene for eye shape is not. As a result the two genes are
inherited independently. Only males will show the orange eye colour, but the Punnett square will still
give a basic 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio. Differences are due to losses as a result of death or escape, mutation, small
samples, etc. Students may do a Punnett square or a chi-squared test to demonstrate.
Biology
8.1.6 Human genetics, sex linkage and pedigree diagrams

1 (a) Gene for colour vision carried on X chromosome. Means if a man inherits an allele for colour blindness
he will demonstrate the trait as no corresponding allele on the Y chromosome. Women have to inherit
faulty allele from both parents – much less likely so much lower incidence in the population.
(b) No: demonstrate using Punnett square or other genetic diagram, for example, mother carried colour blind
allele, but has normal vision XCXc, father has normal vision: XCY:
XC Xc
XC XC XC XC Xc
Y XC Y Xc Y
(c) Yes: demonstrate using Punnett square or other genetic diagram, for example, mother carried colour blind
allele, but has normal vision XCXc, father has normal vision: XCY:
XC Xc
c
X XC Xc Xc Xc
Y XC Y Xc Y
A colour blind woman has to inherit an allele for colour blindness from both parents to be affected as
colour blindness is a recessive phenotype.
2 (a) Genetic diagrams allow you to work out the probability of particular genotypes or phenotypes occurring
in the offspring of a particular pair of parents. Genetic pedigree diagrams, also known as family trees,
show the incidence of genetic traits throughout the generations of a family.
(b) Genetic pedigree diagrams enable carriers, etc. to be identified both retrospectively and in current
generations. They are also very useful for identifying sex-linked traits.
3 (a) A sex-linked genetic disease (carried on the X chromosome) that affects the ability of the blood to clot.
Affected individuals cannot produce clotting factor VIII.
(b) Girls have two X chromosomes so may be homozygous for haemophilia A. They are so badly affected
that they do not usually survive the trauma of birth.
(c) There may have been carriers in the family, but carriers have always by chance had daughters who have
themselves become carriers. The faulty allele only showed itself when it was inherited by a son – the lack
of a second X chromosome meant that he was affected by the condition.
A new mutation may have occurred in the germ line cells of one of the parents.
Look for clear diagrams and/or pedigree.
Biology

1 (a) B
(b) A
(c) D
2 (a) (i) Different letter for each character, and dominant and recessive alleles indicated.
(ii) Correct genotypes using symbols given.
(b) (i)
Phenotype Observed frequency Expected frequency
3150
1050
1050
350
(ii) 1. Reference to (autosomal) linkage;
2. (Genes/alleles) on same chromosome;
3. Idea of not independent of each other/inherited together;
4. Low chance of crossing over;
5. Unless chiasma(ta) form between them;
6. Reference to bivalent/tetrads stage;
7. During prophase 1;
8. Idea of high frequencies of parental phenotypes in F2/offspring;
9. Idea of low frequencies of recombinants.
3 (a) (i) 1. Idea of both alleles (in heterozygote) contributing (equally) to expression (in phenotype);
2. IA/allele for A is codominant with IB/allele for B; IA and IB are both dominant over IO.
(ii) 1. Idea of more than two alleles available at a locus;
2. Idea of three alleles in blood grouping/reference to IA, IB or IO being available.
(b) (i) C1 = IA IB;
C2 = IB IO;
C3 = IA IB.
(ii) 1. IO IO is identified as O group blood;
2. IA IO/Ao/AO and IB IO/Bo/BO;
3. Gametes from each parent shown correctly;
4. Correct use of diagram or Punnett square to show possible combinations of offspring genotypes;
5. (This gives) 1 in 4 chance.
Biology
4 (a) 1. Heterozygous/heterozygote;
2. Have recessive allele/allele that is not expressed;
3. Idea of future inheritance.
(b) (i) 1. Smaller surface area;
2. Less haemoglobin;
3. Reference to different haemoglobin structure;
4. Blood cells get stuck in capillary.
(ii) 1. Parents’ genotypes: both HbA HbS or HbA HbS and HbS HbS;
2. Gametes shown;
3. Identification of HbS HbS as sickle cell anaemia.
(iii) 1 in 2/50%/0.5/½.
(c) 1. Codon/triplet codes for amino acid;
2. Reference to substitution of a base;
3. Idea of DNA used as a template;
4. (So) error transferred to mRNA (during transcription);
5. Translation at ribosome/polypeptide formed at ribosome;
6. Reference to tRNA with amino acid(s) used;
7. Reference to different anticodon.
[Marks could be gained from good diagram.]
5 (a) (i) Prophase 1.
(ii) A = chromatid, B = centromere, C = chiasma/chiasmata.
(b) (i) (All) BbRr with black, rough fur.
(ii) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1.
(iii) 1. Reference to expected numbers would be 27 black, rough : 9 black, smooth : 9 white, rough : 3
white, smooth;
2. The actual results differ from expected ones/9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio;
3. Genes for fur colour and texture are on same chromosome/linked;
4. Tend to be inherited together;
5. Only separated if chiasma(ta) forms between them/crossing over takes place;
6. Reference to recombinants;
7. Recombinants are black with smooth fur and/or white with rough fur.
8.2 Gene pools

8.2.1 Gene pools and genetic diversity
1 (a) 95/200 × 100 = 47.5% have the recessive phenotype.
(b) The two equations needed to find the percentage of the population that are recessive are
p+q=1
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
The frequency of the homozygous recessive trait is 0.48
So q2 = 0.48 therefore q = √0.48 = 0.69
Now we can find p as p + q = 1 so p = 1 − 0.69 = 0.31
Frequency of heterozygote = 2pq = 2(0.31 × 0.69) = 0.43
So percentage of heterozygotes = 43%.
(c) Frequency of homozygotes with dominant phenotype = 0.312 = 0.1.
Biology
2 126/150 have brown fur so 150 – 126 or 24 have grey fur (recessive phenotype)
24/150 × 100 = percentage homozygous recessive = 16%
Frequency = 0.16
q2 = 0.16 so q = √0.16 = 0.4
Now we can find p as p + q = 1 so p = 1 – 0.4 = 0.6
Frequency of heterozygotes = 2pq = 2(0.6 × 0.4) = 0.48
Frequency of homozygous dominant = p2. p = 0.6 so p2 = 0.36.
3 The Hardy-Weinberg equation is only valid if it is applied to a large population, with a minimum of several
thousand individuals. The population must exist in isolation with no migration of organisms either into or out of
the population and all alleles must have the same level of reproductive advantage or disadvantage. These
conditions are rarely if ever met in a natural environment.
8.2.2 Population bottlenecks and the founder effect

1 Ellis-van Creveld syndrome homozygous recessive
43/8000 × 100 = percentage homozygous recessive = 0.5%
Frequency = 0.005
q2 = 0.005 so q = √0.005 = 0.07
Now we can find p as p + q = 1 so p = 1 – 0.07 = 0.93
Frequency of heterozygotes = 2pq = 2(0.93 × 0.07) = 0.13
Frequency of homozygous dominant = p2. p = 0.93 so p2 = 0.86.
2 Genetic bottleneck: when an event or series of events dramatically reduces the size of the population through the
deaths of many organisms. This is called a population bottleneck and it causes a severe decrease in the gene pool
of the population. Many of the gene variants present in the original population are lost so the gene pool shrinks
and the allele frequency changes dramatically. In almost all cases, genetic diversity is greatly reduced.
Founder effect: the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a small number of individuals leave the main
population and set up a separate new population, producing a voluntary ‘population bottleneck’. The alleles
carried by the individuals who leave the main population may be a random selection of the gene pool, but it is
unlikely that they will include all the alleles, or at the same frequencies, as in the original population. Any
unusual genes in the founder members of this new population may become amplified as the population grows.
3 Ngorongoro crater: lions suffered population bottleneck due to disease. Many alleles wiped out and some alleles
increase in frequency as breeding pool small and inbreeding likely. This can lead to infertility as damaged genes
increase in frequency in the population, etc.
Outside crater: population has much bigger gene pool, greater genetic diversity, no loss of frequency or artificial
selection of narrow range of alleles, therefore more likely to remain healthy and breed effectively.
Biology
8.2.3 Selection pressure or chance?

1 Stabilising selection: natural selection acting to conserve what is already present in a population because those
genotypes are already proving to be successful. It reduces variation in a population, so that the frequency of a
few alleles is very high, but other alleles are greatly reduced in the population, resulting in organisms that have
changed little over time. Common in stable environments.
Disruptive selection: a variation of directional selection that occurs whenever environmental pressure is applied
to a population – in other words, when an environment changes. The main difference from directional selection
is that the outcome is an increase in the diversity of the population rather than a trend in one particular direction.
It occurs when conditions are very diverse and small subpopulations evolve different phenotypes suited to their
very particular surroundings or niche.
Both involve selection and adaptation to the environment. Stabilising: occurs in stable communities, reduces
variation, maintains a few alleles at high frequencies, maintains the current situation. Disruptive: occurs when
there is a change, increases variation, increases frequencies of different alleles, results in formation of many new
species – any other sensible points.
2 Evolution is not always in response to changes in the environment – can occur as a result of random mutations
and random selection in sexual reproduction causing genetic drift that can have a major evolutionary effect in
small populations, causing evolution to occur without the driver of change.
3 Small populations often have low genetic diversity because they result from genetic bottlenecks or the founder
effect, when a catastrophic event has reduced the numbers of individuals, or a small group with an
unrepresentative gene pool have broken away from a larger population. Large genetic diversity reduces the
chances of the frequency of damaging alleles increasing in a population. It also increases the chances of at least
some of the population being able to respond to changes in the environment.

1 B
2 B. p2 is only the individuals who have the homozygous dominant genotype, DD (not Dd or dd).
3 C. Fewer individuals can breed as most have died or been killed (so not A). This means that SOME alleles will
INCREASE in frequency, but others will decrease. Hence not B or D. If these questions had started with
‘SOME’ then they’d be correct. But they do not!
4 D. If you increase prey, there is more food so less competition, so therefore less selection. The other three
remove individuals from a population and therefore their alleles too (note the use of ‘would not’ in the question).
5 (a) You are told in the question that MSUD is 1 out of 200. So this means that q = 1/200, which is 0.005;
Since p + q = 1, this means that p + 0.005 = 1;
Therefore p = 1 – 0.005, which is 0.995.
(b) Using p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1, and knowing that p = 0.995 and q = 0.005:
(i) Homozygous dominant is p2 which is (0.995)2
in population of 100 000, (0.995)2 × 100 000 = 99 002.5.
(ii) Heterozygous is 2pq, which is 2 × (0.995 × 0.005)
in population of 100 000, 2 × (0.995 × 0.005) × 100 000 = 995.
(iii) Homozygous recessive is q2, which is (0.005)2
in population of 100 000, (0.005)2 × 100 000 = 2.5.
HINT: you can check you have your calculations correct by making sure the numbers of each
genotype all add up to your total population: 99 002.5 + 995 + 2.5 = 100 000.
Do not round your p2, 2pq or q2 until you multiply by the total population.
(c) (0.0754)2 × 100 000 = 568.5 people.
(d) In the general population the MSUD allele remains at a very low frequency. The Amish are an isolated
population with a small number of founder members. By chance at least one founder member of the
original Amish population carried the recessive allele for MSUD. Due to the small gene pool available in
an isolated population the frequency of the MSUD allele is amplified, resulting in a higher proportion of
affected individuals in the population over time. This is the founder effect.
Biology

6 (a) Caucasians have higher numbers of people carrying the cystic fibrosis allele;
Manipulation of figures: for example, Caucasians 3.46/3.5 times more likely than Asians to carry the
allele.
(b) Allele frequency increases;
Carriers of allele more likely to survive to pass allele onto their children.
(c) (i) Median life expectancy: the age which is reached by 50% of the individuals in a population before
they die.
(ii) 1. Increase (more homozygous recessive people survive long enough to have children);
2. Decrease (fewer homozygous recessive people survive long enough to have children).
7 (a) THREE from:
1. DNA/point mutation;
2. Error passes on to mRNA;
3. During transcription;
4. (Incorrect tRNA bound ) during translation.
(b) (i) African: q = 1/3, so q2 is (1/3)2 = 0.11; as a percentage this is 11%;
African descent in America: q is 1 in 13, so q = 0.077, q2 = 0.0059 so 0.59%;
Northern European: 1 in 63, so q = 0.016, q2 = 0.00025, so as a percentage 0.025%.
(ii) Gametes: S, s for BOTH parents (or similar alleles);
Children genotypes: SS, Ss, Ss, ss;
Children phenotypes: SS normal, Ss carrier/sickle cell trait, ss, sickle cell sufferer, ss is 1 in 4,
which works out as 25%, p = 0.25.
(iii) Homozygous normal and homozygous sickle cells both least likely to survive to produce children;
Heterozygous individuals do not get sickle cell disease AND less likely to die from malaria; so can
survive to produce children.
8 (a) Normal tailed cats have only the recessive m allele; so neither parents can pass on the one M needed for
the kitten to have Manx tail.
(b) 1. (Parents are Mm Mm) so gametes are M, m, M, m;
2. Diagram/Punnett square to show cross genotypes: MM, Mm, Mm, mm;
3. Phenotypes: MM (dead), Mm (Manx), mm (normal tail);
4. Numbers: work out the ratios: Manx: normal is 2:1 (NOT a standard 3:1 ratio!);
so if five live kittens, {3.3333/3} would be Manx, {1.6666/2} would be normal tail.
(c) A high frequency of the dominant allele M;
Brought about by individuals selecting tailless cats for breeding;
Isolation, so no new alleles brought in across from mainland.
(d) 1. Hardy-Weinberg equation is valid as long as all genotypes are successful;
2. Since MM results in the embryo dying, not all genotypes are represented in the offspring;
3. Matings clearly have not been random over time;
4. Gene pool may not be large enough for valid results.
Biology
TOPIC 9 Control systems
9.1 Chemical control in mammals and plants

9.1.1 Principles of homeostasis
1 Homeostasis is the maintenance of the internal conditions of the body within a narrow range in a dynamic
equilibrium, through the responses of the body to internal and external stimuli. It is important because all of the
biochemical reactions that take place to maintain an organism have very specific requirements of temperature,
pH, oxygen levels and required reactants. They are affected by toxins. The proteins that act as enzymes
catalysing many of the cellular reactions are denatured or inactivated if the temperature or pH varies beyond a
narrow range, for example. So homeostasis, the process that maintains this ideal range, is vital for life.
2 Conditions inside the body are not steady. They are constantly changing with everything an organism does.
Homeostasis aims to ensure that conditions vary within narrow ranges and is monitored by receptors in feedback
systems that make sure conditions are constantly restored to the optimum. So a dynamic equilibrium is a much
more accurate representation of what is happening than a steady internal state.
3 Negative feedback systems work to maintain conditions, such as concentration or pH, within a narrow range. A
change is monitored and changes put in place to restore conditions to their starting point. So negative feedback
systems are ideal for maintaining homeostasis. Positive feedback systems enhance change, making the change
bigger and bigger in one direction only, so they have limited use in homeostasis.
9.1.2 Hormone production in mammals

1 Hormones are organic chemicals produced in one place in the body, then transported to another where they have
an effect on another tissue or organ. In mammals they are produced in endocrine glands and released into the
blood or body fluid. They are carried through the transport system to parts of the body where they bring about
changes, which may be widespread or highly targeted. Mammalian hormones are usually either proteins or
peptides (for example, adrenaline, insulin, antidiuretic hormone), or steroids (for example, the sex hormones
oestrogen and testosterone).
2 (a) No ducts as release hormones directly into the blood stream, rich blood supply as release hormones
directly into blood stream, could suggest cells with many mitochondria to produce ATP for hormone
synthesis or other point using information from earlier in the course on secretory cells.
(b) Exocrine glands secrete through ducts, endocrine glands secrete directly into blood stream.
9.1.3 Modes of hormone action

1 Nervous stimulation: very fast, direct response to situation, rapid release of hormone, on or off response.
Chemical stimulation: slightly slower, involves negative feedback loop, responds to different things, gives very
sensitive control that can be constantly adjusted.
2 Protein and peptide hormones are not lipid soluble so they cannot enter a cell directly. The molecule binds to a
receptor in the cell membrane, triggering a series of membrane-bound reactions that result in the formation of a
second chemical messenger inside the cell. The second messenger, for example cyclic AMP, then activates a
number of different enzymes within the cell, altering the metabolism. The second messenger can activate a
number of different responses in the cell, which include increased cellular respiration, increased contraction of
muscle cells and relaxation of smooth muscle in blood vessels.
3 Steroid hormones enter the cell itself as they can pass through the membrane. Inside the cell they bind to a
specific receptor molecule and it is this hormone–receptor complex that passes through the pores of the nuclear
membrane into the nucleus. It is the hormone–receptor complex, not the hormone alone, that acts as a
transcription factor, regulating gene expression.
Biology
9.1.4 Chemical control systems in plants

1 Light: needed for photosynthesis, important that shoots and leaves move towards it. Roots need to be in the soil
so response away from light helps make sure they grow in the right direction. Respond to direction, intensity and
length of exposure.
Gravity: growth movements of plant parts towards or away from the pull of gravity. Roots grow towards gravity,
shoots away. This helps to orientate the young plant as the seed germinates below ground – shoots grow up,
roots down, whichever way up the seed is planted.
Chemicals: plant roots will grow towards some chemicals and away from others.
Water: roots grow towards water – moves them into right direction in the soil.
Temperature – some plants or parts of plants respond to changes in temperature. In some cases there is a positive
movement towards lower temperature – for example, many roots – and sometimes parts of the plant respond to
protect the cells and tissues – for example, rhododendron leaves curl in the cold. Important in order to help roots
grow in the right direction and also to protect plant tissues from cold.
Touch – thigmotropism, plants grow around things in response to touch – for example, runner beans curving up
canes, etc.
2 Plants respond to stimuli by growth. They need to respond to light levels, direction, etc. throughout life so it is
important that they can continue to grow. Animals respond largely by muscle contractions, etc. in response to
nerves so they can continue to respond when growth has stopped.
3
Hormones How they work Synergistic or antagonistic
interactions
Auxins Growth stimulators effective in low Works synergistically with gibberellins
concentrations. Produced in young and cytokinins in growth.
shoots and move down plant from Antagonistic with cytokinins in apical
shoots to roots. Affect ability of plant cell dominance.
walls to stretch, involving active
pumping of hydrogen ions to provide the
optimum pH for enzymes that break the
bonds between cellulose microfibrils so
that they slide past each other.
Involved in tropisms and apical
dominance.
Gibberellins Growth stimulators and involved in Synergistic with auxins in stems to
breaking seed dormancy. Stimulate promote growth.
growth of the internodes. In seeds,
stimulate the production of amylase
enzymes to break down the starch
stores for respiration in germination.
Cytokinins Growth regulators that work by Synergistic with auxins as growth
promoting cell division in the apical regulators.
meristems and the cambium. Involved Antagonistic with auxin to maintain
in the fall of leaves, fruits and flowers. apical dominance.
Synergistic with ethene in the
abscission of fruits, leaves and flowers.
Abscisic acid Inhibits growth by inhibiting cell division
in stems and roots. Promotes dormancy
in seeds and buds. Inhibits the actions
of auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins.
Involved in gene-switching in plant cells
to make chemicals to protect against
freezing.
Ethene Gaseous hormone that promotes fruit
ripening and the fall of ripe fruits from
stems and leaves.
Biology

9.1.5 Phytochrome and flowering
1 (a) A blue-green plant pigment that is sensitive to different wavelengths of red light and that is involved in
the control of flowering. Phytochromes exist in two interconvertible forms: Pr or P660 absorbs red light; Pfr
or P730 absorbs far red light. When one form of the pigment absorbs light, it is converted reversibly into
the other form.
(b) The balance between the two forms of phytochrome is affected by varying periods of light and dark, and
the phytochrome balance in turn affects the plant metabolism, including flowering patterns. Sunlight
contains more red light than far red light, so in daylight most of the phytochrome is in the far red form,
Pfr. If the night period is long enough, it is all converted back into the red form, Pr. In some cases
phytochromes have a stimulating effect on plants, in others an inhibitory effect. The current hypothesis is
that, in short-day plants, the biologically active molecule Pfr inhibits flowering and a lack of Pfr allows
flowering to occur. During long periods of darkness, the levels of Pfr fall as it is almost all converted to Pr.
This allows flowering to take place.
In long-day plants it appears that high levels of Pfr stimulate flowering. The nights are short so relatively
little Pfr is converted back to Pr. As a result relatively high Pfr levels are maintained all the time,
stimulating flowering.
2 Suggests chemical message produced in leaf exposed to periods of light and dark which travels to the flowering
apical meristem.
If it is a chemical message, takes time to be synthesised and to travel through plant from leaf to buds – so if leaf
removed immediately no time for message to be made and moved.
Suggests chemical message moves from one plant to another to stimulate flowering in both.
Chemical from leaf exposed to light and dark moves out into tissues of host plant – again suggests chemical
message.
3 Can be done in various ways – look for evidence that students have followed the main points of the process and
demonstrate that they understand the interaction of phytochromes and the theoretical compound florigen (using
FTmRNA).
9.1.6 Phytochrome and photomorphogenesis

1 Different students will approach this differently – look for the key elements of the theory and an understanding
of how the different elements interact.
2
Part of plant affected Effect of red light (light, Effect of far red light (dark,
build-up of Pfr) build-up of Pr)
Seed Stimulates germination. Inhibits germination.
Stem Elongation inhibited by red light. Elongation stimulated by far red
light.
Exposure to far red light gives
the same effect as etiolation.
Leaf Expansion is stimulated by red Expansion is inhibited by far red
light. light.
Chlorophyll formation stimulated. Chlorophyll formation inhibited.
Lateral roots Growth of lateral roots is Growth of lateral roots is
inhibited. stimulated.
Flowering In SDPs red light inhibits In SDPs far red light promotes
flowering. flowering.
In LDPs red light stimulates In LDPs far red light inhibits
flowering. flowering.
Biology

1 A
2 C
3 D
4
Effect Auxins Gibberellins
Promote cell elongation ✓ ✓
Promote root formation ✓ ✗
in cuttings and calluses
Promote fruit ripening ✗ ✓
Inhibit lateral bud ✓ ✗
development
Promote the breaking of ✗ ✓
dormancy in seeds
5 (a) Oestrogen/progesterone/testosterone/cortisol/cortisone.
(b) (Phospho)lipids in membrane;
Steroids are lipid-soluble/peptides are not lipid-soluble.
(c) Presence of hormone stimulates production of mRNA;
One mRNA molecule can be used to produce many protein molecules;
Proteins may be enzymes;
Small amount of enzyme can catalyse many reactions/cascade effect.
(d) Accept converse points
Takes time for steroid hormone to diffuse into cell/react with cytoplasmic receptor/receptor to bind with
DNA;
Takes time for transcription/production of mRNA/translation/production of protein/enzymes from
mRNA;
mRNA molecules remain in cytoplasm for long period of time/protein synthesis may continue for long
period of time/adrenaline degrades quicker than steroids.
6 (a) (i) Between 7 and 8 hours / 8 hours.
(ii) 1. Idea of not enough time (in the dark);
2. Idea that Pfr/active phytochrome levels remain too high;
3. Reference to threshold, for example, once Pfr below a certain level (flowering happens);
4. Flowering stimulated (by fall in Pfr).
(b) 1. Reference to control;
2. Idea of comparison, for example, to show that flowering would not happen (without the cover).
(c) 1. Six hours is too short (to cause flowering in plant E);
2. Eight hours is long enough/causes flowering;
3. Idea of enough stimulus if part of the plant is in the dark for 8 hours/long time/enough time;
4. Leaf is (photo)receptor;
5. Phytochrome/Pfr/Pr in leaves;
6. Signal must be passed to growing points/site of flower production from leaves.
(d) 1. Idea of flowering/development happens at the right time;
2. Therefore flowers when insects available/leaf fall in autumn/same species flower at the same
time/seeds germinate at the right time;
3. Idea that day length changes to a set pattern, for example, always short days in winter/long days in
summer;
4. Comparison with other less regular stimuli, for example, temperature.
Biology
9.2 The mammalian nervous system

9.2.1 Nervous systems and neurones
1 Nerve fibre is the axon or dendron of an individual nerve cell (neurone). Each individual nerve fibre will either
carry impulses to (sensory) or from (motor) the brain but not both.
Nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres – may be all sensory, all motor or a combination, so a nerve may carry both
motor and sensory impulses.
2 Nerve cell in CNS with dendrites to synapse with and receive input from other nerve cells, fibre long to reach
tissues, myelinated to increase speed of transmission, synapses on effector to pass on impulse – any other valid
points.
3 In invertebrates speed of transmission of a nerve impulse is directly related to diameter of nerve fibre and there is
a limit to how big a nerve fibre can grow. Most vertebrate neurones are associated with Schwann cells and the
Schwann cell membrane wraps itself repeatedly around the nerve fibre forming a fatty layer known as the myelin
sheath. There are gaps between the Schwann cells known as the nodes of Ranvier. The impulse jumps from node to
node so transmission is much faster. Therefore, vertebrate nerves that need to carry impulses fast are myelinated,
with relatively small diameters – and those that are not myelinated do not need to carry impulses very fast so they can
have small diameters.
4 Squid giant axons are large so they carry impulses relatively quickly to give an escape mechanism. This means
that they are easy to find and access, and easy to insert micropipettes into. Squids are invertebrates so fewer
ethical issues with using them in experimentation of this type.
9.2.2 How the nervous system works

1 The membrane of an axon is partially permeable. At rest, the axon membrane is relatively impermeable to
sodium ions, but quite freely permeable to potassium ions. It also contains a very active sodium/potassium pump
which uses ATP to move sodium ions out of the axon and potassium ions in. The effect of this is to lower the
concentration of sodium ions inside the axon – they are pumped out and cannot diffuse back in again. At the
same time, potassium ions are moved in – but they then diffuse out again along a concentration gradient through
open potassium ion channels. Eventually, the movement of positively charged potassium ions out of the cell
along the concentration gradient is opposed by the electrochemical gradient. As a result, the inside of the cell is
left slightly negative relative to the outside – it is polarised. This gives a potential difference across the
membrane of around −70 mV, which is known as the resting potential.
2 (a) When a neurone is stimulated, the axon membrane shows a sudden and dramatic increase in its
permeability to sodium ions. Specific sodium channels, or sodium gates, open up, allowing sodium ions
to diffuse rapidly down their concentration and electrochemical gradients. As a result, the potential
difference across the membrane is briefly reversed, with the cell becoming positive on the inside with
respect to the outside. This depolarisation lasts about 1 millisecond. The potential difference across the
membrane at this point is about +40 mV. This is known as the action potential.
At the end of this brief depolarisation, the sodium channels close again and the excess sodium ions are
rapidly pumped out by the sodium pump. This active transport system uses up ATP. Also, the
permeability of the membrane to potassium ions is temporarily increased as voltage-dependent potassium
ion channels open as a result of the depolarisation. As a result, potassium ions diffuse out of the axon
down their concentration gradient and electrochemical gradient, attracted by the negative charge on the
outside of the membrane. As the positive sodium and potassium ions leave the cell, the inside becomes
negative relative to the outside once again. It takes a few milliseconds before the resting potential is
restored and the axon is ready to carry another impulse.
(b) The events of the action potential can be recorded clearly using an internal/external electrode
combination. A very fine glass microelectrode is inserted into an axon. Another electrode records the
electrical potential from the outside. The results are shown on an oscilloscope. The oscilloscope trace is
often referred to as the ‘spike’ because of its shape.
3 The graph shows the effect of the metabolic poison dinitrophenol (DNP) on the movement of sodium out of a
cuttlefish axon. It is known that DNP prevents the production of ATP and the graph shows it also prevents the axon
from functioning properly. When an axon is treated with DNP, no more ATP can be made. The sodium pump stops
working as ATP is used up and the resting potential is lost at the same rate as the concentration of ATP decreases.
This suggests that the ATP is being used to power the sodium pump – when it runs out, the pump no longer works.
As the DNP is washed away the metabolism returns to normal and ATP production begins again. The resting
potential is restored, suggesting that the sodium pump has started up again with the return of ATP.
Biology

9.2.3 The neurones in action
1 Once an action potential is set up as a response to a stimulus, it will travel the entire length of that nerve fibre,
which may be many centimetres or even metres long. The movement of the nerve impulse along the fibre is the
result of local currents set up by the ion movements at the action potential itself. They occur both in front of and
behind the action potential. They depolarise the membrane in front of the action potential sufficiently to cause
the sodium gates to open and so the impulse is transmitted. The sodium channels behind the action potential
cannot open due to the refractory period of the membrane behind the spike. In an unmyelinated nerve fibre these
events occur all along the membrane, which although each event takes only milliseconds, adds up as it travels
along a fibre which may be a metre or more long.
In myelinated neurones, the situation is more complex. Ions can only pass in and out of the axon freely at the
nodes of Ranvier, which are about 1 mm apart. This means that action potentials can only occur at the nodes and
so they appear to jump from one to the next. The effect of this is to speed up transmission as the ionic
movements associated with the action potential occur much less frequently, taking less time.
2 Involved in making the neurotransmitter substances in the presynaptic knobs.
Involved in the production of vesicles.
Involved in the breakdown of neurotransmitters on the post-synaptic membrane so stimulation of the PSP ends.
Involved in the production of ATP to power the various ion pumps and the synthesis and breakdown of
neurotransmitters.
3 (a) Arrival of an impulse at the synaptic knob increases the permeability of the presynaptic membrane to
calcium ions as calcium ion channels open up → calcium ions move into synaptic knob down
concentration gradient → cause the synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine to move to the presynaptic
membrane → vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane → release acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft
→ acetylcholine diffuses across the gap → attached to specific protein receptor sites on the sodium
channels of the post-synaptic membrane → sodium ion channels in the membrane open → sodium ions
move into the nerve fibre, causing a change in the potential difference across the membrane →
EPSP/IPSP set up → acetylcholine destroyed by acetylcholinesterase embedded in post-synaptic
membrane → components diffuse back across cleft into presynaptic knob → resynthesised into
acetylcholine in vesicles.
(b) Arrival of an impulse at the synaptic knob increases the permeability of the presynaptic membrane to
calcium ions as calcium ion channels open up → calcium ions move into synaptic knob down
concentration gradient → cause the synaptic vesicles containing noradrenaline to move to the presynaptic
membrane → vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane → release noradrenaline into the synaptic
cleft → noradrenaline diffuses across the gap → attached to specific protein receptor sites on the sodium
channels of the post-synaptic membrane → sodium ion channels in the membrane open → sodium ions
move into the nerve fibre, causing a change in the potential difference across the membrane →
EPSP/IPSP set up → noradrenaline leaves receptors and moves back into synaptic cleft → diffuses back
into the presynaptic knob where it is repackaged in vesicles again.
4 (a) EPSP – the potential difference across the post-synaptic membrane caused by an influx of sodium ions
into the nerve fibre. This is the result of the arrival of a molecule of neurotransmitter on the receptors of
the post-synaptic membrane that makes the inside more positive than the normal resting potential. If there
are enough EPSPs, the positive charge in the post-synaptic cell exceeds the threshold level and an action
potential is set up, which then travels on along the post-synaptic neurone.
IPSP – the potential difference across the post-synaptic membrane caused by an influx of negative ions as
the result of the arrival of a molecule of neurotransmitter on the receptors of the post-synaptic membrane,
which makes the inside more negative than the normal resting potential. This makes it less likely that an
action potential will be triggered in the post-synaptic cell.
(b) Each individual impulse is an all-or-nothing event. EPSPs and IPSPs allow summation of effect and
greatly increased sensitivity and flexibility in the response of the nervous system.
Biology
9.2.4 The effect of drugs on the nervous system

1 The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid.
Electron micrographs: show the presence of vesicles in the synaptic knob of the presynaptic neurone before an
action potential; after repeated action potentials these vesicles are no longer visible, implying that they have
released their contents as a result of stimulation. Also shows large numbers of mitochondria which supply the
energy for the synthesis of the neurotransmitters, etc.
Botulinus toxin: blocks the release of acetylcholine; shows that acetylcholine from the presynaptic membrane is
needed for the transmission of an action potential across a synapse.
Strychnine: prevents action of enzyme acetylcholinesterase, showing that acetylcholine causes the setting up of
action potentials in post-synaptic neurones, because preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine causes the
neurones to respond continuously.
2
Main effects of drugs on nervous system
Increase the amount of neurotransmitter synthesised.
Block the synthesis of neurotransmitter.
Increase the release of neurotransmitter from the vesicles at the presynaptic membrane.
Cause neurotransmitter to leak from vesicles and be destroyed by enzymes.
Bind to post-synaptic receptors and activate them or increase the effect of the normal
neurotransmitter, for example, nicotine.
Prevent the release of neurotransmitter from vesicles.
Prevent the degradation of neurotransmitter by enzymes or prevent reuptake into
presynaptic knob.
Block the receptors and prevent neurotransmitter binding, for example, lidocaine.
Block voltage-gated sodium channels preventing action potentials, for example, cobra
venom.
3 (a) Patient discomfort from 9 − 2 so 7 point reduction 7/9 × 100 = 78%.
Ease for doctors 3 − 1 so 2 point reduction 2/3 × 100 = 67%.
(b) 1.5 mins with lidocaine and 4.5 mins without.
(c) 10% failed with lidocaine, 85% failed without.
(d) Lidocaine molecules block the voltage-gated sodium channels in post-synaptic membranes, preventing
the production of an action potential in sensory nerves and so preventing you from feeling pain. If
patients cannot feel pain they will be much more relaxed and stay still. Doctor will be less worried about
hurting patient – combination means procedure becomes much easier for both.
9.2.5 Sensory systems and the detection of light

1 (a) Receptor cells have a resting potential which is dependent on the maintenance of a negative interior by
membrane sodium pumps. When a receptor cell receives a stimulus, sodium ions move rapidly across the
cell membrane along concentration and electrochemical gradients and this generator current sets up a
generator potential. A small stimulus results in a small generator potential and a large stimulus results in a
large generator potential – generator potentials do not obey the all-or-nothing law. If the generator
potential produced is large enough to reach the threshold of the receptor neurone, an action potential will
result in that neurone. If it is not, there will be no action potential – the action potential does obey the all-
or-nothing law.
stimulus → local change in permeability → generator current → generator potential → action potential
is common in one form or another to most sensory receptors.
(b) In convergence, several receptor cells will often synapse with a single receptor neurone. This means that
even if the generator potential from an individual receptor cell is insufficient to set up an impulse, the
potentials from several may add together or summate and trigger an action potential. This increases the
sensitivity of a sensory system to low level stimuli. This is an important feature of the retina cells, the
light-sensitive cells of the eye.
Biology
2 (a) Rhodopsin.
Rhodopsin is formed from two components, opsin and retinal. Opsin is a combination of lipid and
protein (a lipoprotein) and retinal is a light-absorbing derivative of vitamin A. Retinal exists in two
different isomers, cis-retinal and trans-retinal. In the dark, it is all in the cis-form. When a photon of light
(the smallest unit of light energy) hits a molecule of rhodopsin, it converts the cis-retinal into trans-
retinal. This changes the shape of the retinal and puts a strain on the bonding between the opsin and
retinal. As a result, the rhodopsin breaks up into opsin and retinal. This breaking up of the molecule is
referred to as bleaching.
(b) The bleaching of the rhodopsin changes the permeability of the cell membrane of the rod to sodium ions
(Na+). The membranes of most neurones are relatively impermeable to sodium ions, but rod cell
membranes are normally very permeable to Na+. Sodium ions move into the rod cell through sodium
(cation) channels and the sodium pump moves them out again.
When rhodopsin is bleached by light trans-retinal is formed. This triggers a cascade reaction which
results in the closing of the sodium channels. The rod cell membrane becomes much less permeable to
sodium ions and so there are fewer sodium ions in the rod cell. However, the sodium pump continues to
work at the same rate, pumping Na+ out of the cell, so the interior becomes more negative than usual.
This hyperpolarisation is what is known as the generator potential in the rod. The size of the generator
potential depends on the amount of light hitting the rod and so the amount of rhodopsin-bleaching that
takes place. If it is large enough to reach the threshold, or if several rods are stimulated at once,
neurotransmitter substances are released into the synapse with the bipolar cell. An action potential is then
set up in the bipolar cell which passes across the synapse to cause an action potential in the sensory
neurone. All the sensory neurones leave the eye at the same point to form the optic nerve leading to the
brain. In the visual areas of the brain this visual information is converted into an awareness of the image.
3 Each cone has an individual neurone going into the optic nerve – so each cone that is stimulated sends an
impulse to the brain, giving great visual acuity, but only in bright light.
Several rods feed into one neurone going into the optic nerve. So this neurone only fires when several rods are
stimulated. This gives a less clear image, but greater sensitivity to low light levels.
4 (a) Several rods synapse with a single bipolar cell, so there is summation of the generator potentials which
means low light levels that would not result in an action potential in the bipolar cell from a single rod can
give an action potential from the summation of generator potentials from several rods. Each cone
synapses with a single bipolar cell so it is less likely to trigger an action potential in dim light.
In addition, iodopsin, the light-sensitive pigment in cones, needs to be hit with more light energy to be
bleached than rhodopsin in the rods – so again, the rods will respond to dimmer light.
(b) Convergence – several rods synapse on a single bipolar cell – means that subtle changes in light level as
something moves are detected by rods although not necessarily clearly. Cones need much bigger light
differences and no convergence so less likely to pick up movement – also peripherally there are no cones.
(c) Cones respond only to bright light and each individual cone synapses onto a single bipolar cell. As a
result any image is clear and crisp.
Biology
9.2.6 The CNS – coordinating the body

1 Cerebral hemispheres associated with higher brain functions – seeing, thinking, learning and emotions, for
example. Folding of the cerebral hemispheres increases the surface area of these regions of the brain. It is
thought that greater folding, and thus greater surface area, is associated with greater intelligence, more complex
emotions and ability to learn, etc. Humans have greater abilities than other primates – and more folding. It is not
just surface area that counts – the volume of tissue is important too, which is a function not just of folding, but of
thickness. So dolphins have a big surface area, but less volume because the tissue layer is thinner. They are very
intelligent, but it is thought that their development does not rival humans.
2 The answer should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid.
Brain area Function
Cerebral hemispheres Vision, sight, thinking, learning, emotions
Frontal lobe Emotional responses, planning, reasoning, decision-making. Primary motor
cortex controls many movements
Temporal lobe Sound recognition, hearing, speech, many memory functions
Occipital lobe Vision, shape recognition, colour vision, sense of perspective
Cerebellum Coordinates smooth movements, maintains posture and balance
Hypothalamus Coordinates autonomic nervous system, including thermoregulation, and
controls many basic drives, for example, thirst, hunger, aggression,
reproductive behaviour
Medulla oblongata Controls reflex centres for heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, coughing,
sneezing, swallowing, saliva production, peristalsis
3 The frontal lobe of the cerebrum contains the primary motor cortex of the brain, which is involved in the control
of many of the body movements. The control comes via motor neurones that pass through the hindbrain and the
spinal cord, carrying impulses to the muscles. If this area is damaged a person is likely to lose conscious control
over their movements. The cerebellum coordinates smooth movements. It uses information from the muscles and
the ears to control balance and maintain posture. If the cerebellum is damaged you are likely to lose your
balance, and your walking and movements will become more jerky and less coordinated.
4 (a) The brain is a combination of grey matter, made up of neurone cell bodies, and white matter, consisting of
nerve fibres. There are areas of the human brain with very specific functions concerned with the major
senses and control of basic bodily functions. There are also many regions of the brain where we do not
yet clearly understand the precise functions and interrelationships with other areas of the brain. Scientists
have estimated that there are around a hundred thousand million neurones working together in the human
brain and that each neurone synapses with up to 10 000 other neurones. The brain contains centres or
nuclei made up of cell bodies that make intercommunication between millions of cells possible. The great
nerve tracts from the spinal cord cross over as they enter and leave the brain, so that the left-hand side of
the brain receives information from and controls the right-hand side of the body and vice versa.
The spinal cord is a tube made up of a core of grey matter surrounded by white matter which runs out
from the base of the brain (the medulla oblongata) through the vertebrae. It is approximately 43–45 cm
long. Impulses from sensory receptors travel along sensory nerve fibres into the spinal cord, through the
dorsal roots, and then travel in sensory fibres up the cord to the brain. Instructions from the brain travel as
impulses down motor fibres in the spinal cord and out in motor neurones through the ventral roots to the
effector organs. The spinal cord acts as a coordination centre for reflex reactions that take place without
conscious thought.
(b) Stimulus received by sensory receptors in skin of foot → action potential travels along sensory neurone
into spinal cord → synapse with relay neurone in grey matter → synapse with motor neurone in grey
matter → action potential in motor neurone leaves spinal cord → reaches motor end plate in muscle →
stimulates contraction of muscle that withdraws foot from stone.
Biology
9.2.7 The peripheral nervous system

1 Many continuous and/or basic functions of the body, such as control of the heart and breathing rates, the control
of gut function, etc., can take place without conscious thought, leaving the conscious areas of the brain free to
make decisions, judgements, etc. Voluntary nervous system gives conscious control and can often override the
autonomic system if necessary.
2 (a) Parasympathetic nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system. The neurones have long pre-
ganglionic fibres and short post-ganglionic fibres, and the ganglions are close to the effector organs. The
neurotransmitter is usually acetylcholine. The parasympathetic nervous system slows things down as a
general rule.
Sympathetic nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system. The neurones have short pre-
ganglionic fibres and long post-ganglionic fibres, and the ganglions are close to the CNS. The
neurotransmitter is usually noradrenaline. The sympathetic nervous system speeds up responses as a
general rule.
(b) In some of their responses they can be seen as having the opposite effects – sympathetic ‘fight-or-flight’,
parasympathetic ‘rest and digest’. However, this is an oversimplification – for some functions there is no
antagonistic action – for example, sympathetic stimulates secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline,
parasympathetic has no effect; parasympathetic stimulates secretion of bile, sympathetic has no effect,
etc. Also they usually work cooperatively, with interplay between the two systems to maintain body
functions at an ideal level.

1 B
2 A
3 (a) B medulla (oblongata);
C cerebellum.
(b) 1. To receive sensory input;
2. Idea of interpretation/coordination (of information);
3. Initiates/transmits impulses to effector;
4. Idea of control of voluntary action;
5. Reference to thought/learning/intelligence/memory;
6. Reference to speech;
7. Reference to personality/emotion.
4 (a) 1. Reference to influx of calcium ions (into presynaptic knob);
2. Vesicles move to presynaptic membrane;
3. Fuse with presynaptic membrane;
4. (Acetylcholine released) by exocytosis.
(b) (i) Value between 0.85 and 1.95 (ms).
(ii) 3.0 ± 0.05 (ms).
(iii) 1. Correct reading from graph of duration of one action potential;
2. 1000/reading from graph.
(c) 1. Idea that the inside of the (post-synaptic) membrane is becoming more negative/hyperpolarised;
2. Therefore more Na+ channels must open/more Na+ must enter;
3. To reach threshold level.
Biology
5 (a) 1. Both increase (conduction) velocity with (axon) diameter increase;

2. Velocity increase greater in myelinated neurones than in non-myelinated neurones/converse; increase
in diameter has a greater effect on velocity in myelinated neurones;
3. At 1.05 μm both have same velocity;
4. Above 1.05 μm (diameter) myelinated faster conduction/converse (up to 1.05 myelinated slower
conduction);
5. Idea that myelinated has linear relationship, but non-myelinated is partly non-linear;
6. Comparative manipulated figures.
(b) 1. Insulates (electrically) the axon;
2. Reference to nodes of Ranvier;
3. Depolarisation/action potential at nodes of Ranvier/converse;
4. Impulse jumps from node to node;
5. Reference to saltatory conduction.
(c) (i) 1. Correct division, i.e. 25/3.4;
2. Correct answer = 7.35/7.4 (ms).
(ii) 1.7–1.75 (μm).
(d) 1. (Toxin) binds to/competes for/blocks receptors (on post-synaptic membrane)/stops
acetylcholine/neurotransmitter/cannot bind to receptors/acetylcholinesterase;
2. Reference to Na+ gates not opening;
3. Depolarisation does not occur/description of depolarisation not occurring/reference to threshold level
not reached.
6 (a) (i) 1. Recognisable as synapse;
2. Two correct pairs of labels.
(ii) Mitochondria:
1. Release energy/produce ATP/through aerobic respiration/oxidative phosphorylation;
2. Energy used in active transport/synthesis of transmitter substance/movement of vesicles.
Synaptic vesicles:
1. Contain transmitter/named transmitter;
2. Fuse with presynaptic membrane/releases transmitter (into synapse).
(b) 1. Into blood stream;
2. Through skin/alveoli/nose/mouth;
3. (Carried) in the plasma;
4. Correct reference to diffusion of nicotine;
5. (Diffusion from blood) into tissue fluid;
6. Nicotine mimics acetylcholine;
7. Binds to receptors;
8. On post-synaptic membrane;
9. It causes the release of adrenaline in some synapses.
7 (a) Outer segment labelled R/rhodopsin.
(b) 1. Rhodopsin is bleached/broken down/split (in bright light);
2. (Re-)synthesised in dark/dim light;
3. This takes time;
4. Reference to dark adaptation.
Biology
9.3 Homeostasis
9.3.1 Control of the heart rate in mammals
1 Normal blood pressure → exercise raises blood pressure → baroreceptors in carotid arteries detect rise in blood
pressure → baroreceptors send nerve impulses to cardiovascular centre in brain → cardiovascular centre sends
nerve impulses to heart and blood vessels → heart rate slows and blood vessels dilate → blood pressure falls
back to normal.
2 Cardiac output graph:
3 (a) Exercise graphs:
Biology

(b) When the body is at rest or carrying on normal activities, the skeletal muscles need a given amount of
blood to supply the oxygen needed to work against gravity and move around. However, far more of the
blood needs to go to the liver, which deals with the products of digestion, detoxifying urea, etc., and the
kidneys, which are filtering the blood and removing excess water, salt, all urea, etc. Relatively small
blood flow to the skin to maintain temperature, brain has large blood flow for size as it has coordination
of the body and thinking at all times.
During exercise, the needs of the body change completely and the blood supply is shifted. The flow to the
gut, liver, kidneys is much reduced as these activities are less immediately important. Blood supply to the
muscles is almost doubled to provide the food and oxygen for vigorous contraction. Blood flow to the
heart increases enormously to pump the blood to the muscles, etc. faster, in order to supply the food and
oxygen needed, and blood flow through lungs doubles to get more oxygen into the body. Blood flow to
the skin also increases greatly to keep the body cool, while the brain gets a little more blood to deal with
potential dangers, increased alertness, etc.
4 Nervous control: involuntary – sympathetic speeds up heart rate, parasympathetic slows it down. Nerves come
from cardiovascular centre. Impulses from these nerves affect the SAN and so change the rhythm of the heart in
line with the demands of the body.
Cardiovascular centre in brain affected by input from stretch receptors in heart which are affected by volume of
blood returning to heart as exercise starts or stops, and by input from baroreceptors which measure blood
pressure in the arteries in the neck, which is particularly important as exercise ends. Carbon dioxide sensors, etc.
also impact on heart rate through the cardiovascular centre.
Voluntary – nerves from conscious parts of the brain can also be used to stimulate or inhibit the SAN.
Hormonal: adrenaline stimulates the SAN, speeding up the excitation rate of the heart so that it beats faster and
more strongly to prepare for flight or fight.
9.3.2 Osmoregulation in mammals – the kidney

1 Osmoregulation is the maintenance of a relatively constant osmotic potential in the tissues of a living organism
by controlling the water and salt concentrations.
It is important because if the concentration of water and solutes inside and outside of a cell is not balanced, water
may enter the cells by osmosis, causing the cells to swell and burst, or leave the cells by osmosis so that the
cytoplasm becomes shrunken, concentrated and unable to function.
2 The liver has many homeostatic functions. One is to convert the ammonia produced by the breakdown of excess
amino acids into less toxic urea. This urea is then excreted in the urine by the kidneys, which are the key organs
of osmoregulation.
3 Main points of answer should include:
• High blood pressure develops in the glomerular capillaries because the diameter of the blood vessel
coming into the glomerulus is greater than that of blood vessel leaving.
• High pressure squeezes the blood out through the capillary wall through pores that allow almost all of the
plasma contents through apart from the blood cells and the largest plasma proteins.
• Podocyte cells of the Bowman’s capsule act as an additional filter.
• Filtrate in capsule contains glucose, salt, urea and many other substances in the same concentrations as
they are in the blood plasma.
• Process of selective reabsorption begins – returns over 80% of the glomerular filtrate to the blood in the
first or proximal convoluted tubule, including all the glucose, amino acids, vitamins and all but some very
small hormones along with about 85% of the sodium chloride and water.
• Sodium ions are actively transported out of the proximal tubule, and the chloride ions and water follow
passively down concentration gradients.
• Once the substances are in intracellular spaces, they pass by diffusion into the extensive capillary network
surrounding the tubules.
• The fluid that enters the loop of Henle is isotonic with the tissue fluid that surrounds the tubule and the
blood.
Biology

• The descending limb of the loop of Henle is freely permeable to water, but is not permeable to sodium
and chloride ions.
• As the fluid travels down the descending limb deeper into the medulla, the external concentration of
sodium and chloride ions in the tissue fluid of the medulla and the blood in the vasa recta increases as a
result of the events in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
• As a result, water moves out of the descending limb into the tissue fluid by osmosis down a concentration
gradient and on into the blood of the vasa recta, again down a concentration gradient.
• The fluid at the hairpin bend at the bottom of the loop of Henle is very concentrated and hypertonic to the
arterial blood.
• The fluid then moves up the ascending limb where the first section is very permeable to sodium and
chloride ions, but not permeable to water.
• Sodium and chloride ions move out of the very concentrated fluid in the loop of Henle down
concentration gradients into the tissue fluid of the medulla.
• The second, thicker section of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle is also impermeable to water, but
sodium and chloride ions are actively pumped out of the tubule into the tissue fluid of the medulla and the
blood of the vasa recta. This gives the tissues of the medulla the very high sodium and chloride ion
concentration that causes the water to pass out of the descending limb by osmosis.
• As the ascending limb of the loop of Henle is impermeable to water, water cannot follow the chloride and
sodium ions out down the concentration gradient so the fluid becomes less concentrated.
• When the fluid leaves the loop of Henle it enters the distal convoluted tubule. This is permeable to water
but the permeability depends on levels of antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
• If levels of salt in the body are low, sodium may be actively pumped out of the distal tubule with chloride
ions following.
• Water leaves by osmosis if the walls of the tubule are permeable but stays in the tubule if they are not.
• The fluid passes into the collecting duct and water moves out down a concentration gradient as it passes
through the medulla, with its high levels of sodium and chloride ions, so the urine becomes steadily more
concentrated.
• Water may move out of the collecting duct by osmosis all the way along, so very hypertonic urine can be
made to conserve water for the cells of the body.
• The amount of water that moves out of the collecting duct back into the body depends on the permeability
of the collecting duct to water and this is strongly affected by ADH.
• The urine produced is collected first in the pelvis of the kidney and then passes along the ureters to the
bladder.
• Urine is stored in the bladder until it is sufficiently stretched when it passes out of the body along a tube
called the urethra.
Biology
4 Adaptations that help kangaroo rats survive in the desert without drinking include:
• They have a relatively large proportion of juxtamedullary nephrons. These help ensure that large amounts
of water can be reabsorbed as they are the nephrons with the longest loop of Henle.
• The loops of Henle are adapted to produce a very high concentration of ions in the tissue fluid of the
medulla.
• This high concentration of sodium and chloride ions in the tissue fluid of the medulla makes it possible to
produce very highly concentrated urine and so reduces the need to drink.
• Kangaroo rats have very high numbers of infoldings in the cell membranes of the epithelial cells lining
the tubules. This gives a greatly increased surface area for diffusion of inorganic ions and water. This in
turn helps develop the steep concentration gradients needed to make very concentrated urine and reduces
the need to drink.
• The epithelial cells of the nephrons of kangaroo rats contain high numbers of mitochondria. These
mitochondria have densely arranged cristae for maximum cellular respiration. These specialised
mitochondria provide the large quantity of ATP needed for the active pumping of inorganic ions into or
out of the tubules. This active pumping is needed to produce the concentration gradients needed to
produce very concentrated urine, again reducing the need to drink.
9.3.3 Control of the kidney and homeostasis

1 (a) Blood becomes more dilute → detected by osmoreceptors in hypothalamus → no impulses from
hypothalamus to posterior pituitary → ADH release by pituitary gland inhibited → walls of distal
convoluted tubule and collecting duct remain impermeable to water → little or no reabsorption takes
place → large volumes of dilute urine produced → blood water potential returns to normal.
(b) Blood becomes more concentrated → detected by osmoreceptors in hypothalamus → impulses sent to
posterior pituitary → stored ADH released by pituitary gland → permeability of walls of distal
convoluted tubule and collecting duct to water increases → water leaves tubules by osmosis into tissues
of renal medulla and on into capillaries → lots of reabsorption takes place → small volumes of
concentrated urine produced → blood water potential returns to normal.
2 (a) ADH cannot cross the membrane of the tubule cells. It binds to specific receptors, triggering reactions
that result in the formation of cAMP as the second messenger. This triggers the vesicles containing water
channels in the cells lining the tubules to move to, and fuse with, the cell membranes. The water channels
are inserted into the membrane, making it permeable to water so water can move through the channels out
of the tubules and into the surrounding blood capillaries by osmosis.
(b) In diabetes insipidus an individual does not make ADH or their kidneys do not respond to the levels of
ADH they make. The tubules are therefore permanently impermeable to water so the affected person
produces huge volumes of dilute urine, is constantly thirsty and has to drink large volumes to prevent
their tissues dehydrating. Treatment usually involves drugs that mimic ADH so that the distal tubule and
collecting duct become permeable to water and it can be reabsorbed as needed.
Biology
3 ADH affects the kidney tubules and controls the amount of urine formed in response to changes in the body by
affecting the permeability of the walls of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct. In the absence of
ADH the walls are impermeable. ADH triggers the movement of vesicles containing water pores into the cell
membranes so the cells become permeable to water. Water can then move out of the tubule by osmosis as needed
when the blood is becoming too concentrated. The effects of ADH are complemented by the hormone
aldosterone, produced by the cortex of the adrenal glands. Changes in the osmotic concentration of the blood,
and water movements, affect the volume and therefore the pressure of the blood. The release of aldosterone, like
ADH, is ultimately about the osmotic potential of the blood, but aldosterone affects sodium ion concentrations
rather than water movements directly. If sodium ion levels in the blood fall the blood volume will tend to fall, as
less water will move back into the blood under the influence of ADH and so the blood pressure falls. This causes
a slight drop in blood pressure, which is detected by a group of cells in the kidney itself and they produce an
enzyme called rennin. Rennin acts on a protein in the blood to produce the hormone angiotensin and angiotensin
stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal glands. Aldosterone causes the active uptake of sodium
ions from the filtrate in the kidney tubules into the plasma in the capillaries. Water follows by osmosis in the
presence of ADH, which makes the tubules permeable to water. This increases the blood volume and as a result
increases the blood pressure.
In reverse, when sodium levels are high and so is the blood pressure, the situation is reversed. But the movement
of sodium ions and the movement of water that follows, into or out of the tubules, depends on both aldosterone
and ADH.
9.3.4 Thermoregulation
1 Because the chemical reactions that occur in cells only take place within a relatively narrow range of
temperatures before the enzymes that control the reactions are denatured.
2 (a) Endotherms are animals that control their own body temperature in part through metabolic processes and
usually have a body temperature higher than the ambient temperature.
(b) Ectotherms are animals that are largely dependent on the external environment for their body temperature.
3
(a) External temperature drops (b) External temperature rises
● Sensors in hypothalamus pick up fall in blood ● Sensors in hypothalamus pick up rise in blood
temperature temperature
● Heat gain centre in hypothalamus stimulated ● Heat loss centre in hypothalamus stimulated
● Impulses through autonomic nervous system ● Impulses through autonomic nervous system
● Vasoconstriction occurs ● Vasodilation occurs
● Sphincter muscles around arterioles leading to ● Sphincter muscles around arterioles leading to
superficial capillaries contract superficial capillaries are not stimulated to contract
● This constricts the passage into these capillaries and therefore relax
and more blood flows through deeper shunt ● More blood can flow into these capillaries, dilating
vessels them with the pressure; less blood flows through
● Less blood flows close to the body surface deeper shunt vessels
● As most blood is diverted further from the body ● More blood flows close to the body surface
surface, the temperature gradient between the ● As more blood flows close to the body surface, the
body surface and the environment is less steep, so temperature gradient between the body surface
heat loss by conduction and radiation is reduced and the environment becomes steeper, so heat
● Hair erector muscles contract – hairs stand up to loss by conduction and radiation is increased
trap insulating layer of air ● Hair erector muscles relax – hairs lie flat against
● Muscles shiver to warm blood the skin
● Adrenal glands increase adrenaline secretion ● Sweat glands produce more sweat so cooling by
● Body temperature rises evaporation takes place from skin surface
● Sensors detect this, and heat conservation and ● Muscles of ribcage and diaphragm may cause
generation measures are reduced panting
● Body temperature falls
● Sensors detect this and heat loss measures are
reduced
Biology
4 (a) Large surface area-to-volume ratio so large surface area for the transfer of energy to the surroundings,
cooling the body; if little hair, no insulating layer to reduce energy transfer.
(b) Small dens lined by insulating material help to minimise transfer to the environment by insulating the
surroundings; fluffy offspring have a layer of insulating air trapped against the skin to reduce energy
transfers to the environment.
9.3.5 Endotherm adaptations for thermoregulation

1 In a countercurrent heat exchange system blood vessels carrying hot blood from the body run close to blood
vessels bringing in cooler blood from the extremities. The blood runs close together, travelling in opposite
directions. This maximises the warming and cooling effect by maintaining the biggest possible temperature
gradient between the two flows of blood.
This can be used to prevent an animal getting cold in the winter – for example, when ducks stand on ice they
have a countercurrent exchange system in their legs on the way to their feet. The arterial blood is cooled as it
flows to the extremities and the venous blood is warmed as it returns to the body, minimising heat loss to the
environment and any effect on the core body temperature. In endotherms in hot climates the same principle can
be used in a different way – for example, some antelopes have a countercurrent exchange system in their head.
Blood flowing to the brain flows over the nasal passages where energy is cooled as mucus evaporates, cooling
the air coming in. As the blood running towards the brain flows past this air, it transfers energy to the air,
warming it up as it enters the body and cooling the blood as it flows to the brain.
Give credit for a suitable diagram of a countercurrent exchange system and for good examples.
2 Look for good selection of examples and clearly described adaptations in specific named organisms as requested
in the question. Students should NOT use the terms heat loss, heat gain or heat transfers.
Examples of endotherm adaptations for living in hot environments that students might highlight, depending on
the organisms chosen, include:
• anatomical adaptations to increase the surface area : volume ratio so more cooling occurs;
• behavioural adaptations to increase the surface area exposed for cooling;
• sweating to increase cooling by evaporation;
• flattening of hairs/feathers to reduce any insulating effect and increase cooling;
• thin layer of fur only;
• increased blood flow to skin to increase cooling by radiation, convection or conduction;
• behavioural adaptations such as licking, panting, wallowing to increase cooling by evaporation;
• behavioural adaptations such as seeking shade, retreating to cool underground burrow, only feeding at
night, etc.
Examples of endotherm adaptations for living in cold environments that students might highlight, depending on
the organisms chosen, include:
• anatomical adaptations to decrease the surface area, reducing cooling and maintaining the body
temperature;
• behavioural adaptations to reduce the surface area exposed for cooling;
• no sweating to reduce cooling by evaporation;
• erection of hairs/feathers to trap an insulating layer of air and reduce cooling;
• thick fur and/or thick layer of insulating body fat to help reduce cooling and maintain body temperature;
• reduced blood flow to skin to decrease cooling;
• behavioural adaptations such as huddling together, staying in warm burrows, only coming out at warmest
time of day, basking in any sun, pressing body to any warm surfaces to increase body temperature and/or
reduce cooling;
• muscle contractions such as shivering that involve exothermic respiration and so warm the body.
Biology

1 A
2 C
3 (a) 1. Active transport of Na+/Cl− out of ascending limb;
2. Correct reference to water potential (in medulla);
3. Water passes out of collecting duct/descending limb (into blood/vasa recta/medulla);
4. Correct reference to osmosis;
5. Reference to countercurrent mechanism;
6. The longer the loop the greater the effect;
7. Reference to ascending limb being impermeable to water.
(b) 1. Reference to reduces dehydration;
2. (ADH) increases permeability of collecting duct/distal convoluted tubule to water;
3. Reference to aquaporins/water channels;
4. More water reabsorbed/absorbed into the blood;
5. Correct reference to osmosis;
6. Idea that a more concentrated solution is produced.
4 (a) 1. Evaporation of water (in sweat);
2. (Evaporation) has a cooling effect;
3. Appropriate reference to/description of latent heat.
(b) (i) 1. Temperature dropped from 0 to 15 minutes/when in the bath;
2. Increased from 15 to 25 minutes/when sitting on the chair;
3. Lowest at 15 minutes/when ‘he got out of bath’;
4. A manipulated change in temperature.
(ii) 5 to 10 minutes:
1. Temperature of water lower than body temperature;
2. Heat lost by conduction (to water).
15 to 25 minutes:
3. Increased metabolism/shivering;
4. Generates heat.
5 (a) Medulla (oblongata).
(b) 1. Reference to increase in rate of (anaerobic/aerobic) respiration;
2. Increase in carbon dioxide levels/increase in lactic acid/lactate levels/decrease of pH/increase in
hydrogen ions/H+/increase in carbonic acid in the blood;
3. Reference to chemoreceptors;
4. Aortic/carotid bodies or reference to carotid artery/aorta;
5. Cardiac/cardiovascular centre (in medulla);
6. More/increase in frequency of impulses along sympathetic nerve;
7. Reference to SAN/sinoatrial node.
Biology
6 (a) (i) A Bowman’s capsule;

B Proximal convoluted tubule.
(ii) 1. Reference to facilitated diffusion;
2. Active transport;
3. Correct reference to involvement of proteins;
4. Co-transport with Na+;
5. Reference to microvilli providing large surface area.
(b) (i) 1. Correct readings from graph (300 and 60);
2. Correct subtraction 300 − 60 ( × 100);
3. Correct division ÷ 300 ( = 80%).
Allow alternative routes to correct answer (80%).
(ii) 1. Overall, an increase in concentration with high ADH and a decrease in concentration with low
ADH;
2. A to D: the changes in concentrations are the same with low or high ADH;
3. C/D to E: greater decrease with low ADH;
4. E to F/G: the concentration rises when ADH is high, but decreases/stays the same when ADH is
low;
5. Comparative use of figures.
(iii) 1. Reference to increase in concentration (of fluid) at E/F/G/collecting duct/distal convoluted
tubule;
2. (Rise in ADH) increases permeability of collecting ducts/distal convoluted tubule/E/F/G to
water;
3. More water is reabsorbed;
4. By osmosis;
5. Reference to aquaporins;
6. Idea that same amount of solute in less water so the solution is more concentrated.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems
10.1 The nature of ecosystems

10.1.1 What is ecology?
1 The habitat is the ‘address’ of the organism – it describes where it lives. Suitable examples of habitats should be
included – for example, tropical rainforest, under a log, etc. (there are many).
The niche describes the role of an animal within a habitat – so several organisms may inhabit the same habitat
but occupy different niches within it. For example, food niches in woodland – top predator = fox; primary
consumer = rabbit; tree-dwelling herbivore = squirrel, etc.
2 Full details should be given of whichever biomes chosen. A clear understanding of the link between adaptations
and the conditions of the habitat should be shown.
In (c) should show understanding of the effect of temperature on growth rates through enzyme activity and rates
of photosynthesis either for biomass or for food supply. Should show awareness of the importance of water
availability to the ability of organisms to grow and thrive, and how it affects their form and function.
10.1.2 How ecosystems evolve

1 The process by which communities of animals and plants colonise an area and then over time are replaced by
other communities. The changes continue until a steady state is achieved, where the number and type of species
remain roughly the same until conditions change again.
2 A community reached at the end of a series of stages of development that continues to consist of the same plant
and animal species. Different habitats have different climax communities.
3 Primary succession occurs from bare rock or sand dune, secondary succession happens on land that was
colonised by living things, but was cleared.
4 (a) Initial steady growth in the number of species as conditions changed and more soil developed. Then a
period of stagnation from about 1974 to 1990 as the island had developed as far as it could without new
input of fertility. Once birds colonised the islands they brought new species on their bodies and increased
the fertility of the soil with their droppings, and so the number of plant species increased again relatively
rapidly. The cumulative number of species is higher than the current number of species, but they follow a
similar pattern.
(b) Some species make it to the island and start to grow, but cannot survive to establish a breeding population
of plants. So more species of plants have been observed on the island at different times than are actually
present at any one time – this is the cumulative species total. The cumulative total cannot fall, while the
actual species total could drop considerably.
(c) If the predictions by scientists come true, the number of actual species could eventually drop as low as 10,
but the cumulative total will remain at its present level or even go up if more new species become
established, but previously established ones die out.
10.1.3 The effect of abiotic factors on populations

1 (a) The non-living elements of the environment in which a population of organisms is living. Examples could
include any of those listed in the book or any other relevant points, such as pH of the soil.
(b) Abiotic factors determine the fertility of the soil: the temperature, water availability, etc. This in turn
decides which plants will be able to grow and thrive in an area, which in turn affects the other organisms
that will be able to survive. In terms of the basic colonisers of an area, abiotic factors are crucial.
2 Any suitable example, such as in a windy environment water will evaporate from the ground more rapidly so
will be less available for living organisms; high light levels, but low oxygen levels mean many organisms cannot
grow well and reproduce, etc.
3 Any suitable examples demonstrating an understanding of how the animal/plant, etc. is adapted to the particular
abiotic factor selected.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems
10.1.4 The effect of biotic factors on populations
1 Any three suitable examples, including one bird, one fish and one mammal, with clear explanation of how
territories are marked and defended, for example, scent-marking, physical display/dance, fighting.
2 With little biodiversity, if one organism is affected by disease it will have a major impact on the small number of
other organisms in the ecosystem – they will not get eaten or their prey numbers will fall substantially. With
little biodiversity there will be few other available food resources. Also, disease is more likely to spread between
individuals where there are few buffer species. In a more diverse community, changes due to disease are likely to
have less of an effect as there is much more variety of food choice and more buffering organisms to prevent
spread of disease.
3 Some regions appear to show ‘classic’ predator/prey relationships, with numbers of prey rising followed by
predator numbers rising as there is more food, then prey numbers falling as they are predated more followed by
predator numbers falling as there is less food available – when prey numbers rise again, for example around
1862–1880 and 1907–1935.
At other times the cycle is lost – for example, in 1852 the two cycles seemed to be completely in opposition,
with the peak of prey coinciding with the minimum of predators, whilst around 1905 both predator and prey
numbers peaked at the same time. This is because the predator/prey relationship is not simple. Food supply for
the prey animals varies as do other predator numbers and disease. The same is true for the predators – they are
affected by disease and hunting levels, and they have more than one prey species, for example. Predators may
have been adversely affected by disease, or hunting, or the loss of another prey species at the time around 1852
when they appeared not to take advantage of high prey numbers. There may have been an excess of plant food –
perhaps a very good growing season – or alternative prey animals in good supply – in 1905 when both species
peaked at the same time.
10.1.5 The effect of interactions between abiotic and biotic factors on populations
1 Intraspecific – between members of the same species, for example, for territory, mates, food.
Interspecific – between members of different species, for example, for space, food, etc.
Intraspecific competition tends to affect the abundance of a particular species of organism – low resources, much
competition, less reproduction and more mortality – numbers decrease. Plenty of resources, little competition,
lots of breeding, low mortality – numbers increase.
Interspecific competition tends to affect the distribution of species in a habitat and also the abundance of species
– the biodiversity. If one species competes very successfully against others, it will tend to drive them to
extinction in the area.
2 (a) In all four population phases, the impact of fertiliser is low/has no major effect.
The impact of excluding predators is highest in the decline population, where hare density more than
doubled.
The impact of food is also highest in the decline phase, where hare density tripled.
By far the highest impact is of adding food and excluding predators, in the decline phase, where the two
conditions led to an increase in hare density by a factor of approx. 14.
(b) If food added, hares breed more successfully, but more will also be taken by predators, which will also
breed successfully. So the impact of the food on the hare population is not fully illustrated in the
population numbers. (Or any other sensible explanation.)
(c) Where the hare population has increased as a result of the experimental manipulation, other factors begin
to limit it – for example, the natural food supply begins to be exhausted, disease/parasites begin to impact
on the more crowded population, or any other sensible suggestion. This causes the hare numbers to fall.
The fact that the population which showed the least growth, where predators were excluded, also shows
only a very small dip, supports this idea, as in those enclosures the population did not reach levels which
had a major impact on the natural resources and so population size could be maintained. The enclosures
where fertiliser was applied to the grass did not see any sustained population growth and so did not
experience a dip resulting from over-density – or any other valid suggestion.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems
3 Both abiotic and biotic factors can be density-independent or density-dependent – for example, if there are
relatively few plants in an area, light intensity is density-independent – the amount of light that falls is affected
by cloud cover, day or night, seasons, etc., but not living organisms. In a woodland the amount of light that
reaches plants on the ground is very much dependent on other living organisms as well as all the abiotic factors.
Density-independent factors tend to limit the distribution of species –, for example, abiotic factors, such as
rainfall or temperature, will affect the overall conditions and therefore which species can survive in a particular
area. Can also affect abundance – for example, if light levels, temperature and rainfall are suitable for a species,
then the numbers of individuals will affect how much light, water, etc. is available to individuals; so becomes
density-dependent also.
Density-dependent factors are based on the numbers of organisms present so will tend to affect the abundance of
an organism rather than whether or not it can survive in a particular habitat, unless a particular disease is so
damaging that it wipes out a species, for example, Tasmanian devils and facial cancer.
10.1.6 Ecological techniques

1 Because plants do not move around, but many animals do. Animals might move into or out of quadrats before
counting complete.
2 Frame quadrats – easy to use, portable, useful for measuring abundance in terms of individual counts or
percentage cover.
Point quadrats – again portable and easy to use, pinpoint individual organisms, can be used to calculate
percentage cover.
Permanent quadrats – in place all the time. Can be much bigger than frame and point quadrats. Allows data
collection from same places over time, which makes for very reliable data – but disadvantage is that the points
are fixed so less randomness after initial positioning.
3 (a) Data for part (a): How accurately were the animals identified? Where was the study carried out – how big
an area was looked at? Any other sensible points.
Data for part (b): How were DVCs identified – police reports, dead deer by roadside, etc? Was data
collection at same level throughout the collection areas? How many people were involved in collecting
data? What is the comparable map of traffic density? Any other sensible points.
(b) The map shows that there are deer in all parts of the UK except for large parts of Wales and the north
Midlands, and around the south-east tip of England (these areas have roads, so collisions would be
expected if there were deer here). Although there are similar numbers of collisions along the east coast of
Scotland and in the south and east of England, the lower density of human population in that part of
Scotland suggests that there must be more deer there.
10.1.7 Statistical analysis

1 (a) There is no relationship between the populations of the two bog plants D. flexuosa and Agrostis sp.
(b) Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient – because the data collected is ordinal (can be ranked) so the
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient can be used to show if there is a correlation between the two
ranked variables – if there is correlation, the SRCC (rs) does not equal 0.
(c) For Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient degrees of freedom to use = number of data sets − 2. In this
case that means 26 − 2 = 24. There are 24 degrees of freedom.
2 (a) The Student’s t-test is a statistical test that is used to determine if the mean of a variable in one group
differs significantly from the mean of the same variable in a different group.
(b) Because the data measured did not look at the same mean variable in two different populations of plants.
(c) Data that could be collected from the site and analysed using the Student’s t-test might be the mean
diameter of both types of plant from the same area of the bog.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems

1 (a) D
(b) B
(c) B
(d) A
2 (a) 1. Quadrat/fixed area;
2. Reference to regular location, for example every 5 m;
3. Identify species present.
(b) 1. Site 1 fewer species/site 9 more species;
2. Different species.
(c) Accept converse for less well adapted.
1. Idea that conditions at each site are different;
2. Reference to species have different adaptations;
3. Where adaptations best suited to the site;
4. Species more successful;
5. Idea that successful species colonise the area.
(d) (i) 1. Idea that conditions similar to site 1/2/flooded/salty;
2. Idea that Spartina sp. survives in/adapted to these conditions;
3. Idea that competing species cannot survive.
(ii) 1. Hole filled in with mud/organic matter;
2. Reference to change in species, for example, Spartina sp. will disappear/expect other species to
colonise in time;
3. Appropriate reference to changes in conditions and effect on other species;
4. Idea that species will become similar to surrounding area.
3 (a) 1. Idea of a stable community;
2. Prevented from reaching climatic climax;
3. By human intervention/activity/grazing.
(b) 1. Reference to succession;
2. Grazing by sheep cuts off tall-growing plants/only allows low-growing plants to survive;
3. (When sheep removed) grazing stops;
4. A greater variety of seedlings able to grow/arrival of shrubs/trees;
5. Taller plants outcompete grasses.
(c) 1. Other grazers present;
2. Seeds of shrubs did not reach some islands;
3. Reference to unsuitable abiotic factor.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems
4 (a) Succession.
(b) 1. Increased number of species as succession progresses/number of species increases from grassland to
woodland;
2. Any suitable manipulation of data;
3. Grassland is open habitat, but trees provide more cover;
4. Birds easily spotted by predators in grass/converse for trees and shrubs;
5. Trees provide roosting/nesting sites;
6. Mixed woodland provides greater variety of food to support more species;
7. Trees provide more niches for species than smaller shrubs.
(c) 1. Pine trees have less food available for birds;
2. Needles on the woodland floor do not support as many invertebrates (which birds eat);
3. Reduction in the variety of microhabitats/niches;
4. Idea that mixed woodland has many layers/is more varied that shelters birds/provides nesting sites.
(d) 1. Deforestation
2. leaves soil exposed to erosion/loss of habitats/change in biodiversity;
3. Acid rain
4. damages leaves/needles of trees;
5. Global warming/increase in greenhouse gases
6. results in summer drought/reduces tree growth;
7. Physical disturbance by recreational activities:
8. trampling destroys vegetation/habitats.
[two pairs only]
10.2 The efficiency of ecosystems

10.2.1 Trophic levels
1 Trophic levels are terms used to describe the position of an organism in a food chain or web and describe its
feeding relationship with other organisms. They are extremely useful because they indicate the type of food the
organism eats and how prevalent it is likely to be in an ecosystem – tertiary consumers are much less common
than producers, for example.
2
Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of energy
Advantages Easy to observe and count. Shows combined biomass Gives most accurate model
Gives rough idea of feeding of organisms at different of what is happening in an
relationships. trophic levels in a food ecosystem.
chain. Shows the change in
Biomass can be measured amount of energy stored in
wet or dry. living organisms along a
Gives a very good working food chain.
model of relationships.
Disadvantages Rarely an accurate Only samples of organisms Extremely difficult to
reflection of reality because used to avoid destroying measure stored energy.
of different sizes of habitat. Often involves outdated
organisms. Wet mass less accurate models of energy.
than dry mass, but much
easier to measure and
does not involve killing
organisms to measure.
Snapshot – does not give
relationships over time.
Any other sensible points made by students are acceptable.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems
10.2.2 Energy transfers in ecosystems
1 (a) Algae and coral reefs. 25 000 g m–2 year–1 production per 1% of the Earth’s surface.
(b) Open ocean. 2.3 g m–2 year–1 production per 1% of the Earth’s surface.
(c) Although they have a low productivity there is an enormous amount of open ocean so it has a big overall
impact on total productivity.
2 (a) Producers to primary consumers: 16.6%
Primary to secondary consumers: 4.2%
Secondary to tertiary consumers: 6.1%
(b) (16.6 + 4.2 + 6.1)/3 = 26.9/3 = 9.0%
3 (a) Any suitable reason, such as would be too complicated to follow as a food web, can ignore the minor
species within a trophic level, much easier to compare with studies of other ecosystems.
(b) Any reasonable assumptions, including using average body mass to calculate energy within biomass of a
particular species, estimates of population size, possibly ignoring species which are very small and/or few
in number, making estimates of energy transfer into a species over a whole year.
10.2.3 Nutrient recycling

1 Plants constantly remove carbon dioxide from the air, and water and mineral ions from the soil, for
photosynthesis and the synthesis of other materials. Plants are constantly eaten by animals. If there was no
recycling of the nutrients, the resources of the Earth would have all been used up a long time ago.
2
Role of microorganisms in recycling nitrogen Role of microorganisms in recycling carbon
● Break down protein in dead bodies and waste ● Decomposers break down carbohydrates,
materials to produce ammonium compounds. lipids and parts of protein molecules in cellular
● Nitrifying bacteria act on the ammonium respiration to form carbon dioxide and water.
compounds produced by protein breakdown to Carbon dioxide used in photosynthesis to
form nitrates that are returned to soil to be synthesise new material or excreted into
absorbed by plant roots and used to build new atmosphere.
proteins in plants. ● Photosynthetic bacteria remove carbon
● Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil and root dioxide from the atmosphere and turn it into
nodules of legumes fix nitrogen from the air, sugars.
forming ammonia that is then converted into
nitrates by the nitrifying bacteria.
● Some bacteria (denitrifying) use nitrates as an
energy source, reducing the amount of
nitrates in the soil.
3 The amount of carbon held in the different carbon sinks will vary with mean temperature of ocean masses,
amount of carbon dioxide produced by burning fossil fuels, pH of the water, numbers of plants growing, level of
deforestation – any other sensible points.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems

1 D
2 (a) D
(b) A
(c) B
(d) C
3 (a) (i) 2250 – 240;
(2010/2250 × 100 =) 89.3
(ii) 1. Not all of the primary consumers are eaten/some die and are not eaten;
2. Some (of the eaten primary consumers) undigested/egested/lost as faeces;
3. Losses from respiration;
4. Loss from excretion/urine/urea.
(b) 1. Blue and red light absorbed;
2. (Blue and red) absorbed by chlorophyll;
3. Blue light absorbed by carotene;
4. Green light reflected.
(c) 1. Acid rain damages cuticle of leaves/damage to guard cells;
2. Causes plants to transpire more/more stressed in drought;
3. Causes leaf drop/dieback/crown loss;
4. Less photosynthesis/reduced surface area for absorbing light;
5. Damages root hairs;
6. Plants unable to absorb as much water/nutrients/minerals.
4 (a) 1. Rate of production of (new) biomass/organic material;
2. That is available to next trophic level;
3. NPP = GPP – R.
(b) (i) 1. Some light is reflected (away from the leaf);
2. Some light passes straight through leaf/light does not fall on chloroplast/chlorophyll;
3. Plant cannot use all wavelengths of light;
4. Photosynthesis is not efficient.
(ii) 1. (Secondary consumers) respire/loss as heat;
2. (Secondary consumers lose energy when they) move around;
3. Not all of them are eaten/some die (before being eaten);
4. Reference to inedible/undigestible parts;
5. Reference to decomposition of (secondary consumer).
(c) Does not include energy from producers/other food chains/this shows energy from only one food
chain/they obtain energy from all trophic levels.
(d) (i) 1. Total biomass for primary more than total biomass for secondary/use of figures;
2. Primary has more leaf litter than secondary;
3. Leaves/branches the same for primary and secondary;
4. Primary has more root (biomass) than secondary.
(ii) 1. After 25 years the total biomass has not returned to the original value;
2. The leaf litter is lower so there will be less nutrient recycling;
3. Fewer roots could lead to less water retention;
4. Fewer roots will lead to more soil erosion.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems
(e) 1. Reference to change in habitats;

2. Allows more light in;
3. Exposure to wind/loss of shelter from wind;
4. Exposure to light/wind changes plant populations;
5. May lead to soil erosion;
6. Plants cannot get established;
7. Correct reference to movements of animals, for example migration;
8. Change in types of plants causes change in the types of animals/change in food chains/webs.
5 (a) kJ/J/joule/kilojoule.
(b)
Organism Trophic level Mode of nutrition
Producer Autotrophic
Heterotrophic
Primary consumer/decomposers
One mark for each correct pair.
(c) (i) 1. Reference to (Tribolium) are active/move around/generate heat;
2. Correct reference to respiration (in Tribolium);
3. Reference to (Tribolium) waste products/excreta;
4. Not all Tribolium/parts get eaten;
5. Only energy stored in tissues available.
(ii) 1. (Wheat seeds) are dead or dormant;
2. Therefore little/no loss of energy;
3. No/little respiration/waste products.
6 (a) One mark per structure correctly drawn:
1. Cell wall must be double-line;
2. Flagellum has to go through wall and be closed off;
3. Membrane adheres to inner line of cell wall;
4. If mesosome shown, it must be separated from cell wall.
(b) 1. (More nutrients) increases the numbers of cyanobacteria/algae, more food for zooplankton/fish so their
numbers increase;
2. Cyanobacteria produce toxins that kill animals/organisms (in the water);
3. Create algal bloom that shades other (aquatic) plants;
4. Increase in bacteria/decomposers uses up oxygen/increase in biological oxygen demand (BOD);
5. Therefore zooplankton/fish die/decrease in numbers.
(c) 1. Could inhibit {cell/nuclear}/division/mitosis;
2. Could act as enzyme inhibitors (any form of inhibition);
3. Could interfere with metabolic pathways/specific example;
4. Any other appropriate reason.
(d) The chemical pesticides could kill other organisms, not just the cyanobacteria/the water could be used as
a source of drinking water for people/animals and the chemicals could disrupt food chains/any other
suitable reason.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems
10.3 Human effects on ecosystems

10.3.1 Human influences on ecosystems
1 The development of tools and machines has enabled farming to be carried out on a larger scale providing reliable
supplies of food. The development of medicines has meant that people live longer. Floating factories allow
fishing of large areas of the ocean, again providing food to more people. Deforestation has lead to an increase in
crops being grown. Any other sensible suggestion.
2 So many people producing large amounts of waste – both body waste and rubbish. Both affect the environment.
Need for resources – need huge areas of land to grow food for the population, need oil, coal and minerals which
all have to be extracted from the ground, produce toxic chemicals, generate electricity, drive cars, fly around the
world in polluting planes, etc., destroying rainforests, etc. to grow food, any other sensible suggestions.
Look for evidence of research and that the student has looked in more than one place. Look for evidence that
student has made value judgements about the reliability of the material they are using based on sensible criteria,
such as where published, where the researchers are based, size of study, collaborating evidence, etc.
3 Students’ own answers, based on their chosen evidence.
10.3.2 Human influences on climate change

1 The greenhouse effect describes the process by which infrared radiation from the Sun that has been absorbed and
radiated by the surface of the Earth is absorbed and reradiated back to the surface of the Earth by gases such as
carbon dioxide and methane (the greenhouse gases) in the atmosphere. This maintains the temperature at the
surface of the Earth at a level suitable for life. So the greenhouse effect is vital to life and is a very positive
process. It is used inaccurately and negatively to describe the enhanced greenhouse effect that appears to be
resulting from an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere causing a rise in
temperatures at the surface of the Earth.
2 There is a lot of evidence – look for students bringing in as many pieces of evidence as possible, for example:
Model of how increased levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere might be expected to cause increased
surface temperatures.
IPCC data to show how temperatures of land and oceans have increased over time – banks of data used by IPCC.
Variety of data showing same patterns, for example, IPCC hockey stick graph.
Data from ice cores, etc.
Demonstrate understanding of the importance of different strands of evidence showing the same pattern and the
value of patterns that can be confirmed by written records, etc. showing measuring techniques work.
Role of Mauna Loa observatory and value of data on carbon dioxide levels.
Data on carbon sinks and pH levels in oceans indicating rise in carbon dioxide levels.
Rise in methane levels.
Correlation on many fronts.
Any other sensible points based on evidence.
3 (a) 20.81%.
(b) Carried out over long period of time, massive number of readings, same or similar measuring equipment
used throughout, area of low air pollution, etc. – any relevant points.
4 Gives a much longer time perspective – gives readings going back over a thousand years – shows natural falls
and rises in carbon dioxide concentration and events of last couple of hundred years. Any other valid points.
Reliability 0.2 ppm – need to know how many parts per million equivalent to a degree of temperature to know
how reliable. Correlation with other evidence.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems
5 That people stop eating beef and using dairy products. Because millions of people around the world rely on meat
and milk from ruminants as a major part of their diet and big farming interests have a lot of economic clout and
would object. Any other valid point.
6 Close correlation in pattern between temperature and carbon dioxide levels. Which comes first – change in
carbon dioxide or change in temperature – not always easy to see. Very reliable data based on isotopic decay of
gases from ice cores.
7 86.7% (fossil fuel use), 70.7% (all sources) – carbon dioxide from fossil fuels increased more than other sources.
10.3.3 The biological impact of climate change

1 Any valid points, such as impossible to predict new technologies which may emerge to help us reduce carbon
emissions, do not know increase in production by developing economies, do not know how effective drive to
reduce carbon footprint will be, etc.
2 (a) 16 × 1022 J, 5.5/11.5 × 100 = 47.8%.
(b) 125 mm.
(c) Increasing carbon dioxide levels thought to cause rise in global temperatures due to enhanced greenhouse
effect. Increasing temperatures causing melting of snow cover on mountains, due to rising temperatures
there is less snow falling and there is melting of snow at poles – this in turn causes rise in average sea
levels.
3 Particularly affects diseases with insect vectors. Linked to climate change – rising carbon dioxide, rising
temperatures, means insect vectors can survive in areas where they could not previously live and therefore carry
diseases, such as malaria, bluetongue, etc., to areas where they have not been an issue previously.
4 Look for clarity of thought and understanding of the possible sequences of events. Students should only include
events that are supported by evidence here and then produce their own flowchart to show the key aspects of the
process.
10.3.4 Managing biological resources

1 (a) Any two sensible answers, for example, deforestation – loss of rainforests to provide cheap food – oil
palms, cattle, etc., monocultures, for example, wheat prairies, etc., damage to soil, etc.
(b) Any two sensible answers, for example, Atlantic cod, Peruvian anchovies – overfishing to point of
extinction, rising temperatures destroying coral, etc.
2 Coastal areas are where it is easiest to reach the fish – and also where most fishing communities live around the
world so effects noticed.
3 Data shows that over 22 years sustainable harvesting of fish stocks has increased in the UK to the point where
almost 50% of the fishing is at sustainable levels. Sustainable fishing is difficult to police and levels of fish
caught sustainably vary, but the trend is increasingly upwards. This should eventually result in an increase in fish
stocks again allowing more fish to be caught as long as fishing remains within sustainable limits.
4 Look for good research, comments on fish farming both in the UK and internationally, for example, Tilapia in
Africa and India. The negative side of feeding ground-up, wild-caught fish, or use of cereals that could feed
humans to feed farmed fish, concerns about GM fish, use of electricity, etc., risk of disease and/or pollution, but
also the production of relatively cheap source of protein without depleting the oceans, value as a food source and
to protect wild fish stocks.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems
10.3.5 Conserving global biodiversity

1 Natural rate of extinction will be averaged over hundreds or thousands of years based on written or fossil
records. This assumes that these records are a true representation of what was living at the time, or that the
accuracy of the records does not change over time. This is highly unlikely, so reliability is low. Human-induced
extinction rate depends on observation and accurate recording of species. Even now, with large numbers of
research projects all over the world, we must still make assumptions of how many species there are, particularly
in remote areas or of species that are difficult to see. So we assume a value for the total number of species,
including those we do not know about, and then another value for the number that are becoming extinct based on
an estimate from numbers we know. Again, these are likely to vary over time, so cannot be considered reliable.
2 (a) Reef-forming corals are affected by both the rise in sea temperature and falls in sea pH. As carbon
dioxide levels have risen over the last few decades, ocean temperatures have increased and as the oceans
have absorbed more carbon dioxide the pH has fallen. In addition, factory fishing techniques and excess
tourism have also affected coral reefs. Any other sensible points.
(b) Amphibians are giving most cause for concern. Human activities could be affecting them in many ways
including habitat loss around the world – wetlands are being drained and rainforests destroyed, both
important habitats for amphibians. Global warming is making some areas drier – again amphibians need
wet places to reproduce and live. Rise in temperature may be helping spread of fungal disease that is
wiping out many species of amphibians. Any other sensible points.
3 Students should demonstrate that they have understood the role of CITES and recognise the difficulties of what it
is trying to do and the successes it has had. Whether they judge it a success or not, they need to back up their
opinion with evidence including data not just opinion.

1 D
2 D
3 (a) Maintains viable populations/rate of removal same as rate of reproduction.
(b) 1. Will help in waters governed/only effective with international cooperation;
2. Catch reduced;
3. Fishermen driven to international waters/elsewhere;
4. Might damage deep sea/international waters even more;
5. Compensation will cut fishing/other point about legislation working;
6. Only effective if rules obeyed.
(c) 1. Reference to mechanism (e.g. natural selection/genetic drift);
2. Accumulation of genetic differences;
3. Populations develop unique characteristics;
4. Reference to chromosomal incompatibility;
5. Reference to behavioural/ecological/reproductive isolation;
6. Separate species cannot produce fertile offspring.
Biology
TOPIC 10 Ecosystems
4 (a) An explanation to include two from:

1. Biodiversity depends on number of species;
2. (Extinction) reduces this;
3. Dependent species affected.
(b) (i) Source of protein/source of energy/reference to protein synthesis/growth/few suitable alternative
protein sources/reference to economic significance.
(ii) A suggestion to include two from:
1. Smaller catch;
2. For African fishermen;
3. Eat bush meat instead;
4. Correct reference to aquatic mammals.
(c) A description to include two from:
1. People will not change way of life easily;
2. Like European fishermen;
3. So unexpected effects;
4. Elsewhere;
5. African culture of using bush meat.
(d) An explanation to include three from:
1. Cannot control external factors;
2. Which might affect local area;
3. Could send problem elsewhere;
4. Conflicting needs not considered;
5. Reference to globalisation of human activities;
6. Wild populations not confined (to human boundaries);
7. Law of the commons;
8. International agreements carry more weight.
5 (a) (i) Twice as much/double/by 15 000 000.
(ii) 85% of 60/60/100 × 85;
51 (million).
(b) (i) Smaller area;
More fragmented.
(ii) A suggestion to include two from:
1. Less variety/smaller gene pool;
2. Lose communication/no corridors/isolation;
3. Reference to genetic drift/random changes in gene frequency;
4. Less interchange of genetic information;
5. Reference to possible speciation.
(iii) A discussion to include five from:
1. Biofuel less polluting;
2. Palm carbon sink;
3. Renewable/sustainable resource;
4. Economic benefits;
5. Palms provide new habitat;
6. Danger of extinction of apes/inbreeding;
7. Less biodiversity/loss of forest resources;
8. Forest bigger carbon sink;
9. Problems of monoculture;
10. Any valid point, for example habitat loss.

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Edexcel A level Answers to Student Book 2 questions

TOPIC 5 Energy for biological processes

5.1 Cellular respiration

5.1.2 Glycolysis and anaerobic respiration

TOPIC 5 Energy for biological processes

5.1.3 The Krebs cycle

5.1.4 The electron transport chain

TOPIC 5 Energy for biological processes

5.1 Answers to Exam-style questions

TOPIC 5 Energy for biological processes

5.2.2 The biochemistry of photosynthesis

TOPIC 5 Energy for biological processes

5.2 Answers to Exam-style questions

TOPIC 5 Energy for biological processes

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6.1 Bacteria and disease

6.1.2 Measuring the growth of bacterial cultures

6.1.3 Patterns of growth in bacterial colonies

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6.1.4 Bacteria as pathogens

6.1.5 Antibiotics – treating bacterial diseases

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6.1.6 Antibiotic resistance

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6.1 Answers to Exam-style questions

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

3 (a) (i) 1. Generally, as bacteria numbers increase, pH decreases;

Delay in release Immediate release

Released from Gram-positive bacteria Released from Gram-negative and Gram-positive

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6 (a) Max three from:

6.2 Non-bacterial pathogens

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6.2.2 Fungi as pathogens

6.2.3 Protozoa as pathogens

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6.2 Answers to Exam-style questions

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6.3 The response to infection

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6.3.2 The specific response to infection

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6.3.3 Developing immunity

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

6.3 Answers to Exam-style questions

(b) (i) 1. Antigen must be present;

TOPIC 6 Microbiology and pathogens

5 (a) Two from:

TOPIC 7 Modern genetics

7.1 Using gene sequencing

7.1.2 DNA sequencing

TOPIC 7 Modern genetics

7.1.3 DNA profiling

7.1 Answers to Exam-style questions

TOPIC 7 Modern genetics

7.2 Factors affecting gene expression

TOPIC 7 Modern genetics

7.2.2 Spliceosomes and epigenetics

TOPIC 7 Modern genetics