This article was downloaded by: [Temple University Libraries]

On: 15 September 2013, At: 13:29

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41
Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of the American Institute of Planners

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjpa19

A Theory of Urban Form

Kevin Lynch & Lloyd Rodwin
Published online: 18 Dec 2007.

To cite this article: Kevin Lynch & Lloyd Rodwin (1958) A Theory of Urban Form, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 24:4,
201-214, DOI: 10.1080/01944365808978281

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01944365808978281

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the
publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or
warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed
by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with
primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings,
demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly
in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is
expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
 KEVIN LYNCH and LLOYD RODWIN

A Theory of Urban Form

Understanding the varied effects of different physical forms, mad o{ the locations of hurnari activities
i n relation to physical forwzs, is or should be the principal analytical skill of the physical planner.
For a variety of reasons these skills have been neglected. T h i s paper exawzines possible analytical
approaches to this problem, concentrating in particular o n the need for analyzing urban form in
relation to goal formulations. I t also discusses techniques for studying the interrelations between
such forms and goals, and the possible implications of this new approach for theory, research, and
practical planning decisions.
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

HE PRINCIPAL concern of the physical planner is to

T understand the physical environment and to help
shape it to serve the community’s purposes. An out-
cities have been accompanied by protestations of the
ends towards which the shapers are striving, yet in fact
there is usually only the most nebulous connection be-
sider froin some other discipline would ordinarily as- tween act and protestation. Not only are goals put in
sume that such a profession had developed some ideas a confused or even conflicting form, but also the physi-
concerning the diverse effects of different forms of the cal forms decided upon have very little to do with these
physical environment (not to mention the reverse effects goals. Choice of form is most often based on custom,
of nonphysical forces on the environment itself). And or intuition, or on the superficial attraction of sim-
he might be equally justified in expecting that intel- plicity. Once constructed, forms are rarely later ana-
lectual leaders in the profession had been assiduously lyzed for their effectiveness in achieving the objectives
gathering evidence to check and reformulate these originally set.
ideas so that they might better serve the practitioners What does exist is some palliative knowledge and
in the field. A systematic consideration of the interrela- rules of thumb for designing street intersections, neigh-
tions between urban forms and human objectives would borhoods, and industrial areas, for separating different
seem to lie at the theoretical heart of city planning land uses, distinguishing different traffic functions, or
work. controlling urban growth. Analysis of urban design is
But the expectation would bring a wry smile to the largely at the level of city parts, not of the whole. T h e
face of anyone familiar with the actual state of the prevailing views are static and fragmentary. When ideal
theory of the physical environment. Where has there models are considered, they take the form of utopias.
been any systematic evaluation of the possible range These serve to free the imagination, but are not substi-
of urban forms in relation to the objectives men might tutes for adequate analysis.
have? Although most attempts at shaping or reshaping There are some reasoils for this unsatisfactory situa-
Kevin Lynch is Associate Professor of City Planning at Massa- tion. T h e profession is still quite young, and most of
chusetts Institute of Teclinolocgy and was codirector of a three- its energies are concentrated in professional practice.
year Rockefeller research firoiect on the perceptual form of the T h e men in the field are far too preoccupied with prac-
city. H e recently speni a year in Italy on a Ford Fellowshifi, and
has acted as consultant to various communities and agencies. H e tical problems to fashion new concepts. T h e profession
is the author of “ T h e Forna of Cities” (Scientific American, April itself developed from fields like architecture and civil
1954). engineering which have not been research minded. T h e
Lloyd Rodwin is the Director of the Center for Urban and
Regional Studies a t Massachusetts Institute of Technology. H e professionals in the universities have taught practical
has been a visiting professor in several universities and a c o w courses and spent much of their time in outside prac-
sultant to many organizations including the United Nations and tice. Research and theory under these circumstances
A . D . Little, Inc. H e is the author of T h e British New Towns
Policy (Canibridge: Harvard University Press, 1956), and of many were expendable. I n the rough and tumble of daily op-
reports and articles for professional journals. erations, preliminary notions such as economic base

‘0 1
 JOURNAL OF T H E AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF PLANNERS Vol. 24 (1958), No. 4

studies, land use master plans, neighborhood design, or over, yields little insight as to the underlying mecha-
Loiiiiig and subdivision controls serve a reasonably nism of operation.
useful function. Studying how the physical environment is trans-
But the planner’s situation is changing rapidly. Most formed might be another approach. T h e nature of the
of our population now lives in metropolitan regions, changes can be recorded, the difficulties and directions
and the metropolitan trend is still continuing. There in transition, the conditions associated with the
is not only increasing dissatisfaction with our cities, but changes, and the various social, economic, and political
also an awareness that it is possible to make them more processes by which the alteration takes place. Often the
delightful and more efficient places in which to live and historical, comparative, and genetic approaches are the
work. Tremendous public support has been generated best ways of following the dynamics of the physical en-
by organizations like T h e American Council to Im- vironment. But there are limitations too; and these lie
prove Our Neighborhoods. Housing, road building, in the difficulty of disentangling the strategic variables
and urban renewal programs are also providing power- which should be examined and of understanding the
ful instruments for the transformation of our metro- mechanism of change.
politan environment. These changing circumstances Another approach, now most current, is pragmatic.
and values are interesting symptoms of the age of Each case can be considered more or less unique. T h e
leisure. emphasis is on problem solving, or on shaping or re-
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

T h e planner’s tools and concepts are being subjected shaping the physical environment to eliminate specific
to a severe test by this growing demand for action. difficulties or to achieve specific effects. Limited gen-
Something better than rule of thumb and shrewd im- eralizations or rules can be formulated; but the tend-
provisation is required if his services are to warrant ency is to emphasize the uniqueness of each problem
public appreciation. I n short, we need better ideas, bet- and the inapplicability of “stratospheric generaliza-
ter theory. Formulated operationally, such theory can tions.” T h e advantage here is the “realism”; the weak-
be tested, revised, and ultimately verified. Even if ini- ness is the handicap implicit in the assumption that
tially inadequate, theories can help to develop and general ideas and theories are of almost no value as
extend our ideas, to make them more precise, embrac- guides for dealing with specific cases or classes of cases.
ing, and effective. Unless planners can devise more A more abstract variant of problem solving might
powerful ideas for understanding and controlling the be a study of the goal-form relationship. This approach
physical environment, they are not likely, and perhaps is concerned with how alternative physical arrange-
d o not deserve, to be treated as more than lackeys for ments facilitate or inhibit various individual and so-
the performance of routine chores. cial objectives. I t is an approach directly keyed to ac-
tion; it would, if perfected, suggest optimum forms or
POSSIBLE ANALYTICAL APPROACHES a range of them, once aspirations had been clarified
I t is not easy to create theories “full blown.” Effective and decided upon. Its weakness is its static nature; and
theories, as a rule, are products of many men’s efforts its strength lies in the emphasis on the clear formula-
constantly reworked into a more general and more tion of goals and on the probable effects of various
systematic form. I t is also hard to locate the best start- forms of physical organization. T h e more that is
ing place. I n tackling the problems of the physical en- learned about these effects, the more light will be shed
vironment one can employ a number of approaches on the process and perhaps even on the mechanism of
ranging from the descriptive to the genetic, from prob- change. Similarly, descriptive techniques and genetic
lem-solving to process and function analyses. All have and historical approaches might prove more effective
certain advantages and disadvantages. if the emphasis were on objectives and if the evidence
Description is the most obvious approach, and per- sought were related to the effectiveness of the environ-
haps the weakest, standing alone. T o describe the physi- ment in serving these ends. Problem solving, too, might
cal environment more accurately is an important aim; be more systematic, less haphazard and subject to
but since these descriptive possibilities are endless, it is rules of thumb, il it were grounded on more solid
difficult to be sure what is and what is not crucial or knowledge of goal-form relationships.
relevant. Description works best when there is enough This paper proposes to set forth an approach to such
familiarity with significance to permit vividness and a theory. I t will therefore necessarily deal first with the
terse accuracy. Too little is known about the form of problem of analyzing urban form, secondly with the
the physical environment, or even about the appropri- iormulation of goals, and thirdly with the techniques
ate analytical categories for analyzing these forms, to of studying the interrelations between such forms and
handle effective description. Description alone, more- goals.

202
 LYNCH AND RODWIN: THEORY OF URBAN FORM

T h e second criterion is that categories must deal

CRITERIA FOR ANALYTICAL CATEGORIES solely with the physical form of the city or with the
OF URBAN FORM distribution of activities within it; and that these two
Since the work on urban form has been negligible, aspects must be clearly and sharply separated. City and
the first task is to decide what it is and to find ways of regional planners operate primarily upon the physical
classifying and describing it that will turn out to be environment, although mindful of its complex social,
useful both for the analysis of the impact on objectives economic, or psychological effects. They are not ex-
and for the practical manipulation of form. Without a perts in all the planning for the future that a society
clear analytical system for examining the physical Corm engages in, but only in planning for the future devel-
of a city, it is hardly possible to assess the effect of form opment of the physical and spatial city: streets, build-
or even to change it in any rational way. T h e seemingly ings, utilities, activity distributions, spaces, and their
elementary step of formulating an analytical system is interrelations. Although cries of dismay may greet such
the most crucial. Upon it hangs all the rest; and while a reactionary and “narrow” view, the currently fashion-
other questions, such as the statement of objectives or able broader definitions lead in our judgment only to
the analysis of effects,may be partly the task of other dis- integrated, comprehensive incompetence.
ciplines, the question of city form cannot be passed off. A planner in this sense is aware that the final motive
There are a number of criteria which a workable sys- of his work is its human effect, and he should be well
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

tem must meet. First, it mnst apply to cities and met- grounded, for example, in the interrelation between
ropolitan areas and be significant at that scale. This is density and the development of children in our society.
simply an arbitrary definition of our particular sphere He must be quite clear that the physical or locational
of interest, but it conceals an important distinction. effects may often be the least important ones, or operate
There are many environmental effects which operate only in conjunction with other circumstances. Above
at larger scales (such as the influence of climate or the all, he has to understand that the very process of achiev-
distribution of settlement on a national level), and ing his proposed form, the way in which the group de-
even more which are effective at a smaller scale (such cides and organizes itself to carry it out, may turn out
as the decoration of a room or the siting of a group of to be the most decisive effect of all. Nevertheless, he
houses). Cities are too often regarded simply as collec- takes the spatial environment as the focus of his work,
tions of smaller environments. Most traditional design and does not pretend to be a sociologist, an economist,
ideas (shopping centers, neighborhoods, traffic inter- an administrator, or some megalomaniacal supercombi-
sections, play spaces, etc.) reflect this tendency. I t is nation of these.
usually assumed that well-designed neighborhoods, Physical form and the spatial distribution of activi-
with good roads and sufficient shopping and industry, ties in the city are partly contained in the traditional
automatically produce an optimum settlement. As an- “land use” categories of the planning field. Unfortu-
other example, inany planners are likely to think that nately, these categories are analytically treacherous.
a beautiful city is simply the sum of a large series of It is true that their very ambiguity is often useful in
small areas which are beautiful in themselves. field operation, where they can be made to mean what
But this may be no more true than that a great build- the user wants them to mean. But for theoretical study
ing is a random collection of handsome rooms. Every these categories thoroughly confound two distinct spa-
physical whole is affected not only by the quality of its tial distributions: that of human activity, or “use”
parts, but also by their total organization and arrange- proper, and that of physical shape. T h e traditional con-
ment. Therefore, the first criterion for form analysis is cept of “single-family residential use,” for example,
that it identify form qualities which are significant at unites a certain kind of activity: family residence (and
the city or metropolitan scale, that is, which can be its concomitant features of eating, sleeping, child-rear-
controlled at that scale and which also have different ing, etc.) with a type of isolated physical structure,
effects when arranged in different patterns that are called a “house,” which is traditionally allied with this
describable at that scale. This criterion excludes, with- activity. This works tolerably well in a homogeneous
out in any way denying their importance, such features society, as long as people behave with docility and con-
as intercity spacing (describable only beyond the city tinue to reside in families in these houses. But if they
level) or the relation of the front door of a house to should choose to sleep in buildings we call factories,
the street (which is hard to describe on the city scale then the whole system would be in danger. Even under
unless uniform, difficult to control at that level, and present circumstances “mixed uses,” or structures used
whose city-wide pattern of distribution would seem to now for storage, now for selling, now for religious
be of no importance). meetings, cause trouble.
 JOURNAL OF T H E AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF PLANNERS Vol. 24 (1958), No. 4

T h e pattern of activities and the physical pattern are encompass all physical features significant for such
often surprisingly independent of each other, and they goals.
must be separated analytically if we are to understand Our aim is to uncover the important factors that in-
the effect of either. I n practice, planners operate pri- fluence the achievement of certain human objectives.
marily upon the physical pattern, while often aiming ‘Therefore the categories allowable here will depend
to change the activity pattern via the physical change. upon the objectives chosen and on the threshold of
Only in the negative prohibitions of some parts of the effect considered significant. T h e categories used might
zoning ordinance do planners operate directly upon the shift with each new study. I t is necessary, however, to
activity pattern itself. By sharp distinction of the two, set u p one system of form categories so that comparisons
it is possible to explore how activity pattern and physi- may be made from one study to another. Therefore one
cal pattern interact, and which (if either) has significant must begin by considering the familiar human pur-
effects in achieving any given objective. poses and by guessing what physical features might be
This paper, however, will develop primarily the no- significant for those purposes. Subsequent analysis and
tion of the urban physical pattern, leaving the question testing will undoubtedly modify the categories based
of the activity pattern for another effort. This is done on this ci iterion.
not to prejudge the relative importance of the two, but I n summary, the criteria for an analytic system of
for clarity of analysis and because at present most plan- city form are that the categories of analysis must:
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

ners operate primarily upon the physical rather than I) Have significance at the city-wide scale, that is, be
the activity patterns. T h e time may come, of course, controllable and describable at that level.
when city planners may manipulate the distribution of 2) Involve either the physical shape or the activity
activities in an equally direct manner. Even should this distribution and not confuse the two.
time not come and should our influence on activities 3) Apply to all urban settlements.
continue to be indirect, it would be important to know 4) Be capable of being recorded, communicated, and
the consequences of activity distribution. tested.
Such nonspatial factors as the range of family in- 5) Have significance for their effect on the achieve-
come, political organization, or the social type of a city ment of human objectives and include all physical
are excluded by this second criterion. This paper will features that are significant.
also exclude factors such as the distribution of work
place versus sleeping place or the quantity of flow on PROPOSED ANALYTICAL SYSTEM
city streets. These latter are activity categories, prop- While several types of analytical systems might be
erly considered under their own heading. considered, we have attempted to develop a set of ab-
A third criterion of our analytical system, which adds stract descriptions of the quality, quantity, or spatial
to the problems of constructing it, is that it must be distribution of various features, of types that are pres-
applicable to all types of urban settlement, used by ent in some form in all settlements. T h e abstractness
any human culture. An American city, a Sumerian set- ok this system makes it difficult to conceptualize. I t also
tlement, or a future Martian metropolis must all be divides LIP the total form of city, although not spatially,
capable of being subsumed under it. T h e categories and it therefore raises the problem of keeping in mind
must reach a level of generality that might be unneces- the interrelations among categories. But for generality,
sary in simply considering present-day cities in the clarity, and conciseness-and perhaps even for fresh
United States. Not only is this necessary for complete insights-it seems to be the preferable method and will
analysis, but also by making our categories truly gen- be followed in the rest of this paper.
eral we may uncover new form possibilities not now A system for activity pattern would probably require
suspected. For example, dwelling-units-per-acre cannot a description of two basic aspects: flows of men and
be used as a basic descriptive measure, since some set- goods, on the one hand, and, on the other, the spatial
tlements may not have sleeping areas organized into pattern of more 1ocaliLed activities such as exchange,
dwelling units. (The fact of having such an organiza- recreation, sleeping, or production. Although this side
tion, of course, may be part of a physical description.) of the analysis will be omitted in order to concentrate
A fourth criterion is that the categories must even- on physical pattern, a similar breakdown is feasible in
tually be such that they can be discovered or measured the physical form description: (a) the flow system, ex-
in the field, recorded, communicated, and tested. cluding the flow itself; and (b) the distribution of
Lastly, the crucial test: all the factors chosen for analy- adapted space, primarily sheltered space.
sis must have significant effect on whatever goals are These are quite similar to the familiar duet of land
important to the group using the facilities and must use and circulation, with the content of activity re-
 LYNCH AND RODWIN: THEORY OF URBAN FORM

moved. I t may be remarked that an overtone of activity from the floor space category, or hard-surfaced lots from
still remains, since the physical facilities are divided total open space. Occasionally, purely for convenience,
between those primarily used for flow, and those ac- it may be necessary to use activity-oriented names, such
commodating more fixed activities. This is a very con- as “office structure,” or “parking lot.” But, whenever
venient division, however, and seems to be a regular this is done, reference is being made solely to a physical
Eeature of all settlements. type and not to its use.
There are many cases, of course, in which a given Each one of these two general categories, flow system
physical space is used both for flow and for other ac- and adapted space, could also be broken down in a
tivities. Usually the other activities are alongside the parallel way for more exact analysis.
flow, or sometimes intermixed with it, and here the 1) Element Types: T h e basic types of spaces and of
space must be subdivided, or simply counted in both flow facilities can be described qualitatively in their
categories. Occasionally there may be a cyclical shift in most significant aspects, including the extent to which
use, as when a road is shut off for a street dance. Then, the different types are differentiated in character, or to
if this is important, a temporal shift of the facility from which they grade into each other.
one category to another must be made. I t is even con-
ceivable that a city could contain mobile facilities in
which both circulation and other activities are per-
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

formed simultaneously, on the analogy of the ocean

liner. But perhaps that can be faced when it happens
on a scale that would be significant in a city. 2 ) Quantity: T h e quantities of houses or streets, in
Except for these difficulties, then, the division into length or capacity or size, can then be enumerated, to
flow system and adapted space is a convenient one. T h e give total capacity and scale.
former is usually easy to identify, and includes all the
roads, paths, tubes, wires, canals, and rail lines, which
are designed to facilitate the flow of people, goods,
be
wastes, or information. T h e latter category, that of
3) Density: Next the intensity with which spaces or
adapted spaces, although it seems tremendously broad,
channels are packed into a given unit area can be
has sufficient basic similarity to be treated as an entity.
stated; as a single quantity, if uniform, but more likely
I t consists of all spaces that have been adapted in some
as ranges of intensity and as average and typical inten-
way to be useful for some one or several significant
sities. This is a familiar idea when applied to adapted
noncirculatory activities.
space, particularly enclosed space, as is exemplified in
I n this country’s climate, the key spaces of this nature
the concept of the floor-area ratio. T h e same idea could
are those enclosed and with a modified climate, that is,
be applied to the circulation system, calculating inten-
the city’s “floor space.” Elsewhere enclosure may be less
sity as the flow capacity which passes in any direction
important. Almost everywhere, however, the adapta-
through a small unit area and mapping the variation of
tion includes some modification of the ground plane,
this ratio (as in potential vehicles per hour-acre).
even to rhe cultivation of a field; and the key activities
are often likely to take place in at least sheltered, if not
A A
enclosed, spaces. But in any case, the fundamental thing
done to our physical environment, besides providing
A
A
*
A
AA
means for communication, is to provide spaces for var- A A
ious activities, to adapt the quality of those spaces, and 4) Grain: T h e extent to which these typical elements
to distribute them in an over-all pattern. and densities are differentiated and separated in space
Since many of the primary adaptations of a space, can be defined as coarse or fine in terms of the quantity
such as enclosure or the provision of a smooth, level, of a given type that is separated out in one cluster, and
hard, dry ground plane, are useful for many different sharp or blurred in terms of the manner of separation
activities, spaces are often used interchangeably. A at the boundary. Thus, house and factory building
“store-front” may be used as a store, an office, a church, types might typically be separated in one city into
a warehouse, or even a family residence. This inter- large pure clusters, sharply differentiated at the edges;
changeability argues for the usefulness and necessity of while in another town the grain might be very fine and
generalizing adapted space into one category. Within it, the transitions generally blurred. Again, the outdoor
one may dissect as much as necessary, dividing enclosed spaces might be blurred and undifferentiated or, in the
floor space from open space, picking out tall structures circulation system, footpaths and vehicular pavements
 JOURNAL OF T H E AMERICAN INSTITUTE O F PLANNERS Vol. 24 (1958), No. 4

might be sharply and coarsely separated. Essentially, atic testing in real cities will indicate whether all the
this quality refers to the typical local interrelations important features are included.
between similar or dissimilar elements, but without
reference as yet to total pattern. AN EXAMPLE OF T H E ANALYTICAL SYSTEM
Since this system may be difficult to follow in the
abstract, it will perhaps clarify the proposal to use it
in describing an imaginary settlement named Pone.
Like any town, Pone is best described by the use of both
words and precise drawings, but here words and a
5) Focal Or-gu~ization:T h e spatial arrangement and
simple sketch must suffice.
interrelation of the key points in the total environment
a)Pone is made up of six types of adapted space:
can be examined. These might be the density peaks,
dirt-floored rooms, 20 by 20 feet, roofed with thatch
the concentrations of certain dominant building types,
and enclosed by adobe, each structure being free stand-
the key open spaces, or the termini or basic intersec-
ing; concrete-floored shed spaces, 75 feet by up to 300
tions of the circulation systems. Consideration of the
feet, in corrugated iron, sometimes single and some-
arrangement of such key points is often a shorthand
times in series horizontally; multistory concrete struc-
method of expressing total pattern.
tures containing from fifty to two hundred 10 by 10
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

foot rooms; walled-in cultivated spaces of rectangular

shape, varying from ‘/2 to 3 acres; walled, stone-paved
spaces pierced by paths; irregular bare dust-covered
spaces which take u p the remainder of the area. Pone
6) Generalized Spatial Distribution: This could be has four types of flow channels: four-foot dirt paths,
taken as a catchall which included the entire analysis. unenclosed; thirty-foot cobbled roads, enclosed in semi-
What is meant here is the gross pattern in two- (or circular tubes of corrugated iron; a n interconnecting
three-) dimensional space, as might be expressed on a waterproof system of four-inch pipes; and some tele-
greatly simplified map or model. I t would include such graph wires.
items as outline (or the shape of the city with reference b ) There are ten thousand adobe rooms, totaling
to the noncity) and the broad pattern of zones occupied 4,000,000 square feet; fifty shed spaces, totaling
by the basic element and density types. One city might 1,000,000 square feet; and four multistory structures,
have a single central density peak; another a circle cut with 40,000 square feet of floor space. There are five
by pie-shaped zones of “factory” buildings; another a thousand cultivated spaces occupying 5,000 acres, two
flow system on a rectangular grid; still another might walled and paved open spaces of 10 acres each; and the
have a uniform pattern of small interconnecting en- leftover dust covers 1,200 acres. There are three miles
closed outdoor spaces surrounded by a deep belt of of cobbled road, each with a capacity of 400 mulecarts
iree-flowing space punctuated by tall masses. Such a per hour in both directions; and 60 miles of dirt path,
description would be needed whenever the notation of each able to carry 2000 persons per hour in either direc-
type, quantity, density, grain, and pattern of key points tion. There are 20 miles of pipe and 2 miles of wire.
was insufficient to describe the significant total pattern. c) Density of adobe rooms varies continuously from
a floor-area ratio o€ 0.003 to 0.3; that of the sheds from
0.3 to 0.9 (with a tendency to group at the two ex-
tremes), while the tall structures are uniformly at 5.0.
Road-capacity density varies from a peak of 1,600 carts
per hour-acre to a low of 20; path-capacity density
Finally, of course, it would be necessary to inter- varies from 4,000 persons per hour-acre to 50.
relate the two basic categories, to show where the flow d ) T h e three types of enclosed space are sharply dif-
termini came with reference to the density peaks, for ferentiated and separated in plan. Cultivated spaces are
example, or to relate the pattern of the flow system to mixed coarsely with the adobe rooms, while the irregu-
the general open space pattern. lar dusty areas are finely distributed throughout. Roads
T h e method given above is proposed as a basic system and paths are sharply separated and do not intercon-
of analyzing a city’s form in accordance with the origi- nect except at the shed spaces. Any intersections are
nal criteria. I t does not try to cover all the physical fea- a t separated grades. They are also coarsely separated,
tures of a city, which are endless, but concentrates on since the roads are associated with the shed spaces.
those considered significant at that scale. Only system- Wires and pipes follow along paths. Pipes are dis-

206
 LYNCH AND RODWIN: THEORY OF URBAN FORM

persed, but wires serve only sheds and the multistory if one wants to study the results of physical form in re-
structures. lation to activity pattern, or social organization, or
e)Focal points in this organization are the two rec- politics. (To describe New York City in this way would,
tangular paved open spaces. T h e first is central to the of course, take a few more pages.)
area of adobe rooms, and is the focus of converging
paths. It corresponds to the peak of room density and PROBLEMS OF GOAL FORMULATION
to one of the peaks of path density. T h e other focal What will be the goals against which we will test this
point is flanked by the multistory structures, occurs at city? Unfortunately for a neat and workmanlike job,
another convergence and density peak of the path sys- they might be almost anything. One group inhabiting
tem, and is touched upon by the road system. Here Pone might find it highly satisfactory, another might
occurs the major terminus and interchange point of find it useless or even dangerous, all depending on their
that road system. T h e wire lines all pass through a cen- several purposes and the variations in their cultures.
tral switchboard in one of the multistoried structures. Is there any method by which relevant goals might be
T h e pipe lines have a single source just beyond the set out and related to these environmental shapes? Un-
town boundary. happily for the reader, we now find that we must di-
f) T h e settlement is round and compact, with no gress to consider the problems of setting u p a goal sys-
holes. T h e multistoried structures and second focus tem. Only after this is done will it be possible to return
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

occur at the center, with the sheds occupying a narrow to the implications of the forms themselves.
pie-shaped sector outwards from this. T h e focus of T h e possible goals must first be considered. This may
room density is slightly off center. T h e road system is a cause some confusion, since such a collection is not
rectangular grid of irregular spacing, tying to the sheds, likely to be consistent or unified. I t must be distin-
to the second focal point, and, by a single line, to the guished from a goal system, i.e., a set of selected objec-
outside. T h e path system is irregular and capillary, but tives which are coherent, unified, and capable of
converges and intensifies at the two focal points, as guiding action. Construction of such a system is the de-
noted above. sirable result of considering goal possibilities, but it
can only be brought to completion by a particular
group in a particular situation. Thus the possible
range of goals might include both the preservation of
individual life at all costs and also the inaximiLation
of human sacrifice. A particular system would have to
choose, or, inore probably, settle upon some interme-
diate stand; and this stand should be related to its
other objectives.
Probably the most confusing aspect of this question
is not the infinite number of goal possibilities, but
rather their range of generality. Some objectives, such
as “goodness,” inay seem to regulate almost every ac-
tion, but to do so in such a vague and generalized way
as to be of little help in choice. Others, such as the
goal of having all children say “please” when asking
€or things at the table, are very clear in their implica-
I n theory (and particularly if we could use more tions for action, but quite limited in their application
drawings) we now know enough of the physical form and their consequences. These two goals are inter-
to judge its value for various basic purposes at the city connected only by a long chain of explanations, situa-
level of significance. One is tempted to object: Isn’t this tions, and interactions. I t is difficult to be sure that one
meaningless, if one knows nothing of the life that is iollows from the other and hard to weight their rela-
going on within that form? Lifeless, yes, and saying tive importance in relation to other goals.
little or nothing about the society of Pone (though one T o avoid such confusions, it is important that any
may make some guesses); but yet adequate, if you want one goal system should contain only objectives which
to test its cost, or productive efficiency (given some are at approximately the same level of generality. We
productive system), or comfort (given some standards). may smile when someone admonishes a child to “be
Certainly it is the first step in trying to disentangle the good, and keep your fingernails clean!” But we ale also
effects ol physical form per se, and the first step even exhorted to build city additions that will be good places
 JOURNAL OF T H E AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF PLANNERS Vol. 24 (1958), No. 4

to live in and will keep valuations high. I n many cases, been prosperous ones, attention may focus upon in-
of course, there may be no real confusion, as when the crease of population size as an objective. Actions will
second point is the true objective and the first is only be directed toward stimulating growth, regardless of
a verbal blind. any consequences of dislocation, instability, or cost.
Similarly, it is meaningless to consider beauty and Industries niay be brought in which will depress the
fresh paint as alternative objectives: they do not oper- wage level and the general prosperity, because n o one
ate at the same level. Each objective may in its turn be has stopped to examine the objectives that lie behind
looked upon as a means of attaining some objective the growth objective, i.e., to ask the simple question:
higher LIP the scale of generality. Shouting at recruits “Why do we want to grow?” Because of this continuous
may be considered a means of overawing them, with tendency to fix upon goals at too specific a level, it is a
the goal of developing obedience, which is itself di- wise habit to challenge current goals by always pushing
rected to the building of a disciplined military force, them back at least one step u p the ladder of generality.
having as its objective the winning of wars, which may
be thought of as a way to gain security. When con- CRITERIA FOR T H E CHOICE OF GOALS
structing a rational system for guidance in any par- What will be the criteria for the choice of goals in
ticular situation, what must be built u p is a connected our case? If they are rational, they should be internally
hierarchy of goals, considering possible alternatives consistent. There should, moreover, be some possibility
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

only at the same level of generality and checking lower of moving toward their realization, now or in the fu-
levels for their relevance to upper levels of the system. ture. Otherwise they are simply frustrating. T o have
T h e more general objectives have the advantage oi operational meaning, they must be capable of being
relative stability: they are applicable to more situations contradicted, thus permitting a real choice. And finally,
for larger groups over longer spans of time. They have the goals must be relevant to city form, since there are
the corresponding disadvantages of lack of precision many humaii objectives which are little affected by en-
and difficulty of application in any specific problem. vironmental shape. Therefore, given one’s basic values
Very often, in goal systems of real life, such general and the values of the culture in which one is operating,
objectives may have very little connection with objec- it is necessary to develop a set of useful intermediate
tives farther down the list, being, rather, top-level show objectives which are consistent, possible, operational,
pieces, or covers lor hidden motives. T h e operating and relevant to the task in hand.
goals are then the intermediate ones, those which ac- Devising such objectives is difficult; and it is not
tually regulate action. T o develop a rational set of made easier by the fact that a planner is an individual
goals, however, the connection must be sought out, or responsible for actions or recommendations in an en-
the motives that are the true generaliLed goals must be vironment used by large numbers of people. He is not
revealed. T h e aim is to produce a system that is as concerned simply with his own values, nor even with
coherent as possible, although this again is rare in their interaction with the values of another individual
reality. with whom he can communicate, which is the situation
Since reference back to very general goals is a pain- of the architect with a single client. T h e planner’s cli-
ful one intellectually, most actions must be guided by ent is a large group, a difficult client to talk to, often
intermediate, more concrete, objectives, which can be incoherent, and usually in some conflict with itself.
referred to more quickly. Only the most serious steps T o some extent the planner can rely on democratic
warrant reference to fundamentals, while everyday de- processes to establish group objectives; to some extent
cisions depend on customs and precepts that are ac- he must use sociological techniques to uncover them.
tually low-level goals. City building is important Often he is forced, or thinks he is forced, to rely upon
enough to be referred back to more than simple pre- his own intuition as to group objectives-a most haz-
cepts; but even here decisions cannot always be brought ardous method, since the planner is himself likely to
u p to the highest level of generality, since the analysis be a member of a rather small class of that society. I n
is so complex. Theieiore reliance must be placed upon any event, he must make every effort to understand
goals of an intermediate level. But these intermediate his own values, as well as to uncover and clarify the
goals should be periodically checked for their relevance goals of the society he is working for.
to more general objectives and to the changing situa- His troubles do not stop here. Even if he had perfect
tion, as well as Ior consistency among themselves. knowledge of group goals, and they proved to form a
I t is a besetting sin to “freeze” upon rather specific completely consistent system, he is still faced with the
goals and thus risk action irrelevant to a new situation. issue of relating them to his own personal values. He
If it is observed, for example, that growing cities have cannot be solely the handmaiden of the group, but has

208
 LYNCH AND RODWIN: THEORY OF URBAN FORM

some responsibility (should he differ) to urge upon constructing surroundings whi,ch maximize
them a modification of their goal system or to acquaint interpersonal communications;
them with new alternatives. He has a complicated role 2) or having to do with group functioning: social
of leader and follower combined and must resolve this goals such as survival and continuity of the
for himself. This is true of many other professional group.
groups. I t is important to see that a mere listing of objectives
And should the public goals, as is most likely, prove is insufficient even at this generalized level, if a policy
to be internally inconsistent or in transition, then the of relative emphasis is not also included. Any real
planner must mediate these conflicts and changes. He action may work for one goal and against the other,
must find the means of striking a balance and the way or be more or less helpful in relation to another action.
of preparing for the new value to come without Yet the choice must be made. Therefore a statement
destroying the old value still present. of objectives must be accompanied by a statement of
But to all these everyday woes we can at the moment relative importance: that, for example, group survival
simply shrug our theoretical shoulders. Give us a con- is valued above individual survival, although both are
sistent and operational system of objectives, a system valued. More precisely, it will have to be said that,
possible and relevant and organized properly by levels, in such-and-such a circumstance, group survival is more
and we will show you the environmental forms to valued.
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

achieve these objectives. If your goals are superficial Since attainment of human objectives almost always
or shortsighted, so much the worse. T h a t is your con- entails the use of scarce resources, the next level of
cern, not ours. objectives are the economic. I n their most general
I n western culture, general and accepted goals would form, they can be described as the attainment of ends
probably cluster around the worth of the individual with the maximum economy of means, while keeping
human being, around the idea of man as the measure, or making the resource level as high as possible. I n
with an emphasis on future results and yet on the all these general objectives, moreover, there is an
importance of process as well as final achievement. intertwining of means and ends, of process and final
Basic values for the individual might include such achievement. Particularly where “final” achievement
things as: may be as long delayed or even as illusory as it is in
a ) Health, equilibrium, survival, continuity, adapt- city development, the attainment of objectives may be
ability. affected more by the process itself than by the final
b ) Coherence, meaning, response. form that is being sought.
c) Development, growth, stimulus, choice, freedom. But the goal system at this level, however consistent
d) Participation, active use of powers, efficiency, skill, and relevant, is still too general for effective applica-
control. tion to city-form decisions. Moving down to lower
e) Pleasure, comfort. levels for specific guidance, how can one define a
“meaningful environment,” for example, or the limits
Upon the basis of such generalities, one can make within which interpersonal communication is to be
for himself (or for his group) a set of broad goals. One maximized?
way of conveniently organizing such goals may be the It would be possible to move down the ladder step
following: by step, ending with some such rule as “all buildings
a ) Regarding the relation of men and objects: Those should by their exterior form reveal to any adult in-
goals habitant of average education and intelligeiice their
1) having to do with direct functioning: bio- principal internal use,” or even “. . . to accomplish this,
logical or technical goals, such as the achieve- the following building types shall have the following
ment of an environment which sustains and shapes.. . .” T h e latter is undoubtedly an example of
prolongs life; “misplaced concreteness”; but even the former poses
2) having to do with sensuous interactions: problems in relating it back to the general descriptive
psychological or esthetic goals, such as the categories of city form that were developed above.
creation of an environment which is mean- How does the “meaningfulness” of structure relate to
ingful to the inhabitant. density, o r grain, or focal organization? I n coming
b ) Regarding the relation of men and men: Those down the ladder of specificity we may find we have
goals slipped away from relevance to form at the city scale,
1) having to do with interpersonal relations: or have developed precepts which have multiple and
sociological and psychological goals, such as complex effects on the various categories of city form.
 JOURNAL OF T H E AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF PLANNERS Vol. 2 1 (1958), No. 4

Since the formulation of specific objectives is un- postulated. Or, for another example, the impact of
avoidable, it would be preferable that they be re- the grain of spaces on interpersonal communication
organized by being grouped in terms of their relevance depends also on the activity occupying those spaces.
to the descriptive categories. Such organization is Nevertheless, once given a construction process or a n
simply a tactical move, but a crucial one. It involves activity distribution which is held constant during the
running through the list of descriptive categories of test, then the differential impact of various grain
city form, and choosing (by intuition o r prior experi- alteriiatives can be analyzed. Thus, in a given activity
ence) those general objectives that seem most relevant context, the results of various physical patterns might
to that aspect of form. be studied. Often, a principal result of a given physical
. For example, the following general goals are prob- pattern may occur via the manner in which it changes
ably affected in some important way by the “grain” an activity distribution, given an assumption as to a
of adapted spaces in an urban settlement: fixed association between certain forms and certain
a ) Optimum interpersonal communication. activities.
b ) Maximum choice of environment for the indi- T h e same limitations apply to the study of activity
vidual. patterns in isolation, which are meaningless without
c) Maximum individual freedom in construction. reference to the facilities available for communication,
d ) Optimum esthetic stimulus. insulation, and so on. Eventually, there would be a
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

e) Maximum productive efficiency. more complex level of analysis, in which both activity
f ) Maximum productive flexibility. distribution and form might be allowed to vary
g) Minimum first cost. simultaneously. Even here, however, a general cultural
h ) Minimum operating cost. context i s still required.
By thus selecting and grouping our general goals, Once the general goals are arranged in terms of the
a hypothesis is being asserted, that, for example, “the type, quantity, density, grain, focal organization, and
grain of city facilities has significant (if unknown) pattern of the adapted spaces and the flow system (and
effect on the first cost of constructing them.” Such in the process just those objectives have been selected
hypotheses may prove untrue, in which case the group out which may be most critically affected by these
of goals must be revised or, equally likely, it may qualities), and once a general context of culture and
indicate that some other objective not originally listed activity has been chosen, a more concrete level of
is also significantly affected and must be added to the analysis is possible. T h e level should be specific enough
list. to say that “city A is closer to this objective than
One objective may be significantly affected by more city B.” T h e meaning of terms must be put in an
than one form quality and will thus appear in more operational, and often quantitative, way. For example,
than one group. Another objective may be little “what density of spaces allows a reasonable journey
influenced by any one quality alone, but rather by from home to work” might become: “what density (or
the nature of the combination of two or more, such densities) allows 75 per cent of the population to be
as the total effect of grain and density together. This within 30 minutes’ time distance of their place of
is a separate point, to which we will later return. work, providing no more than 10 per cent are less
T h e critical nature of the form categories previously than 5 minutes away from their work place?” Different
selected now becomes apparent, since they impose their city models could now be tested by this criterion.
pattern upon the entire investigation. If they are not Not all goals could be put in this quantitative form,
in themselves highly significant, or if they are in- of course. But they would at least have a testable
consistent or poorly organized, the work must be wording, such as: “what is the density at which there
redone. Nevertheless, by bringing in the relation to is maximum opportunity for interpersonal communica-
Corm thus early in our consideration of objectives, tion within the local group, without destroying the
a much more economical and systematic attack is ability of the individual to achieve privacy when
possible. T h e objectives not only contain hypotheses desired?” Such formulations are likely to contain the
of relevancy, but are really turning into action ques- words maximum, or minimum, or optimum.
tions, tor example: “What grain of spaces gives a T h e caution must be repeated that, while satisfyingly
minimum first cost?” specific, such goals require continuous rechecking for
It must be made clear that, if physical forms are relevance to the general goals and the changing situa-
considered in isolation, such action questions are not tion. T h e home-to-work objective, for example, is
answerable. No relation between grain and first cost simply a definition of the original word “reasonable.”
can be established until a construction process is Next year, or in India, it might be different.

210
 LYNCH AND RODWIN: THEORY O F URBAN FORM

GOAL FORM INTERACTION These are final stage results, difficult to attain. Par-
Having established an analytical system of urban tial, and still useful, conclusions are more likely, such
form and groups of objectives cast in relevant as: if this is the contemporary American society, and
operational terms, the next problem we have is the if the only goal is productive efficiency, then here is
iiiteiaction of form with goal. One might begin either the grain to use for this type of adapted space (or:
by considering the grain of adapted space and the there are several equally good distributions or, per-
objectives significantly related to it, or, alternatively, haps, the grain is of no consequence). Of course, the
a fundamental objective and the form aspects related answer is likely to be still more qualified. One may
to it. If one of the goals is minimum first cost, for have to add that this grain is best in a city of small
example, are the shed spaces of Pone cheaper to build size, another in the larger city; or that optimum grain
when concentrated as they are in a coarse grain than cannot be separated from density or pattern.
if they were dispersed throughout the adobe spaces One further note must be made. T h e process of
in a fine grain? Or, perhaps, does the grain of dis- achieving goals or of reshaping form is, in cities, as
persion make no difference whatever? Undoubtedly, important as the long-range goal or form. Building
the effect of grain on cost may differ for different a new city of a specific shape may have vital side-effects
types of space. For example, while the grain of shed on the administrative acts and organization required;
spaces was critical because they were built by mass sequence of development has as much to do with cost
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

site fabrication methods, the grain of adobe spaces as final density. Moreover, one may have important
might be indifferent, since they were put u p singly goals which have to do mainly with the process itself,
by hand in any case. Or it might be found that €or example, that development decisions be arrived a t
dispersion of the multistory spaces among the shed democratically, or that people be allowed to participate
spaces did not affect their cost, but dispersion among in planning their dwellings, regardless of the final
the adobe spaces did. Only in certain cases could result.
generalizations as to grain, per se, be made. More T h e goal-form method, then, consists in ordering
often, the grain of a certain type of adapted space €orm analysis and definition of objectives so that their
would have to be the subject of a conclusion. interrelation can be considered in a systematic and
T h e grain of the shed spaces may also affect pro- rational manner. It helps to pose the problem. There
ductive efficiency. T o test this, one may assume a type it blesses the investigator, and drops him in the mud. I t
of activity, a given productive system, similar to the has no iurther bearing on the analysis of any given
assumption of construction methods to test the cost interrelation. Each such analysis is likely to be unique
implications. T o do so does not mean that activity and to demand its own method of solution. One might
distribution slips in by the back door; we are still be amenable to mathematical methods; another, to
testing the impact of one or another physical quality sociological tools; a third, solvabIe only by subjective
upon the functioning of an activity which is held analysis; a fourth, by full-scale field tests. There is no
constant during the test. T h a t is, given a factory guarantee, of course, that the fifth may be solvable a t
system of production, which operates more easily in all. What is proposed is merely a way of attacking the
the wide-span shed spaces of Pone than anywhere else central problems of cities in a methodical way.
in the city, is that productive system more efficient This “merely,” however, may in time open up new
if all the sheds are close together or if they are dis- possibilities, simply because the problems are more pre-
persed? cisely put. If the important physical properties of cities
I n this manner, the goal implications of grain could can be clearly defined, and if a n operational standard
be analyzed, testing each for relevance and effect, and can be set, such as one regarding commuting times, we
ending by a search to see if significant goals have been may be able to study the implications of complex forms
left out. If this system is successful, one should be by means of new mathematical methods or with such
able to say that, given such-and-such a culture, this aids as the high-speed computers.
particular grain gives best results if your goal system
has these particular elements and emphases, and COMPLEX FORM AND GOAL
another grain would be better for another system. KELATIONSHIPS
Alternatively, the objective of minimum first cost I€ form qualities and goals could be analyzed and
could be explored throughout all its ramifications, disposed of one by one, then in time a complete struc-
resulting in a statement that, given a certain culture, ture could be built with relative ease. Unfortunately
this particular total urban form can be constructed (and this is perhaps the most vulnerable point of the
at a minimum first cost. system) physical patterns and goals have a habit of com-

21 1
 JOURNAL OF T H E AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF PLANNERS Vol. 24 (1958), No. 4

plex interaction. ‘There is not one goal, but many; and that it is influenced by a pair of form qualities that
the presence of other goals influences the force of the must be considered together. One goal is shown (E)
original one. T h e city forms, which we have herded which is effected by a n inseparable combination of
into arbitrary categories to make our analysis possible, three, and must therefore be shown as a connected tri-
in truth make one pattern. It is not always easy to dis- angle. If a three-dimensional notation system were used,
cuss the impact of grain without specifying density or it could occupy a single solid cube. Higher interactions
size. T h e consequences of the distribution of adapted would require more complicated notations.
spaces rests partly on the Aow system allied with it. This figure would change, of course, as the system of
Thus there are frequently situations where a given descriptive categories was modified. It is simply a con-
goal may not only be influenced by more than one form venient way of reminding ourselves what must be taken
aspect, but also may at times be affected by such an into account in studying goal-form interaction. It indi-
intimate interaction of aspects that there is no separ- cates, incidentally, that in this particular case two as-
able cause. A convenient system of notation for such a pects of form (space pattern and flow system type)
situation might be as follows, imagining that we are happen to be the ones that have no bearing on any
concerned with five goals, A, B, C , D, and E, which goal. All the rest are involved in one way or another.
have the following relationships with form: Probably these analytical methods could handle sit-
uations where pairs of qualities were involved. Triads
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

of qualities become much more difficult, and many

more are likely to make analysis impossible. Some ques-
tions may therefore be answerable, and others may
resist our best efforts.
T o complete the example, consider the city of Pone
again. T h e people of Pone are simple-minded; they
have few wants. They have only three goals relevant to
city form:
1) Maximum individual privacy, when not produc-
ing.
2) Maximum defensibility in war.
3) Maximum productive efficiency.
I n case of conflict, goal 2 takes precedence, then goal 3.
T h e Ponians are a simple and a rather grim people.
These goals are set in the following situation: the
town produces various kinds of simple consumer goods,
which it exports to the surrounding countryside in
return for raw materials. This production is most easily
Adapted Spaces Flow System
carried out in the shed spaces, directed by control func-
Achievement of goal is influenced by: tions in the multistory spaces. But the town also pro-
duces a large part of its food supply in the cultivated
A-(1) space type; (2) flow system size. spaces within its limits. Other life functions, beyond
B-(l) space, density, and grain combined; (2) focal production and distribution, are traditionally carried
organization of space and flow system combined. out in the adobe rooms or in the paved open spaces.
Wars are fought by ground action, with simple short-
C-( 1) space, size, and flow system pattern combined. range weapons, and may occur suddenly.
D-(l) grain of flow system; (2) density of space and T h e following matrix indicates the probable rele-
flow system combined. vancy of various form aspects to the three goals:
T h a t is, objective 1 is affected by the type, density,
E-( 1) grain of space, and density and focal organiza- and grain of adapted spaces, all acting singly. Objec-
tion of flow system all combined. tive 2 is influenced by the pattern of spaces and by the
density, grain and focal organization of the flow system,
Here the appearance of a goal in the top diagonal acting singly. It is also the prey of the combined action
(shaded squares) indicates that it relates to a single of the size and density of the adapted spaces. This is
form quality at a time. Elsewhere its appearance shows true because, although the larger the city the greater

212
 LYNCH AND RODWIN: THEORY O F URBAN FORM

the defensive army that could be raised for war and the Pone would also have gone on to a study of the conse-
higher the density the more compact the defensive quences of the activity distribution in the city, and
perimeter, yet in combination they may work in an- they would have ended with a higher level study of the
other way. A large, very dense city might quickly suc- interrelation of activity and form. But probably the
cumb to food shortages, owing to the lack of adequate reader has had enough.
internal cultivated spaces. Therefore the optimum solu-
tion is likely to be a function of size in relation to EVALUATION
density. Finally, objective 3 is related to the type and Application of this method to a modern metropolis
grain of spaces and the type and density of the flow would obviously be far more complicated and, neces-
system, acting singly, plus the combined effect of the sarily, more fragmentary. But the basic technique
spatial and flow-system focal organizations. T h e matrix should still be applicable, though it would call for
indicates that the size and pattern of the flow system descriptions at a larger scale and goals less precisely
are meaningless to the Ponians. formulated. Since the whole technique is analytical,
a study of isolated parts, it will tend to give first ap-
proximations, rather coarse conclusions bristling with
“ifs.” It would nevertheless be the elementary knowl-
edge upon which much more refined, and in particular
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013

much more fluid and integrated methods could be

constructed.
T o the student of the physical environment, perhaps
the most attractive features of goal-form studies are the
new possibilities for research and theory. Regardless of
the inadequacy of our present formulations there is a
need to test and explore both the range and appropri-
ateness of form categories. Hardly anything is known of
how they interact and what the possibilities are for
substitution. And instead of fragmentary notions, such
as the differentiation of traffic networks, the separation
or mixing of land uses, and the organization of neigh-
borhood units, there is the prospect of a general theory
of urban form for the city as a whole. If some measure
of success is achieved in developing such a general
v
theory, it should not prove too difficult to fit these mis-
Adapted Spaces Flow System cellaneous doctrines into this broader framework, es-
pecially since these doctrines purport to modify city
T h e analysis on all these separate points could then form in line with some more or less definite objectives.
be carried through and the total balance struck, com- Goal-€orm studies also suggest a new lead for examin-
paring the actual form of Pone with any other forms ing city planning history. Instead of the traditional
within the reach of this people. One might come out historical survey of civic design accomplishments, the
with some such conclusion as: given these goals, the adequacy of urban forms might be examined in the
actual form is probably the optimum available, with light of some of the major goals of different cultures.
the following modifications: T h e same approach might be applied with profit to
a) For the privacy objective, a new type of space current history. Significant contemporary plans for
should be substituted for the single-room adobe space. communities might be studied to see how adequately
b ) For the defense objective, a better balance of size the goals are formulated and how explicitly they are
and density could be struck, particularly if the unused related to the physical forms proposed.
dust spaces were eliminated. Furthermore, if the capac- T h e essence of progress for most disciplines lies in
ity density of the flow system were stepped u p and the finding ways of systematizing as well as extending pres-
system dispersed at finer grain throughout the settle- ent knowledge. Goal-form studies offer a springboard
ment, then defense would be simplified. for city and regional planning to achieve this extension
c) For the production objective, an increase in flow and synthesis.
capacity-density would also facilitate efficiency. But aside from the elegance or logic of the theoreti-
As was stated at the beginning, the high planners of cal framework, such a n analytical system may find its
 JOURNAL OF T H E AMERICAN I N S T I T U T E OF PLANNERS Vol. 24 (1958), No. 4

ultimate usefulness in providing the raw material for likely to elude rigorous theory and depend on personal
planning decisions. Eventually it should tell the plan- judgment. Second, because the method is indifferent to
ner: “If your only aim is productive efficiency, and if the choice of values, and the choice or clarification of
other elements are like this, and if your society does objectives is a fundamental part of the art of planning.
not change, then this form is the best one yet found And thirdly, because the method can do no more than
to do the job.” This is the underpinning for what in test form alternatives previously proposed. T h e crea-
part must remain a complex art, a n art yet beyond the tive task of imagining new form possibilities, as in all
determinability of scientific knowledge in three ways. other realms of art and science, lies beyond it, although
First, in that the more complex interactions are most the analytical system may be suggestive in this work.
Downloaded by [Temple University Libraries] at 13:29 15 September 2013