Machine Elements - Module 1 PDF

Module 1: General Considerations
Module Description:
This module will define terms as well as basic classification of mechanism parts and
determination of their motions.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, the students must be able:

1. To classify basic mechanism parts.
2. To determine basic mechanism motions.
3. To define terms involved in mechanisms and kinematics.
1.1 Kinematics, Machines, and Mechanisms
Kinematics of Machines – that branch of the study of machines that is concerned with the motions
of machine parts
Four Stages Involved in the Design of a Machine
Pure Mechanism or Kinematics of Machines
1. Determination of the purpose of the machine and the necessary motions involved.
2. Selection of the basic machine parts that will produce the required motions.
Constructive Mechanism or Machine Design
3. Calculation of the forces that act on the machine parts.

4. Selection of the appropriate materials for the various parts and proportioning of these
machine parts to withstand the forces that act on them.
MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 1

ENG’R. JULIUS JAMES D. LAURESTA
Machine – a combination of parts, with specific motions and resistance to the forces that act on
them, altogether designed to transmit or transform energy.
Resistant Materials – those that do not deform or change in size and shape when acted upon by
forces.
Mechanism – a combination of resistant pieces of materials having constrained relative motion.

A machine is composed of mechanisms.
Structure – a combination of pieces of resistant materials used to carry loads or transmit forces
without relative motion of its parts.
1.2 Links
Link – a part of a machine or mechanism used to connect other parts that have relative motion
with respect to it. Also called as Kinematic Link or Element.
Types of Links
1. Rigid Links – those capable of transmitting both push and pull. Example: Connecting Rods
2. Flexible Links – flexible links that transmit a pull but not thrust. Examples: Ropes, Belts,
Chains
3. Compression or Pressure Links – flexible links that can only carry thrusts. Examples: Oil
in hydraulics, Braking system of cars, Water in pump system
Classification of Links
Figure 1.2.01 Classification of Links

1.3 Pairs
Pairs/Kinematic Pairs/Pairs of Elements – portions of two links, having relative motion, in

contact with each other at a point, along a link, or over a surface.
Classification of Pairs According to Nature of Contact
Lower Pair – A pair of links having surface or area contact between the members is known
as a lower pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are similar. Examples: Nut turning on
a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, all pairs of a slider-crank mechanism, universal joint.
Higher Pair – When a pair has a point or line contact between the links, it is known as a
higher pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are dissimilar. Examples: Wheel rolling
on a surface cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball and roller bearings, etc.
Classification of Pairs According to Nature of Mechanical Constraint
Closed Pair - When the elements of a pair are held together mechanically, it is known as
a closed pair. The contact between the two can only be broken only by the destruction of
at least one of the members. All the lower pairs and some of the higher pairs are closed
pairs.
Unclosed Pair - When two links of a pair are in contact either due to force of gravity or
some spring action, they constitute an unclosed pair. In this the links are not held together
mechanically. Ex.: Cam and follower pair.
Classification of Pairs According to Nature of Relative Motion
Rolling Pairs – When the links of a pair have a rolling motion relative to each other, they
form a rolling pair. Examples: a rolling wheel on a flat surface, ball and roller bearings,
etc.
Sliding Pairs – If two links have a sliding motion relative to each other, they form a sliding
pair. Example: A rectangular rod in a rectangular hole in a prism

Turning Pairs – When on link has a turning or revolving motion relative to the other, they
constitute a turning pair or revolving pair.
Screw Pairs (Helical Pairs) - if two mating links have a turning as well as sliding motion
between them, they form a screw pair. This is achieved by cutting matching threads on the
two links. Example: The lead screw and the nut of a lathe
Spherical Pairs - When one link in the form of a sphere turns inside a fixed link, it is a
spherical pair. Example: The ball and socket joint
1.4 Cranks
Crank – an arm which revolves about a fixed center or oscillates through an angle
Figure 1.4.01 The red circle represents

the circular path taken by a point on the
blue crank rotating about an axis Q
Lever – two cranks rigidly connected to each other and share the same axis angled between
0° to 180°
Bell Crank Lever – often called to two arms angled less than 90°
Figure 1.4.02 Lever having a 0° angle

between arms (left) and another having
less than 90° angle (right)

Rocker – often called to two arms angled more than 90°
Figure 1.4.03 Lever having a more than

90° angle between arms (left) and
another having a 180° angle (right)
1.5 Degrees of Freedom
An unconstrained rigid body moving in space can describe the following independent
motions.
1. Translational motions along any three mutually perpendicular axes x, y and z,
2. Rotational motions along these axes.
Thus, a rigid body possesses six degrees of freedom. The connection of a link with another
imposes certain constraints on their relative motion. The number of restraints can never be zero
(joint is disconnected) or six (joint becomes solid).
Degrees of freedom of a pair is defined as the number of independent relative motions,

both translational and rotational, a pair can have.
Degrees of freedom = 6 – no. of restraints
To find the number of degrees of freedom for a plane mechanism we have an equation
known as Grubler’s equation and is given by
𝐹 = 3(𝑛 − 1) − 2𝑗1 − 𝑗2
F = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom
n = Number of links including frame
j1 = Joints with single (one) degree of freedom
j2 = Joints with two degrees of freedom

If F > 0, results a mechanism with ‘F’ degrees of freedom.
F = 0, results in a statically determinate structure.
F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure.
The degrees of freedom for various joints are given by:
Table 1.5.01 Degrees of freedom of joints
1.6 Linkage, Kinematic Chain and Mechanism
Linkage – consists of a number of pairs of elements connected by links.
Figure 1.6.01 Linkages

Kinematic Chains are linkages that satisfy two conditions:
1. Relative motion of the links is possible.

2. Motion of each piece relative to the others is definite.
Linkage e formed a triangle. Since only one triangle can be formed from three given lines,
no relative motion of the links can occur unless one of the joint or link breaks.
Figure 1.6.02 Impossibility of relative motion in a 3-bar linkage – a redundant chain
On the other hand, if four links are involved, as in linkage a, relative motion of a definite
nature will result.
Figure 1.6.03 A four-bar linkage – a kinematic chain
Relative motion is possible in linkage d. However, a given angular motion done of the
crank d1 does not impart a definite resulting angular motion to link d2.
Figure 1.6.04 A 5-bar

linkage – a non-kinematic
chain

In case, the motion of a link results in indefinite motions of other links, it is a non-kinematic
chain. However, some authors prefer to call all chains having relative motions of the links as
kinematic chains.
If, however, joint dj is guided by some external means, say crank d3 turning about any
fixed center dQ, the motions of all the links become determinate.
Figure 1.6.05 Combination of 2

four-bar linkage motion
But the linkage, by the addition of the crank d3, has now been transformed into a
combination of two four-bar linkages, one that includes crank d1(da-db-dj-dQ), and another one
that includes link d2 (dd-dc-dj-dQ), with da, dd, and, dQ fixed to each other.
Figure 1.6.06 A combination of two four-bar linkage
In order that a linkage may constitute a kinematic chain, the number of fixed points, or
points whose motions are determined by means outside the particular linkage in question, must
bear such a relation to the total number of links that the linkage may form a four-bar linkage or a
combination of two or more four-bar linkages. This may be seen by reference to a, b, c, and
Figure 1.6.06.

Mechanism – a kinematic chain with one of its links fixed.
In general, it may be said that any mechanism may be analyzed as a four-bar linkage or as
a combination of two or more such linkages.
If one of the links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a structure.
To obtain constrained or definite motions of some of the links of a linkage, it is necessary

to know how many inputs are needed. In some mechanisms, only one input is necessary that
determines the motion of other links and are said to have one degree of freedom. In other
mechanisms, two inputs may be necessary to get a constrained motion of the other links and are
said to have two degrees of freedom and so on.
The degree of freedom of a structure is zero or less. A structure with negative degrees of
freedom is known as a Superstructure.
1.7 The Four-Bar Linkage
Figure 1.7.01 The four-bar linkage

The four-bar linkage consists of two cranks, 2 and 4, Fig. 1.7.01, having their stationary
pair-members g1 and g2 attached to, or a part of, a stationary piece 1, and the moving pair-
members k1 and k2 connected to each other by a rigid rod or bar 3 called the connecting rod,
coupler, or floating link. k1 is now constrained to move about Q2 as explained in Fig. 1.4.01 and
k2 about Q4, and the rigid connection 3 between k1 and k2 controls the turning of each about its
own axis (A and B respectively). Hence, if any motion is given to any part of this combination
every other part must have a corresponding determinate motion, and the combination constitutes
a mechanism (see Art. 1.6).
Any of the four pairs might be inverted. That is, the shaft f1 or h1 might be held firmly in
the bearing and the crank turn on it, or the pin f2 or h2 might be attached firmly to 3. The four
pieces 1, 2, 3, and 4 are called links.
The essential part of a link, from a kinematic standpoint, is its center line, and it is
convenient, in studying a linkage, to represent it by the center lines of its links, that is, the lines
connecting the axes of the four pairs of elements. Figure 1.7.02 represents the linkage shown in
Fig. 1.7.01.
Figure 1.7.02 The four-bar linkage line diagram

Any mechanism may be resolved into an elementary four-bar linkage consisting of two
cranks, a connecting rod, and a line of centers, or a combination of four-bar linkages, and its
action analyzed in accordance with the laws.
1.8 Four-Bar Linkage with a Sliding Member
Figure 1.8.01 A four-bar linkage with a sliding member
In Fig. 1.8.01, the end of the connecting rod carries a block, pivoted to it at the axis B,
which slides back and forth in the circular slot as the crank Q2A revolves. The center of curvature
of the slot is at Q4. The center of the crank pin B evidently has the same motion that it would have
were it guided by a crank of length Q4B turning about Q4. The mechanism, therefore, is really a
four-bar linkage with the lines Q2A and Q4B as center lines of the cranks, Q2Q4 as the line of
centers, and AB as the center line of the connecting rod.
Let it now be supposed that the slot is made of greater radius than that shown in the figure,
for example, with its center at Q4'. Then the equivalent four-bar linkage would be Q2ABQ4'.

Figure 1.8.02 A four-bar linkage with a sliding member on a straight path
Carrying the same idea still further, let the slot be made straight. Then the equivalent center
Q4 would be at a point Q4∞, an infinite distance away. The mechanism, however, would still be the
equivalent of a four-bar linkage, as shown in Fig. 1.8.02, where Q2A is one crank (called the finite
crank), the line BQ4∞ perpendicular to the slot is the other crank (called the infinite crank), AB
the connecting rod, and the line Q2Q4∞, parallel to the crank through B, is the line of centers.

Figure 1.8.03 A slider-crank mechanism
Figure 1.8.03 shows the special form in which this linkage commonly occurs, where the
center line of the slot passes through the center of the shaft Q2. This is the mechanism formed by
the crankshaft, crank, connecting rod, crosshead, and crosshead guides of the reciprocating steam
engine, the reciprocating pump, and the reciprocating air compressor, or the crank, connecting rod,
piston, and cylinder of an internal combustion engine. This mechanism is known as a slider-crank
mechanism. Figure 1.8.04 is a line diagram of this mechanism and is equivalent to the line diagram
of the four-bar linkage without a sliding pair as shown in Fig. 1.7.02.
Figure 1.8.04 A slider-crank mechanism line diagram

Review Questions
1. Solve for the degree of freedom of a at Fig. 1.6.01. 1
2. Solve for the degree of freedom of d at Fig. 1.6.01. 2
3. Solve for the degree of freedom of e at Fig. 1.6.01. 0
4. In Figure 1.7.02, assuming crank Q2A rotates clockwise, when will crank Q4B stop to move
clockwise? Extreme position
5. The moment or point an oscillating crank change its direction of motion. Extreme position
6. Axes Q2 and Q4, are fixed. Q2A = 1 ½ in., AB = 3 in., Q4B = 2 in., and Q2Q4 = 3 in. Crank
2 is the driver turning counterclockwise. The proportions are such that, while 2 makes a
complete revolution, 4 oscillates through a certain angle. Find the two extreme positions
of the center line Q4B of crank 4.
Oscillates through a 100.7846° angle

7. Axes Q2 and Q4 are fixed. Q2A = 1 ½ in., Q4B = 2 in., and Q2Q4 = 3 in. AB is of such a
length that when the driving crank 2 is 30° above Q2Q4, the driven crank 4 is 60° below
Q2Q4 as shown. Find the length of AB and the two extreme positions of the center line Q4B
of crank 4.
AB = 2.57913 in, Q4B oscillates through a 98.1558° angle
8. Block 4 slides in the slot in the fixed piece 1. Axis Q2 of crank 2 is fixed on 1. Q2A = 1 ½
in., and AB = 4 ½ in. Draw the mechanism, assuming dimensions for 1, if desired, or use
center lines only. Draw the four-bar linkage for this mechanism, properly notate the linkage
Q2ABQ4∞, name each link, and show the finite and infinite cranks.
Find graphically the two extreme positions of B, the axis of the pin by which link 3 is
attached to the block 4. Dimension the length of the stroke of B.
Stroke = 3.254 in

9. Q2 is a fixed axis. 1 is a fixed guide for the sliding block 4. If the stroke of B is 4 in., what
is the length of crank Q2A? Find the length AB if the maximum value of the angle ɸ is 30°.
Q2A = 2 in, AB = 4 in

10. In the Slider-crank mechanism shown, the slide B travels along the center line XX'. Q2A =
1 ½ in., AB = 6 in. With the crank in the position shown, draw the four-bar linkage, properly
notate the linkage Q2ABQ4∞, name each link, and show the finite and infinite cranks. Find
the two extreme positions of B, the axis of the pin by which link 3 is attached to the block
4. Dimension the length of the stroke of B, that is, the distance between its two extreme
positions. Show and dimension the angular movement in degrees of the crank Q2A when
the slide B moves between its extreme positions.
Stroke = 3.2574

Assessment
1. Solve for the degree of freedom of b at Fig. 1.6.01. 1
2. Solve for the degree of freedom of c at Fig. 1.6.01. 1
3. Solve for DOF.
4. Solve for DOF.

5. Solve for DOF.
6. Axes Q2 and A, are fixed. Q2A = 1 ½ in., AB = 3 in., Q4B = 2 in., and Q2Q4 = 3 in. Indicate
the four bars of the mechanism. Plot the paths of B and Q4 for one kinematic cycle.

7. Axes Q2 and Q4, are fixed. Q2A = 1 ½ in., AB = 3 in., Q4B = 2 in., and Q2Q4 = 3 in. Crank
2 is the driver turning counterclockwise. The proportions are such that, while 2 makes a
complete revolution, 4 oscillates through a certain angle. Locate the midpoint of the
connecting rod AB. Plot the path of this point for one complete revolution of the crank 2
and find the angular position of the crank 2 when the midpoint of the connecting rod is
nearest to the center line Q4B of crank 4.
8. Axes Q2 and Q4 are fixed. Q2A = 2 in., Q4B = 2 ½ in., and Q2Q4 = 3 ½ in. AB is of such a
length that when the driving crank 2 is 30° above Q2Q4, the driven crank 4 is 60° below
Q2Q4 as shown. Find the length of AB and the two extreme positions of the center line Q4B
of crank 4.

9. Axes Q2 and A are fixed. Q2A = 1 ½ in., Q4B = 2 in., and Q2Q4 = 3 in and AB = 2 ½ in.
Designate the four bars of the mechanism and determine the extreme positions of the center
line of the two cranks.
10. Block 4 slides in the slot in the fixed piece 1. Axis Q2 of crank 2 is fixed on 1. AB = 4 ½
in. and the extreme right position of B is 6 in. to the right of a vertical line through Q2.
Draw the mechanism, assuming dimensions for 1, if desired, or use center lines only. Draw
the four-bar linkage for this mechanism, properly notate the linkage Q2ABQ4∞, name each
link, and show the finite and infinite cranks.
Find graphically the other extreme position of B, the axis of the pin by which link 3 is
attached to the block 4. Dimension the length of the crank Q2A and the stroke of B.

References
Asin, R. (1985). Kinematics of Machines (A Reviewer/Text). Manila, PH. MERRIAM &
WEBSTER, INC
Doughtie, V.L., & James, W.H. (1954). Elements of Mechanism. NY. John Wiley & Son,
Inc.
Gowtham Unity. (n.d.). Kinematics of Machines – Notes, Tutorial Mechanisms Kinematic

of Machines. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/10262801/Kinematics_of_Machines_Notes_Tutorials_Mechanisms_
Kinematics_of_Machines


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Module 1: General Considerations

At the end of this module, the students must be able:

1.1 Kinematics, Machines, and Mechanisms

Four Stages Involved in the Design of a Machine

Pure Mechanism or Kinematics of Machines

Constructive Mechanism or Machine Design

3. Calculation of the forces that act on the machine parts.

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 1

Mechanism – a combination of resistant pieces of materials having constrained relative motion.

Figure 1.2.01 Classification of Links

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 2

Pairs/Kinematic Pairs/Pairs of Elements – portions of two links, having relative motion, in

Classification of Pairs According to Nature of Contact

Classification of Pairs According to Nature of Mechanical Constraint

Classification of Pairs According to Nature of Relative Motion

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 3

Figure 1.4.01 The red circle represents

Figure 1.4.02 Lever having a 0° angle

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 4

Figure 1.4.03 Lever having a more than

1.5 Degrees of Freedom

1. Translational motions along any three mutually perpendicular axes x, y and z,

2. Rotational motions along these axes.

Degrees of freedom of a pair is defined as the number of independent relative motions,

Degrees of freedom = 6 – no. of restraints

F = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom

n = Number of links including frame

j1 = Joints with single (one) degree of freedom

j2 = Joints with two degrees of freedom

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 5

F = 0, results in a statically determinate structure.

F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure.

The degrees of freedom for various joints are given by:

Table 1.5.01 Degrees of freedom of joints

1.6 Linkage, Kinematic Chain and Mechanism

Linkage – consists of a number of pairs of elements connected by links.

Figure 1.6.01 Linkages

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 6

1. Relative motion of the links is possible.

Figure 1.6.02 Impossibility of relative motion in a 3-bar linkage – a redundant chain

Figure 1.6.03 A four-bar linkage – a kinematic chain

Figure 1.6.04 A 5-bar

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 7

Figure 1.6.05 Combination of 2

Figure 1.6.06 A combination of two four-bar linkage

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 8

If one of the links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a structure.

To obtain constrained or definite motions of some of the links of a linkage, it is necessary

1.7 The Four-Bar Linkage

Figure 1.7.01 The four-bar linkage

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 9

Figure 1.7.02 The four-bar linkage line diagram

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 10

1.8 Four-Bar Linkage with a Sliding Member

Figure 1.8.01 A four-bar linkage with a sliding member

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 11

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 12

Figure 1.8.04 A slider-crank mechanism line diagram

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 1: GENERAL CONSIDERATION 13