• Useful shapes

• Metal Forming – Plastic deformation

• Metal Removal

• Control of mechanical properties

– Deformation
– Temperature
– Strain rate
Based on types of forces applied …
Direct Compression
(a) Rolling and (b) forging
 Indirect Compression

(c) Extrusion and (d) wire and bar drawing (e) deep drawing
Tension type
Bending
 Shearing

(1) punch first contacting sheet and (2) after cutting

Deformation processing system
Primary metal working - Processing

Secondary metal working - Fabrication

 Temperature in metal working
Hot working – Deformation condition of temperature and
strain rate such that recovery process take place simultaneously
with deformation
• Strain hardening and distorted grain structure produced by
deformation is rapidly eliminated by new strain free grains as a
result of recrystallization
• Very large deformation- recovery keep pace with deformation
• Occurs at constant flow stress – Flow stress decreases with
temp - Energy is less compared to cold working

Doesn't depend on arbitrary temperatures

Lead & Tin – Room temperature
Tunsten – 1100oC
 Hot working
• Cast ingot to wrought
• Coarse columnar grains to fine equiaxed
recrystallized grain
• Increased ductility and toughness
• Large strains – 2 to 4
• Usually above 0.6 Tm and strain rates – 0.5 to
500 s-1
• Hot torsion – Laboratory method for studying
metallurgical changes during hot working
• Increased ability to flow without cracking
• Rapid diffusion – decreases chemical
inhomogenity of cast ingots
• Blowholes and porosities are eliminated –
welding of cavities
 Disadvantages
• Surface reaction – Metal & Furnace atmosphere
• Oxidation – Metal loss – Poor surface finish
• Allowance for expansion and contraction – Increased
dimensional tolerance compared to cold working
• Ti – embrittlement by O2
Hot working at inert atmosphere
• Surface decarburization – hot worked steel
Extensive surface finishing required
• Structure and property not uniform – Deformation
greater in surface – More recrystallization
• Interior at high temp for long – grain growth
• Lower limit of hot working – Lowest temp at
which rate of recystallization is rapid enough to
eliminate strain hardening in the time metal is at
that temperature
Depends on
 Amount of deformation
 Time the metal is at that temperature
Upper limit – 50oC below M.P
Segregation of low M.P phases – Hot shortness
• Multiple passes – temp for intermediate passes
– well above the minimum working
temperature – grain growth – low temp during
last pass to avoid grain growth after
recrystallization
 Two mechanism for softening in hot metal
Dynamic recovery – Al & α iron
Formation of well developed subgrain structure by
cross slip, as occurs in creep
Activation energy – creep and self diffusion
Dynamic recrystallization – Metals with lower
stacking fault energy (Cu, Ni, Austenetic S.S)
Activation energy higher than creep
 Cold working
• strength , hardness
• ductility
• Fracture if excessive cold working is done
• Intermediate annealing
• cost of forming – particularly reactive metals
– vacuum or inert gas
• Degree of strain hardening – adjusting the cold
work anneal cycle.
• Eg – strips, wires in different tempers
• Cold worked condition
Annealed
Temper: Quarter hard
Half hard
Three quarter hard
Full hard
Spring temper
% of cold reduction
 Warm working
• Plastic deformation of metals below the temperature of
recrystallization and above room temperature
• Combine advantages of hot and cold working in one operation
• Eg- Forging of steels
 Fewer forging steps
 Reduced forging loads
 Energy saving (elimination of in process anneals compared with
cold forging )
 Improved dimensional control compared with hot forging
 Higher quality surface
 Lower energy cost
• Proper lubricant
• Die design optimized for die design
Cross head velocity
Constant true strain rate

m- strain rate sensitivity

 Superplasticity
• Elongation – 100 – 1000%
• Grain size – 1 micron
• High temperture
• Low strain rate
• Suppression of necking
• Overall strain hardening
• Strain hardening doesn't diminish even at ε > 6
• Dislocation structure – cellular sub structure with
tangles of dislocations at cell wall
• Large plastic strains – Rolling and wiredrawing
- Elongated grains with equiaxed dislocation cell
structure
• Strain hardening ability of FCC < BCC
FCC – Stable cell size
BCC – cell size decreases with plastic strain
• Relationship between flow stress and cell size

• Severely cold worked structure – strong

crystallographic texture – anisotropy

• Formation of deformation bands and shear

bands
 Deformation bands and shear bands

• Deformation band – Regions of distortion

where a portion of grain has rotated towards
another orientation to accommodate the
applied strain
• Shear band – When these regions extend
across many grains
• Exhaustive shear along these bands is a
common type of failure in worked products
 Plastic
instability in
compression
(b) Rate of strain hardening is high till recrystallization

(b) Rate of flow

softening
exceeds rate of
area increase in
compression
 Dynamic recovery
• Annihilation of pairs of dislocation during
straining
• Low dislocation densities – ease of cross slip,
climb and dislocation unpinning
• Elongated grains – well developed fine sub grains
inside – 1 to 10 µm
• Sub boundaries within the grains are continuously
broken and reformed during deformation
• Maintain equiaxed shape
• Occurs in metals with high stacking fault energy –
Al , α iron, BCC metals
 Dynamic recrystallization

• Dislocation annihilation occurs only when the

dislocation density reaches such high levels
that recrystallization occurs
• drop in flow stress – promote flow
localization, unstable flow in regions which
under go initial recrystallization
• Dynamic recrystallization + localized
deformation heating - catastrophic strain
localization
• Dislocation density and flow stress are higher–
susceptible to internal crack & cavity
formation during deformation

• Gb migration isolate the cavities & prevent

from joining

• Softening mechanism – FCC metals except Al

Precipitation reaction/Strain induced phase
transformation
Grain size
Friction and Lubrication
Assumptions
No barreling of the edges of the disk
Thickness is small enough that σz is constant
through the thickness
• Sticking friction - Alternate to Coulombs
sliding friction
• Friction in metal working process – work piece
in contact with the tool – constant shear
strength – τi
• Instead of τi = k , interface shear strength may
be some constant fraction m of the yield
strength in the shear
• m – interface friction factor
• Interface pressure p developed in most metal
working processes will atleast equal or exceed
uniaxial yield stress σo
• Shearing stress at the interface can never
exceed the Y.S of material in shear
• Τi= k- movement along the interface is arrested
• Deformation proceeds by sub surface shearing
Since yield stress in shear is not affected by
normal pressure – decrease in inverse proportion
to interface pressure – contrary
to physical reality – lead to
misinterpretation of µ
• m
Independent of normal stress at interface
Can be easily measured
Siuted for hot working and large deformations

Replace µ with m
Tribology – Surface chemistry, Material
science, Mechanics
Measuring µ
Ring compression test
 Full fluid lubrication
• Surfaces are fully separated by a fluid film
 Rare in metal working process
 Occurs when geometry of the process creates a
converging gap
 Sliding speed is high
 E.g. – High speed wire drawing and rolling
• Thick fluid film – 10 times greater than the
surface roughness to have no wear
• µ - 0.001 – 0.02
• As normal force
Film thickness is
Speed reduced to 3 -5 times
Viscocity the surface roughness

Metal to metal contact

µ
wear
 Mixed film lubrication
• Asperity contact
• Load – metal to metal contact
pockets of liquids in the valleys of the
asperites

Boundary lubricants with extreme pressure

additives should be added to the fluid to form a
boundary film at the point of metal contact
 Conversion coating
• Oxides, Phosphates, Chromates
Serve as a base for the retention of lubricants
Some of them have lubricating properties too
Surface finish
Depends on frictional conditions
Cold working – surface asperites are flattened
by a smooth polished tool – burnishes or shiny
surface
• High stress from high friction – limits the
attainable deformation
• When two surfaces are sliding over, the
asperities of harder will penetrate the softer
one
• Displacement of volume of metal is
proportional to
Total length of sliding
c/s area of asperities
Known as “Ploughing”
• Frictional resistance due to ploughing is
addition to that arising from shearing of
asperity contacts
• Ploughing force is related to
Flow properties of the work piece
Size and shape of asperities
Smooth dies are important in reducing the
friction contribution from ploughing
• Inadequate lubrication
Transfer of work piece materials to tools
Known as “Pick up”
Occurs in 2 ways
1. Lubricant film depleted at the interface
 Work piece is forced into the crevices on tool surface
 Tangential motion shears off the projecting soft metal
 Tool pick up – poor surface finish of work piece
2. Lubricant breaks down under high pressure
 Local cold welding between tool and work piece
 Exposes clean metal
 More prone for cold welding
• Pick up begins – Progressively coarsens –
Galling seizure
• Many sliding cycle – wear of surface –
abrasion by hard oxides – surface fatigue
• Surface cracking of tools – thermal
stresses due to heating and cooling of
tools
8. Capable of functioning over a wide range of pressure,
temperature & sliding velocity
9. Favorable spreading and wetting characteristics –
compatible with die and work piece regarding wetting
and chemical attack
10. Good thermal stability
11. Resistance to bacterial attack & minor contaminants
12. Should have harmless residue – should not cause
staining on subsequent heat treatment or welding
13. Non toxic
14. Free of fire hazard
15. Inexpensive
 Functioning
• Film of lower shear strength
Metal coating – lead or tin
• Layer lattice
Graphite and MoS2 - continuous low shear
stress layers
• Extreme pressure lubricants
Thin surface film
Converging channel – Dies
Ratio of mean thickness to length of
deformation zone – Δ
Non converging dies – Δ = h/L
ΔS = Plane strain reduction

Δw = ax symmetric reduction
• To decrease Δ , reduce α (semi die angle) thereby
increasing L

 Increase reduction r which decreases h

High hydrostatic pressure reduces the tensile
stresses below the critical value for cracking
Flow stress is unaffected
Less damage to material during deformation
• Hydrostatic pressure exerts no shear stress
• Cant increase the no of dislocations in a pile
up or squeeze them together
• Cant influence crack nucleation but crack
initiation
• Closing of pores and seperation of phase
interfaces
• Billet is forced through the die by a high
hydrostatic fluid pressure
Advantages
Elimination of large drag frictional force
between the billet and the container wall
Achievement of hydrodynamic lubrication in
the die
Less severe at
lower and higher
extrusion ratios .
Cracking is more
prevalent at
intermediate
levels
Brittle beryllium
billets are canned in
mild steel to produce
hydrostatic pressure
• Extend to which a material can be deformed in a
specific metal working process without the
formation of crack
Fracture
Formation of local necking
Depends not only on fracture resistance (ductility)
but also on the specific details of the deformation
process
2 processes which determine workability
1.f1 – material property
2. f2 – die geometry, work piece geometry,
lubrication condition
• Internal crack – secondary tensile stresses
(large values of Δ=h/L)
• Temperature gradient – hard & easy flow –
shear bands – shear strains – shear fracture
• Cracks – ductile
• Plastic instability of necking
• Cockcroft and Latham – Ductile fracture –
Combination of stress and strain – Good
corelation between tension and torsion strains
 Fracture occurs when the tensile and
compressive strains at fracture place the
strain state above the line with a slope of
1/2
 Strain path must reach the limiting value of
strain without crossing the fracture limit line

Avitzur – Velocity flow fields

• Stress exist in a body when free from external
force

• Nonuniform plastic deformation

• Plastic flow at the surface
• Centre fibre restrain the surface fibre from
elongating
• Surface fibre seeks to stretch the central fibre
• High compressive stresses at the surface and
residual tensile stresses at the centre
Thank you