POINTERS FOR LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR CRIMINOLOGIST

300 ITEMS: CRIMINAL SOCIOLOGY AND ETHICS

INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY OF CRIMES

A Criminology It is the scientific study of crimes, criminals, crime victims, and the
1 theories explaining illegal or deviant behavior, the social reaction to
crime, the effectiveness of anti-crime policies and the broader political
terrain of social control.
B Criminologist They attempt to build theories that explain why crimes occur and test
those theories by observing behavior, and they help shape society's
response to crime both in terms of preventing criminal behavior and
responding to it after it occurs.
C LexTalionis This punishment was based on physical retaliations or an eye for an eye,
and the severity of punishment depend on class standing for assault,
e.g., slaves would be put to death; freemen might lose a limb.
A Code of Hamurabi The concept of crime was recognized in one of the earliest surviving legal
2 code, and which was developed in about 2000 B.C. by King Dungi of
Sumer.
B Psychoanalysis It is a branch of psychiatry based on the theories of Sigmund Freud that
employs a particular personality theory and a particular method of
treatment, usually individual case study.
C Mosaic Code It is not only the foundations of Judeo-Christian moral teachings, but it is
also a basis for the U.S. legal system, which provides for the prohibitions
against murder, theft, perjury, and adultery
A Classical Criminology It is based on the assumptions that criminals choose to commit crimes
3 after weighing the consequences of their actions, or the so called the
free-will, or self-determinism.
B Cesare Beccaria He presented to the world a coherent, comprehensive design for an
enlightened criminal justice system that was to serve the people rather
than the monarchy; thus, with his small book, he became the “father of
criminology.”
C Jeremy Bentham He proposed a precise pseudo-mathematical formula for this process,
called “felicitous calculus,” and according to his reasoning, individuals are
“human calculators” who put all the factors into an equation in order to
decide whether or not a particular crime is worth committing.
A Positivist Criminology It was composed of several Italians whose approaches differed to some
4 extent, but they all agreed that emphasis in the study of crime should be
on the scientific treatment of the criminal, not on the penalties to be
imposed after conviction, or through empirical study..
B Neo Classical They have the same basis as the classical school or the belief in free will,
Criminology but they began complaining about the need for individualized reaction to
offenders, as they believed the classical approach was far too harsh and,
in reality unjust.
C Cesare Lombroso His theory of the “born criminal” stated that criminals are a lower form of
life, nearer to the ape-like ancestors than non-criminals in traits and
dispositions.
A Genetic Factors These studies attempt to show that biological inheritance affects the
5 tendency toward criminality independently of or in conjunction with the
social environment.
B Neurological The second major type of biological theory of criminality emphasizes the
Abnormalities role of neurological factors, and studies in this area focus on
abnormalities in brain functioning that reduce inhibitions toward
aggression.
C Bio-Criminology It is the study of the physical aspects of psychological disorders. It has
been known for some time that adults who suffer from depression show
abnormalities in brainwaves during sleep, experience disturbed nervous
system functioning, and display bio-chemical abnormalities.
A Dark Ages During this period, superstition and fear of magic and satanic black arts
6 dominated thinking. Many people who violated social norms of religious
practices were believed to be witches or possessed by demons.
B Criminal Ordinance of it was the first attempt in France to codify legal sanctions. It limited the
1670 arbitrary power of judges, but in several instances, it did not specify a
penalty, giving the magistrate discretion to increase or diminish
 punishments according to circumstances of the case.
C Twelve Tables They were formulated by a special commission of ten men in response to
pressure from the lower classes, the plebeians. The plebeians believed
that an unwritten code gave arbitrary and unlimited power to the wealthy
classes, the patricians who served as magistrates.
A Independent The discipline of criminology has evolved in five phases, the first two
7 Criminology phases were the early origins and the dark ages, the third phase is the
era of classical criminology, the fourth is positivist criminology, and the
fifth is known as.
B Enrico Ferri He agreed with Lombroso on the biological bases of criminal behavior,
his interest in socialism led to recognize the importance of social,
economic, and political determination.
C Rafael Garofalo He rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the position that the
only way to understand crime was to study it by scientific methods. He
traced the roots of criminal behavior not to physical features but to their
psychological equivalents, which he called “moral anomalies.”
A Gabriel Tarde He rejected the Lombrosian theory of biological abnormality, arguing that
8 criminals were normal people who learned crime just as others learned
legitimate trades.
B Emile Durkheim He is universally acknowledged as one of the founders of sociology, and
he pointed out that all societies have not only crime but sanctions. The
rationale for the sanctions varies in accordance with the structure of the
society.
C Phrenology It is based on the proposition that the exterior of skull corresponds to the
interior of the brain’s conformation, and by measuring the shape of skull,
behavior can be measured.
A Aging Out It is the decline in criminal activities wherein there is certain inclination to
9 Phenomenon commit crimes which peaks in the middle or late teens and then declines
throughout life.
B Attention Deficit It is also found that children with this kind of disorder are at high risk for
Disorder with delinquency, and a variety of other biological factors have been explored,
Hyperactivity primarily by means of the limited case-study approach, and require more
study before definite conclusions can be drawn.
C Moral Development This describes a sequence of developmental stages that people pass
Theory through when acquiring the capacity to make moral judgments, and
according to this theory, this development process may or may not be
completed, and people who remain unable to recognize right from wrong
will be more likely to engage in inappropriate, deviant, or even criminal
behavior.
A Social Learning This emphasizes the process of learning and internalizing the moral
1 Theory codes; hence, this theory notes different patterns of rewards and
0 sanctions that affect this process.
B Personality Theory This assumes a set of enduring perceptions and predispositions or
tendencies that each individual develops through early socialization, and
this theory proposes that certain predispositions or personality traits, such
as impulsiveness or extroversion, increase the chances of criminal
behavior.
C Psychoanalytic This also suggests another explanation for behavior as an insatiable
Theory need for immediate reward or gratification.
A Intelligence Some early psychologists attempted to explain criminal behavior by
1 means of the inherited trait called __________, or this usually refers to as
1 the general mental capability to reason, solve problems, think abstractly,
learn and understand new material, and profit from past experience.
B Psychopath They have a low internal arousal level; thus they constantly seek external
stimulation, are less susceptible to learning by direct experience, are
more impulsive, and experience far less anxiety than non-psychopaths
about any adverse consequences of their acts.
C Social Structure According to this model, all members of society subscribe to the same
Theory moral code but some people, because of their position in society are
more able than others to follow that code.
A Sub-Cultural Theory This assumes that certain groups have values quite distinct from those of
1 the rest of society.
2 B Anomie or Strain It is this context that introduced the term “anomie” as the breakdown of
Theory social order as a result of the loss of standards and values.
 C Social Disorganization This views crime-ridden neighborhoods as those in which residents are
Theory trying to leave at the earliest opportunity.
A Differential Association This theory states that crime is learned through social interaction, and
1 Theory this maintains that people learn to commit crime as a result of contact
3 with anti-social values, negative attitudes, and criminal behavior.
B Culture Conflict This focuses on the source of the criminal norms and attitudes, and the
Theory conduct norms are norms that regulate the daily lives, and are rules that
reflect the attitudes of the groups to which each of them belongs.
C Cultural Deviance It is on the other hand attributes crime to a set of values peculiar to the
Theory lower class; and thus, behaviors in violation of the law are falling under
this theory.
A Delinquent Sub- It is a subculture whose values are in opposition to those of the dominant
1 Culture culture.
4 B Differential This states that people in all strata of society share the same success
Opportunity Theory goals but those in the lower class have limited means of achieving them.
C Social Structure This suggests that forces operating in the lower-class areas of the
Theory environment push many of their residents into criminal behavior patterns.
A Social Process This emphasizes criminality as a learned or culturally transmitted process
1 Theory that are presented as an outgrowth of the “Chicago School of Sociology”
5 in the works of Shaw and McKay, Sutherland, Miller, and Matza.
B Social Learning This can involve the actual techniques of crime as well as the
Theory psychological aspects of criminality. There are four factors necessary for
a person to learn through observation and then imitate a behavior:
attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
C Social Control Theory This focuses on techniques and strategies that regulate human behavior
and lead to conformity, or obedience to society’s rules, and the influence
of family and school, religious beliefs, moral values, friends, and even
beliefs about government.
A Containment Theory This assumes that for every individual there exists a containing external
1 structure and a protective internal structure, both of which provide
6 defense, protection, or insulation against delinquency.
B Integrated Theory This will give a better explanation of the wide range of the causes of
criminal behavior. But integration presents some problems. It may seem
that social control would be a strange to fit with strain theory.
C Rational Choice It takes into account the entire criminal event, which includes the criminal
Theory motivation and the situation. “Rational” refers to the fact on how the
criminals process information, and how do they evaluate alternatives.
“Choice” suggests how the criminals make their decisions.
A Routine Activities It is closely linked to rational-choice theory. It too, focuses on the
1 Theory characteristics of the crime rather than on those of the offender.
7 B Conflict Theory This originated from the perceptions of other criminologists that the world
is filled with conflict. Conflict is destructive when it leads to war, violence,
and death, but it can be functional when it results in positive social
change.
C Labeling Theory Primary deviations are the initial deviant acts that bring on the first social
response, and the acts do not affect the individual’s self-concept, and this
also defined as separating the good from the bad.
A Marxist Theory It focused on giving attention on the economic conditions perpetuated by
1 the capitalist system. It stated that its development had turned workers
8 into dehumanized mass who lived in an existence that was at the mercy
of their capitalist employers.
B Latent Theory According to this theory, suspected traits include defective intelligence,
impulsive personality, genetic abnormalities, and the physical chemical
functioning of the brain.
C Life Course Theory According to this theory, even as toddlers, people begin relationship and
behavior that will determine their adult life course.
A Containment Theory It is posited in which the main thread is that there are pushes and pulls
1 which tend to tempt a person toward delinquency.
9 B Criminal Psychology It is "the branch of psychology which investigates the psychology of crime
with particular reference to the personality factors of the criminal."  This
denotes how well the juvenile manage to resist using socially
unacceptable methods to reach goals.
C Low Self Control It is not learned; no clear or ethnic group intentionally teaches it. On the
 contrary, almost all socialization is designed to teach self-control.
A Constituents of The id is an unconscious area of the mind; it is the most primitive portion
2 Personality of the personality from which the other two are derived; the ego does not
0 exist at birth, but is something the individual learns; and the super-ego is
largely a part of the unconscious personality, and it may contain
consciousness in its operation.
B Normal Criminals They are willing to commit any crime, but the upbringing allows certain
acts which are condemned by the rest of society, while condemning,
along with the rest of society, many other activities considered to be
criminal.
C Psychopathy Psychopathy is a severe personality disorder, and is often considered to
be potentially extremely dangerous, and a psychopath will normally suffer
from distortions of, or a perversion of feeling and affection as well as the
possession of strange desires, habits, a strange moral disposition and
odd behavioral patterns such as frequent and marked changes in mood
and temper, impulsive behavior, and in particular, violent outburst.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
A Comparative Criminal It is a subfield of the study of criminal justice that compares justice
21 Justice System systems worldwide.
B Common Law It is found particularly in countries that are current or former members of
the British Empire.
C Bureaucratic Society These are today’s modern society, and they feature fully developed laws,
lawyers, and police forces trained for multiple types of crime.
A Justice Model This are concerned with unfairness in the system, such as discrimination,
22 that caused sentencing disparity and unequal treatment before the rules
of the law.
B Rehabilitation Model This embraces the notion that, given proper care and treatment, criminals
can be changed into productive, law-abiding citizens.
C Restorative Model They believe the true purpose of the criminal justice system is to promote
a peaceful, just society. They advocate peacemaking, not punishment.
A Criminal Justice This usually begins when the police suspects that a crime has been
23 Process committed, is being committed, or is about to be committed, and when
the situation is investigated to verify or dispel this suspicion.
B Element of Discretion There are two important characteristics of the criminal justice system, the
first is the system’s effect on all elements and procedure, and the second
is:
C Legal Sufficiency Under this requirement, cases are initially screened merely for evidentiary
defects before they are given a preliminary investigation.
A Audiencia Territorial It was first organized under the Royal Decree on May 5, 1583, but for
24 de Manila political reasons was abolished by the Royal Decree of August 9, 1589
by King Philipp II.
B Regional Trial Courts They are courts of general jurisdiction; they try and decide not only the
particular classes or kinds of cases assigned to them by law, but also
those which, although not so assigned are not, otherwise, within the
jurisdiction of courts of the first level or any tribunals. Formerly, they are
called as Court of First Instance.
C Court of Appeals It is essentially an appellate court, reviewing cases appealed to it from
RTC. It may review questions of facts or mixed questions of facts and
law.
A First Level Courts These levels are the Metropolitan Trial Courts (MTC), the Municipal Trial
25 Courts in Cities or Municipalities (MTCC/M), and Municipal Circuit Trial
Courts (MCTC). They are being called as inferior courts.
B Provisional or These are attachments or injunctions, are temporary remedies, incapable
Auxiliary Remedies of existing without a principal action or proceeding, arising only as an
incident thereof, and addressing merely a particular exigency.
C Proclamation No. 72 This set aside the 16,000 hectares of the virgin land in Sablayan,
Occidental Mindoro, for the establishment of the Sablayan Penal Colony
and Farm.
A Retribution It is probably the oldest goal of corrections. It is rooted in the ancient
26 doctrine of “lex talionis,” or an eye for an eye or a tooth for a tooth.
Retribution means “getting even.”
B Deterrence The rationale underlying this function is that if punishment for a crime is
sufficiently severe, offenders will be deterred from committing the crime.
 C Incapacitation It is isolating criminals from society through confinement or incarceration,
and it is the most direct method of crime prevention. Incapacitation
means the restriction of movement or liberty.
A Rehabilitation Through reformation was officially recognized as useful correctional
27 function, wherein the main objective is reformation, not retribution.
B Integration It is particularly relevant to offenders who have been incarcerated for long
periods, and this is due to the fact that prisons foster their own sub-
culture among inmates and this sub-culture is pervasive and long lasting.
C Neighborhood It is defined in terms that echo common definitions of community,
demonstrating that confusion concerning how these two terms differ
persist today.
A Mass Media It is a powerful vehicle of communication invariably has far-reaching
28 responsibilities. In the print and broadcast media they can create
heightened awareness of day-to-day events that transpire and affect the
populace by seeking cooperation of the various segments of the general
population in the multi-sector campaign against violence and drugs.
B Family It communicates values and expectations that help shape individual
conscience. Though some individuals sink below or rise above the
standards set by the family, the family remains a potent force in
determining how people behave.
C Modern Criminal It has evolved since ancient times, with new forms of punishment, added
Justice System rights for offenders and victims, and policing reforms. These
developments have reflected changing customs, political ideals, and
economic and social conditions.
A Rules of Warfare In a democratic society, the anti-crime machinery for preventing and
29 controlling criminality is the criminal justice system. It is wielded in an
arena where the boundaries and __________ are delineated and
prescribed by legal parameters.
B Jurisdictions It is defined as power to try and decide from the parties, including their
arguments, and according to fixed rules, and determine cause.
C System This means an interactive, interrelated, interdependent group of elements
performing related functions that make up a complex whole.
A Disposition This usually involves a fine, a term of community service, a period of
30 incarceration in penal institution, or some combination of these penalties.
B Due Process It is an essential element of the constitutional guarantee to rights and
liberties of all the people, individually and collectively.
C Rehabilitation Model This embraces the notion that, given proper care and treatment, criminals
can be changed into productive, law-abiding citizens.
A Procurador Fiscal This voluminous compilation of laws, serving as the fundamental legal
31 blueprint for the governance of the imperial domain, referred to the
personnel of the law as “__________.”
B Trial Sufficiency Under this system, cases are accepted and charges made only at the
level that can be sustained in court. This system requires good police
work, prosecutors who are experienced in trial work, and plea bargaining
can minimize the court capacity.
C Act No. 136 It is otherwise known as the judiciary law, and the first members of the
Supreme Court was organized under the civil government of US.
A Rule of Law Being a democratic society, the caveat for the five pillars of the criminal
32 justice system is, “democracy cannot be saved by destroying it.” This
means that the “__________and respect for the basic freedom and
human rights of the citizenry shall always be upheld and safeguarded, no
matter why, what or when.
B E.O. No, 309 This law created the Peace and Order Council nationwide.
C Peace and Order It serves as the coordinating machinery of the Philippine criminal justice
Council system.
A Instrument of Social The criminal justice system is not only an anti-crime machinery of the
3 Control government but also essentially an __________, and the society
3 considers that some behavior are so dangerous and destructive that
there is a need to strictly control their occurrences or outlaw them
outright.
B Funnel of Sieve This effect that characterizes the system is one of the attrition cases
being sorted out as they proceed through the system and relatively few
crimes ending with perpetrator’s conviction and imprisonment.
 C Discretion It is an inevitable feature of criminal justice system, and though
guidelines, laws, and constitutional guarantees may be passed to
regulate discretion, it cannot be eliminated, and it properly used, it is
functional for the system.
A Home It has well been called “the cradle of human personality,” for in it, the child
3 forms fundamental attitudes and habits that endure throughout his life.
4 B School They also play an important part, not only as institutions of learning, but
as the “second-home” especially of the youth. Ideally, this is the place of
value-formation and instilling discipline.
C Community This comes from the Latin “communis,” meaning "common” and shared
by all or many. The Latin term "communitatus," from which the English
word "community" comes, is comprised of three elements, "Com," a Latin
prefix meaning with or together, "munis" ultimately.
A Reform Model It is the original mandate of correction’s pillar called for the rehabilitating
3 prisoners through vocational and educational training, as well as the
5 traditional individualized psychological counseling that was associated
with the medical model.
B Community Based It involves the administrative monitoring of probationers in their own
communities, and it is sometimes termed a community-based corrections
program.
C Prison Law The basic law on the Philippine Prison System is found in Revised
Administrative Code, otherwise known as, and the said law specifically
referred to Sections 705 to 1751 of the said code.
A Principal Remedies Are those which are independent, capable of existing alone, needing and
3 not depending in other remedies to subsist, e.g., an action to collect a
6 sum of money, or recover specific property.
B Supreme Court It is the highest court of the land. It is a review court. It is the court of last
resort, for no appeal lies from its judgments and final orders. In the
context of the Integrated Judicial System, it exercises appellate
jurisdiction over cases decided by the Court of Appeals or Regional Trial
Courts.
C Cayetano Arellano He was the most prominent jurist at the time of his appointment to the
first Supreme Court organized under the American model. As earlier
mentioned, he was the Chief Justice of the provisional “audiencia”
organized by the Military Government.
A R.A. No. 5180 An Act Prescribing a Uniform System of Preliminary Investigation by
3 Provincial and City Fiscals and Their Assistants, and by State Attorneys
7 or Their Assistants.
B Fiscal This term was derived from the Spanish word “fisco” which means
treasury. Its Latin word “fiscus” referred to a “woven basket” which the
ancient Romans used to keep their money
C Prosecution Pillar This plays a crucial role in the criminal justice system, and it cannot be
undermined in the democratic society, and its cardinal duty is to uphold
the further interests of the state in all court matters.
A Police Pillar It is the gatekeeper of the criminal justice system process, and it initiates
3 contact with law violators and decides whether to formally arrest them
8 and start their journey through the system, settle the issue informally, or
simply take no action at all.
B Order Maintenance It is defined as the “management of conflict situations to bring about
consensual resolution.”
C Preventive Patrol This entails police officers’ visible presence on the streets and public
places in their area of responsibilities.
A Code of Kalantiyaw It is a disputed document but its contents may be of some interest to the
3 readers. The other one is the Maragtas Code, 1250 A.D.
9 B Criminal Justice Refers to the agencies of government charged with the enforcing the law,
System prosecuting crimes, convicting or acquitting criminals, correcting criminal
standards, and providing assistance to the reformed criminals in returning
to normalcy of life in the community.
C Crime Control Model This attributes recent reductions in the crime rate to a “get tough” attitude
toward crime, which has resulted in the mandatory punishments and
expanding prison populations.
A LupongTagapamayapa There is hereby created in each barangay a lupong tagapamayapa, here
4 referred to as the Lupon, composed of the punong barangay, as
0 chairman and ten (10) to twenty (20) members. The Lupon shall be
 constituted every three (3) years in the manner provided herein.
B R.A. 7160 The Revised Katarungang Pambarangay Law. otherwise known as the
Local Government Code of 1991, effective on January 1, 1992 and which
repealed P.D 1508
C Barangay Captain There is hereby created in each barangay a body to be known as
LupongTagapayapa, herein referred to as Lupon, composed of the
Barangay Captain as chairman and not less than ten (10), or nor more
than twenty (20) members, to be constituted every three years
JUVENILE DELINQUENCY AND CRIME PREVENTION
A House of Refuge It is the first institution expressly for juveniles, and was founded in New
41 York City in 1825 so that institutionalized delinquents could be kept apart
from adult criminals.
B Delinquency The oldest and most familiar description of criminal misconduct by a
juvenile in the legal definition based upon formally codified laws, which
specify offenses, sanctions, and age parameters.
C Juvenile Delinquency It is a criminal or antisocial behavior of the juvenile. Juvenile delinquents
are usually considered to be in need of treatment, rehabilitation, or
discipline.
A Parens-Patriae Under this doctrine,” delinquent acts are not considered criminal violation,
42 nor are delinquents considered “criminals.”
B Status offenders Are those juveniles who commit offenses that if committed by adults,
would not be considered crimes.
C Juvenile Crime In law term, denotes various offenses committed by the children or
youths. Juvenile delinquency refers to criminal acts and status offenses
performed by juveniles.
A Age at Onset Most life-course theories assume that the seeds of a criminal career are
43 planted early in life and that the early onset of deviance strongly predicts
later criminality.
B Delinquency In addition to taking different paths to criminality, people may begin their
Trajectory journey at different times. Some are precocious, beginning their
delinquent careers early, while others stay out of trouble until their
teenage years. Some offenders may be at their peak at an early age,
whereas others persist into adulthood.
C Interactional Theory This theory also found that the onset of crime could be traced to a
deterioration of the social bond during adolescent, marked by weakened
attachment to parents, commitment to school, and belief in conventional
values.
A Daycare Program They are available to children of working parents. In addition to allowing
44 parents to return to work, day care serves to produce children with a
number of important benefits, including social interaction with other
children and stimulation of their cognitive, sensory, and motor control
skills.
B Community Based This includes analyzing the delinquency problem, identifying available
Program resources in the community, developing priority delinquency problems,
and identifying successful programs in other communities and tailoring
them to local conditions and needs.
C Youth Institution It is an example of a successful juvenile detention facility that gears its
programs toward restoring delinquent youth.
A Abandoned Child It is one without proper parental care and has been abandoned by his or
45 her parents for a period of at least six (6) consecutive months.
B Exploited Child It is one who has been induced or forced by parents or guardians or other
persons or circumstances to indulge in activities which endanger his
moral, emotional, and social development.
C Neglected Child It is one who is unreasonably deprived of his or her basic needs to
survival such as food, clothing, shelter, or education.
A Juvenile Justice It is the area of criminal law applicable to persons not old enough to be
46 held responsible for criminal acts. In most states, the age for criminal
culpability is set at 18 years.
B Juvenile Law It is mainly governed by state law and most states have enacted a
juvenile code.
C Intake The juveniles are placed in detention centers, juvenile halls, jails, or
government agencies are subsequently “screened by an “intake officer.”
Intake officers, are usually juvenile probation officers under the
 administration of the probation office.
A Deinstitutionalization This refers to providing programs for juveniles in a community-based
47 setting rather than in an institution.
B Early Interventions These are focused on teenage youths considered to be at higher risk for
engaging in petty delinquent acts, using drugs or alcohol, or associating
with anti-social peers.
C Supervision of It is supervision of juveniles after it has undergone into the juvenile justice
Juveniles system process; is less legalistic and stigmatizing a term than parole,
implying a greater emphasis on casework that provides supervision in the
home and community, and continuation of vocational training, school
guidance, and spiritual counseling.
A Juvenile Court It is a tribunal having special authority to pass judgments for crimes that
48 are committed by children or adolescents who have not attained the age
of majority.
B R.A. No. 9344 It is entitled as “The Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006,” as
amended by RA No. 10630,
C P.D. No. 603 It is otherwise known as the Child and Youth Welfare Code
A Juvenile Corrections This serves several functions, with one of the most obvious being to
49 protect the public by removing juvenile offenders from the community.
B Training Schools They are secure residential correctional facilities, managed as either by
public or private institutions.
C Alternative Programs This also includes innovative alternative detention programs, such as
wilderness programs and boy’s town, wherein productive programs can
be made possible to rehabilitate and treat juvenile offenders.
A Intermediate This includes intensive supervision, house arrest, incarceration or boy’s
50 Sanctions town. Such sanctions provide swift, certain punishment, while avoiding
the expense and the negative effects of institutionalization on the part of
the youthful offenders.
B Aftercare In the juvenile justice system, it is the equivalent of parole in criminal
justice system.
C Boys Town Program This combines the get-tough elements of adult programs with education,
drug abuse treatment, and social skills training.
A Employment of Children below sixteen years of age may be employed to perform light
51 Children Below 16 work which is not harmful to their safety, health or normal development
and which is not prejudicial to their studies.
B Maternity Home It is an institution or place of residence whose primary function is to give
shelter and care to pregnant women and their infants before, during and
after delivery.
C Rehabilitation Center It is an institution that receives and rehabilitates youthful offenders or
other disturbed children
A Dependent Child It is one who is without a parent, guardian or custodian; or one where
52 parents, guardian or other custodian for good cause desires to be
relieved of his care and custody.
B Abandoned Child It is one who has no proper parental care, or guardianship, or whose
parents or guardians have deserted him, for a period of at least six
continuous months.
C Neglected Child It is one whose basic needs have been deliberately unattended or
inadequately attended.
A Mentally Retarded They are: (1) socially incompetent, that is, socially inadequate and
53 Child occupationally incompetent and unable to manage their own affairs; (2)
mentally subnormal; (3) retarded intellectually from birth or early age; (4)
retarded at maturity; (5) mentally deficient as a result of constitutional
origin, through hereditary or disease, and (6) essentially incurable
B Physically Handicap Are those who are crippled, deaf-mute, blind, or otherwise defective
Children which restricts their means of action on communication with others.
C Emotionally Disturbed Are those who, although not afflicted with insanity or mental defect, are
Children unable to maintain normal social relations with others and with the
community in general due to emotional problems or complexes
A Mentally-Ill Children Are those with any behavioral disorder, whether functional or organic,
54 which is of such a degree of severity as to require professional help or
hospitalization
B Youthful Offender It is one who is over 9 years but below 21 years of age at the time of the
commission of the offense.
 C Detention Home It is a twenty-four hours child-caring institution providing short-term
residents care for youthful offenders who are awaiting court disposition of
their cases or transfer to other agencies or jurisdiction.
A R.A. 7610 This Act shall be known as the "Special Protection of Children Against
55 Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination.”
B Child Abuse Refers to the maltreatment, whether habitual or not, of the child which
includes any of the following: (1) psychological and physical abuse,
neglect, cruelty, sexual abuse and emotional maltreatment; (2) any act by
deeds or words which debases, degrades or demeans the intrinsic worth
and dignity of a child as a human being; (3) unreasonable deprivation of
his basic needs for survival, such as food and shelter; or (4) failure to
immediately give medical treatment to an injured child resulting in serious
impairment of his growth and development or in his permanent incapacity
or death.
C Children Refers to persons below eighteen (18) years of age or those over but are
unable to fully take care of themselves or protect themselves from abuse,
neglect, cruelty, exploitation or discrimination because of a physical or
mental disability or condition
A Child Trafficking It is trading and dealing with children including, but not limited to, the act
56 of buying and selling of a child for money, or for any other consideration,
or barter.
B Child in Conflict with Refers to a child who is alleged as, accused of, or adjudged as, having
the Law committed an offense under Philippine laws.
C Diversion Refers to an alternative, child-appropriate process of determining the
responsibility and treatment of a child in conflict with the law on the basis
of his/her social, cultural, economic, psychological or educational
background without resorting to court proceedings.
A Juvenile Justice and Refers to a system dealing with children at risk and children in conflict
57 Welfare System with the law, which provides child-appropriate proceedings, including
programs and services for prevention, diversion, rehabilitation, re-
integration and aftercare to ensure their normal growth and development.
B Law Enforcement Refers to the person in authority or his/her agent as defined in Article 152
Officer of the RPC, including a barangay tanod.
C Restorative Justice Refers to a principle which requires a process of resolving conflicts with
the maximum involvement of the victim, the offender, and the community.
A Status Offenses Refers to offenses which discriminate only against a child, while an adult
58 does not suffer any penalty for committing similar acts.
B Youth Detention Refers to a 24-hour child-caring institution managed by accredited LGUs
Center and licensed and/or accredited NGOs providing short-term residential
care for children in conflict with the law
C Youth Rehabilitation Refers to a 24-hour residential care facility managed by the DSWD,
Centers LGUs, licensed and/or accredited NGOs monitored by the DSWD, which
provides care, treatment and rehabilitation services for children in conflict
with the law
A Intervention Refers to a series of activities which are designed to address issues that
59 caused the child to commit an offense.
B Diversion Program Refers to the program that the child in conflict with the law is required to
undergo after he/she is found responsible for an offense without resorting
to formal court proceedings.
C Children Exploited in Children, whether male or female, who for money, profit, or any other
Prostitution and Other consideration or due to the coercion or influence of any adult, syndicate
Sexual Abuse or group, indulge in sexual intercourse or lascivious conduct.
A Recognizance Refers to an undertaking in lieu of a bond assumed by a parent or
60 custodian who shall be responsible for the appearance in court of the
child in conflict with the law, when required.
B Child Exploitation It is the sexual abuse of children and youth through the exchange of sex
or sexual acts for drugs, food, shelter, protection, other basics of life,
and/or money.
C Child at Risk This refers to a child who is vulnerable to and at the risk of committing
criminal offenses because of personal, family and social circumstances,
HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND CRISIS MANAGEMENT
A Human Behavior It is the voluntary or involuntary attitude a person adopts in order to fit the
61 society’s idea of right or wrong. It is partly determined by heredity and
environment, and is modified through learning.
 B Inherited Behavior Inherited or innate behavior refers to any behavioral response or reflex
exhibited by people due to their genetic endowment or the process of
natural selection.
C Learned Behavior Learned or operant behavior involves cognitive adaptation that enhances
the human being’s ability to cope with changes in the environment and to
manipulate the environment in ways which improve the chances for
survival, such as verbal communication, logical problem-solving
techniques, job skills, etc.
A Cognitive It is concerned with the way the brain processes and transforms
62 information in various ways.
B Behavioral This viewpoint is focused on external activities that can be observed and
measured.
C Neurological This emphasizes human actions in relation to events taking place inside
the body, especially the brain and the nervous system.
A Extraversion It is the dimension that dictates conditioned ability and the principal factor
63 in anti-social behavior. They form the basic structure from which much of
the person’s behavior originates.
B Neuroticism Neuroticism reflects an innate biological predisposition to react
physiologically to stressful or upsetting events and moments. Basically,
neuroticism represents emotionality.
C Psychoticism It is characterized by cold cruelty, social insensitivity, disregard for
danger, troublesome behavior, dislike of others, and an attraction toward
the unusual.
A Manic-Depressive It is characterized by alternating accounts of mania and depression.
64 Mania is a kind of insanity characterized by great excitement; while
depression is a disorder characterized by prolonged feelings of despair
and rejection.
B Paranoid-Schizoprenic It is a mental disease resembling paranoia, but is also characterized by
autistic behavior, hallucinations and a gradual deterioration of the
personality.
C Anti-Social Personality It is a mentally-disturbed person who opposed to the principles upon
which society is based.

A Idiot It is usually congenital and due to the defective development of the

65 mental faculties. Mentality never exceeds that of a normal child over 2
years old. The I.Q. is from 0 to 20.

B Imbecile Although the mental defect is not as severe as that of idiots, he cannot
manage his own affairs. The mental age may be compared to a normal
child from 3 to 7 years old and the I. Q. is 21 to 40.

C Feeble Minded A person whose mental defect, although not amounting to imbecility is so
pronounced such that he needs care, supervision, and control for his
protection and of others. He has a mentality similar to that of a normal
child between 8 to 12 years old and an I.Q. of 41 to 70.

A Psychotics These are mentally-ill people who take hostages during a period of
66 psychiatric disturbance.

B Common Criminal These are people who take hostages for personal reasons, rather than
ideological belief.

C Political Terrorists These are ideologically-inspired individuals or groups of people who take
hostages because of political and ideological beliefs.

A Phobia This is excessive, irrational and uncontrollable fear of a perfectly natural

67 situation or object.
B Obsession These are thoughts and impulses which continually occur in the person’s
mind despite attempts to get them out.
C Mania It is a state of excitements accompanied by exaltation or feeling of well-
being which is out of harmony surrounding the patients circumstances.
A Hallucination This is a condition where someone sees, hears, smells, tastes or feels
68 things that do not exist outside their mind. They are common in people
with schizophrenia, and are usually experienced as hearing voices.
B Illusion An illusion is a distortion of the senses, revealing how the brain normally
 organizes and interprets sensory stimulation. Illusions may occur with any
of the human senses, but visual illusions are best-known and
understood. 
C Delusion A delusion is a belief that is held with strong conviction despite
superior evidence to the contrary. As pathology, it is distinct from a belief
based on false or incomplete information, confabulation, dogma, illusion,
or other effects of perception.
A Psychosomatic Illness Psychosomatic illness implies an inter-relationship of mind, body and
69 desire. If an adolescent is emotionally disturbed, his feelings are
accompanied by physiological changes such as faster heartbeat and
increased strength due to anger.

B Psychoneurosis It is a mild form of mental disorder. A person may have no physical

difficulty, but may experience lack of sleep and loss of appetite and
becomes emotionally unhealthy. Obsessions, fears, or phobias are
characteristics of psychoneurosis.
C Pscyhoses These are serious mental and emotional disorders manifested by
withdrawal from reality. Some of these disorders are encephalitis,
intoxication, cerebral arteriosclerosis, senile brain disease, mania,
dementia praecox, or split personality.
A Dissociative Disorders It is defined as conditions that involve disruptions or breakdown of
70 memory, awareness, identity or perception. People with dissociative
disorders use dissociation, a defense mechanism, pathologically and
involuntarily.
B Psychosexual It is characterized by individuals with sexual problems mainly caused by
Disorders psychological factors. Two major categories of psychosexual disorders
are paraphilia, in which the source of the individual’s sexual arousal is
bizarre; and psychosocial dysfunctions in which inhibitions in the sexual
response cycle occur,
C Personality Disorders Personality disorders develop when personality traits became inflexible
and thus maladaptive. Individuals with these maladaptive traits often do
not recognize that they have a problem and may show little interest in
changing.
A Crisis Management It is the expert handling of a crisis or emergency to reduce or eliminate
71 danger or damage, or the like, especially on the part of the government.
B Hostage Situation It is a set of circumstances wherein a suspected law violator is holding a
person captive with the use of force and threat of violence while the
police are in close contact with the suspect and his captive.
C Terrorists Negotiation It is a complicated crisis intervention process that comprises a system of
interrelated conditions, activities, and behavior needed to resolve a highly
volatile terrorists acts, and a process by which compromise or agreement
is reached while avoiding untoward incident.
A Somatoform Somatoform disorders are mental disturbances in which psychological
72 Disorders symptoms take a physical or somatic form even though no physical
causes can be found.
B Neurotic and Neurotic, refers to relative mild mental disorders in which the individual
Psychotic has not lost contact with reality, while psychotic refers to severe mental
disturbances wherein individuals have lost contact with reality

C Anxiety Disorders Anxiety is usually defined as diffused, vague, and highly unpleasant
feelings of fear and apprehension. Individuals with high levels of anxiety
worry a lot.
A Negotiation It is a systematic process of starting work on a task of negotiating and
73 Approaches dealing with hostage-takers wherein the primary considerations are the
arrangement of terms and conditions between the police authorities and
the suspects, and which is necessary for the release of hostages.
B Operational This are the standard policies designed to give guidance and direction to
Procedures police personnel regardless of the types of functions to be performed or
police operations to be conducted.
C Managing Hostage It is the directing and controlling of human and material resources by the
Situation police authorities, including all the participants in a crisis, be it a hostage
situation or barricaded persons,
A Physical Objective The physical objective is the exact location of the event or place where
74 the hostage situation or barricaded person is occurring. It may be a
 structure, either concrete or light materials, a vehicle or a position with no
structure or vehicle involved.

B Inner Perimeter The purpose of an inner perimeter is to control the ingress and egress of
coming in and out of the physical objective by the people involved. This
also prevents the escape of the suspects.
C Outer Perimeter The purpose of the outer perimeter is to restrict vehicular and pedestrian
traffic, including bystander and media that could interfere with police
activities at or near the physical objective.
A Mission It is the task to be performed, and it must be carefully examined and
75 clearly understood, because of the following reasons: (a) it is the basis
for all the actions that are to be undertaken, and (b) it must be formulated
in clear, concise, and simple terms.
B First Responders Refer to the members of the police entity, usually the patrol officers
expected to be the first persons to go to a very serious accident or to an
extremely dangerous and unexpected situation that must be dealt with
accordingly
C Assassination It is perhaps the oldest of all terrorists’ tactics in the book and still widely
used today.
POLICE VALUES, ETHICS AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS
A Police Values These are fundamental assumptions that guide the organization and the
76 individual police officer in the exercise of discretion.
B Ethics It is a science that deals with the philosophical study of morality, the
principle of conduct dealing with what is right and what is wrong, and with
moral duty and obligation.
C Conduct It is the police officers’ personal behavior. In ethics, it is the voluntary
control and direction of the police officers’ activities, individually or
collectively, towards their moral and spiritual development as required by
their policing profession.
A Morale This refers to, or deals with personal dignity. It pertains to the manners
77 relating to, dealing with or capable of making the distinction between right
and wrong conduct.
B Morality This comes from the Latin word "mores" which signifies conduct and
refers to behavior of people which is valuable and which enhances
dignity of the individual.
C Code It is any accepted system of rules and regulations pertaining to a given
subject, and was adopted by the police organizations to assist police
officers in understanding the difference between “right and wrong” and in
applying such understanding in using their discretion.  
A Traditions These are bodies of beliefs, stories, customs and usages handed down
78 from generation to generation with the effect of an unwritten law.
B Customs These are established usage or social practices carried on by traditions
that have obtained the force of law.
C Perseverance Once a decision is made, PNP members shall take legitimate means to
achieve the goal even in the face of internal or external difficulties and
despite anything which might weaken their resolve in the course of time.
A Professionalism This also means service that refers to the commitment, dignity and
79 attitude of an individual towards work and his integrity and practice of the
core moral values principles that are being observed and practiced from
within the police organization.
B Career Management It is the key to professionalism. Its improper implementation will greatly
prejudice the personnel professionalization process as regard to
procurement, promotion, assignment, placement, training, awards, and
retirement.
C Delicadeza It is the state of affairs requiring tact to protect the integrity of a person. It
is also defined as an act of being refined or delicate in tastes or
manners. 
A Image It is a mental picture of something of a conception, idea, or an
80 impression. An image, derived from Latin word “imago,” is an artifact that
depicts or records visual perception that has a similar appearance to
some subject, usually a person thus providing a depiction of it.
B Integrity It is the cornerstone of the police profession by being honest, open, and
fair in the performance of duties.
C Dedication It is the unwavering commitment to public service. It is the police officers’
 devotion to the vision and mission, and to their oath of office.
A Creed It is any statement of belief, and it is usually a statement of faith that
81 describes the beliefs shared within the police organization, and is often
recited as part of the police service.
B Pledge It is a promise or agreement wherein one binds the police officers to the
performance of some engagement or obligation; a solemn promise
or agreement to or to refrain from doing something.
C Non-Partisanship PNP members shall provide services to everyone without discrimination
regardless of party affiliation in accordance with existing laws and
regulations.
A Service It is the vibrant and cogent deeds and actions in response to the needs
82 and wants of the people in distress.  The term is most commonly
associated with police service of a state that is authorized to exercise
the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of
responsibilities. 
B Honor It could be the overriding criterion and consideration in the performance
of their entrusted task or mission. It is derived from the
Latin word “honos,” meaning a perceived quality of worthiness and
respectability that affects an individual or group.
C Justice It is dispensed to everyone whatever is due to him without favoritism or
discrimination of any sort. It is a concept of  moral  rightness based
on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, or equity. It is also the act
of being just and fair.
A Non-Solicitation of PNP members shall seek self-improvement through career management
82 Patronage program and shall not directly or indirectly solicit influence or
recommendation from politicians, high ranking government officials,
prominent citizens, persons affiliated with civic or religious organizations
with regards to their assignments, promotions, and transfer, or those of
other members of the force, nor shall they initiate any petition to be
prepared and presented by citizens in their behalf.
B Secrecy Discipline PNP members shall guard the confidentiality of classified information
against unauthorized disclosure, including confidential aspects of official
business, special orders, communication and other documents, roster or
any portion thereof, contents of criminal records, identities of persons
who may have given information to the police in confidence and other
classified information or intelligence material.
C Divestment It is the transfer of title or disposal of interest in property by voluntarily,
completely and actually depriving or dispossessing oneself of his right or
title to it in favor of a person or persons other than his spouse and
relatives.
A RA No. 6713 This Act shall be known as the "Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards
84 for Public Officials and Employees"
B RA No. 3019 “The Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act.”
C Organizational Values It is defined as acceptable standards which govern the behavior of
individuals within the organization. Without such values, individuals will
pursue behaviors that are in line with their own individual values systems,
which may lead to behaviors that the organization does not wish to
encourage.
A Conflict of Interest This arises when a public official or employee is a member of a board, an
85 officer, or a substantial stockholder of a private corporation or owner or
has a substantial interest in a business, and the interest of such
corporation or business, or his rights or duties therein, and may be
opposed to or affected by the faithful performance of official duty.
B Police - Community It is the sum total of dealings of the police with the people it serves, and
Relations whose goodwill and cooperation it craves to ensure the greatest possible
efficiency in public service.
C Devotion to Duty PNP members shall perform their duties with dedication, thoroughness,
efficiency, enthusiasm, determination, and manifest concern for public
welfare, and shall refrain from engaging in any activity which shall be in
conflict with their duties as public servants.
A Turn Over Ceremony The relinquishment and assumption of command or key position is
86 publicly announced in a turnover ceremony by the outgoing and incoming
officers in the presence of the immediate superior or his representative.
B Social Awareness PNP members and their immediate family members shall be encouraged
 to actively get involved in religious, social and civic activities to enhance
the image of the organization without affecting their official duties.
C Command In accordance with the doctrine of command responsibility, immediate
Responsibility commanders or directors shall be responsible for the effective
supervision, control and direction of their personnel, and shall see to it
that all government resources shall be managed, expended or utilized in
accordance with laws and regulations and safeguard against losses thru
illegal or improper disposition.
A Commitment to Uniformed PNP members shall commit themselves to the democratic way
87 Democracy of life and values and maintain the principle of public accountability. They
shall, at all times, uphold the Constitution and be loyal to the country, the
people and the organization, above their loyalty to any person.
B Commitment to Public PNP members shall always uphold public interest over and above
Interest personal interest. All government properties, resources and powers of
their respective offices must be employed and used effectively, honestly
and efficiently, particularly to avoid wastage of public funds and
revenues.
C Respect for Human In the performance of duty, PNP members shall respect and protect
Rights human dignity and uphold the human rights of all persons.
A Orderliness PNP members shall follow original procedures in accomplishing tasks
88 assigned to them to minimize waste in the use of the police
organization’s time, money and effort.
B Humility This is sometimes expressed as modesty and selflessness. Humility is
not thinking less of one’s self, but thinking of one’s self less. It is a spirit
of self-examination and being charitably disposed towards people one
disagrees with.
C Loyalty PNP members are traditionally loyal to the organization, country and
people as borne by history and practice.
A Ethical Standards It is defined as a set or system of moral values and principles that are
89 based on honesty and truthfulness and has been accepted as
professional standards.
B Ethical Behavior These are statements that represent the objectives toward
professionalism by which police officers shall strive to achieve their
fulfillment.
C Discretion It is the power or right to decide or act according to one's own judgment;
freedom of judgment or choice:
A Respect for Authority Everyone must obey the state authorities because no authority exists
90 without God’s permission, and the existing authorities have been put
there by God. Whoever opposes the existing authority opposes what God
has ordered, and anyone who does so will bring judgment on himself.
B Sanctity of Marriage If a person loves someone, he will never do him wrong. Love does not
consist in gazing at each other but in looking together in the same
direction. Sanctity of marriage is the idea of the sacredness of marriage.
Marriage is one of the holiest of relations that two people can have. 
C Stewardship Over While man exercises dominion or control over the earth, even to some
Material Things extent of controlling the very forces of nature to serve his needs, he has
still the responsibility to keep his environment free from wanton
destruction and degradation.
CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH ANDS BASIC STATISTICS
A Criminological It is defined as a careful, systematic study of knowledge in the field of
91 Research criminal justice, undertaken to discover or establish facts of crimes or
causations of crime.
B Descriptive Research This finds answer to the questions who, what, when, where and how.
This type of research describes a situation or a given state of affairs in
terms of special aspects or factors.
C Statistics It has to do with the methods used in the collection, organization,
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data.
A Variables These are concepts that have been operationalized or “concepts that can
92 vary,” or can take on different values of a quantitative nature. They are
the mortars and bricks of scientific investigation.
B Concepts These are abstract tags that put on reality and are the starting points in
all scientific endeavors.
C Operationalization It defines concepts by describing how they will be measured. Working
definition, or operational definition are other terms used to refer to this
 process.
A Population A population can be defined as including all people or items with
93 characteristics or properties that researchers wish to understand.
B Sample A sample is a subset of a population, and this represents a subset of
manageable size.
C Sampling Design In the theory of finite population sampling, a sampling design specifies
that for every possible sample; it is the probability of being drawn.
A Research Design A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so
94 conceived to obtain answers to research questions or problems.
B Research Method A research method is a systematic plan for conducting research.
Sociologists draw on a variety of both qualitative and
quantitative research methods, including experiments, survey research,
participant observation, and secondary data.
C Data The term data refers to any kind of information researchers obtain from
the subjects, respondents or participants of a study.
A Quantitative Research It is the systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via
95 statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of
quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical
models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. 
B Qualitative Research It is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines,
including the social and natural sciences, but also in non-academic
contexts including market research, business, and service
demonstrations by non-profits
C Empirical Research It is research using empirical evidence. It is a way of gaining knowledge
by means of direct and indirect observation or experience. Empiricism
values such research more than other kinds.
A Questionnaire It has been defined as a list of planned, written questions related to a
96 particular topic, with space provided for the response to each question,
and is intended to be referred to a number of respondents for reply.
B Interview It is defined as a purposeful and face-to-face relationship between two
groups of persons, one of whom are called interviewer or researcher who
ask questions to gather information, and the other called interviewees or
respondents who supply the information.
C Observation Observation, as a means of gathering information for criminological
research, may be defined as perceiving data through the senses, such as
sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell.
A Fixed Alternative The fixed-alternative questionnaire requires the respondents to choose
97 Questionnaire an answer from a printed list of choices. Such questionnaires may include
a simple “yes or no” or “true or false” response, a multiple-choice list, or a
series of degrees of agreement or disagreement in relation to a variety of
assertions.
B Open Ended The open-ended questionnaire allows respondents to answer in their own
Questionnaire words. This can mean greater detail and a broader range of responses.
C Self - Administered The researchers deliver the questionnaire to the home of sample
Questionnaire respondents and explain the study. Then the questionnaire is left to the
respondents to complete and researcher picks it up later.
A Guttman Scales They are referred to as scalogram analysis, but more often referred to
98 Louis Gattman, and this insists that an attitudinal scale be based on un-
dimensionality. It should measure only one dimension. It is simply a “yes”
or “no” question.
B Likert Scales Likert scales, are the scales most commonly used in attitudinal research,
this consist of a simple summation of usually a five-point bipolar
responses ranging from not effective to very effective.
C Thurnstone Scales Thurstone scales were the first to be developed, that is, the use of judges
to select items. Judges are individuals whose expertise is respected, and
who might be in a position to help in the determination of the most useful
items.
A Validity The term validity refers to the degree to which a study supports the
99 intended conclusion drawn from the results.
B Reliability The term reliability is the consistency of a set of measurements or
measuring instruments, often used to describe a test.
C Scales The term scales are simply statements which the respondents are asked
to evaluate according to any kind of subjective or objective criteria; and
 generally the level of agreement or disagreement is measured.
A Data Analysis It is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data,
100 with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions,
and supporting decision making.
B Data Presentation It involves summarizing and using one variable statistics. The initial step
in data analysis is a marginal run. It is called “running the margins”
because it consists of single variable tabulations of the type data that
appear in the margins of tables to be constructed later.
C Graphic Presentation Graphic or pictorial presentations of data are an attractive means of
capturing the reader’s attention, and as well as in summarizing data,
particularly the information from frequency and percentage distribution.