Minor Project Final

DESIGN AND COST ESTIMATION OF
FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT
A
PROJECT
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELORS OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
DIVYANSH MITTAL
(11610093)
Under the supervision of
Dr. S.N. SACHDEVA

Professor & Head of
Civil Engineering Department
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

KURUKSHETRA-136119
NOVEMBER 2019
1
DESIGN AND COST ESTIMATION OF
FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT
SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Dr. S.N. Sachdeva Shalu Meena 11610013
Project Supervisor & Professor Vikas Kumar Yadav 11610036
Dept. of Civil Engineering Deepak Phagna 11610039
NIT Kurukshetra Naveen Gupt 11610057
Divyansh Mittal 11610093
Rabindra Kumar 11610097
Ravidarshan 11610102
Surya Prakash Pandia 11610124
Abhishek Juyal 11610630
CERTIFICATE
2
We hereby certify that the work presented in this Project report entitled “Design and Cost
Estimation of Flexible and Rigid Pavement” submitted to National Institute of
Technology Kurukshetra in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering, is an authentic record of our own
work carried out during the period from July 2019 to November 2019 under the able
guidance of Dr. S.N. Sachdeva, Professor & Head of Civil Engineering Department,
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Haryana.
Date:
Name Roll No.

Shalu Meena 11610013
Vikas Kumar Yadav 11610036
Deepak Phagna 11610039
Naveen Gupt 11610057
This is to certify that the above statement made by the students is correct to the best of my
knowledge.
Dr. S.N. Sachdeva

Project Supervisor & Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering
NIT Kurukshetra
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3
We wish to express our heartfelt gratitude to Dr. S.N. Sachdeva for his constant support and
encouragement throughout the project. This project work would not have been possible
without his able guidance. We would also like to thank the Civil Engineering Department for
providing us with the necessary facilities for completion of the project.
Name Roll No.

Shalu Meena 11610013
Vikas Kumar Yadav 11610036
Deepak Phagna 11610039
Naveen Gupt 11610057
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
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1.1 GENERAL
Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural

development of any country. Main modes of transportation in our country are Roadways,
Railways, Waterways, and Airways. Transportation by road system is the only mode which
could give maximum flexibility of service from origin to destination to one and all. Road
transport mode has the maximum flexibility for travel with reference to choice of route,
direction, time and speed. This is the only mode which caters for the movement of passengers
and good independently right from the place of origin up to the destination of any trip along
the land. It is most suited for carrying goods and people to and from rural areas which are not
served by other modes of transport.
India has a network of over 5,603,293 kilometres (3,481,725 mi) of roads as of

31 March 2016. This is the second largest road network in the world, after the United
States with 6,702,178 kilometres (4,164,540 mi). At 1.70 kilometres (1.06 mi) of roads per
square kilometre of land, the quantitative density of India's road network is higher than that
of Japan (0.91 km, 0.57 mi) and the United States (0.99 km, 0.62 mi), and substantially
higher than that of China (0.46 km, 0.29 mi), Brazil (0.18 km, 0.11 mi) and Russia (0.08 km,
0.050 mi).
The pavement is crucial part of any road project and needs to withstand traffic load
without deteriorating or deforming to the extent that it becomes unusable during the design
life period. A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of
processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute
the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a
surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favourable light reflecting
characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted
stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing
capacity of the sub-grade.
Pavements are generally classified into two categories based on the structural
behaviour:
 Flexible Pavement
 Rigid Pavement
5
A flexible pavement consists of various layers of granular materials and is provided with
a layer of bituminous materials on top. A rigid pavement, on the other hand, consists of
a cement concrete pavement laid on a well prepared granular sub-base.
Roads in India are primarily bitumen -based macadamised roads. However, the

number of concrete roads is increasing. Concrete roads were less popular prior to the 1990s
because of low availability of cement; however, with large supplies of cement in the country,
and the advantages of concrete roads, they are gaining popularity. Concrete roads are durable,
weather-proof and require lower maintenance compared to bituminous roads. Moreover, new
concrete pavement technology has developed such as "cool pavement", "quiet pavement" and
"permeable pavement", which has made concrete more attractive and eco-friendly.
Rigid pavement is generally preferred for locations experiencing heavy rainfall,

waterlogged areas and areas having sub-grade soil with low CBR (California Bearing Ratio)
values. The typical designed life of a rigid pavement is around 30 years, about twice as long
as flexible pavement. Apart from the high initial cost, the total cost over design is less in
comparison to the flexible pavement. The economy and its long life serve as the main reason
for the popularity of rigid pavements.
1.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT

The structure of flexible pavement consists of a series of layers with the highest
quality materials at or near the surface of the pavement. The load is transferred from top to
the bottom by grain to grain contact whereas the structure of rigid pavement consists of a
layer of Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) slab of relatively high flexural strength over a layer
of lean concrete or granular sub base. The load is borne by the slab action or beam action of
this slab. This is the basic difference between a flexible and a rigid pavement.
Following are various differences between flexible and rigid pavement:
Table 1.1 Difference between Flexible and Rigid pavement

Characteristics Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
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 Material Bituminous road or Cement concrete road
black top pavement
 Load Transfer Grain to grain load Slab action takes place
transfer
 Deformation under Pointed deformation Whole of the slab
load under load takes place under goes deformation
 Nature of stress Usually compressive Wheel load and
stress is caused due to temperature variation
traffic load. causes tensile stresses
of high magnitude.
 Stage Construction Possible Not possible
 No. of layers More number of layers. Slab can rest directly
over the subgrade
 Cost Initial cost is low Initial cost is high
 Joint Joints are not required Joints are required
 Durability Durability is less Durability is high
 Life Life span is short about Life span is long about
15 years. 30 years.
 Repair Repair work is easy Repair work is tough.
 Maintenance cost Maintenance cost is Maintenance cost is
high. low.
 Curing Requires less curing Requires more curing
time. time.
 Effect of Temperature variation Temperature variation
temperature has no effect on stress effects the stress
variation. variation.
 Night visibility Poor night visibility due Good night visibility.
to use of bitumen.
 Progress of Fast Slow
construction
 Skilled supervision Available Not easily available
1.3 PROJECT TOPIC AND ITS IMPORTANCE

The project entitled “Design and Cost estimation of Flexible and Rigid pavement”
includes the design of flexible and rigid pavement as per latest IRC guidelines. It also covers
the cost estimation of designed pavement sections and aims to study the effect of varying
CBR and traffic on their thickness and construction cost.
Improper design leads to the early failure of pavements. It also affects the riding
quality of the road. In this project various design aspects of both flexible and rigid
pavements are covered. A properly designed pavement is not only safe from structural
failure point of view but also economical.
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Cost estimation is important factor for any road project. In this project cost estimation
and comparison is done for both flexible and rigid pavement. It will help to decide about the
economy of these two types of pavements for given conditions of subgrade strength and
traffic on the road. In this project the effect of variation of subgrade strength and traffic on
the thickness and cost of pavement is aimed to be covered which will help work out the
economy of these two types of pavements.
The economic growth of a country is dependent upon highway development.
Improperly planned, designed, constructed and maintained highways can disrupt the social
and economic characteristics of any country. Common adverse impacts to highway
development include noise and vibration generation, damage of natural landscape, and the
destruction of social and cultural structure. Highway infrastructure must be constructed and
maintained to high qualities and standards. In this project, both flexible and rigid pavements
are designed as per IRC guidelines. Rigid pavement has been designed with earthen
shoulders.
The key for increasing the structural safety of highway systems is to design, build, and
maintain them according to the traffic and environmental conditions. This project includes
design of flexible and rigid pavements with variation of CBR of subgrade and traffic values.
Thickness of pavement is designed with varying traffic values taking into consideration the
safety measures.
Cost estimation is an essential

component of infrastructure
projects. Accurate estimation
will
assist project managers to
choose adequate alternatives
8
and to avoid misjudging of
technical and
economic solutions.
will
technical and
economic solutions.
will
9
technical and
economic solutions.
will
technical and
economic solutions.
Cost estimation is an essential component of highway projects. Accurate estimation
will assist project manager to choose adequate alternatives and to avoid misjudging of
technical and economical solution. In this project, the construction cost of flexible and rigid
pavement will be estimated and compared. This will provide the project manager to choose
an economical pavement.
10
will
technical and
economic solutions
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT
The project entitled “Design and Cost Estimation of Flexible and Rigid pavement”
consists of designing of Flexible and Rigid pavement using the latest guidelines of IRC
given in IRC: 37-2012 and IRC: 58-2015. The main objectives of the project are:
i. To do the design of a flexible and a rigid pavement for the varying values of CBR of
subgrade and traffic.
ii. To determine the effect of variation of subgrade strength on the thickness of

pavement.
iii. To determine the effect of traffic variation on the thickness of pavement.
iv. To do the cost estimation of both the pavements for varying design thicknesses and
compare the costs.
v. To discuss the effect of variation of subgrade strength and traffic on the cost of the
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pavement.
vi. To discuss the economy of Flexible and Rigid pavements under varying conditions
of subgrade strength and traffic.
1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
The project covers the design and cost estimation of a four lane carriageway road (7x2
m). The effective CBR of the subgrade is varied from 3% to 8% and initial traffic of
commercial vehicles on the road is considered as 500, 2000, 4000 & 6000CVPD. The
design has been done as per IRC:37-2012 guidelines for flexible pavements and IRC: 58-
2015 guidelines for rigid pavements. Rigid pavement has been designed with earthen
shoulders. For cost estimation, rates of material and labour are as per Haryana Government,
whereas rate of machinery is based upon MoRTH Standard Data Book.
1.6 PRESENTATION OF THE REPORT

The project report has been presented in the following chapters:
 The First Chapter of Introduction includes the general introduction, objectives and
scope of the project.
 The Second Chapter of Literature Review outlines the relevant IRC guidelines
required in the project.
 The Third Chapter highlights the Methodology of the Project.
 The Fourth Chapter describes the Pavement Design.
 The Fifth Chapter describes the Cost Estimation.
 The Sixth Chapter consists of Conclusions and Scope of future research.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
The guidelines on design of flexible pavement were first brought out in 1970, which
were based on California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of Subgrade and traffic in terms of number of
commercial vehicles (more than 3 tones laden weight).
These guidelines were revised 1984 in which design traffic was considered in terms of
cumulative number of equivalent standard axle load of 80 KN in millions of standard axles
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(msa) and design chart were provided for traffic up to 30 msa using an empirical approach.
These guidelines were revised again in 2001 when pavements were required to be
designed for traffic as high as 150 msa. The revised guidelines used a semi mechanistic
approach and the software, IITPAVE was developed for the analysis and design of flexible
pavements. Multilayer elastic layer theory was adopted for stress analysis of the layered
elastic system.
The volume of the tandem and multi-axle vehicles has increased many fold and
heavier loads are common. Experience has been gained on the use of new form of
construction and materials such as stone matrix asphalt, modified bitumen, foamed bitumen,
bitumen emulsion, warm asphalt, cementitious basis and sub-bases since the last revision of
guidelines. Attention is focused on fatigue resistant bituminous mixes with viscosity binders
for heavy traffic with a view to construct high performance long life bituminous pavements.
The focus from the use of large-scale conventional aggregates is shifted as
conventional material like aggregates is becoming progressively scarce as well as legal
restrictions on quarrying while the construction activity has expanded phenomenally.
The IRC: 37-2001 was based on a mechanistic empirical approach, which considered the
design life of pavement to last till the fatigue cracking in bituminous surface extended to 20
percent of the pavement surface area or rutting in the pavement reached the terminal rutting
of 20mm, whichever happens earlier. The same approach and the criteria are followed in
these guidelines as well, except that the cracking and rutting have been restricted to 10
percent of the area for design traffic exceeding 30 msa. These guidelines aim at pavement
design by including alternate materials.
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The guidelines recommend that the following aspects should be given considerations
while designing to achieve better performing pavements:
1. Incorporation of design period of more than 15 years.
2. Computation of effective CBR of Subgrade for pavement design.
3. Use of rut resistant surface layer.
4. Use of fatigue resistant bottom bituminous layer.
5. Selection of surface layer to prevent top down cracking.
6. Use of bitumen emulsion/ foamed bitumen treated, reclaimed asphalt pavements in base
course.
7. Design of drainage layer.
8. Computation of equivalent single axle load considering
(a) single axle with single wheel
(b) single axle with dual wheel
(c) tandem axle and
(d) tridem axle.
9. Design of perpetual pavement with deep strength bituminous layer.
Guidelines for the rigid pavement for highways were first published in 1974. The first
revision of the guidelines was made in 1998 after the upward revision of the legal limit of the
maximum laden load of commercial vehicles from 8160 kg to 10200 kg. The second revision
was brought in 2002 to include fatigue damage concept of design. A computer program
IITRIGID was first used for the computation of the flexural stress due to single and tandem
axle loads.
Taking into account of the advancements that have taken place in the area of rigid
pavements during the recent years, a revised draft of the guidelines was prepared and was
presented in the rigid pavements committee meeting held in October 2010, a number of
additional suggestions were made in the meeting of the members, last revision of the code
was done in 2015.
The guidelines cover the design of plain jointed cement concrete pavements with and
without tied concrete shoulders. The guidelines are applicable to roads having an average
daily commercial traffic volume of more than 450 (vehicles with laden weight exceeding 3
tonnes). IRC SP:62 may be referred for the design of low volume Rural roads.
The present version of IRC:58 aims at rationalizing the design procedure by bringing
it, as far as possible at par with current trends in de sign, as well as by including the spectrum
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of axle loads as per present day vehicle fleet, considering cumulative fatigue damage due to
the combined effect of loads and pavement temperature variations. The guidelines also
include procedure for design of pavements with widened outer lane, tied concrete shoulder,
pavements bonded to cemented subbase, design of longitudinal joints, expansion and
contraction joints.
The salient features of the current guidelines are:
1. Design of pavements considering the combined flexural stress under the simultaneous
action of load and temperature gradient for different categories of axle.
2. Design for Bottom-Up fatigue cracking caused by single and tandem axle load repetitions.
3. Design for Top-Down fatigue cracking caused by single, tandem and tridem axle load
applications.
4. Consideration of in-built permanent curl in the analysis of flexural stresses.
5. Design guidelines for pavement without concrete shoulders and with tied concrete
shoulders.
6. Consideration of Concrete slabs with unbounded as well as bounded cement bound
subbase.
7. Design of pavements with widened outer lanes.
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2.1 Literature Review of Flexible Pavements
Khan (1998) describes the Group Index Method and California Bearing Ratio
Method for design of flexible pavements. In Group Index Method the thickness is obtained
by first determining the Group Index of soil. The curves are plotted between Group Index of
subgrade and thickness for various traffic conditions. In California Bearing Ratio Method, the
curves are plotted between California Bearing Ratio Percent and depth of construction.
Arora (2003) have reported various methods for design of flexible pavements. These
various methods are Group Index Method, CBR Method, California Resistance Value
Method and McLeod Method. In the Group Index Method, the thickness of base and
surfacing is related to the volume of traffic. In CBR Method the curves are plotted between
CBR and pavement thickness for light, medium and heavy traffic. California Resistance
Value Method uses California Resistance value, called R-value. In Mcleod Method curves are
plotted between depth of construction and CBR for traffic conditions.
Punmia et. al (2005) have reported stresses in homogeneous mass; elastic
deformation under circular load and Burmister analysis for flexible pavement. Charts for
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vertical deflections have been developed. The design curves by Group Index Method and
California Bearing Ratio Method have been developed. In Group Index Method, the curves
are plotted between Group Index and thickness. In California Bearing Ratio Method curves
are plotted between thickness of construction and California Bearing Ratio.
Subagio et.al (2005) discusses a case study for multi layer pavement structural
analysis using methods of equivalent thickness. An approximate method has been developed
to calculate stresses and strains in multilayer pavement systems by transforming this structure
into an equivalent one-layer system with equivalent thicknesses of one elastic modulus. This
concept is known as the method of equivalent thickness which assumes that the stresses and
strains below a layer depend on the stiffness of that layer.
Das (2008) discusses the reliability issues in bituminous pavement design, based on
mechanistic- empirical-approach. Variabilities of pavement design input parameters are
considered and reliability, for various proposed failure definitions, of a given pavement is
estimated by simulation as well as by analytical method. A methodology has been suggested
for designing bituminous pavements for a given level of overall reliability by mechanistic
empirical pavement design approach.
Tarefder et. al (2010) present that reliability is an important factor in flexible
pavement design to consider the variability associated with the design inputs. In this paper,
subgrade strength variability and flexible pavement designs are evaluated for reliability.
Parameters such as mean, maximum likelihood, median, coefficient of variation, and density
distribution, function of subgrade strength are determined. Design outputs are compared in
terms of reliability and thickness using these design procedures. It is shown that the
AASHTO provides higher reliability values compared to the probabilistic procedure. Finally,
the reliability of the flexible pavement design is evaluated by varying hot mix asphalt
properties. Alternative designs are recommended for the existing pavement thickness by
modifying material and subgrade properties to mitigate different distresses.
Rahman et. al (2011), design of flexible pavement is largely based on empirical
methods using layered elastic and two-dimensional finite element analysis. Currently a shift
underway towards more mechanistic design techniques to minimize the limitations in
determining stress, strain and displacement in pavement analysis. In this study, flexible
pavement modeling is done using ABAQUS software in which model dimensions, element
types and meshing strategies are taken by successive trial and error to achieve desired
accuracy and convergence of the study.
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Ameri et. al (2012) have used finite element method to analyse and design
pavements. Finite element method is able to analyse stability, time dependent problems and
problems with material nonlinearity. In this paper, a great number of the prevalent pavements
have been analyzed by means of two techniques: Finite element method and theory of
multilayer system. Eventually, from statistical viewpoint, the results of analysis on these two
techniques have been compared by significance parameter and correlation coefficient. The
results of this study indicate that results of analysis on finite elements are most appropriately
compiled with results came from theory of multilayer system and there is no significant
difference among the mean values in both techniques.
Jain et. al (2013) discuss about the design methods that traditionally being followed
and examine the “Design of rigid and flexible pavements by various methods and their cost
analysis by each method”. Flexible pavements are preferred over cement concrete roads as
they have a great advantage that these can be strengthened and improved in stages with the
growth of traffic and also their surfaces can be milled and recycled for rehabilitation. The
flexible pavement is less expansive also with regard to initial investment and maintenance.
Although rigid pavement is expansive but less maintenance and have good design period. It is
observed that flexible pavements are more economical for lesser volume of traffic. The life of
flexible pavement is near about 15 years whose initial cost is less needs a periodic
maintenance after a certain period and maintenance costs very high. The life of rigid
pavement is much more than the flexible pavement of about 40 years, approximately 2.5
times life of flexible pavement whose initial cost is much more than flexible pavement but
maintenance cost is very less.
Dilip et.al (2013) discuss the uncertainty in material properties and traffic
characterization in the design of flexible pavements. This has led to significant efforts in
recent years to incorporate reliability methods and probabilistic design procedures for the
design, rehabilitation, and maintenance of pavements. This study carries out the reliability
analysis for a flexible pavement section based on the first-order reliability method and
second-order reliability method techniques and the crude Monte Carlo Simulation. The study
also advocates the use of narrow bounds to the probability of failure, which provides a better
estimate of the probability of failure, as validated from the results obtained from Monte Carlo
Simulation.
Maharaj and Gill (2014) performed axisymmetric finite element analysis by varying
different parameters to develop design charts. The parameters varied are thickness of pavement,
pressure and elastic modulus of subgrade. The pavement and base course has been idealized as linear
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elastic material while the subgrade has been idealized as nonlinear material by Drucker-Prager yield
criterion. The pavement, base course and soil have been discretized by four noded isoparametric finite
elements. Four types of design charts have been developed. Each of the design charts has three
parameters. For two known parameters, the third parameters can be obtained.
2.2.2 Literature Review of Rigid Pavements

Chou (1983) analyzed stress conditions in concrete pavements using the finite
element method for slabs on elastic subgrades. The study consisted of the following parts: (1)
The effect of the efficiency of load transfer across the joints; (2) the loading positions that
produce the most critical stress and deflection conditions in the pavement; (3) the effect of
temperature warping and gaps under the pavement; (4) the nonlinear effect due to the partial
contact between the slabs and the supporting subgrade; (5) the stress conditions in the
continuously reinforced concrete pavements.
Krauthammer and Western (1988) focus on the relationship between shear transfer
capabilities across pavement joints and the effects on the behavior of the pavement. The
approach of the present study is to develop a numerical model that could accurately represent
the mechanism for shear transfer across reinforced concrete pavement joints and implement it
in an existing finite element code. The tool is then used for the analysis of various pavements
for which experimental data are available; the model is further refined until the numerical
results are in good agreement with the experimental information.
Hadi and Arfiadi (2001) states that the design of rigid pavements involves assuming
a pavement structure then using a number of tables and figures to calculate the two governing
design criteria, the flexural fatigue of the concrete base and the erosion of the sub-grade/sub-
base. Each of these two criteria needs to be less than 100%. The designer needs to ensure that
both criteria are near 100% so that safe and economical designs are achieved. This paper
presents a formulation for the problem of optimum rigid road pavement design by defining
the objective function, which is the total cost of pavement materials, and all the constraints
that influence the design. A genetic algorithm is used to find the optimum design. The results
obtained from the genetic algorithm are compared with results obtained from a Newton-
Raphson based optimization solver.
Darestani et. al (2006) states that a number of input parameters are needed to
calculate the required concrete base thickness based on the cumulative damage process due to
fatigue of concrete and erosion of subbase or subgrade materials. This paper views the design
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guide, introduces a design software specially developed to study the guide and highlights
some important points. Results of the current study show the complex interdependence of the
many parameters.
Long and Shatnawi (2011) address the structural performance of experimental rigid
pavements constructed in California. The experimental project consists of seven Portland
Cement concrete pavement sections with various layer structures. Falling weight
deflectometer was utilized to conduct deflection testing for back calculation of layer moduli
and subgrade reaction moduli, evaluation of joint load transfer capacity, and detection of
voids under the slabs. In addition, pavement distress condition was also evaluated as it relates
to the integrity of pavement structure. The major findings in this study indicate that thick slab
and lean concrete base lower the pavement deflection response and prevent the formation of
voids under the slab corners, but lean concrete base has no significant effect on subgrade
reaction moduli values.
Cojocaru et.al (2013) present the results of the research undertaken by them in the
frame of the postdoctoral program DPOSTDOC. After a short introduction on the actual
status of structural design of airport pavements, the modeling and the structural design of
airport rigid pavements, constructed with conventional and various recycled materials, using
the finite element method, is described. The main objective of this research program was to
elaborate a design method which, beside the complex landing gear including six footprint
tires, all specific parameters related with the recycled materials and with conventional and
reinforce roll compacted concrete technologies are included. Finally, practical design
diagrams for structural design of the concrete slabs, including their specific correlation
function, used for the construction of the Airbus-A380 runway are presented.
2.3 IRC:37-2012 GUIDELINES FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
The recommended method considers design traffic in terms of cumulative number of
standard axles (80 KN) to be carried by the pavement during the design life. Axle load
spectrum data are required where cementitious bases are used for evaluating fatigue damage
of such bases for heavy traffic.
Following information is needed for estimating design traffic:
1. Traffic growth rate during the design life in percentage.
2. Design life in number of years.
3. Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF).
4. Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriageway.
Only the number of commercial vehicles having gross vehicle weight of 30 KN or
20
more and their axle-loading is considered for the purpose of design of pavement. Assessment
of present day average traffic should be used on seven-day-24-hour count made in
accordance with IRC:9-1972, “Traffic Census on Non-Urban Roads”.
2.3.1 Traffic Growth Rate

The present day traffic has to be projected for the end of design life at growth rates (r)
estimated by studying and analyzing the following data:
1. The past trends of traffic growth
2. Demand elasticity of traffic with respect to macro-economic parameters (like GDP or SDP)
and expected demand due to specific developments and land use changes likely to take place
during design life.
If the data for the annual growth rate of cumulative vehicles is not available or if it is
less than 5 percent, a growth rate of 5 percent should be used.
2.3.2 Design Life
The design is defined in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles in msa that
can be carried before a major strengthening, rehabilitation or capacity augmentation of the
pavement is necessary.
It is recommended that pavement for National Highways and State Highways should
be designed for a minimum life of 15 years. Expressways and Urban Roads may be designed
for a longer life of 20 years or higher using innovative design adopting high fatigue
bituminous mixes. In the light experience in India and abroad high volume roads with design
traffic than 200 msa and perpetual pavement can also be designed using the principles stated
in guidelines. For other categories, a design life of 10-15 years may be adopted.
If stage construction is adopted, thickness of granular layer should be provided for the
full design period. In the case of cemented bases and sub-bases, stage construction may lead
failure because of high flexural stresses in cemented layer and therefore, not recommended.
2.3.3 Vehicle Damage Factor
The guidelines use Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) in estimation of cumulative msa
for thicker design of pavement.
The vehicle damage factor is a multiplier to convert the number of commercial
vehicles of different axle loads and axle configuration into the number of repetitions of a
standard axle load of magnitude 80 KN. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles
per commercial vehicle. The VDF varies with the vehicle axle configuration and axle
loading.
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It should be used for converting different axle load repetitions into equivalent
standard load repetitions. Since the VDF values in AASTHO Road test for flexible and rigid
pavements are not much different, for heavy duty pavements, the computed VDF values are
assumed to be same for bituminous with cemented and granular bases. The following
equation 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 are given below. .
Single axle with single wheel on either side= (axle load in KN)4 ……..2.1
604
4 ……… 2.2
Single axle with dual wheel on either side= (axle load in KN)
804
. . . . . ….…2.3
Tandem axle with dual wheels on either side= (axle load in KN)4
1484
Tridem axle with dual wheels on either side= (axle load in KN)4 . . . . . . . . .. . ..
2.4
2244
Above formulae varies according to different axle conditions.
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2.3.4 Distribution of Commercial Traffic over the Carriageway
Distribution of commercial traffic in each direction and in each lane is required for
determining the total equivalent standard axle load application to be considered in the design.
In the absence of adequate and conclusive data, the following distribution may be assumed
until more reliable data on placement of commercial vehicles on the carriageway lanes are
available:
A. Single Lane Roads
Traffic tends to be more channelized on single lane roads than two lane roads and to allow for
this concentration of wheel load repetitions, design should be based on total number of
commercial vehicles in both directions i.e. 100%.
B. Two Lane Single Carriageway Roads
The design should be based on 50% of total number of commercial vehicles in both direction.
If the VDF in one direction is higher, the traffic in the direction of higher VDF if
recommended for the design.
C. Four-Lane Single Carriageway Roads
Design should be based on 40% of total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
D. Dual Carriageway Roads
The design of dual two lane carriageway should be based on 75% of total numbers of
commercial vehicle in each direction. Foe dual three lane carriageway and dual four lane
carriageway, the distribution factor will be 60% and 45% respectively.
Where there is no significant difference between traffic in each of the two directions
design traffic for each direction may be taken as half of the some of traffic in both directions.
Where significant difference between the two streams exist, pavement thickness in each
direction can be different and designed accordingly.
For two-way two-lane roads, pavement thickness should be same for both the lanes
even if VDF values are different in different directions and designed for higher VDF.VDF is
a critical factor for estimation of total traffic.
23
For divided carriageways, each direction may have different thickness of pavement if
the axle load patterns are significantly different.
2.3.5 Computation of Design Traffic
The design traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axle to be carried during
the design life of the road is calculated using the following equation
.Where, 𝑁 = 365 ∗ [(1 + 𝑟)𝑛 − 1] ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ F
r
N=Cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in the design in terms msa
A=Initial traffic in the year of construction in terms of number of commercial vehicles per
day (CPVD)
D=Lane distribution factor, F=Vehicle damage factor, n =Design life in years
r=annual growth rate of commercial vehicles in decimals (e.g. for 5 percent annual growth
rate, r= 0.05).
The traffic in the year of completion is estimated using following formula: A=P*(1+r)X
Where,
P=Number of commercial vehicle as per last count.
X=Number of year between the last count and the year of completion of construction.
2.3.6 Subgrade
2.3.6.1 Requirements of CBR of Subgrade
The Subgrade is top 500 mm of the embankment immediately below the bottom of
the pavement, and is made up of in-situ material ,select soil ,stabilize soil that forms the
foundation of a pavement .It should be well compacted to limit the scope of rutting in
pavement due to additional densification during the service life of pavement. Subgrade shall
be compacted to a minimum 97 percent of laboratory dry density achieved with heavy
compaction as per IS:2720(Part 8) for Expressways, National Highways, State Highways,
Major District Roads and other heavily trafficked roads.
The select soil forming the subgrade should have a minimum CBR of 8 percent for
roads having traffic of 450 commercial vehicles per day or higher.
2.3.6.2 Effective CBR
Where there is significant difference between the CBRs of the select subgrade in
embankment soils, the design should be based on effective CBR. The effective CBR of the
subgrade can be determined from figure 2.1
24
Fig. 2.1 Effective CBR of Subgrade
CBR of Compacted Borrow Material 500 mm thick.
In case the borrow material is placed over the rocky foundation, the effective CBR
may be larger when the CBR of the borrow material. Use of the CBR of borrow material may
be adopted for pavement design with proper safeguards against development of pore water
pressure between the foundation and borrow material.
2.3.6.3 Determination of Resilient Modulus
Resilient modulus is the measure of elastic behavior determined by recoverable
deformation in the laboratory test. The modulus is an important parameter in the design and
the performance of pavement. This can be determined in the laboratory by conducting test as
per procedure specified AASHTOT307 99(2003) (1). Since the repetitive tri axial testing
facility is not widely available and is expensive, the default resilient modulus can be
estimated from generally acceptable correlation:
The relation between resilient modulus and effective CBR (%) is given in equation
2.5 and 2.6 below.
MR(MPa)=10*CBRfor CBR≤5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5
MR(MPa)=17.6*(CBR)0.64 for CBR>5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6
2.3.6.4 Poison ratio
Recommended value is 0.25.
2.3.7 Granular Layer

2.3.7.1 General
Granular construction is used to construct bases and sub-bases in the pavement. Sub-
base layer may consist of natural soil, moorum, crushed stone, crushed slab and reclaimed
25
crushed concrete/ reclaimed asphalt pavement combinations thereof meeting the prescribed
grading and physical requirement. The base layer may consist of wet mix macadam, water
bound macadam, crushed run macadam, reclaimed asphalt etc.
2.3.7.2 Resilient Modulus of Granular Layer is given in equation 2.7
Mr_gsb=0.2*h0.45*Mr_subgrade ..........
2. 7
Where, h=thickness of granular sub base and base layer in mm.
2.3.7.3 Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s Ratio of granular bases and sub bases is recommended as .35.
2.3.8 Bituminous Layer
2.3.8.1 General
Bituminous layer is top most layer of the flexible pavement and it is subjected to most
of the wear and tear caused due to traffic. Therefore, bituminous. layer should be constructed
with the stronger materials as comparison to granular layers.
2.3.8.2 Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Layer
Resilient modulus of bituminous layer is given in table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Layer
Mix Type Temperature ℃
20 25 30 35 40
BC & DBM for VG10 2300 2000 1450 1000 800
Bitumen
BC & DBM for VG30 3500 3000 2500 1700 1250
Bitumen
BC & DBM for VG40 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000
Bitumen
26
BC & DBM for modified 5700 3800 2400 1650 1300
Bitumen
BM with VG10 bitumen 500 MPa at 35℃
BM with VG30 bitumen 700 MPa at 35℃
WMM/RAP treated with

3% bitumen
600 MPa at 35℃ (laboratory values vary from 600 to
emulsion/foamed bitumen
1200MPa for water saturated samples)
(2% residual bitumen and
1% cementitious material)
2.3.8.3 Poisson’s Ratio

Poisson’s ratio for bituminous layer depends upon the pavement temperature and
a value of 0.4 is recommended for temperature up to 35℃ and a value of .50 for higher
temperatures.
Pavement Design Procedure and Use of IITPAVE Software

The analysis and design of pavement can be carried out by following approach:
A. For traffic less than 2 msa recommendations of IRC: SP:72-2007 may be
used.
B. In case of higher traffic, IITPAVE software may be used. It is a multilayer
elastic layer analysis program. The necessary steps required to use this
software are:
i. Open the folder IITPAVE.
ii. Double click IITPAVE_EXfile in the IITPAVE folder. This in an executable jar
file. A home screen will appear.
iii. From the home screen user can give input through input window by clicking on
‘Design New Pavement Section’. User can also give input through properly
formatted input file by clicking on ‘edit existing file’ option then browsing and
opening the input file.
iv. Next an input window will come. All the inputs required have to be given
through the input window.
v. First, number of layers to be selected from dropdown menu to fix up input boxes
for different layer.
27
vi. Next elastic modulus (E) values of the various layers in MPa. Poisson’s ratio and
thickness of layer in mm excluding the subgrade thickness to be provided.
vii. Single wheel load and the tyre pressure are to be provided (tyre pressure of .56
MPa has been used for calibration of fatigue equation at same pressure can be
used or stress analysis. Change of pressure even up to 80 MPa has a small effect
upon stress value in lower layer).
viii. Then the number of points of a stress computation is to be given through the
dropdown menu for analysis.
ix. Then corresponding to different points the values of Z depth in mm and the
corresponding value of radial distances from wheel centre (r) in mm are to be
given (wheel centre to centre distance of 310 mm is considered).
x. Provide whether analysis is for single wheel load or dual wheel load by clicking
one or dual wheel load is the most common case.
xi. The output of program will provide stresses, strains and deflections at the desired
points. Next check if the computed strains are less than the permissible strain. If
not than run the program with a new thickness combination till the permissible
strain value are achieved. epT, epR and epZ will be the outputs that will of
interest.
xii. In most cases the tensile strain at the bottom of bituminous layer is higher in the
longitudinal direction (epT) rather than in radial direction (epR). If tensile strain
in the bituminous layer is high, increase the thickness of bituminous layer.
xiii. Vertical subgrade strain (epZ) should be less than the permissible value for the
design traffic. If the vertical subgrade strain is higher, increase the thickness of
sub base layer.
xiv. Stress value can also be easily computed by changing directly the input file is to
be written in the format as illustrated in the manual and browse the input file by
clicking ‘Edit Existing File’ on home screen of IITPAVE.
2.4 IRC:58-2012 GUIDELINES FOR RIGID PAVEMENT

The main factors governing design of concrete pavements are design period, design
commercial traffic volume, composition of commercial traffic in terms of single, tandem,
tridem and multi-axles, axle load spectrum, tyre pressure of commercial vehicles, lateral
placement characteristics of commercial vehicles, directional distribution of commercial
vehicles, composition and strength of foundation and climatic considerations.
28
2.4.1 Axle Load Characteristics
Though the legal axle load limits in India are 10.2 tonnes (100KN), 19 tonnes (186KN)
and 24 tonnes (235KN) for single, tandem, tridem axles respectively, a large number of axles
on National Highways carry much heavier loads than the legal limits. Data on axle load
spectrum of the commercial vehicles is required to estimate the repetitions of single, tandem
& tridem axles in each direction expected during the design period. Minimum percentages of
commercial vehicles to be weighed
 Single axle 10 KN
 Tandem axle 20 KN
 Tridem axle 30 KN
For most of the commercial vehicles, the community used tyre inflation pressures range
from about
0.7 MPa to 1.0 MPa. It is found that stresses in concrete pavements having thickness of 200
mm or higher are not affected significantly by the variation of tyre pressure. A tyre pressure
of 0.8 MPa is adopted for design in these guidelines.
2.4.2 Wheel Base Characteristics
Information on typical spacing between successive axles of commercial vehicles is
necessary to identify the proportion of axles that should be considered for estimating top-
down fatigue cracking caused by axle loads during night period when the slab has the
tendency of curling up due to negative temperature differential. Data on the spacing of the
axle may be collected during the traffic survey. As discussed in subsequent sections of these
guidelines, if the spacing between any pair of axles is less than spacing of transverse joint,
such axle need to be considered in the design traffic for computing top down fatigue cracking
damage. Wheel bases of trucks of different models generally range from 3.6m to more than
5.0m whereas the commonly used spacing of transverse joints is 4.5m. Thus axles with
spacing of more than 4.5m are not expected to contribute to top down fatigue cracking.
However, if the actual spacing of transverse joints is different from 4.5m, design traffic for
estimation of top- down cracking damage may be selected appropriately. The percentage of
commercial vehicles with spacing between the front and the first rear axle less than the
proposed spacing of the transverse joints in the concrete slab should be established from axle
load survey.
2.4.3 Design Period
29
Cement concrete pavements may be designed to have a lifespan of 30 years or more.
However, the design engineer should use his/her judgement about the design period taking
into consideration factors such as traffic volume, uncertainty of traffic growth rate, the
capacity of the road and the possibility of augmentation of capacity by widening.
2.4.4 Traffic Consideration
(A) Design Lane

The lane carrying the maximum number of heavy commercial vehicles is termed as
design lane. Each lane of a two-way two-lane highway and the outer lane of multi-lane
highways can be considered as design lane.
(B) Design Traffic
Assessment of average daily traffic should normally be based on seven days 24 hours
count made in accordance with IRC: 9 “Traffic Census on Non-Urban Roads”. The actual
value of annual rate of growth `r` of commercial vehicles should be determined using
appropriate methods. As per IRC-SP:84, annual growth rate of commercial vehicles shall be
taken to be a minimum 5%. However, in the typical design example 7.5 percent value has
been considered keeping in view the higher traffic growth on some highways. The traffic
counts corresponding traffic estimates should indicate the day and night traffic trends as the
loading during the day hours are generally responsible for bottom up cracking whereas the
night time traffic may lead to top-down cracking.
The edge flexural stress caused by axle loads for bottom up cracking is the maximum when
the tyre imprint of the outer wheel touches the longitudinal edge. When the tyre position is
away even by 150mm from the longitudinal edge, stress in the edge region is reduced
substantially. The edge flexural stress is small when the wheels are close to the transverse
joints. Typical lateral distribution characteristics of wheel paths of commercial vehicles
observed on Indian highways indicate that very few tyre imprints of moving vehicles are
tangential to the longitudinal edge/joint on two-lane two-way roads and divided multi-lane
highways. Some multi-lane divided highways have 8.5-9.0m wide carriageways with a single
longitudinal joint in the center. The lane markings in these cases do not coincide with the
longitudinal joint resulting in a larger proportion of wheel paths being positioned close to the
longitudinal joint compared to the situation where the lane markings match with longitudinal
joints. Taking into consideration these issues, it is recommended 25 percent of the total two
way commercial traffic may be considered as design traffic for two-lane two-way roads for
the analysis of bottom-up cracking. In the case of four-lane and other multi-lane divided
30
highways, 25 percent of the total traffic in the direction of predominant traffic may be
considered for design of pavement for bottom-up cracking.
The design traffic for top-down cracking traffic analysis will be a portion of the
design traffic considered for bottom-up cracking analysis. Only those commercial vehicles
with the spacing between the front axle and the first rear axle less than the spacing of
transverse joints should be considered for top-down cracking analysis. This percentage
should be established from axle load/traffic survey. A default value of fifty percent of the
design traffic used for bottom- up traffic analysis may be considered.
1. In case of new highway links, where no traffic count data is available, data from
roads of similar classification and importance may be used to predict the design
traffic intensity.
2. Expected number of applications of different axle load groups during the design
period can be estimated using the details of commercial traffic volume expected
rate of growth of commercial traffic and the information about axle load spectrum
and the number of single, tandem and tridem axles obtained from axle load survey.
Since front axles (steering axle) with single wheels on either side cause only
negligible bottom-up fatigue damage, it is only the rear axles that may be included
in the axle load spectrum.
3. The cumulative number of commercial vehicles during the design period may be
estimated from the following expression as shown in Equation 2.8
C = (365*A*((1+R)N-1))/ r ……..…(2.8)
Where
C = Cumulative number of commercial vehicles during the design period
A = Initial number of commercial vehicles per day in the year when the road is opened to
traffic.
r =Annual rate of growth of commercial traffic volume (expressed as decimal)
N = Design period in years
2.4.5 Temperature Consideration

2.4.5.1 Temperature Differential
Temperature Differential between the top and bottom fibers of concrete pavement
causes the concrete slab to curl, giving rise to stresses. The temperature differential is a
function of solar radiation received by the pavement surface, wind velocity, thermal
31
diffusivity of concrete, latitude, longitude and elevation of the place and is thus affected by
geographical features of the pavement location. As far as possible, temperature differential
values estimated realistically for the given site using relevant geographical parameters and
material characteristics should be used for analysis. In the absence of any local data, the
maximum temperature differential values given in Table2.2 may be adopted for pavement
design. The variation of temperature with depth is non-linear during the day time and nearly
linear during night hours. The maximum temperature differential during the night is nearly
half of the day time maximum temperature differential.
Table 2.2 Recommended Temperature Differentials for Concrete Slabs
Zone State / Region 150 mm 200 mm 250 mm 300-400
s mm
1 Hilly region Uttarakhand, west 12.5 13.1 14.3 15.8
Bengal, J&k, HP, Arunachal
Pradesh
2 Punjab, UP, Uttaranchal, Gujrat, 12.5 13.1 14.3 15.8
Rajasthan, Haryana, north MP,
excluding hilly regions
3 Bihar, Jharkhand, west Bengal 15.6 16.4 16.6 16.8
aasam, eastern odisha, excluding
hilly regions and coastal areas.
4 Maharastra, Karnataka, south MP, 17.3 19 20.3 21
chattisgarh, andhra pradesh
5 Kerala, south tamilnadu, 15 16.4 17.6 18.1
excluding hilly regions and
coastal areas
6 Coastal areas bounded by hills 14.6 15.8 16.2 17.0
7 Coastal areas unbounded by hills 15.5 17 19 19.2
Note: The above temperature data was recommended by Central Road Research Institute,
New Delhi. The data for cold hilly regions of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, West
Bengal, Uttarakhand and Arunachal Pradesh are suggested in Row-1 in absence of available
records.
2.4.6 Embankment Soil and Characteristics of Subgrade and Subbase Embankment
2.4.6.1 CBR of embankment soil placed below the 500mm select subgrade should be
determined for estimating the effective CBR of subgrade and its ‘k’ value for design.
32
2.4.6.2 The nature of embankment foundation strata such as expansive soil, marine clays, soft
clays, black cotton soil, etc. needs to be studied to take special measures like consolidation of
the strata by accelerated pore pressure dissipation, removal of expansive black cotton soil
strata and replacement by non-expansive soil, use of geo synthetics to arrest tension cracks or
soil stabilization etc. Soil swell can be controlled by surcharge loads, by placing the swelling
soils in lower part of the embankment. Selective grading and soil mixing is also helpful. In
deep cut sections, construction removes surcharge loads and allows soil to swell. It is
therefore advisable to excavate deep cuts in advance of other grading work to allow
expansion to occur and stabilize. Expansive soil should be compacted at 1-3% above
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) as determined by Standard Proctor. Use of the OMC
from the Modified Proctor will leave the soil too dry and more prone to future expansion. The
soil should not be allowed to dry out excessively before GSB and other layers are laid. If non-
expansive soils are not
Subgrade
2.4.6.3 The subgrade is usually considered as a Winkler foundation, also known as dense
liquid foundation. In Winkler model, it is assumed that the foundation is made up of springs
supporting the concrete slab. The strength of subgrade is expressed in terms of modulus of
subgrade reaction, k, which is defined as the pressure per unit deflection of the foundation as
determined by plate load tests. The k-value is determined from the pressure sustained at a
deflection of 1.25mm. As k-value is influenced by test plate diameter, the standard test is to
be carried out with a 750mm diameter plate. IS 9214- 1974 “Method of Determination of
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction of Soil in the Field” may be referred for guidance in the
regard. A frequency of one test per km per lane is recommended for assessment of k-value. If
the foundation changes with respect to subgrade soil, type of subbase or nature of foundation
(i.e cut or fill) then additional tests may be conducted.
2.4.6.4 Though 750mm is standard plate diameter, smaller plate diameter can be used in case
of homogenous foundation from practical consideration and the test values obtained with
plates of smaller diameter may be converted to the standard 750mm plate using Equation
(2.9).
K750 = k(1.2φ+0.078) ……....…(2.9)
Where,
φ = plate diameter
k = modulus of subgrade reaction (MPa/m) with plate diameter
K750 = modulus of subgrade reaction (MPa/m) with plate diameter of 750 mm
The estimate obtained from Equation 2 is regarded as approximate only. However,

in case of layered construction, the tests conducted with smaller plates give greater weightage
33
to the stronger top layer and direct conversion to 750 mm plate values using Equation 2
results in somewhat over-estimation of the foundation strength.
2.4.6.5 The subgrade soil strength and consequently the strength of the foundation as a whole,
is affected by its moisture content. Since the k-value cannot be determined in the field at
different moisture contents and densities, CBR tests may be carried out at field moisture
content and field density both in soaked and un-soaked conditions and the measured k-value
from plate load test may be corrected in the ratio of CBR values under soaked and un-soaked
conditions to obtain the k-value corresponding to the weakest condition of subgrade. The
plate load test is time-consuming and expensive; therefore, the design k-value is often
estimated from soaked CBR value. The relationship between the CBR and k-value illustrated
in Table 2.3 can be used for this purpose.
Table 2.3 Relationship between k-value and CBR value for homogenous soil subgrade
Soaked CBR(%) 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 50 100
k-value (MPa/m) 21 28 35 42 48 55 62 69 140 220
The in-situ CBR of the subgrade soil can also be determined quickly from the
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (60 Cone) tests using the following equation 2.10.
Log10CBR= 2.465-1.12Log10N ..……….2.10
Where
NDCP= rate of cone penetration (mm/blow)
2.4.6.6 The modulus of subgrade reaction of the subgrade of an in-service pavement or of a

prepared- foundation can also be determined by conducting Falling Weight Deflectometer
(FWD) tests. The k- value of the subgrade back calculated from the FWD test data is the
dynamic k-value. The corresponding static k-value, which should be used for analysis, can be
estimated as 50% of the dynamic k-value obtained from the FWD test.
2.4.6.7 It is advisable to provide filter and drainage layers above the subgrade for drainage of
water to prevent (1) excessive softening of subgrade and subbase and (2) erosion of the
subgrade and subbase particularly under adverse moisture condition and heavy dynamic
loads. IRC:15, IRC: SP:42 and IRC: SP:SO, may be refer for further details. Synthetic gee-
composite layer can also be used at the interface of subgrade and granular subbase layer for
filtration and drainage. It will not allow migration of fine particles of subgrade soil to the
granular drainage layer above.
Sub Base
34
2.4.6.8 The main purpose of the sub base is to provide a uniform, stable and permanent
support to the concrete slab laid over it. It must have sufficient strength so that it is not
subjected to disintegration and erosion under heavy traffic and adverse environmental
conditions such as excessive moisture, freezing and thawing. In the light of these
requirements Sub base of Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) having a 7-day average compressive
strength of 10 MPa determined as per IRC-SP:49 is recommended. Minimum recommended
thickness of DLC for major highways is 150mm.
2.4.6.9 In case of the problematic subgrades such as clayey and expansive soils appropriate
provisions shall be made for blanket course in addition to the sub base as per the relevant
stipulations of IRC 15.
2.4.6.10 Effective k-values of different combinations of subgrades and sub base (untreated
granular and cement treated granular) can be estimated from Table 2.4.
For concrete pavements laid over a bituminous sub base, k-value can be adopted
from IRC: SP:76. K- value for different combinations of DLC subbase (with DLC having
minimum 7-day compressive strength of 10 MPa) thickness laid over granular Sub base
consisting of drainage and filter layers can be adopted from Table 2.4. The contribution of the
granular Sub base placed below the DLC layer can be ignored for estimating the effective
modulus of subgrades reaction of the foundation. The value given in Table 2.5 are based on
theoretical analysis and an upper limit of 300MPa/m is recommended considering the loss of
subgrades support expected to be caused by heavy traffic.
Table 2.4 k-values for Subgrade and Cement Treated Subbases
k-value of Effective k (MPa/m) of untreated Effective k (MPa/m) of cement treated
subgrade granular subbase of thickness (mm) subbase of thickness (mm)
150 225 300 100 150 200
28 39 44 53 76 108 141
56 63 75 88 127 173 225
84 92 102 119 - - -
Table 2.5 k-values for Dry Lean Concrete Sub Base
k-value of subgrade (MPa/m) 21 28 42 48 55 62
Effective k for 100 mm DLC, (MPa/m) 56 97 166 208 278 389*
(300)
35
Effective k for 150 mm DLC, (MPa/m) 97 138 208 277 412* 300
(300)
2.4.7 Concrete Strength
2.4.7.1 Flexure strength of concrete is required for the purpose of design of concrete slab.
Flexure strength can be obtained after testing the concrete break as per procedure given in IS
516. Alternatively, it can be derived from the characteristics compressive strength of concrete
as per IS 456- 2000 using the following equation.
Fcr = 0.7√fck ……………(2.11)
Fcr= Flexural strength (Modulus of Rupture), MPa
Fck= Characteristics compressive cube strength of concrete, M
2.4.7.2 Usually concrete design is based on 28 days strength. In the concrete pavement, 90
days strength can be permitted in view of the fact that during initial period of 90 days, the
number of repetitions of load is very small and had negligible effect on cumulative fatigue
damage of concrete. Increasing the 28 days flexural strength by a factor of 1.1 is
recommended to get 90 days strength. In no case 28 days flexural strength of pavement
quality concrete should be less than 4.5 MPa.
2.4.7.3 Target mean flexural strength to be achieved while designing the Mix should be such
that there is 95% probability, that the characteristic strength would be achieved when the Mix
is produced in the field. The target mean flexural strength is given by the following Equation
(2.12)
Fcr = fcr +Za ……..…(2.12)
where, Fcr = Characteristic mean flexural strength at 28 days, MPa
fcr =Target mean flexural strength at 28 days MPa
Za = A factor corresponding to the desired confidence level, which is 1.96 for 5% tolerance
level a = standard deviation of field test samples, MPa
2.4.7.4 Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete
The Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of cement covered are known to vary
with concrete materials and strength. The elastic modulus increases with increase in strength
and Poisson’s ratio decreases with increase in the modulus of elasticity. While it is desirable
that the values of these parameters are ascertained experimentally for the concrete mix and
36
for the materials actually to be used in the construction, this information may not always be
available at the design stage. A 25% variation in E and mu values will have only a marginal
effect on the flexural stresses in the pavement concrete. Following values were adopted for
stress analysis for the concrete with 28 days flexural strength of 4.5 MPa (4.95 for 90 day
strength).
37
Modulus of Elasticity of concrete, E = 30,000 MPa
Poisson’s Ratio, = 0.15
2.4.7.5 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is dependent to a great extent on

the route of aggregates used in concrete. However, for design purpose a value of α= 10×10 -6
°C
2.4.7.6 Fatigue Behavior of Cement Concrete
Due to repeated application of flexural stress by traffic loads, progressive fatigue

damage takes place in the cement concrete slab in the form of gradual development of micro-
cracks especially when ratio between the applied flexural stress and the flexural strength of
concrete is high. This ratio is termed as: Stress Ratio (SR). If the SR less than 0.45, the
concrete is expected to sustain infinite number of repetitions. As the Stress ratio increases, the
number of load repetitions required to cause cracking decreases the relation between fatigue
life (N) and stress ratio is given in Equation (2.13) and (2.14);
N=unlimited for SR < 0.45
N =14.2577/ (S R-0.4325)] 3. 268 when 0.45 ≤ SR ≤ 0.55

… (2.13)
Log10 N = (0.9718-SR)/0.0828 when SR > 0.55 …

(2.14)
2.4.8 Design of Slab Thickness

In-service cement concrete pavements are subjected to stresses due to a variety of
factors acting simultaneously. The severest combination of different factors that induce the
maximum stress in the pavement will give the critical stress condition.
The flexural stress due to the combined action of traffic toads and temperature
differential between the top and bottom fibers of the concrete slab is considered for design of
pavement thickness. The effect of moisture change is opposite to that of temperature change
and is not normally considered critical to thickness design. The flexural stress at the bottom
layer of the concrete slab is the maximum during the day hours when the axle loads act
midway on the pavement slab while there is a positive temperature gradient as illustrated in
Fig 2.2 and 2.3. This condition is likely to produce bottom-up cracking (BUC).
38
Fig 2.2 Axle load placed in the middle of slab during mid-day
39
Location of Maximum Tensile Stresses at bottom of slab without tied concrete
shoulders
Fig 2.3 Placement of Axles for Maximum Edge Flexural stress at Bottom of the Slab
without Tied Concrete Shoulders
2.4.8.2 Locations of points of maximum flexural stress at the bottom of the pavement 1 slab
without tied concrete shoulder for single, tandem and tridem axles are shown in Fig 2.3. The
tire imprints are tangential to the longitudinal edge. For tied concrete shoulders also, the
maximum stress occurs at the same locations. Single axles cause highest stress followed by
tandem and tridem axles respectively. Spacing between individual axles for tandem and
tridem axles varies from 1.30 m to about 1.40 m. There is practically no difference in stresses
for axle spacing between 1.30 m and 1.40 m. A Spacing of 1.30 m has been used in these
guidelines for stress computation.
2.4.8.3 During the night hours, the top surface is cooler than the bottom surface and the ends
of the slab curl up resulting in loss of support for the slab as shown in Fig 2.4. Due to the
restraint provided by the self-weight of concrete and by the dowel connections, temperature
tensile stresses are caused at the top. Fig 2.4. shows the placement of axle loads close to
transverse Joints when there is negative temperature gradient during night period causing
high flexural stresses in the top layer leading to top-down cracking. Positioning of axles of
different configurations on the slab with successive axles placed close to the transverse joints
is shown in Fig 2.5. These axle positions can initiate top-down cracking (TDC) during the
night hours when the Pavement has the tendency to curl up. Built-in permanent curl induced
during the curing of the concrete slab further aggravates the problem.
40
Fig 2.4 Placement of Axles of a Commercial vehicle on a Slab curled During Night
Hour
Fig 2.5 Different Axle Load Position Causing Tensile Stresses at the Top Fiber of the
Slab with Tied Concrete Shoulder
2.4.9 Calculation of Flexural Stress
41
2.4.9.1 Since the loads causing failure of pavements are mostly applied by single, tandem,
tridem and other multiple axles, stresses should be determined for the conditions illustrated in
Figures The IITRIGID software used for the preparation of the previous version of 1RC:58
for the computation of flexural stress in the edge region 17 due to single and tandem axle
loads was based on Picket and Ray (1951) 's work on computation of stresses in infinite slabs.
The software is still valid for computation of load stress in the edge region of pavements
without tied concrete Shoulders if there is no temperature gradient in the slab. Finite Element
Method (FEM) is more
appropriate for stress computation for a wide variety of load and temperature, geometry and
boundary conditions. Finite element analysis has been carried out using IITSLAB-11, a
software developed IIT Kharagpur, to compute flexural stress due to the combined action of
load (single, tandem and tridem axles) and different temperature differentials (positive and
negative).
2.4.9.2 For an axle load of 200kN and zero temperature differential, it can be seen that
flexural stresses decrease with increase in k- values for all thicknesses. if there is a positive
temperature differential of 17°C, the warping stresses are high for thicker slabs and it results
in higher flexural stresses in slabs for higher k-values while flexural stresses are lower for
higher k-values for thinner slabs. For a thickness in the region of 270mm, there is practically
no effect of modulus of subgrade reaction on flexural stresses. Increasing the subgrade
modulus to high values does not help in thickness design due to high curling stresses caused
by a stiff support.
2.4.9.3 The following combinations of pavements and loading were considered for the
analysis of bottom-up and top-down cracking. For bottom-up cracking case, the combination
of load and positive non-linear temperature differential has been considered whereas for top-
down cracking analysis, the combination of load; and negative linear temperature differential
has been taken. For bottom-up cracking analysis, single/tandem axles have been placed on
the slab in the positions indicated. In bottom-up cracking case, single axle load causes the
largest edge stress followed by tandem and tridem axles. Since the stresses due to tridem
axles are small, they were not considered for stress analysis for bottom-up cracking case. As
indicated, only one axle of single/tandem/tridem axle units has been considered for analysis
in combination with front axle. Front axle weight has been assumed to be 50 percent of the
weight of one axle of the rear axle unit (single/tandem/tridem) for analysis.
2.4.10 Recommended Procedure for Slab Design
2.4.10.1 The following steps may be followed for design. Examples of design of different
categories of concrete pavements using the current guidelines are given in Appendix.
42
Step 1: Stipulate design values for the various parameters
Step 2: Select a trial design thickness of pavement slab
Step 3: Compute the repetitions of axle loads of different magnitudes and different categories
during the design life.
step 4: Find the proportions of axle load repetitions operating during the day and night
periods.
Step 5: Estimate the axle load repetitions in the specified six-hour-period during the day time.
The maximum temperature differential is assumed to remain constant during the 6 hours for
analysis of bottom-up cracking
Step 6: Estimate the axle load repetitions in the specified six-hour period during the night the
maximum negative temperature differential during night is taken as half of day-time
maximum temperature differential. Built in negative temperature differential of 50"C
developed during the setting of the concrete is to be added to the temperature differential for
the analysis of top- down cracking. Only those vehicles with spacing between the front
(steering) axle and the transverse joint spacing need to be considered for top-down cracking
analysis.
Step7: Compute the flexural stresses at the edge due to the single and tandem axle loads for
the combined effect of axle loads and positive temperature differential during the day time.
determine the stress ratio (Flexural stress/ Modulus of Rupture) and evaluate the cumulative
fatigue damage (CFD) tor single and tandem axle loads. Sum of the two CFDs should be less
than 1.0 for the slab to be safe against bottom-up cracking.
Step 8: Compute the flexural stress in the central area of the pavement slab with the front axle
near the approaching transverse joint and the rear axle close to the following joint in the same
panel under negative temperature differential. Determine the stress ratio and evaluate the
CFD for different axle loads for the analysis of top-down cracking. CFD should be less than
1.0 for top-down cracking design.
2.4.10.2 The entire design process is programmed on an excel sheet and is included in a CD
enclosed with these guidelines. This will enable the designer to make several trials
conveniently. The design has to provide traffic data such as rate of traffic growth, axle load
spectrum, proportion of single, tandem and tridem axles, proportion of trucks with wheel base
less than transverse joint spacing (say 4.5 m). All relevant traffic and material data are inputs
to the excel sheet.
43
2.4.10.3 It is worth noting that concrete strength increases with age. The excel sheets provide
designs by considering 90-day strength of paving concrete. Any other strength including that
of high-performance concrete can be the input. 90-day strength can safely be used because of
the following considerations.
i) Design traffic for edge stress calculation is taken as 25 percent against only 2 to 3
percent axles that actually move near the edge.
ii) Assumption of low terminal load transfer efficiency at transverse and longitudinal
joints for stress calculation. Load induced flexural stress in the early years of
pavements will only be a Fraction of computed stress. The conservative assumption of
highest temperature differential being constant for 6 hours, both during the day mid
night hours throughout the design period leads to high computed CFD.
Conservative recommendation of dowel bar design. There is hardly any gap between the
concrete slabs at transverse joints due to the absence of expansion joints but a gap of 5mm is
assumed in the design of dowel bar. The moisture gradient across the depth of the concrete is
opposite to that of the temperature. gradient and hence the curling caused by temperature
gradient is nullified to some extent by the warping caused by the moisture gradient.
2.4.11 Design of Joints
2.4.11.1 Spacing and Layout
(A). Great care is needed in the design and construction of joints in cement concrete
pavements, as these are critical locations having significant effect on the pavement
performance. The joints also need to be effectively sealed and maintained well.
(B). Cement Concrete Pavements have transverse and longitudinal joints. Different types of
transverse joints are:
1. Contraction joints
2. Construction joints
3. Expansion joint
4. Longitudinal joint
(C). Contraction joints are transverse joints which relieve the tensile stresses in concrete
pavements. The joint spacing of a concrete pavement depends upon the type of coarse
aggregates and the average temperature fluctuation in different seasons. The spacing of
44
contraction joints should be limited to 4.5 m to prevent top down cracking during the night
hours,
(D). Expansion joints are transverse joints to allow expansion of concrete slab due to rise in
average temperature in summer months. These joints are difficult to maintain and they get
filled up with dirt and
other incompressible materials causing locking of the joints and preventing expansion of
concrete slabs. They are, therefore, no longer in use except near permanent structure like
bridges and culverts.
(E). Construction joints should, as far as possible, be placed at the location of contraction
joints except in case of emergency when a key joint may be used.
(F). longitudinal joints are required in pavements of width greater than 4.5 m to allow for
transverse contraction and warping,
2.4.11.2 Load Transfer at Transverse Joints
(A). Load transfer to relieve part of the load stresses in edge and corner regions of pavement
slab at transverse joints is provided by means of mild steel round dowel bars. In coastal and
high Rainfall areas coated/corrosion resistant dowel bars are often used to provide long term
load transfer. The coating may be zinc or lead based paint or epoxy coating. Dowel bars
enable riding quality to be maintained by preventing faulting at the joints. For general
provisions in respect of dowel bars, stipulations laid down in IRC: 15 may be followed. More
dowel bars may be provided under the wheel path of heavy commercial vehicles in the light
of past experience. Designer may use his/her discretion after a study of the traffic pattern.
(B). From the experience gained all over the world, it is found that it is only the bearing stress
in the concrete that is responsible for the performance of dowel bars at the joints. High
concrete bearing stress can fracture the concrete surrounding the dowel bars, leading to the
looseness of the dowel bar and the deterioration of the load transfer system with eventual
faulting of the slab. Larger diameter dowel bars are found to provide better performance.
Maximum bearing stress (Fb max) between the concrete and dowel bar is obtained from
Equation (2.15).
Fb max = kinds P1 (2+ β) 4 β3E I ……. (2.15)
β= relative stiffness of the bar embedded in concrete, in mm;
kinds = modulus of dowel support, MPa/m
b =diameter of the dowel, mm
45
z= joint width (5 mm for contraction joint and 20 mm for expansion joint), in mm
E = modulus of the elasticity of the dowel bar, MPa
I =moment of inertia of the dowel, mm
P1 = load transferred by design dowel bar, kN
(C). The modulus of dowel support ranges from 80,000 to 415,000MPa/m. A typical value
415000MPa may be adopted for design since only the fourth root of the k-value affects the
computation of β.
Each dowel bars should be designed for the maximum load being transferred by it for the
allowable bearing pressure. Equation (2.15), based on the expression given by the American
Institute (ACI) Committee-225 may he used for calculation the allowable bearing stress on
concrete.
Where,
Fb = allowable bearing stress, MPa
bd =dowel diameter, mm
fa=characteristic compressive strength of the concrete
(D). Since the initial load transfer efficiency (LTE) at the transverse joint is almost 100
percent and it takes a long time for the LTE to decrease with traffic repetitions, 90 days
compressive strength can safely be used for the computation of allowable Bearing stress.
(E). For heavy traffic, greater than 450 CVPD, dowels are to be provided at the contraction
joints since aggregate inter-lock cannot be relied upon to effect load transfer across the joint
to prevent faulting due to the repeated loading of heavy axles. Joint widths of 5 mm and 20
mm may be taken for stress computation in dowel bar at contraction and expansion joint
respectively. Recommended diameter and length of dowel bars are given in Table 2.6
Table 2.6 Dowel bar details
Slab thickness mm Diameter mm Length mm Spacing mm

200 25 360 300
230 30 400 300
250 32 450 300
280 36 450 300
300 38 500 300
350 38 500 300
46
(F). Dowel Group Action
When loads are applied at a joint, a portion of the load is transferred to the other
side of the slab through the dowel bars. If the load is near the joint of a pavement slab tied to
a concrete shoulder, a part of the load is transferred to the shoulder also.
Repeated loading causes some looseness between the dowel bars and the concrete
slab and recent studies indicate that the dowel bars within a distance of one Assuming a linear
variation of the load carried by different dowel bars within 1.0, the maximum load carried by
a dowel bar can be computed.
2.4.12 Tie Bars for Longitudinal Joint
The longitudinal joint is expected to open up (in any case of heavy traffic, expansive,
subgrades) and tie bars may be provided in accordance with the traffic, expansive
recommendation of IRC: 15. For the sake of convenience of the designer design procedure
recommended in IRC: 15 is given here.
2.4.12.1 Design of Tie Bars
(A). The area of steel required per meter length of joint may be computed using Equation
(2.16).
In which,
As = bfw /Sst …………. 2.16
As = area of steel in mm2, required per m length of joint
b = lane width in meters
f=coefficient of friction between pavement and the sub base/base (usually taken as 1.5)
W = weight of slab in kN/rn2 and
Sst = allowable working stress of steel in MPa
(B). The length of any tie bar should be at least twice that required to develop a bond strength
equal to the working stress of the steel. The formula for estimating the length of tie bar is
given as Equation (2.17).
In which:
L = 2 Sst Acs B* Pptb ………… 2.17
L=Length of tie bar, in mm
Sst= Allowable working stress in steel(MPa)
47
Acs=Cross sectional of one tie bar, in mm2
Pptb=Perimeter of tie bar, in mm
B*=Permissible bond stress of concrete
(i) for deformed tie bars= 2046 MPa,
(ii) for plain tie bars=1.75 MPa
(C). To permit warping at the joint, the maximum diameter of tie bars may be limited to 16
mm, and to avoid concentration of tensile stress they should not be spaced more than 750 mm
apart. The calculated length, L, may be increased by 50 to 80 mm to account for any
inaccuracy that may occur in the placement during construction.
(D). Reinforced Cement Concrete needs to be provided in pavement panels in curved

Portions of radius less than 45 m and at underpasses, on steep gradients, and for slabs having
man-hole cover slab having L/B (length to breadth) ratio more than 1.5 and in other similar
situations.
(E). Typical tie bar details for use at central longitudinal joint in double-lane rigid pavements
with a lane width of 3.50 meter given in Table 2.7 The same specifications may be used for
the tied concrete shoulder also.
Table 2.7 Details of Tie Bars for Longitudinal Joint of Two Lane Rigid Pavements
Slab Diameter Spacing in Spacing in Min. length Min. length

thickness plain bars deformed in plain in deformed
mm mm bars mm bars bars(mm)
(mm)
150 8 330 530 440 480
10 520 830 510 560
200 10 390 620 510 560
12 560 900 580 640
250 12 450 720 580 640
300 12 370 600 580 640
16 660 1060 720 800
350 12 320 510 580 640
16 570 910 720 800
2.4.13 Regression Equations for Flexural Stress in Concrete Slab
Regressions equations are given in this appendix for estimation of the maximum
tensile stress in the slab in the edge region due to the combined effect of axle loads and
temperature differential. The equations are given for bottom-up For cracking case illustrated
through Figs. 2.2 and 2.3 and for top-downcase depicted in Figs. 2.4 and 2.5. Flexural stress
48
for bottom-up case has been computed for non-linear positive temperature differential
occurring in the slab during daytime.
The stress tor top down cracking case is for the combination of axle loads and linear
negative temperature differential in the slab occurring during night time. For the computation
of stress for bottom-up cracking analysis, only the rear axle with two wheels on either side of
each axle have been considered as the front axles do not contribute to any significant fatigue
damage. For top-down, cracking. rear axle is considered at one end and the front axle at the
other end. Only one axle of the tandem and tridem axles is assumed to be placed on the slab
under consideration. Thus, for a tandem axle, 50 percent of the tandem axle weight is
considered for analysis. For a tridem axle 33 percent of the tridem axle weight may be taken
for analysis. The corresponding front axle is taken as 50 percent of the rear axle axle, (25
percent of rear tandem axle and one sixth of rear tridem axle).
2.4.13.1 Expressions for maximum tensile stress at the bottom of slab(for bottom up
cracking case)
1.Single axle- Pavement with tied concrete shoulders
(a). k<80 MPa/m
S = 0.008 -6.12 (yh2/kl2) + 2.36 Ph/ (kl4) + 0.0266AT ………………2.18
(b). k> 80 MPa/m, k<150 MPa/m
S = 0.08 - 9.69 (yh2/kl2) + 2.09 Ph/ (kl4) + 0.0409∆T ……………….2.19
(c). k>150 MPa/m
S = 0.042 + 3.26 (yh2/kl2) + 1.62 Ph/(kl4) + 0.0522∆T ……………….2.20
2.Single axle- Pavement without concrete shoulders
(a). k< 80 MPa/ m
S = - 0.149 -2.60 (yh2/kl2) + 3.13 Ph/(kl4) + 0.0297∆T ………………..2.21
(b). k> 80 MPa/m, k<150 MPa/m
S = - 0.119 - 2.99 (yh2/kl2) + 2.78 Ph/(kl4) + 0.0456 ∆T ………………..2.22
(c) k> 150 MPa/m
S = 0.238 + 7.02 (yh2/kl2) + 2.41 Ph/(kl4) + 0.0585 ∆T …………………2.23
3.Tandem axle- Pavement with tied concrete shoulders
(a). k<80 MPa/m
S = - 0.188 + 0.93 (yh2/kl2) + 1.025 Ph/(kl4) + 0.0207 ∆T …………………

2.24
49
(b). k> 80 MPa/m, k<150 MPa/m
S = - 0.174 + 1.21 (yh2/kl2)+0.87 Ph/(kl4) + 0.0364 ∆T …………………

2.25
(c). k> 150 MPa/m
S = - 0.210 + 3.88 (yh2/k12) + 0.73 Ph/(kl4) + 0.0506 ∆T …………………

2.26
4.Tandem axle - Pavement without concrete shoulders
(a). k<80 MPa/m
S = - 0.223 + 2. 73 (yh2/kl2) + 1.335 Ph/(kl4) + 0.0229 ∆T …………………

2.27
(b). k> 80 MPa/m, k<150 MPa/m
S = - 0.276 +5.78 (yh2/kl2) + 1.14 Ph/(kl4) + 0.0404 ∆T

…………………..2.28
(c). k> 150 MPa/m
S = - 0.3 + 9.88 (yh2/kl2) + 0.965 Ph/(kl4) + 0.0543 ∆T ……………………

2.29
2.4.13.2 Expression For Maximum Tensile Stress At The Top Of The Slab (For Top-Down
Cracking Case)
For the analysis of top-down cracking, only rear axle load is the input. Front axle load is
assumed to be 50% of the rear axle load (tandem/tridem).
S = -0.219 + 1.6868Ph/kl4 + 168.48h2/kl2+ 0.1089 ∆T …………………

2.30
The symbols in the equations have the following meaning:
s= flexural stress in slab, MPa
∆T-. minimum temperature differential in °C during day time for bottom-up cracking sum of
the maximum night time negative temperature differential and built-in negative temperature
differential in °C for top-down cracking
h= thickness of slab
k =effective modulus of subgrade reaction of foundation, MPa/m
L =radius of relative stiffness= (Eh3/(12k( 1-µ2))^0.25
50
E =elastic modulus of concrete, MPa
µ = Poisson's ratio of concrete
y = unit weight of concrete (24 kN/m3)
p = For Bottom-up cracking analysis: - single/tandem rear axle load (kN).
No fatigue damage estimated for front (steering) axles for bottom-up cracking case
For Top-down cracking analysis: - 100 percent of rear single axle, 50 percent of rear
tandem axle, and 33 percent of rear tridem axle. No front axle weight is required to be given
as input for top-down cracking case. 50 percent of rear single axle, 25 percent of rear tandem
axle, 16.5 percent of rear tridem axle, has been considered in the finite element analysis as
the front axle weights for single, tandem and tridem rear axles respectively.
B = 0.66 for transverse joint with dowel bars (load transfer efficiency was taken as 50
percent).
B= 0.90 for transverse joint without dowel bars (load transfer efficiency was taken as 10
percent.
51
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 GENERAL
The project design and cost estimation of a flexible and rigid pavement is done using
IRC 37:2012 and IRC 58:2015 respectively. These guidelines have been discussed in
previous chapter. The cost estimation has been done for both the cases with a view to
determine Economy of Flexible Pavement construction versus Rigid Pavement construction.
The cost estimation is carried out as per the MoRTH Standard Data Book. The rates
of materials and labour have been ascertained from the local PWD B&R Office and the D.C.
Office respectively whereas cost of machinery is taken from the data book with due inflation.
The Methodology of the project is shown in Fig 3.1 in the form of a Flow Diagram.
Topic Selection
Review of Literature
Study of IRC Guidelines
Input Traffic and Soil Data
Thickness Design of Flexible and Rigid by

relevant IRC Guidelines
Effect on thickness with Varying CBR and

Initial Traffic
Cost Estimation
Evolving Economy of Flexible and Rigid

Pavement
Conclusion
52
Fig.3.1 Methodology of Project
3.2 INPUT PARAMETERS
The standard design catalogues given in IRC code have been used to adopt the
design thickness values for CBR values of the subgrade 3,4,6,8 percent and for traffic of
500,2000,4000,6000, Commercial Vehicles Per Day(CVPD) in both directions for 7 meters
wide dual carriageway road assumed to be located in Kurukshetra, Haryana. Cost Estimation
is done for 7 meters width and 1 km road length in Kurukshetra, Haryana. Note that Earthen
shoulders have been considered in Rigid Pavement.
3.3 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Flexible Pavement is designed using IRC 37:2012 guidelines which we have

already discussed in previous chapter.
3.4 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENT
Rigid Pavement is designed using IRC 58:2015 guidelines we have already

discussed in previous chapter.
3.5 COST ESTIMATION
Cost estimation for both cases of Flexible and Rigid Pavements has been done
based upon rate analysis as per standard data book of MoRTH. The rate analyses for various
items of design such as sub-grade preparation, granular sub base, wet mix macadam, dense
mix macadam, bituminous concrete, dry lean concrete (DLC) and PQC (pavement quality
concrete, grade M-40) have been done as per data book following the rates of labour,
materials and machinery as applicable for Kurukshetra, Haryana. The rates of labour have
been taken from approved rate of the D.C. Office, the rates of material have been taken from
PWD B&R Kurukshetra as per approved rates of Haryana Government and rates of
machinery have taken from standard data book assuming suitable inflation. The rates of these
items as worked out in rate analyses which are then used to estimate cost of 7.0 meters wide
and 1 km long pavement. The cost estimation is used to determine economy of flexible and
rigid pavement for given conditions of subgrade strength and traffic.
53
Items Source
Labour D.C. Office, Kurukshetra
Table 3.1 Materials Cost PWD, Haryana Government Source of

Input Rates
Machinery Cost MoRTH Data Book (2003)
54
CHAPTER-4
PAVEMENT DESIGN
4.1 GENERAL
Indian Roads Congress has specified the design procedures for flexible pavements
based on CBR values. The pavement designs given in IRC-37-2012 are based upon
empirical-mechanistic approach. The design has been done adopting conventional granular
layers in sub base and base course of the pavement for varying values of effective CBR of
subgrade as 3%, 4%, 6% and 8%, and Initial Traffic values of 500, 2000, 4000 and 6000
CVPD. The design of rigid pavement is given in IRC:58-2015 guidelines. The design of rigid
pavement has been done for the same values of CBR of subgrade and same initial traffic as
for flexible pavement. The rigid pavement has been designed with earthen shoulders.
4.2 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
GIVEN DATA
i. Four lane divided carriageway
ii. Initial traffic in year of completion of construction = 5000 CVPD
iv. Traffic Growth Rate per annum = 6%

v. Design life = 20 years
vi. Vehicle damage factor (based on type of Terrain and Traffic) = 4.5
vii. Lane Distribution Factor = 0.75
viii. Effective CBR of subgrade =3%
DESIGN CALCULATIONS:-
Design Traffic:-
55
From this formula we get N = 35.245 msa
Resilient Modulus of Compacted Subgrade and Bituminous Layer:-MR_subgrade of the

compacted subgrade = 17.6*70.64 = 66.6 MPa
MR_Bituminous Layer of BC and DBM for VG 30 bitumen [taking 25ºC as the most
appropriate AAPT (annual average pavement temperature) for plains of India] =3000 MPa
Bituminous Pavements with Untreated Granular layer
An example of the design has been shown below for one of the cases i.e. CBR 3% and Initial
Traffic 2000 CVPD.
Thickness of Pavement Layers
From IRC37, corresponding to effective CBR of 3% and Traffic 35.245msa :-
BC = 40 mm
DBM = 138.69 mm
G. BASE = 250 mm
GSB = 380 mm
Resilient Modulus of Granular Layer
MR_granular layer = 0.2*(380+250)0.45*66.6 = 208.19 MPa
Calculations of Allowable Strains
Allowable horizontal tensile strain in bituminous layer, (Ɛt)
Va = 3% , Vb= 13 %
MR_Bituminous Layer =3000 MPa (corresponding to VG 30 and 25ºC)
56
M = 0.5929
C = 10M = 3.9165
Using, Nf = 0.5161* C*10-4*[1/Ɛt] 3.89* [1/ MR]0.854
Ɛt = 2.22* 10-4
Allowable Vertical strain on subgrade, (Ɛv)
Using, N(for 90% reliability level) = 1.41*10-8*[1/ Ɛv ]4.5337
Ɛv = 4.014*10-4
Computation of Actual Strains from IIT PAVE Software
Input parameters for IIT PAVE software for the conventional case of bituminous pavements
with untreated granular layer are as follows:-
i. No. of layers - 3
ii. Material properties in thickness of layers
Elastic Modulus (MPa) Poisson’s ratio Thickness (mm)

Layer 1 3000 0.4 178.69
Layer 2 208.19 0.35 630
Layer 3 66.6 0.25
iii. Wheel load(N) = 20500
iv. Tyre Pressure (MPa) = 0.56
v. Analysis point = 3
Depth (mm) Radius (mm)

Point 1 178.69 0
Point 2 178.69 155
Point 3 808.69 0
vi. Wheel set = 2
57
vii. Computation of actual horizontal tensile strain in Bituminous Layer and actual
vertical compressive strain on the top of subgrade using IIT PAVE software can be read from
the result screen as shown in Fig 4.1 :-
Fig. 4.1 Output screen of IITPAVE
Here,
Maximum Horizontal Tensile Strain in Bituminous Layer = 0.1503E-03
Maximum Vertical Compressive Strain on the Subgrade = -0.3458E-03
Comparison of Strains
The actual value of strains as calculated from IIT PAVE software should be less
than the permissible values of the strains as calculated from empirical formulas suggested by
IRC:37-2012. The comparison of these values is as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Comparison of Results
Allowable Strain Actual Strain Remarks

Horizontal Tensile 2.22 * 10-4 1.503 * 10-4 SAFE
Strain in Bituminous
Layer
Vertical 4.014 * 10-4 3.458 * 10-4 SAFE
Compressive Strain
on the Subgrade
The strains are in permissible limit, hence the pavement design is Safe.
Further, for all the cases of varying traffic and CBR values, the results of horizontal
tensile strain and vertical compressive strains have been compared in Table 4.2.
58
Table 4.2 Comparison of Results for all cases
Initial Vertical Strain (x10-4) Tangential Strain (x10-4)

Remark
CBR Traffi Permissible Actual Permissible Actual s
c Strain Strain Strain Strain
500 6.922 2.38 3.31 2.96 SAFE
2000 4.014 3.458 2.22 1.5 SAFE

3%
4000 3.259 3.06 1.74 1.63 SAFE
6000 2.981 2.76 1.57 1.46 SAFE
500 6.922 4.19 3.315 2.83 SAFE
2000 4.014 3.089 2.22 1.82 SAFE

4%
4000 3.259 2.86 1.74 1.63 SAFE
6000 2.981 2.67 1.57 1.48 SAFE
500 6.922 4.04 3.31 2.8 SAFE
2000 4.014 1.67 2.22 1.95 SAFE

6%
4000 3.259 2.75 1.74 1.65 SAFE
6000 2.981 2.56 1.57 1.49 SAFE
500 6.922 4.15 3.31 2.71 SAFE
2000 4.014 3.16 2.22 1.93 SAFE

8%
4000 3.259 1.58 1.74 1.68 SAFE
6000 2.981 1.42 1.57 1.48 SAFE
Similarly, flexible pavement has been designed for all other values of effective CBR
of subgrade as 3%, 4%, 6% and 8% and initial traffic as 500, 2000, 4000, 6000 CVPD.
The design thickness of all the layers for the above cases is shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Thickness of layers for all cases
CBR Initial Traffic Thickness (mm) Total Thickness (mm)

(CVPD)
BC DBM G. GSB
59
Base
369.
500 36.433 82.866 250 3 738.598
3 2000 40 138.688 250 380 808.688
4000 48.126 151.252 250 380 829.378
6000 50 165.7895 250 380 845.7895
319.
500 36.433 75.244 250 3 680.976
4 2000 40 130 250 330 750
4000 48.126 138.126 250 330 766.252
6000 50 150.7835 250 330 780.7835
248.
500 36.433 61.433 250 1 595.976
6 2000 40 106.311 250 260 656.311
4000 48.126 122.189 250 260 680.315
6000 50 135.7835 250 260 695.7835
188.
500 36.433 57.622 250 1 532.165
8 2000 40 100 250 200 590
4000 48.126 112.189 250 200 610.315
6000 50 129.378 250 200 629.378
4.2.1 Effect of effective CBR of Subgrade on Design of Flexible Pavement
The thickness of different layers of the pavement changes with change in the effective CBR
of subgrade.
60
CBR-Thickness (BC)
60
50
40
Thickness (mm)
30
20
10
0
3 4 6 8
CBR of subgrade
500 CVPD 2000 CVPD 4000 CVPD 6000 CVPD
Fig. 4.2 CBR vs Thickness of BC
From fig. 4.2 it can be observed that any change in the effective CBR of the subgrade has no
effect on the thickness of the Bituminous Concrete (BC) layer.
CBR-Thickness (DBM)
180
160
140
120
Thickness (mm)
100
80
60
40
20
0
3 4 6 8
CBR of subgrade(%)
Fig. 4.3 CBR vs Thickness of DBM
From fig. 4.3 it can be observed that the thickness of the dense bituminous macadam (DBM)
decreases with increase in the effective CBR of the subgrade.
61
CBR-Thickness (G. Base)
300
250
200
Thickness (mm)
150
100
50
0
3 4 6 8
CBR of subgrade
Fig. 4.4 CBR vs Thickness of G. Base
From fig. 4.4 it can be observed that any change in the effective CBR of the subgrade has no
effect on the thickness of granular base (G. Base) layer.
CBR-Thickness (GSB)
400
350
300
250
Thickness (mm)
200
150
100
50
0
3 4 6 8
CBR of subgrade
Fig. 4.5 CBR vs Thickness of GSB
From fig. 4.5 it can be observed that the thickness of granular sub-base (GSB) layer decreases
with increase in the effective CBR of the subgrade.
62
CBR-Total Thickness
900
800
700
600
Thickness (mm)
500
400
300
200
100
0
3 4 6 8
CBR of subgrade
Fig. 4.6 CBR vs Total Thickness
From fig. 4.6 it can be observed that the total thickness of the flexible pavement decreases
with increase in the effective CBR of the subgrade.
4.2.2 Effect of Traffic on Design of Flexible Pavement
The thickness of different layers of the flexible pavement change with change in the initial
traffic.
Traffic-Thickness(BC)
60
50
40
Thickness (mm)
30
20
10
0
500 2000 4000 6000
Initial Traffic (CVPD)
CBR=3 CBR=4 CBR=6 CBR=8
Fig. 4.7 Traffic vs Thickness of BC
63
From fig. 4.7 it can be observed that the thickness of bituminous concrete (BC) layer
increases with increase in initial traffic.
Traffic-Thickness(DBM)
180
160
140
120
Thickness (mm)
100
80
60
40
20
0
500 2000 4000 6000
Fig. 4.8 Traffic vs Thickness of DBM
From fig. 4.8 it can be observed that the thickness of dense bituminous mecadam (DBM)
increases with increase in initial traffic.
Traffic-Thickness(G.Base)
300
250
200
Thickness (mm)
150
100
50
0
500 2000 4000 6000
Fig. 4.9 Traffic vs Thickness of G.Base
64
From fig. 4.9 it can be observed that any change in initial traffic has no effect on the
thickness of granular base (G. Base) layer.
Traffic-Thickness(GSB)
400
350
300
250
Thickness (mm)
200
150
100
50
0
500 2000 4000 6000
Fig. 4.10 Traffic vs Thickness of GSB
From fig. 4.10 it can be observed that there is a slight increase in the thickness of granular
sub-base (GSB) when traffic varies from 500 CVPD to 2000 CVPD but this increase gets
nullified when the value of initial traffic exceeds 2000 CVPD.
Traffic-Total Thickness
900
800
700
600
Thickness (mm)
500
400
300
200
100
0
500 2000 4000 6000
Fig. 4.11 Traffic vs Total Thickness
65
From fig. 4.11 it can be observed that the total thickness of the flexible pavement increases
with increase in the initial traffic.
4.3 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENT
4.3.1 Introduction
In this study, rigid pavement for dual carriageway road consists of dowel and tie
bars, without tied concrete shoulders has been designed for varying initial traffic and
subgrade strength using IRC 58: 2015.
4.3.2 Design Parameters
4.3.2.1 Given Traffic Data
The traffic on the road mainly consists of:
a. Single axle load vehicles
b. Tandem axle load vehicles
c. Tridem axle load vehicles.
Details of axle load spectrum of rear single, tandem and tridem axles are given in table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Axle load spectrum
Single Axle Tandem Axle Tridem Axle

Axle Load Frequency Axle load Frequency Axle load Frequency
Class (kN) (% of axles) class (kN) (% of axles) class (kN) (% of axles)
185-195 18.15 380-400 14.5 530-560 5.23
175-185 17.43 360-380 10.5 500-530 4.85
165-175 18.27 340-360 3.63 470-500 3.44
155-165 12.98 320-340 2.5 440-470 7.12
145-155 2.98 300-320 2.69 410-440 10.11
135-145 2.62 280-300 1.26 380-410 12.01
125-135 2.62 260-280 3.9 350-380 15.57
115-125 2.65 240-260 5.19 320-350 13.28
105-115 2.65 220-240 6.3 290-380 4.55
95-105 3.25 200-220 6.4 260-290 3.16
85-95 3.25 180-200 8.9 230-260 3.1
<85 14.15 <180 34.23 <230 17.58
100 100 100
66
4.3.2.2 Design Data
Number of lanes = 2
Design period (years) = 30
Annual rate of growth of commercial traffic = 0.075
Two-way commercial traffic volume per day = 6000 CVPD
% of traffic in predominant direction = 50%
Average number of axle per commercial vehicle = 2.35
Transverse joint spacing (m) = 4.5
Lane width (m) = 3.5
Percentage contribution of different types of Axle categories are given in table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Proportion of Axle Category
Axle Type Proportion of Axle Category

Front (steering) single 0.45
Rear Single 0.15
Tandem 0.25
Tridem 0.15
% of traffic in terms of msa with spacing between font axle and first rear axle < 4.5m = 55%
% of traffic in terms of msa during night hours (6pm to 6am) = 60%
4.3.3 Solution:-
Selection of modulus of subgrade reaction
 Effective CBR of compacted subgrade 8%

 Modulus of subgrade reaction 35 MPa/m
 Thickness of Granular Subbase 150 mm
 Thickness of DLC Subbase with a minimum 7 days compressive 150 mm
strength of 7 MPa
 Effective modulus of subgrade reaction of combines foundation of 285 MPa/m
subgrade + granular subbase and DLC subbase
Selection of flexural strength of concrete
67
 28 day compressive strength of cement concrete 40 MPa
 90 day compressive strength of cement concrete 48 MPa
 28 day flexural strength of cement concrete 4.4 MPa
 90 day flexural strength of cement concrete 4.9 MPa
Selection of Design Traffic for Fatigue Analysis
 Total two-way commercial vehicles during design period, C =

365*6000*(1+.075)30/.075 = 226,444,692 CVs
 Total two-way axle load repetitions during design period = 226,444,692*2.35
= 532,145,025 axles
 Number of axles in predominant direction = 532,145,025*0.5 = 266,072,513 axles
 Design traffic after adjusting for lateral placement of axles (25% of predominant
direction traffic for multi-lane highways) = 266,072,513*0.25 = 66,518,128 axles
 Night time (12-hour) design axle repetitions = 66,518,128*0.6 = 39,910,877
 Day time (12-hour) design axle repetitions = 66,518,128*(1-0.6) = 26,607,251
 Day time 6-hour (10am-4pm) axle load repetitions = 26,607,251/2 = 13,309,626
 Hence, design number of axle load repetitions for Bottom-up cracking analysis =
13,309,626
 Night-time 6-hour (12am-6am) axle load repetitions = 39,910,877/2 = 19,955,439
 6-hour night time design axle load repetitions for Top-down cracking analysis
=19,955,439*0.55 = 10,975,491 (wheel base < 4.5 m)
 The axle load category-wise design axle load repetitions for bottom-up and top-down
fatigue cracking analysis are given table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Axle load category-wise design

Axle Category Proportion of Axle Category wise Axle Category wise axle
Category repetitions for BUC repetitions for TDC
analysis analysis
Front (steering) single 0.45 498886 411581
Rear Single 0.15 166295 137194
Tandem 0.25 277159 228656
Tridem 0.15 166295 137194
68
Cumulative Fatigue Damage Analysis (CFD) for BUC and TDC and Selection of Slab
Thickness
 Effective modulus of subgrade reaction of foundation, k 173 MPa/m

 Poisson’s ratio of concrete 0.15
 Unit weight of concrete 24 kN/m3
 Design flexural strength of concrete 4.9 MPa
 Maximum day time Temperature differential in slab (BUC) 16.8oC
 Night time Temperature differential in slab (TDC) 13.4oC
 Thickness of slab 0.330 m
Cumulative Fatigue Damage Analysis for Bottom-Up Cracking
Cumulative fatigue damage analysis for bottom-up cracking due to rear single axles
is given in table 4.7.
Table 4.7 CFD analysis for BUC due to rear single axles
BUC fatigue analysis for day-time (6-hour) traffic & positive temperature differential
Rear Single Axles
Expected Flexural Stress Stress Ratio Allowed Fatigue
Repetitions (ni) MPa (SR) Repetitions Damage (ni/Ni)
(Ni)
362191 2.502 0.506 589852 0.614
347823 2.416 0.488 1442861 0.241
364586 2.329 0.471 4964384 0.073
259022 2.243 0.453 37080729 0.007
59467 2.156 0.436 Infinite 0.000
32328 2.070 0.418 Infinite 0.000
52283 1.983 0.401 Infinite 0.000
52882 1.897 0.383 Infinite 0.000
52882 1.810 0.366 Infinite 0.000
64855 1.723 0.348 Infinite 0.000
64855 1.637 0.331 Infinite 0.000
282369 1.550 0.313 Infinite 0.000
1995544 Fatigue Damage from rear single axles = 0.936
Cumulative fatigue damage analysis for bottom-up cracking due to rear tandem axles is given
in table 4.8.
69
Table 4.8 CFD analysis for BUC due to rear tandem axles
BUC fatigue analysis for day-time (6-hour) traffic & positive temperature differential
Rear Tandem Axles
(Ni)
40188 2.123 0.429 Infinite 0.000
29102 2.054 0.415 Infinite 0.000
10061 1.984 0.401 Infinite 0.000
6929 1.915 0.387 Infinite 0.000
7456 1.846 0.373 Infinite 0.000
3492 1.777 0.359 Infinite 0.000
10809 1.707 0.345 Infinite 0.000
14385 1.638 0.331 Infinite 0.000
17461 1.569 0.317 Infinite 0.000
17738 1.499 0.303 Infinite 0.000
24667 1.430 0.289 Infinite 0.000
94872 1.361 0.275 Infinite 0.000
277159 Fatigue Damage from tandem axles = 0.000
Cumulative Fatigue Damage Analysis for Top-Down Cracking
Cumulative fatigue damage analysis for top-down cracking due to rear single axles is given in
table 4.
Table 4.9 CFD analysis for TDC due to rear single axles
TDC fatigue analysis for night-time (6-hour) traffic & negative temperature
differential
Rear Single Axles
(Ni)
24901 2.113 0.427 Infinite 0.000
23913 2.073 0.419 Infinite 0.000
25065 2.033 0.411 Infinite 0.000
17808 1.993 0.403 Infinite 0.000
70
1.953 0.395 Infinite 0.000
4088
2223 1.913 0.386 Infinite 0.000
3594 1.873 0.378 Infinite 0.000
3636 1.833 0.370 Infinite 0.000
3636 1.793 0.362 Infinite 0.000
4459 1.753 0.354 Infinite 0.000
4459 1713 0.346 Infinite 0.000
19413 1.673 0.338 Infinite 0.000
137194 Fatigue Damage from rear single axles = 0.000
table 4.10.
Table 4.10 CFD analysis for TDC due to rear tandem axles
differential
Rear Tandem Axles (Stress computed for 50% of axle load)
(Ni)
397862 2.133 0.431 Infinite 0.000
288107 2.093 0.423 Infinite 0.000
99603 2.053 0.415 Infinite 0.000
68597 2.013 0.407 Infinite 0.000
73810 1.973 0.399 Infinite 0.000
34573 1.933 0.390 Infinite 0.000
107011 1.893 0.382 Infinite 0.000
142407 1.853 0.374 Infinite 0.000
172864 1.813 0.366 Infinite 0.000
175608 1.773 0.358 Infinite 0.000
244205 1.733 0.350 Infinite 0.000
939228 1.693 0.342 Infinite 0.000
2743873 Fatigue Damage from rear tandem axles = 0.000
table 4.11.
Table 4.11 CFD analysis for TDC due to rear tandem axles
differential
Rear Tandem Axles (Stress computed for 33% of axle load)
71
(Ni)
86103 2.079 0.420 Infinite 0.000
79847 2.039 0.412 Infinite 0.000
56634 1.999 0.404 Infinite 0.000
117218 1.960 0.396 Infinite 0.000
166443 1.920 0.388 Infinite 0.000
197724 1.880 0.380 Infinite 0.000
256333 1.840 0.372 Infinite 0.000
218632 1.800 0.364 Infinite 0.000
74908 1.760 0.356 Infinite 0.000
52024 1.720 0.347 Infinite 0.000
51036 1.680 0.339 Infinite 0.000
289424 1.640 0.331 Infinite 0.000
1646324 Fatigue Damage from rear tridem axles = 0.000
Similarly, Cumulative Fatigue Damage values for different trial thickness has been carried
out and given in Table 4.12.
Table 4.12 Cumulative Fatigue Damage values for different trial thickness
Slab CFD for BUC case CFD for TDC case Total Remarks
thickness Rear Tandem Total Rear Tandem Rear Total CFD=
in metre single axles CFD single axles tridem CFD (BUC+
axles (BUC) axles axles (TDC) TDC)
0.300 11.056 0.331 11.387 0.016 0.046 0.001 0.063 11.450 Unsafe
0.310 5.252 0.054 5.306 0.000 0.008 0.000 0.008 5.314 Unsafe
0.320 2.359 0.000 2.359 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.359 Unsafe
0.330 0.936 0.000 0.936 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.936 Safe
Hence, for trial thickness 330 mm, total CFD is coming less than one as given in
Table 4.12. So, slab thickness of 330 mm is safe for the design.
Similarly, thickness of slab of a rigid pavement for different CBR of subgrade as

3%, 4%, 6% and 8% with different initial traffic as 500, 2000, 400and 6000 CVPD has been
carried out and given in table 4.13.
However, the thickness of GSB and DLC layers remain unchanged for different
subgrade strength and initial traffic. Thickness of both GSB and DLC layers are taken as 150
mm for all given CBR of subgrade and initial traffic.
72
Table 4.13 Slab thickness for different CBR and initial traffic
CBR CBR CBR CBR

3% 4% 6% 8%
Initial Traffic
(CVPD) Thickness (mm)
500 302 303 301 300
2000 317 321 319 318
4000 323 329 327 326
6000 327 333.5 331 330
4.3.4 Effect of CBR of subgrade on slab thickness of pavement
73
340
330
320
310 6000 CVPD

4000 CVPD
2000 CVPD
300 500 CVPD
290
280
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 4.7 Thickness of Slab v/s CBR of Subgrade
4.3.5 Effect of initial traffic on slab thickness of pavement
340
330
320
310 CBR 3%
CBR 4%
CBR 6%
300 CBR 8%
290
280
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Figure 4.8 Thickness of Slab v/s Initial Traffic
From fig. 4.7 and fig. 4.8 , it can be observed that there is no significant change in the
thickness of the slab due to change in the subgrade strength but as the initial traffic increases
from 500 CVPD to 6000 CVPD, there is gradual increase in the thickness of slab required.
74
However, as observed from fig 4.8, when the initial traffic is low, due to change in
initial traffic, rate of increase of slab thickness is higher than that compared to the case when
initial traffic is high.
4.3.6 Design of Dowel Bars
Note:- Dowel bars upto a distance of 1.0*radius of relative stiffness (l), from the point of
load application are effective in load transfer.
Hence, number of dowel bars participating in load transfer when the load is just over
 Slab thickness, h 330 mm

 Joint width, z expansion 20 mm
 Joint width, z contraction 5 mm
 Modulus of subgrade reaction, k 80 MPa/m
 Radius of relative stiffness 1035.3 mm
 E for dowel bar 2*105 MPa
 Modulus of dowel support 4*105 MPa
 Maximum single axle load 190 kN
 Maximum single wheel load 95 kN
 Load transfer to the tied concrete shoulders 30%
 Wheel load to be considered for dowel design 66.5 kN
 Safety of the dowel bar can be examined for a load 66.5 kN
 Percentage of load transfer through dowel bar (assumed) 50%
 Load to be transmitted 33.25 kN
 Characteristic compressive strength 40 MPa
 Diameter of dowel bar (assumed) 38 mm
 Permissible bearing stress in concrete 26.71 MPa
 Spacing between dowel bars (assumed) 300 mm
 Distance of first dowel bar from pavement edge 1035.3 mm
 Length of dowel bar (assumed) 500 mm
the dowel bar close to the edge of the slab = 1+l/spacing = 4.451 = 4 dowel bars.
The variation of diameter, spacing and length of dowel bar with different CBR and initial
traffic are given in table 4.15.
Table 4.15 Variation of diameter, spacing and length of dowel bar
CBR Initial Traffic (CVPD) Diameter (mm) Spacing (mm) Length (mm)
3 500 36 300 500
2000 36 300 500
75
4000 36 300 500
6000 36 300 500
500 38 300 500
2000 36 300 500

4
4000 36 300 500
6000 36 300 500
500 40 300 500
2000 40 300 500

6
4000 40 300 500
6000 38 300 500
500 44 300 500
2000 42 300 500

8
4000 42 300 500
6000 40 300 500
50
45
40
35
30
25 CBR 3%
CBR 4%
20
CBR 6%
15 CBR 8%
10
5
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Figure 4.9 Diameter of Dowel bar v/s Initial traffic
76
43
42
41
40
39
38 6000 CVPD
37 4000 CVPD
2000 CVPD
36 500 CVPD
35
34
33
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 4.10 Diameter of Dowel bar v/s CBR
From fig. 4.9 and fig. 4.10, it can be observed that there is slight decrease in diameter of
dowel bar with increase in initial traffic whereas there is slight increase in diameter of dowel
bar with increase in subgrade strength.
4.3.5 Design of Tie Bars
Input Data
 Slab thickness 330 mm

 Lane width, b 3.5 m
 Coefficient of friction, f 1.5
 Density of concrete 24 kN/m3
 Allowable tensile stress in plain bars (as per IRC:15 2011) 125 MPa
 Allowable tensile stress in deformed bars (as per IRC:15 200 MPa
2011)
 Allowable bond stress for plain bars 1.75 MPa
 Allowable bond stress for deformed bars 2.46 MPa
Design for Plain Bars
 Diameter of tie bars (assumed) 12 mm
 Area of plain steel bar required per meter width of joint to resist the 332.64mm 2/m
frictional force at slab bottom, As=bfW/Sst
77
 Cross sectional area of tie bar, A=(122)*(3.14/4) 113.04 mm2
 Perimeter of tie bars, Pptb 37.68 mm
 Spacing of tie bars = A/ As 340 mm
 Spacing of tie bars provided 320 mm
 Number of bars required 14
 Length of tie bar, L=(2*Sst*A)/(b*Pptb) 428.571 mm
 Increase length for loss of bond due to painting 100 mm
 Increase length for tolerance in placement 50 mm
 Therefore, required length of tie bars 578.571 mm
Design of Deformed Bars
 Diameter of tie bars (assumed) 12 mm
 Area of plain steel bar required per meter width of joint to resist the 207.9 mm2/m
frictional force at slab bottom, As
 Spacing of tie bars = A/ As 543.723 mm
 Provide a spacing of 540 mm c/c
 Length of tie bar, L=(2*Sst*A)/(b*Pptb) 487.805 mm
 Increase length for loss of bond due to painting 100 mm
 Increase length for tolerance in placement 50 mm
 Therefore, required length of tie bars 637.805 mm
The diameter, spacing and length of plain tie bars required for different CBR of subgrade
and initial traffic are given in Table 4.15.
Table 4.15 Variation of diameter, spacing and length of plain tie bars
3 500 12 374 580
2000 12 357 580
78
4000 12 349 580
6000 12 346 580
500 12 375 580
2000 12 354 580

4
4000 12 346 580
6000 12 341 580
500 12 377 580
2000 12 357 580

6
4000 12 348 580
6000 12 344 580
500 12 378 580
2000 12 357 580

8
4000 12 349 580
6000 12 342 580
The diameter, spacing and length of plain tie bars required for different CBR of subgrade
and initial traffic are given in Table 4.15.
Table 4.16 Variation of diameter, spacing and length of deformed tie bars
500 12 374 580
2000 12 357 580

3
4000 12 349 580
6000 12 346 580
4 500 12 375 580
79
2000 12 354 580
4000 12 346 580
6000 12 341 580
500 12 377 580
2000 12 357 580

6
4000 12 348 580
6000 12 344 580
500 12 378 580
2000 12 357 580

8
4000 12 349 580
6000 12 342 580
4.4 SUMMARY OF DESIGN
The design of flexible pavement has been done on the basis of the guidelines provided in IRC
37:2012 and the design of rigid pavement has been done on the basis of guidelines provided
in IRC 58:2015
The depth of different layers for the two type of pavements have been designed for varying
CBR of subgrade and initial traffic.
In case of flexible pavement it is observed that the thickness of pavement decreases

with an increase in effective CBR of subgrade. The thickness of pavement increases with an
increase in traffic.
In case of rigid pavement it is observed that there is no significant change in

thickness of pavement with an increase in effective CBR of subgrade. However, with an
increase in initial traffic, the thickness of the rigid pavement increases.
80
CHAPTER-5
COST ESTIMATION
5.1 GENERAL
This chapter deals with the rate analysis of pavement. The cost estimation is carried
out as per the MoRTH Standard Data Book. The rates of labor, material and machinery are
ascertained from the PWD office and the DC office of the area where the project is located.
When these rates are given as an input in the MoRTH Standard Data Book, the cost per cubic
meter or per square meter as per various item of work of construction is obtained as input.
5.2 ANALYSIS OF RATES FOR VARIOUS LAYERS
Rates of various items that are to be considered in the cost estimation of the
pavement were taken from the PWD Office Kurukshetra. The rate analysis for Subgrade,
GSB (Granular Sub-base), WMM (Wet Mix Macadam), Prime Coat, DBM (Dense Graded
Bitumen Macadam), Tack Coat, BC (Bituminous Concrete), Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) and
PQC have been carried out as per MoRTH Standard Data Book.
5.2.1 Subgrade
Subgrade is defined as the top 500 mm of embankment. Subgrade layer is

constructed either with the help of select soil or by compacting existing ground. When the
CBR of existing ground is very low, then the top 500 mm of embankment is replaced with the
borrowed soil. Avg. lead of 20 km is taken from the borrowed site to construction site. In the
81
present case the subgrade layer was prepared with the help of existing soil. Rate analysis of
subgrade when ground is compacted is done in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Rate analysis of subgrade
Description Unit Quantity Rate Cost
(In Rs.) (In Rs.)
Taking output= 100 cum
(a) Labour
Mate day 0.040 483.39 19.34
Mazdoor day 1.000 483.39 483.39
502.73
(b)Machinery
Hydraulic excavator 1 cum hour 1.67 1092.00 1823.64

bucket capacity @ 60 cum per
hour
Tipper 10 tonne capacity t.km 480.00 3.00 1440.00
Dozer 80 HP for spreading hour 0.500 1850.00 925.00
@200 cum per hour
Motor Grader for grading @ hour 1.000 2009.00 2009.00
50 cum per hour
Water tanker with 6 km lead hour 4.000 400.000 1600.00
Vibratory roller 8-10 tonne @ hour 1.00 1292.00 1292.00
80 cum per hour
9089.64
(c)Material
Cost of water KL 24.000 20.00 480.00
Compensation for earth taken cum 100.00 60.00 6000.00

from private land
6480.00
(d)Overhead charges @ 0.1 on 1607.24

(a+b+c)
82
(e)Contractor’s profit @ 0.1 1767.96
on (a+b+c+d)
Cost for 100 cum=a+b+c+d+e 19447.56
Rate per cum = 194.48
(a+b+c+d+e)/100
Say Rs. 194.00 per

cum
5.2.2 Granular Sub-base (GSB)
There are six grading of GSB as per MORTH specification and it can be
constructed either by Mix in Place Method or by Plant Mix Method. Rate analysis of GSB
layer for grading-1 and construction by Plant Mix Method is done in Table 5.2 with avg. lead
of 20 km from Batching plant to the construction site.
Table 5.2 Rate analysis of GSB
Description Quantity Unit Rate Amount
(In Rs.) (In Rs.)
Unit/Cum Taking output =

300 Cum
a) Labour
Mate 0.40 Day 483.39 193.36
Mazdoor Skilled 2.00 Day 483.39 966.78
Mazdoor 8.00 Day 483.39 3867.12
5027.26
b) Machinery
Water tanker 6 Kl capacity 3.00 hour 400.00 1200.00
5 Km lead with one trip per hour

Motor grader 110 HP
6.00 hour 2009.00 12054.00
83
Vibrator roller 8-10 tonnes 6.00 hour 1292.00 7752.00
21006.00
c) Material (Grading-I)
For coarse graded

granular sub base
53 to 26.5mm @35% 134.48 Cum 1129.00 151827.92
26.5 to 4.75mm @45% 172.80 Cum 1129.00 195091.20
2.36mm below @20% 76.80 Cum 1129.00 86707.20
Cost of water 18.00 KL 20.00 360.00
433986.32
Total (a+b+c) 460019.58
d) Overhead charges 10% 46001.96

on (a+b+c)
506021.53
e) Contractor's Profit @10% 7239.52

on Rs.72395.21
Cost for 300 Cum = 513261.05
a+b+c+d+e
Rate per cum =(a+b+c+d+e)/300 1710.87
Say 1711
Rs.
5.2.3 Wet Mix Macadam (WMM)
Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) is used as a base course in a pavement structure in one
or more layers. Rate analysis of WMM layer is done in Table 5.3 with avg. lead of 20 km
from the batching plant to the construction site.
84
Table 5.3 Rate analysis of WMM
(In Rs.) (In Rs.)
Unit/Cum Taking
output =
225
cum (495
tonne)
a) Labour
Mate 0.48 Day 483.39 232.03
Mazdoor Skilled 2.00 Day 483.39 966.78
Mazdoor 10.00 Day 483.39 4833.90
6032.71
b) Machinery
Wet Mix plant of 75 6.60 hour 1010.00 6666.00

tonne hourly
capacity
Electric Generating 6.00 hour 585.00 3510.00
set, 125 KVA
Front end loader 1 6.00 hour 676.00 4056.00
Cum capacity
Paver finisher 6.00 hour 818.00 4908.00
Vibrator roller 8-10 3.90 hour 1292.0 5038.80

tonnes (6x0.65)
Water Tanker 3.00 Nos. 400.00 1200.00
Tipper 2,237.40 Km 2.00 4474.80
(495x2x2.26)
85
Add 10% cost of 447.48
carriage to cover
cost for loading and

unloading
30301.08
c) Material(Table 400-
11)
45mm to 22.4mm 89.10 Cum 1129.00 100593.90
@30%
22.4mm to 2.36mm 118.80 Cum 1129.00 134125.20
@40%
2.36mm to 75 89.10 Cum 1129.00 100593.90

micron@30%
Cost of water 18.00 KL 20.00 360.00
335673.00
Total (a+b+c) 372006.79
d) Overhead 37200.68
charges
10% on (a+b+c)
Total 409207.47
e) Contractor's Profit 73894.47 7389.45
@10% on Rs.
Total 416596.91
Cost for 300 Cum = 416596.91
a+b+c+d+e
Rate per Cum 1851.54

=
a+b+c+d+e/225
Say Rs. 1852.00 Per Cum
86
5.2.4 Prime Coat
It is an application of single coat of bituminous material over porous granular

surface before laying a bituminous mix layer. Rate analysis for Prime Coat is done in Table
5.4.
Table 5.4 Rate analysis of Prime Coat
(In Rs.) (In Rs.)
Taking output = 3500 sqm
Providing and
applying primer coat with

bitumen emulsion on
prepared surface of granular
base i/c cleaning of road
surface and spraying primer
a) Labour
Mate 0.08 Day 483.39 38.67
Mazdoor 2.00 Day 483.39 966.78
1005.45
b) Machinery
i) Mechanical brooms @1250 hour 299.00 837.20

sqm/ hour
2.80
ii) Air Compressor 250 hour 268.00 750.40
Cum 2.80
iii) Bitumen pressure hour 671.00 1342.00
distributor 2.00
iv) Water Tanker (6 KL cap. 1 hour 400.00 400.00

trip/ hour)
1.00
3329.60
c) Material
87
i) Bitumen emulsion @ 0.6 Kg/ 2.10 Tonne 27685.00 58138.50
sqm
ii) Cost of water 6.00 KL 20.00 120.00
58258.50
Total (a+b+c) 62593.55
d) Overhead charges 6259.36
10% on (a+b+c)
Total 68852.91
e) Contractor's Profit 6885.29
@10%
Total 75738.20
Cost for 3500 Sqm
= a+b+c+d+e
Rate per sqm = 75738.20 21.64
a+b+c+d+e/3500
Say Rs. 22 Per Sqm
5.2.5 Tack Coat
It is the application of single coat low viscosity bituminous material on existing

bituminous surface. Rate analysis of Tack Coat is done in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Rate analysis of Tack Coat
(In Rs.) (In Rs.)
Taking output = 3500 Sqm
a) Labour
88
Mate 0.08 Day 483.39 38.67
Mazdoor 2.00 Day 483.39 966.78
1005.45
b) Machinery
i) Mechanical brooms @1250 sqm 2.80 hour 299.00 837.20

per hour
ii) Air Compressor 250 Cum 2.80 hour 268.00 750.40
iii) Emulsion pressure 2.00 hour 671.00 1342.00

distributor (@1750 sqm
per hour)
2929.60
c) Material
i) Bitumen 80/100 @0.20 Kg per Tonne 32417.00 22691.90

Sqm
0.700
22691.90
Total (a+b+c) 26626.95
d) Overhead charge 10 % on 2662.70

(a+b+c)
Total 29289.65
e) Contractor's Profit @10% 2928.96
Total 32218.61
Cost for 3500 Sqm = a+b+c+d+e 32218.61
Rate per sqm = a+b+c+d+e/3500 9.21
Say Rs. 9.30 Per.sqm
5.2.6 Dense- Graded Bituminous Macadam (DBM)
It is used as base or binder course. Rate analysis of DBM is done in Table 5.6 with
the avg. lead of 20 km from Hot Mix Plant to construction site.
Table 5.6 Rate analysis of DBM
89
(In Rs.) (In Rs.)
Unit/Sqm Taking output = 195 Cum or 450 tonne
a) Labour
(i) Mate 0.84 Day 483.39 406.05
(ii) Mazdoor working with Day 483.39 7734.24

HMP,
16.00
mechanical broom
paver, roller, asphalt
cutter and layout of
construction
(iii) Skilled Mazdoor for Day 483.39 2416.95

checking line and
5.00
level
10557.24
b) Machinery
i) Batch mix HMP @75 hour 11609.00 69654.00

tonne per hour
6.00
ii) Paver finisher hour 2243.00 13458.00

hydrostatic with
sensor control @ 75 6.00
cum per hour
iii) Generator 250 KVA 6.00 hour 585.00 3510.00
iv) Fron end loader 1 cum hour 676.00 4056.00

bucket capacity
6.00
v) Tipper (10 tonne hour 2.00 5400.00

capacity) (450x5)
2,700.00
vi) Add 10% cost of 540.00

carriage to cover cost of
90
loading and
unloading Rs.6102/-
vii) Smooth wheeled roller hour 386.00 1505.40

8-10 tonne for initial
break down rolling 3.90
(6x0.65)
viii Vibratory roller 8 hour 1292.00 5038.80

tonnes for
) intermediate rolling 3.90
(6x0.65)
ix) Finish rolling with 6-8 hour 959.00 3740.10
tonne smooth wheeled 3.90

tendon roller
106902.30
c) Material(Grading-
II)
i) Bitumen 60/70 Grade Tonne 33361.00 675560.25
@4.50 per cent of 20.25

weigh of mix
ii) Aggregate
Wt. of aggregate =450 tonne
Weight of bitumen =20.25 tonne
Weight of aggregate =450-20.25 =
429.75 tonne
Taking density of = 1.6 ton/ cum
aggregate
Volume of aggregate = 268.59 cum
25-10mm 30 percent 80.58 Cum 1128.00 90894.24
10-4.75mm 28 percent 75.21 Cum 1128.00 84836.88
91
4.75mm and below 42 112.81 Cum 1128.00 127249.68
percent
Total (a+b+c) 1096000.59
d) Overhead charges 109600.06
10% on (a+b+c)
@10% on Rs.
Cost for 195 Cum = 1326160.71 Total 1326160.71

a+b+c+d+e
Rate per Cum = 6800.82
a+b+c+d+e/195
Say Rs. 6801.00 Per Cum
5.2.7 Bituminous Concrete (BC)
It is used as wearing course. Rate analysis of Bituminous Concrete is done in Table

5.7 with avg. lead of 20 km from Hot Mix Plant to construction site.
Table 5.7 Rate analysis of BC
(In Rs.) (In Rs.)
Unit/Cum Taking output
= 191 Cum or
450 tonne
a) Labour
(i) Mate 0.84 Day 483.39 406.05
(ii) Mazdoor working 16.00 Day 483.39 7734.24

with HMP,
mechanical broom
paver, roller, asphalt
cutter etc.
92
(iii) Skilled Mazdoor for 5.00 Day 483.39 2416.95
checking line and

level
10557.24
b) Machinery
i) Batch mix HMP 6.00 hour 14514.00 87102.00

@75 tonne per hour
ii) Paver finisher 6.00 hour 2243.00 13458.00

hydrostatic with
sensor control @ 75
cum per hour
iii) Generator 250 KVA 6.00 hour 585.00 3510.00
iv) Front end loader 1 6.00 hour 676.00 4056.00

cum bucket capacity
v) Tipper (10 tonne 2,250.00 hour 2.00 4500.00

capacity) (450x5)
vi) Add 10% cost of 450.00

carriage to cover cost
of loading and
unloading Rs.6102/-
vii) Smoot wheeled roller 3.90 hour 386.00 1505.40

8-10 tonne for initial
break down rolling
(6x0.65)
viii) Vibratory roller 3.90 hour 1292.00 5038.80

8 tonnes
for
intermediate rolling
(6x0.65)
ix) Finish rolling with 6- 3.90 hour 959.00 3740.10
8 tonne smooth
wheeled tendon roller
105912.30
93
c) Material (Grading-
II)
i) Bitumen CRMB - 55 24.30 Tonne 35237.00 856259.10

@5.4% of mixed
wt.
ii) Aggregate
Wt. of aggregate 450-24.30 = 425.70
MT
Taking density =1.6tonne

of aggregate / Cum
Volume of aggregate = 266.06
Cum
Grading-II (40mm
nominal size)
20-10mm 30 percent 79.82 Cum 1128.00 90036.96
10-5mm 25 per cent 66.52 Cum 1128.00 75034.56
5mm and below 45 119.72 Cum 1128.00 135044.16

percent
Filler @2% of wt. 5.34 Cum 1129.00 6028.86
1162403.64
Total (a+b+c) 1278873.18
d) Overhead 127887.32
charges
10% on (a+b+c)
Total 1406760.50
@10% on Rs.
Total 1547436.54
Cost for 205 Cum = 1547436.54

a+b+c+d+e
94
Rate per Cum 8101.76
=
a+b+c+d+e/191
Say Rs. 8102 Per Cum
5.2.8 Dry Lean Cement Concrete Sub-Base (DLC)
Construction of DLC over a prepared subgrade with course and fine aggregate
conforming to IS: 383, with concrete strength not to be less than 10 Mpa at 7 days. Rate
analysis of DLC is done in Table 5.8. Output taken as 450 cum.
Table 5.8 Rate analysis of DLC
a) Labour
Mate Day 1.120 506.15 566.89
Mazdoor skilled Day 6.000 529.84 3179.04
Mazdoor Day 22.000 439.38 9666.36
b) Machinery
Front end loader 1 cum bucket Hour 6.000 676.00 4056.00
capacity
Cement concrete batch mixing Hour 6.000 5304.00 31824.00
plant @75 cum per hour
Electric generator 100 KVA Hour 6.000 585.00 3510.00
Paver with electronic sensor Hour 6.000 2243.00 13458.00
Vibratory roller 8-10 t capacity Hour 8.000 1292.00 10336.00
Water tanker 6 KL capacity Hour 8.000 20.00 160.00
Tipper Tonne.km 990* L 2.00 39600.00
Add 10 %of cost of carriage to 3960.00
cover cost of loading and
unloading
c) Material
Crushed stone coarse aggregate of Cum 405.00 1008.00 408240.00
25mm and 12.5 mm nominal sizes 0
graded as per table 600-1 @
0.90cum/cum of concrete, clause
602.2.4
Coarse sand as per IS: 383 @ 0.45 Cum 203.00 385.00 78155.00
cum/cum of concrete 0
Cement @ 150 kg/cum of concrete Tonne 67.500 6000.00 40500.00
95
Cost of water KL 48.000 20.00 960.00
d) Overhead charges @ 0.1 101267.13
on(a+b+c)
e) Contractor’s profit @ 0.1 111393.84
on (a+b+c)
Cost for 450 cum = (a+b+c+d+e) 1225332.26
Rate per cum = (a+b+c+d+e)/450 2722.96
Say Rs. 2723.00
5.2.9 Pavement Quality Control (PQC)
Construction of unreinforced, dowel jointed, plain cement concrete pavement over a

prepared sub-base with 43 grade cement @ 400 kg per cum, coarse and fine aggregate
conforming to IS: 383. Rate analysis of PQC is done in Table 5.9. Output taken as 1050 cum.
Table 5.9 Rate analysis of PQC
a) Labour
Mate Day 2.000 506.15 1012.30
Mazdoor skilled Day 15.000 529.84 7947.60
Mazdoor Day 35.000 439.38 15378.30
b) Machinery
Road sweeper @1250 sqm per Hour 2.800 299.00 837.20
hour
Front end loader 1 cum bucket Hour 18.000 667.00 12168.00
capacity
Cement concrete batch mix plant Hour 6.000 10920.00 65520.00
@175 cum per hour
Electric generator 250 KVA Hour 6.000 585.00 3510.00
Slip from paver with electronic Hour 6.000 2405.00 14430.00
sensor
Water tank 6 KL capacity Hour 36.000 20.00 720.00
Transit truck agitator 5 cum Tonne.km 2415*L 4.32 208656.00
capacity
Add 10 % of cost of carriage to 20865.60
cover cost of loading and
unloading
Concrete joint cutting machine Hour 12.000 105.00 1260.00
Texturing machine Hour 12.000 128.00 1536.00
c) Material
Crushed stone coarse aggregates of Cum 945.000 1008.00 952560.00
96
25 mm and 12.5 mm nominal size
@j0.90 cum/cum of concrete to
clause 602.2.4
Sand as per IS: 383 and Cum 473.000 385.00 182105.00
conforming to clause 602.2.4 @
0.45 cum/cum of concrete
Cement 43 grade @400 kg/cum of Tonne 414.000 6000.00 2484000.00
concrete
32 mm mild steel dowel bar of Tonne 9.450 48000.00 453600.00
grade S 240
16 mm deformed steel tie bars of Tonne 1.170 50800.00 59436.00
grade S 415
Separation membrane of Sqm 3675.000 38.00 139650.00
impermeable plastic sheeting 125
micron thick
Pre moulded joint filler, 25mm Sqm 16.330 708.07.00 11562.79
thick expansion joint
Joint sealant Kg 875.000 145.00 126875.00
Sealant primer Kg 116.670 490.00 57168.30
Plastic sheath, 1.25 mm thick for Sqm 46.670 48.00 2240.16
dowel bars
Curing compound Liter 1850.000 93.00 172050.00
Super plasticizer admixture IS Kg 2070.000 50.00 103500.00
marked as per 9103-1993 @ 0.5%
by weight of cement
Cost of water KL 216.000 20.00 4320.00
Add 1 % of material for cost of 47490.67
miscellaneous material like metal
cap, cotton, sponge and cradle for
dowel bar, work bridge for men,
cutting blade and bites, minor
equipment like thread, ropes, guide
wires and any other unforeseen
items.
d) Overhead [email protected] on 515039.89
(a+b+c)
e)Contractor’s profit @ 0.1 on 566543.88
(a+b+c+d)
Cost for 1050cum=a+b+c+d+e 6231982.69
Rate per Say Rs. 6529.00
cum=( a+b+c+d+e)/1050
5.2.8 Rates of different layers used in Cost estimation
Table 5.10 Summary of Rate analysis of different layers
Sr. no. Layer Unit Rate per unit

1. Subgrade cum 200
2. GSB cum 1711
97
3. WMM cum 1852
4. Prime Coat sq.m 22
5. Tack Coat sq.m 9.3
6. DBM cum 6801
7. BC cum 8102
8. DLC cum 2723
9. PQC cum 6529
5.3 COST ESTIMATION
The cost has been calculated for the designed pavement with variation in the
effective CBR value of 3%, 4%, 6%, and 8% with variation in traffic. Also in each case the
cost has been calculated for flexible pavement as well as for rigid pavement.
5.3.1 For Flexible Pavement
Table 5.11 With Effective CBR value as 3% and Traffic as 500 CVPD
Sr. No. Item Dimension Volum Unit Rate Cost

Length Width Depth e
1 Subgrade 1000 15 0.5 7500 m3 200 1500000

2 Granular 1000 7.6 0.37 2812 m3 1711 4811332
Sub Base
3 Wet Mix 1000 7.3 0.25 1825 m3 1852 3379900
Macadam
4 Prime Coat 1000 7 7000 m2 22 154000
5 Tack Coat 1000 7 7000 m2 9.3 65100
6 DBM 1000 7 0.085 595 m3 6801 4046595
7 Tack Coat 1000 7 7000 m2 9.3 65100
8 Bituminous 1000 7 0.04 280 m3 8102 2268560
concrete
Total Cost (Rs.) 16290587
Similarly, Cost Estimation has been done for different values of CBR and Traffic. Summary
of the Cost Estimation for Flexible Pavement is shown in Table 5.12.
98
Table 5.12 Summary of Cost Estimation for Flexible Pavement
CBR Traffic Total Cost

(%) (CVPD) (Rs.)
3 500 16290587
2000 19039008
4000 20320253
6000 21034358
4 500 15402372
2000 17912758
4000 18955968
6000 19670073
6 500 13778015
2000 16050366
4000 17331611
6000 18045716
8 500 12759764
2000 14794080
4000 16075325
6000 16789430
5.3.2 For Rigid Pavement
Table 5.13 With Effective CBR as 3% and Traffic as 500 CVPD
Sr. Item Dimension Volume Unit Rate Cost

no.
Length Width Depth
3
1 Subgrade 1000 15 0.5 7500 m 200 1,500,000
3
2 GSB 1000 7.6 0.15 1140 m 1711 1,678,080
3
3 DLC 1000 7.3 0.15 1095 m 2723 2,981,685
3
4 PQC 1000 7 0.302 2114 m 6529 13,802,306
Total Cost (Rs.) 19961000
Similarly cost estimation has been done for different values of CBR and Traffic. Summary of
the Cost Estimation for Rigid Pavement is shown in Table 5.14.
Table 5.14 Summary of Cost Estimation for Rigid Pavement
CBR Traffic Total Cost

(%) (CVPD) (Rs.)
99
3 500 19961000
2000 20647000
4000 20922000
6000 21105000
4 500 20007000
2000 20829000
4000 21196000
6000 21402000
6 500 19915000
2000 20739000
4000 21105000
6000 21287000
8 500 19870000
2000 20693000
4000 21059000
6000 21242000
5.4 COST COMPARISON
Table 5.15 Cost Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement
CBR Initial Design Traffic Total Cost (Rs.)

(%) Traffic (msa) For Flexible For Rigid
(CVPD Pavement Pavement
)
3 500 8.811 16290587 19961000
2000 35.245 19039008 20647000
4000 90.63 20320253 20922000
6000 135.945 21034358 21105000
4 500 8.811 15402372 20007000
2000 35.245 17912758 20829000
4000 90.63 18955968 21196000
6000 135.945 19670073 21402000
6 500 8.811 13778015 19915000
2000 35.245 16050366 20739000
4000 90.63 17331611 21105000
6000 135.945 18045716 21287000
8 500 8.811 12759764 19870000
2000 35.245 14794080 20693000
4000 90.63 16075325 21059000
6000 135.945 16789430 21242000
5.5 EFFECT OF TRAFFIC ON COST OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT
100
CBR 3%
25000000
20000000
15000000
Cost (Rs.)
10000000
5000000
0
500 2000 4000 6000
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
Fig. 5.1 Effect of Traffic on Cost of Pavement for Subgrade CBR 3%
CBR 4%
25000000
20000000
15000000
Cost (Rs.)
10000000
5000000
0
500 2000 4000 6000
101
CBR 6%
25000000
20000000
15000000
Cost (Rs.)
10000000
5000000
0
500 2000 4000 6000
Initial Traffic (CVPD
CBR 8%
25000000
20000000
15000000
Cost (Rs.)
10000000
5000000
0
500 2000 4000 6000
Initial Traffic (CVPD
102
5.6 EFFECT OF CBR ON COST OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT
Initial Traffic 500 CVPD

25000000
20000000
15000000
Cost (Rs.)
10000000
5000000
0
3 4 6 8
CBR of subgrade
Fig. 5.5 Effect of CBR on Cost of Pavement for Traffic 500 CVPD

25000000
20000000
15000000
Cost (Rs.)
10000000
5000000
0
3 4 6 8
CBR of subgrade
103
25000000
20000000
15000000
Cost (Rs.)
10000000
5000000
0
3 4 6 8
CBR of subgrade

25000000
20000000
15000000
Cost (Rs.)
10000000
5000000
0
3 4 6 8
CBR of subgrade
104
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
6.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
 The thickness of different layers of the pavement changes with change in the effective
CBR of subgrade.
 Any change in the effective CBR of the subgrade has no effect on the thickness of the
Bituminous Concrete (BC) layer.
 The thickness of the dense bituminous macadam (DBM) decreases with increase in
the effective CBR of the subgrade.
 Any change in the effective CBR of the subgrade has no effect on the thickness of
granular base (G. Base) layer.
 The thickness of granular sub-base (GSB) layer decreases with increase in the
effective CBR of the subgrade.
 The total thickness of the flexible pavement decreases with increase in the effective
CBR of the subgrade.
 The thickness of different layers of the flexible pavement change with change in the
initial traffic.
 The thickness of bituminous concrete (BC) layer increases with increase in initial
traffic.
 The thickness of dense bituminous mecadam (DBM) increases with increase in initial
traffic.
 Any change in initial traffic has no effect on the thickness of granular base (G. Base)
layer.
 There is a slight increase in the thickness of granular sub-base (GSB) when traffic
varies from 500 CVPD to 2000 CVPD but this increase gets nullified when the value
of initial traffic exceeds 2000 CVPD.
 The total thickness of the flexible pavement increases with increase in the initial
traffic.
105
6.2 RIGID PAVEMENT
 There is no significant change in the thickness of the slab due to change in the
subgrade strength but as the initial traffic increases from 500 CVPD to 6000 CVPD,
there is gradual increase in the thickness of slab required.
6.3 COST
 Cost of pavement increase with traffic keeping the CBR constant and the cost gap
between rigid and flexible tapers off as high values of traffic is reached.
 Cost for flexible pavement is less than rigid pavement for low traffic but for high
traffic it is the other way round.
 Cost of flexible pavement is less than rigid pavement for any value of CBR keeping
the traffic constant and the cost gap continues to increase as the CBR progressess.
106
107
108

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DESIGN AND COST ESTIMATION OF

FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT

FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Under the supervision of

Dr. S.N. SACHDEVA

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Name Roll No.

Dr. S.N. Sachdeva

Name Roll No.

Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural

India has a network of over 5,603,293 kilometres (3,481,725 mi) of roads as of

Roads in India are primarily bitumen -based macadamised roads. However, the

Rigid pavement is generally preferred for locations experiencing heavy rainfall,

1.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT

Table 1.1 Difference between Flexible and Rigid pavement

1.3 PROJECT TOPIC AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Cost estimation is an essential

ii. To determine the effect of variation of subgrade strength on the thickness of

iii. To determine the effect of traffic variation on the thickness of pavement.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

1.6 PRESENTATION OF THE REPORT

 The Third Chapter highlights the Methodology of the Project.

 The Fourth Chapter describes the Pavement Design.

 The Fifth Chapter describes the Cost Estimation.

 The Sixth Chapter consists of Conclusions and Scope of future research.

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2.2 Literature Review of Rigid Pavements

2.3.1 Traffic Growth Rate

Above formulae varies according to different axle conditions.

2.3.7 Granular Layer

2.3.7.2 Resilient Modulus of Granular Layer is given in equation 2.7

WMM/RAP treated with

2.3.8.3 Poisson’s Ratio

Pavement Design Procedure and Use of IITPAVE Software

2.4 IRC:58-2012 GUIDELINES FOR RIGID PAVEMENT

(A) Design Lane

2.4.5 Temperature Consideration

2.4.6 Embankment Soil and Characteristics of Subgrade and Subbase Embankment

K750 = k(1.2φ+0.078) ……....…(2.9)

k = modulus of subgrade reaction (MPa/m) with plate diameter

K750 = modulus of subgrade reaction (MPa/m) with plate diameter of 750 mm

The estimate obtained from Equation 2 is regarded as approximate only. However,

Soaked CBR(%) 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 50 100

k-value (MPa/m) 21 28 35 42 48 55 62 69 140 220

Log10CBR= 2.465-1.12Log10N ..……….2.10

NDCP= rate of cone penetration (mm/blow)

2.4.6.6 The modulus of subgrade reaction of the subgrade of an in-service pavement or of a

Table 2.4 k-values for Subgrade and Cement Treated Subbases

k-value of Effective k (MPa/m) of untreated Effective k (MPa/m) of cement treated

subgrade granular subbase of thickness (mm) subbase of thickness (mm)

150 225 300 100 150 200

56 63 75 88 127 173 225

Table 2.5 k-values for Dry Lean Concrete Sub Base

k-value of subgrade (MPa/m) 21 28 42 48 55 62

Effective k for 100 mm DLC, (MPa/m) 56 97 166 208 278 389*

2.4.7 Concrete Strength

Fcr = 0.7√fck ……………(2.11)

Fcr= Flexural strength (Modulus of Rupture), MPa