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Received 20 October 2007
Accepted 38 January 2008
Leisure travel and business travel:
A comparative analysis
Neil Leiper1*, Mieke Witsel2 and J.S. Perry Hobson 2
1
Naresuan University, Thailand
2
School of Tourism and Hospitality Management
Southern Cross University, Australia

‘‘Leisure travel’ and ‘business travel’ are expressions referring to broad

categories of a form of human activity. Many persons would be aware
of the broad difference between the categories but unaware of
specifics in that difference. The question seems to have been ignored
in the research literature. Ten dimensions of difference can be
identified, but only six are generic, the others are circumstantial. An
alternative analysis, using a matrix with play and arbeid on one axis
and free choice and obligation on the other, identifies four types of
travel (or tourism). Together, the two sets of analysis provide a deeper
level of understanding of business travel compared to leisure travel
(or, in some persons’ terms, business tourism and leisure tourism).
Key words: business travel, leisure travel, leisure tourism, business
tourism.

Keywords: business travel, leisure travel, leisure tourism, business tourism.

INTRODUCTION

Many persons, especially those who have studied tourism or who work in
travel and tourism industries, are aware of the broad difference between
leisure travel and business travel. However, as Mr Bert Van Walbeck recently
remarked to one of the co-authors of this paper, the comprehensive
difference between these two categories of travel or tourism seems to be an
unexplored topic. Bert’s experience as general manager of 5 star hotels, and
*Correspondence concerning this more recently as a consultant to developers and managers of luxury resort
article should be addressed to
Neil Leiper. Electronic mail hotels in various countries in Asia, would suggest that there are probably
may be sent via internet to many persons interested in travel and tourism unable to provide a detailed
[email protected]. analytical comparison of leisure travel and business travel.

The authors of this article were such persons when Bert raised the topic. His
challenge led to a decision to begin a small scale study aiming to compare
Copyright © 2008
Rex Publishing Co. business travel and leisure travel. A review of syllabi in a number of
university courses found that leisure travel/tourism and business travel/
tourism receive frequent mention but the differences between the two
categories are not considered in any depth.

Asian Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 2(1) 1

LEISURE TRAVEL AND BUSINESS TRAVEL

The next step was a search of the research related activities and business-related activities.
literature. The search encompassed ‘travel’ and This refers to the practice of going on a trip
‘tourism’. Although there are interesting reasons when some time is spent on business and some
for distinguishing travel and tourism, many in diverse forms of recreation such as sightseeing,
researchers and institutions use these terms as shopping, relaxing in a resort or playing sport. So
synonyms. This article will follow that custom. far as is known, no wide-ranging statistical data
As expected, several publications were found on have been published on this phenomenon
aspects of business travel, such as Mason (2000), although Yesawich’s (2006) research, noted
Hankinson (2005), Harris and Uncles (2007) and earlier, is salient.
Tani (2005), and more were found that discussed
aspects of leisure travel: Ryan and Glendon On many trips, business travelers have no spare
(1998), Gladwell and Bedini (2004), Leiper (2004) time for leisure, while on many other trips they
and Moore, Cushman and Simmons (2005). have a few hours free after daily work
commitments. Many have a day or more free
Only two articles were found in the research after commitments are complete, before
literature that compared leisure travelers and returning to their homes in other cities. In
business travelers and neither attempted a generic contrast, the majority of travelers whose trips are
comparison, but focused instead on narrow, dominated by leisure – i.e. tourists on holidays,
albeit interesting, facets. Yavas and Babakus called ‘vacations’ by Americans - engage in no
(2005) investigated the criteria shaping choice of business activities excepting, for some
hotels in these two groups, by surveying a sample individuals, keeping in touch with work
of 500 guests in hotels in the USA. As might colleagues and work issues via phone or email.
have been anticipated, the two groups tended to
apply different criteria or, as the researchers Ten Possible Generic Differences
expressed it, “the congruence was weak” (p 359).
The second article (Yesawich 2006) reported on a In this section, certain differences between
study of affluent travelers and found that they business travel and leisure travel are reviewed.
prefer to separate business and leisure, that is, They can be expressed as ten questions: (i) what
affluent persons seldom go on trips for a mix of is the core difference between leisure and
business and leisure purposes. business? (ii) what types of experiences occur?
(iii) what are the focal points of the experiences?
Since there is no known research that provides an (iv) what is the mental process linking travelers
analytical comparison of business travel and and destinations? (v) what needs underlie
leisure travel as generic sets (i.e. in general, not in motivations for traveling? (vi) whose interests are
relation to a specific activity such as choosing served? (vii) who pays the costs and are there tax
hotels), the present article is a preliminary implications? (viii) what is the duration of trips?
attempt to fill this gap. Ten dimensions of (ix) what is the frequency of trips? and (x) who
possible differences between leisure travel and manages the trips?
business travel were identified. That approach is
used for structuring the first section of the (i) The core difference between leisure and business
discussion below. Before listing the ten
dimensions, mixed trips should be noted. For most individuals, most leisure and most
business occurs in their normal environments, in
Some Trips Mix Business and Leisure and near the city or town where they reside.
Relatively small proportions of leisure and
A characteristic of modern travel (or tourism) is business occur away from such places. The
that many trips involve a combination of leisure- discussion in this section is about leisure and

March 2008 2
 NEIL LEIPER, MIEKE WITSEL AND J.S. PERRY HOBSON

business, not leisure travel and business travel. Business is different from leisure in several,
The core differences identified here carry over related ways. Business activity is normally
into the later sections where the focus is on travel regarded as obligatory, not optional. (Leisure
or tourism. does not normally have this attribute.) Business is
purposeful in particular ways: aimed at earning a
What is leisure? Summarizing a literature review living, and also aimed, in the minds of many
on the topic Leiper (2004) defined leisure as a individuals, at creating useful services, products
category of experiences with recreational and or facilities for society. (Many types of leisure
creative sub-categories, pursued with a relative activities are also purposeful, e.g. when persons
sense of freedom from obligations and regarded rest with the purpose of recovering from fatigue,
as personally pleasurable. According to but leisure is does not have the same purposes as
Dumazedier’s (1967) classic study of leisure, business.) Business normally occupies individuals
recreational leisure re-creates participants via for many hours of most days. (Leisure, in
experiences which restore, revive, or return them contrast, is mostly experienced in small chunks of
to their former condition, a recovery. Recreation time: an hour or two on working days, a day or
has three functions: rest, relaxation and two at weekends.) Business is something that
entertainment. Rest re-creates by allowing a individuals normally expect to practice for a large
person to recover from physical or mental portion of their adult lives. (Leisure is something
fatigue. Relaxation is recovery from tension. that begins in childhood and continues past
Entertainment re-creates by restoring a person's working life into retirement.) Classic research
attention and spirits when they are bored. Usually studies by Studs Turkel (1994) and Henry
when a person has a recreational experiences, two Mintzberg (1996) provide detailed insights into
or three of these functions occur together. When the nature of work in modern societies.
we are simultaneously rested, relaxed and
entertained, we are inclined to sense pleasure, we Although most leisure for most persons occurs in
are ‘having a good time’. small chunks of time (e.g. an hour or a day)
certain leisure occurs in large chunks. This is the
While recreational leisure restores, creative leisure leisure of tourism, when people go on vacations,
brings about something new, in some thing or away from business, work and obligations for a
somebody. For example leisure in craft and art few days or several weeks on end.
hobbies results in the production of useful or
beautiful things and educational activities in (ii) What types of experiences occur?
leisure should lead to participants gaining new
knowledge or understanding. Cultural tourism, The most common experiences of business travel
which properly pursued is creative leisure, is are meetings in various formats with other
described by Stebbins (1996:948) as “serious business persons of various sorts, i.e. other
leisure”. employees, managers, proprietors, directors,
officials. During such meetings, diverse business
Leisure, in either category - recreational or activities occur, such as negotiations and
creative, is not synonymous with spare time. Free exchange of information. Tani’s (2005) survey of
time can be frittered away, wasted, or can be international business travelers to and from
consumed in worthy non-leisure activities. Australia, based on a survey of 210 such persons,
Everyone uses a portion of their free time on found that “knowledge sharing is a very common
activities they regard as important but not as motivation to undertake a business trip while
leisure. This might include times spent caring for boosting sales is less common. Business trips are
a sick relative, doing household chores, going to mechanisms to access, develop and transfer
the dentist. knowledge” (p419). Another characteristic of the

Asian Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research Volume 2, Number 1 3

LEISURE TRAVEL AND BUSINESS TRAVEL

experiences of many business travelers are relaxing in a resort.

observations made for business purposes.
Phenomena that business travelers might observe (iv) What mental process links travelers to destinations?
include markets in places visited, production and
marketing equipment and methods. Business travelers visit destinations because of
work-related obligations that require visits to
Leisure travel, in contrast, is characterized by particular places. For instance, if Ms X works as a
leisure experiences which, as described above, sales representative for the ABC Steel Mill
may be recreational, creative, or a combination. Technology Co., she will be obliged to visit
The specific activities or non-active forms of destinations where mills are located, where she
behavior that underpin leisure experiences are can see mills and talk with the employees.
vast in number, ranging from climbing a Meanwhile, Dr Y, an orthopedic surgeon, might
mountain peak in the Swiss Alps to relaxing on a be obliged to visit certain cities where hospitals
beach in Australia or meditating in a Buddhist contract his specialist services. On their business
temple in Thailand. Different persons have trips, neither Ms X nor Dr Y is likely to visit
different preferences, largely shaped by the social remote tropical islands in the South Pacific.
and cultural environments in which they live, and
partly influenced by promotional messages. The Leisure travelers in contrast are able to choose
range of experiences among leisure travelers where they will go, within the constraints of
(tourists) can be inferred by observing them in available time and money. Ms A, a school teacher
different locations, and the range is also evident in Manila, might choose to travel to the remote
in the titles of research reports. See, for example, Cook Islands for a vacation. Mr B, a retired
in the list of references, the titles of reports by mechanical engineer living in San Francisco with
Charters and Ali-Knight (2002), Herold, Garcia a keen interest in steel mill technology, decided
and DeMoya (2001), Cohen (2003) and Connell one year to have a vacation in Korea where he
(2004). was able to observe, for his personal interest and
pleasure, developments in his field of interest.
(iii) What is the focus of the experiences? The destinations were chosen by the travelers;
they were not obliged to go there.
The experiences of business travelers are focused
on the agenda of the meetings they have traveled For couples and families going on vacation trips,
to attend and/or the business-related phenomena the choice of destination(s) might require
they have traveled to observe or interact with. compromise, or one member acquiescing to a
dominant member.
The experiences of leisure travelers, in contrast,
involve certain features and characteristics of (v) What needs underlie the motivations for traveling?
places visited. These ‘features and characteristics’
are ‘tourist attractions’ and comprise a very wide Leisure travelers go on trips because they are
range of phenomena, far wider than the famous motivated personally to do so - except in the case
sites and sights given that description in of children and some other family members who
superficial accounts of the nature of tourism. go because the dominant member(s) are so
Thus the tourist attractions in Bali are not only motivated. Motivation is based on needs, defined
Kuta Beach, staged performances of traditional as states of felt deprivation. The psychological
dance, and the paintings on display at the Neka links between needs and motivation are complex,
Art Museum, but extend to such things as shops, a topic beyond the scope of the present paper.
markets, architecture, incidental displays of Normally, the motivation of a tourist or leisure
Balinese culture, restaurants, and facilities for traveler stems from a combination of needs. It

March 2008 4
 NEIL LEIPER, MIEKE WITSEL AND J.S. PERRY HOBSON

Table 1.
Twelve Categories of Needs Underlying Tourists’ Motivations

Category of Need Characteristics

Temporary relief via escape from perceived

“Boring” routines of work or home life, leading to motivation for entertainment; widespread.
mundane environment

Rest and Relaxation Very widespread

Sunlight Common among residents of certain places who lack sunlight in their normal routines

Regressive behaviour Very common, but few tourists recognize it

Self-evaluation Common among tourists, but few recognize it until after a trip

Self-esteem, prestige, confidence building Common; many tourists fail to recognize it in themselves but see it in other persons

Social interaction Very common

Time in company with friends and relatives The basis of VFR tourism

Nostalgia Occurs in many older tourists

Education learning about the world Very common in younger tourists

Novelty Common but not universal

Acquisition of goods Common but not universal

Source: Leiper (2004).

might, for example, be a mix of needs for interest of the travelers or tourists personally and,
relaxation and regression. The same individual on in many cases, other members of families on
a future trip might be motivated by a different trips, or families and friends visited during trips.
mix of needs. The number of such needs is
infinite, depending on the degree of detail in the (vii) Who pays the expenses and are there tax
analysis. A summary is in Figure 1. It lists twelve implications?
categories of needs, and notes certain
characteristics of each category. Business travel expenses (i.e. for transport,
accommodation and so on) are normally paid by
Business travelers are different, for they go on the organization where the traveler is employed.
trips because they, or their work colleagues or In contrast, the expenses incurred on trips for
bosses, believe the interests of their organization leisure travel are usually paid from the personal
or industry will be served by the trip. The resources of the traveler or their family.
motivation of the travelers may be based in their However, some organizations provide employees
need to serve the business organization where with fully-paid or subsidized holidays. Sometimes
they are employed, or their need to obey this is done in the guise of convention or
directives of their superiors. conference travel.

(vi) Whose interests are being served? A sign of this is when delegates travel some
distance, perhaps half way around the world, to
The purpose of business travel is to serve the attend a conference but attend few if any of its
interests of business. Therefore business travelers official sessions; instead they spend virtually all of
are in effect instruments, servants or agents, to the time in leisure-related activities, such as
that end. In contrast, leisure travel serves the sightseeing or shopping, away from the

Asian Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research Volume 2, Number 1 5

LEISURE TRAVEL AND BUSINESS TRAVEL

conference venues. Such behavior may be tacitly two distributions.

approved by their employer.
This dimension does not represent a generic
In many countries, the expenses of business difference between leisure travel and business
travel are a deductible item from the taxable travel. Any differences are circumstantial, varying
income of business organizations. In effect, the case-by-case.
costs of business travel are subsidized by
governments. Expenses for transport, (ix) Frequency of Trips
accommodation and other items involved with
conferences and conventions (including the fees Some business travelers go on many trips, as
for delegates) are usually tax-deductible. frequently as thirty or more trips involving
overnight stays away from home in one year.
Leisure travel expenses paid by individuals Likewise, some individuals go on many leisure
cannot be claimed as deductions against their trips, in some cases also as frequently as thirty or
personal income taxes. Maybe they should be, more involving overnight stays away from home
since quality tourism is beneficial for tourists and, in one year. Stear’s (1984) survey in Australia
therefore, for their home societies and economies found this rate of frequency was uncommon, but
after they return from trips. If associations present in significant numbers.
representing tourism industries were truly
interested in developing tourism, they might Although no statistical data are known that
consider lobbying governments to introduce this enable a confident statement on this point,
initiative. It would trigger a huge increase in probably the incidence of frequent travel is more
tourism. common among business travelers than leisure
travelers.
On this dimension the differences between
leisure travel and business travel are not generic. Airlines’ frequent flyer schemes, designed to
They are circumstantial, and vary in different encourage frequent flyers to fly more often and
cases. remain loyal to a particular airline or its alliance,
were devised in the 1980s with business travelers
(viii) Duration of trips the main target, while recognizing that the
individuals who clock up large credits that can be
In general, there might be no difference in the redeemed as ‘free’ travel would typically use their
duration of trips for leisure and trips for business. ‘free’ air trips for leisure travel. (These trips are
No statistical data are known that enable a not really free; the costs are notionally accounted
confident and precise statement on this point. for in the airfares that are paid in building up the
‘Short break’ holiday or vacation trips are often credit.)
just one or two nights away, while extended
holidays or vacations might be for months on As noted above in regard to trip duration, trip
end. The same wide range in duration is found in frequency is also an under-explored topic in
business travel. publicly-available research literature, although
certain airlines have detailed data. Leiper (1984)
Research on this issue would be interesting. analyzed trip frequencies among Australian
Quite probably, within a sampled population, the residents traveling internationally over the years
two categories would be found to have different 1946 to 1983, drawing on surveys of airline
distributions of trip duration. There would passengers based on large samples (30,000
almost certainly be different mean averages (days annually) from the 1960s to the 1980s. The
per trip) and differences in the long tails of the incidence of multiple trips per year was found to

March 2008 6
 NEIL LEIPER, MIEKE WITSEL AND J.S. PERRY HOBSON

have increased remarkably: the research was used or tour operator is used to take responsibility for
by Qantas for designing a frequent flyer scheme. the overall scheme of trip arrangement and
Fat long tails in the distribution curves of coordination. Only a minority of leisure travel
multiple trips were a key to the increasing trips involve travel agents and/or tour operators.
importance, for airlines, of frequent flyers in their This fact should be recognized in the context of
markets. Some years later, fat long tails in the all travel on trips away from home for at least
distribution patterns of purchase frequencies by one night, a context where the large majority of
buyers of many types of goods and services trips are within the traveler’s country of
became a widely discussed topic in marketing residence. In developed economies, the bulk of
management, a topic popularized by Anderson such trips use private vehicles for transport and
(2006). A research comment by Kosko (2006) is private homes of relatives or friends for
also noteworthy. accommodation. In these circumstances, there is
no need for travel agents or tour operators.
Trip frequency, does not seem to represent a
generic difference between leisure travel and This dimension does not represent a generic
business travel. Differences are circumstantial. difference between leisure travel and business
travel. Any differences are circumstantial, varying
(x) Who Manages Trips? case-by-case.

‘Managing trips’ refers to planning, organizing Summary, Ten Areas of Difference

and coordinating component items, and
monitoring the processes involved. The Of the ten sub-topics discussed above, the first
management of travel is sometimes done by the set out a conceptual distinction between leisure
travelers themselves, and sometimes by other and business. Among the other nine, five were
persons such as travel agents, tour operators and areas where leisure travel and business travel are
travel officers, and often trips are managed by a generically different. These five are: the types of
combination of the travelers and other persons. experiences; the focus of the experiences; the
needs underlying motivations; the interests being
While business trips may be managed by the served; the mental process linking travelers with
travelers themselves, most business trips rely to a destinations.
large extent on other persons for the processes of
trip management. There are several reasons for
A MATRIX: LEISURE TRAVEL AND
this. Most business travelers are busy with
business matters, and leave trip management to BUSINESS TRAVEL
other persons. In many organizations, the normal
procedure is to either employ specialist staff The analysis in ten dimensions might be
working as travel officers or to rely on a travel illuminating to some degree but it is an over-
agent – often a specialist in business travel who simplification. Figure 2 presents a deeper analysis.
handles all travel requirements for the It was designed with the belief that two spectra
organization. Another reason is that business can reveal more about leisure travel and business
travelers are typically from the ranks of travel.
management, where personal status is often a
constant issue and where, accordingly, managers The vertical axis in Figure 2 is a spectrum with
like to have subordinates doing things for them. ‘play’ at the top and ‘arbeid’ at the bottom. Arbeid
In contrast, most leisure travel is self managed, is a word in several European languages, notably
i.e. by the travelers themselves. No travel agent Dutch and German, for which there is no precise

Asian Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research Volume 2, Number 1 7

LEISURE TRAVEL AND BUSINESS TRAVEL

individuals are at play of some kind but with a

sense of obligation. A parent taking children to a
theme park is one example. A business traveler
accompanying a colleague to casual dinner from a
sense of obligation is another.

The lower left quadrant, reflecting a combination

of free choice and arbeid, has a small role in
leisure travel, occurring when a person makes
arrangements for a holiday trip. This activity has
characteristics of arbeid since outcomes are
Figure 1. Factors Shaping Types of Business Travel and Leisure Travel important: a trip that goes “smoothly” - without
logistical problems.
translation in English. Its approximate meaning is
‘labor’ or ‘work’ but it connotes labor or work The lower right quadrant combines arbeid and
that is assiduous and is treated seriously by obligations. This is where pure business travel is
participants and others, where outcomes are represented. These are trips with a concentration
important. Arbeid denoted an activity, not a on business, with virtually no free time and no
profession or an occupation. It is the opposite of play. This is also the condition of certain
play. In playing, the outcomes are not really activities during holiday trips, such as washing
important. A casual game of football for clothes.
example, is pure play: which side wins is not
important, especially after the game. Professional Figure 2 is a conceptual scheme. It has potential
footballers are described as ‘players’ but that for applied research. Individuals traveling and
expression is a carry over from earlier times; in visiting places away from their usual
modern professional sporting contests the environments could be surveyed and placed at
outcomes are important, and the contests are any position within Figure 2. The resulting
treated seriously, not as play. combinations from a sample of travelers would
give an informative picture.
The spectrum on the horizontal axis has ‘free
choice’ at the left pole and ‘obligations’ at the
CONCLUSION
right pole. On both axes, vertical and horizontal,
individuals may be at different positions along
the axis at various times. Ten dimensions of leisure travel and business
travel were considered, investigating whether they
The quadrants in the matrix thus indicate represent generic differences between the two
possible combinations of play, arbeid, free choice categories. In six of the ten, there are generic
and obligations, in the context of travel or differences. In the other four, the differences are
tourism. The upper left quadrant is where pure circumstantial. Recognizing these points gives
leisure travel (what some persons would describe interesting insights into the nature of the two
as pure tourism) is located, where there is a categories, and into their differences.
strong presence of play, and of free choice
regarding destinations and activities. An alternative analysis, based around the
concepts of play, arbeid, obligation and free
The upper right quadrant, play with obligation, choice, provides a more in-depth understanding
represents trips - or periods during trips - where of leisure travel and business travel and how

March 2008 8
 NEIL LEIPER, MIEKE WITSEL AND J.S. PERRY HOBSON

these two categories can be compared. The two case study - Visiting students in Israeli
analytical approaches help fill a gap in the Universities. Journal of Travel Research, 42(1),
research literature which to date has lacked a 36 - 47.
detailed comparison of leisure travel and business Connell, J. (2004). The purest of human
travel. The result is academically interesting, and pleasures: characteristics and motivations of
might have potential for application in planning, garden visitors in Great Britain. Tourism
marketing and management. That potential can Management, 25(2), 229 - 247.
be explored in a later project. Dumazedier, J. (1967). Towards a society of
leisure. London: Collier Macmillan.
The topics of leisure travel and business travel Gladwell, N. & Bedini, L.A. (2004). In search of
are rather like the topics of tourism and tourism lost leisure: The impact of care-giving on
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involved but relatively few persons, even among 693.
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