UNIT - III

TOOLS & TECHNIQUES FOR CLASSROOM

ASSESSMENT
Assessment is a systematic process of
gathering information about what a student knows,
is able to do, and is learning to do. Assessment
information provides the foundation for decision-
making and planning for instruction and learning.
Assessment is an integral part of instruction that
enhances, empowers, and celebrates student
learning. Using a variety of assessment techniques,
teachers gather information about what students
know and are able to do, and provide positive,
supportive feedback to students. They also use this
information to diagnose individual needs and to
improve their instructional programs, which in turn
helps students learn more effectively.
Assessment must be considered during the
planning stage of instruction when learning
outcomes and teaching methods are being targeted.
It is a continuous activity, not something to be
dealt with only at the end of a unit of study.
Students should be made aware of the expected
outcomes of the course and the procedures to be
used in assessing performance relative to the
learning outcomes. Students can gradually become
more actively involved in the assessment process
in order to develop lifelong learning skills.
Evaluation refers to the decision making
which follows assessment. Evaluation is a
judgment regarding the quality, value, or worth of
a response, product, or performance based on
established criteria and curriculum standards.
Evaluation should reflect the intended learning
outcomes of the curriculum and be consistent with
the approach used to teach the language in the
classroom. But it should also be sensitive to
differences in culture, gender, and socio-economic
background. Students should be given
opportunities to demonstrate the full extent of their
knowledge, skills, and abilities. Evaluation is also
used for reporting progress to parents or guardians,
and for making decisions related to such things as
student promotion and awards.
Classroom Assessment is a systematic approach to
formative evaluation, used by instructors to
determine how much and how well students are
learning. Classroom assessment tools and
techniques and other informal assessment tools
provide key information during the semester
regarding teaching and learning so that changes
can be made as necessary. The central purpose of
Classroom Assessment is to empower both
teachers and their students to improve the quality
of learning in the classroom through an approach
that is learner-centered, teacher-directed, mutually
beneficial, formative, context-specific, and firmly
rooted in good practice. It helps for assessing
course-related knowledge and skills, learner
attitudes, values and self-awareness and for
assessing learner reactions to instruction.
 In the classroom, teachers are the primary
assessors of students. Teachers design assessment
tools with two broad purposes: to collect
information that will inform classroom instruction,
and to monitor students’ progress towards
achieving year-end learning outcomes. Teachers
also assist students in developing self-monitoring
and self-assessment skills and strategies. To do this
effectively, teachers must ensure that students are
involved in setting learning goals, developing
action plans, and using assessment processes to
monitor their achievement of goals. The different
tools and techniques used in classroom assessment
are the following ;
 Observation,
 Self Reporting,
 Testing;
 Anecdotal Records,
 Check Lists,
 Rating Scale,
OBSERVATION
From the earliest history of scientific
activity, observation has been the prevailing
methods of inquiry. Observation of natural
phenomena judged by systematic classification
and measurement led to the development of
theories and laws of nature’s force. Observation is
one of the most refined modern research
technique. Observation seeks to ascertain what
people think and do by walking them in action as
they express themselves in various situations and
activities. It can be made progressively more
scientific to meet the needs of the particular
situation and observation is a fundamental tool
even at the most advanced levels of science.
Observation is recognized as the most direct
means of studying people when one is interested
in their overt behavior. Observation is defined as
“a planned methodological watching that involves
constraints to improve accuracy.” According to
Gardner (1975), observation is the selection,
provocation, recording and encoding of that set of
behaviours and settings concerning organism “in
situ’ whcih arc consistent with empirical aims.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION

1. Observation is at once a physical as well as

mental activity.
2. Observation is selective and purposeful.
3. Scientific observation is systematic
4. Observation is specific 5) Scientific
observation is objective.
5. Scientific observation is quantitative.
6. The record of observation is immediately.
7. Observation is verifiable
8. Behavior is observed is natural surroundings
9. It enables understanding significant events
affecting social
 i. relations of the participants.
10.It determines reality from the perspective of
observed person himself.
11.It identifies regularities and recurrences in
social life by comparing data is one study
with those in another study.
12.It focused on hypotheses free inquiry
13.It avoids manipulations in the independent
variable.
14.Observation involves some controls
pertaining to the observe and to the means
he uses to record data.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

1) Casual & Scientific observation

An observation may be either casual or
scientific. Casual observation occurs without any
previous preparations. Scientific observation is
carried out with the help of tools of measurement.
2) Simple and systematic observation
Observation is found in almost all research
studies, at least in the exploratory stage. Such data
collection is often called simple observation. Its
practice is not very standardized. Systematic
observation it employs standardized procedures,
training of observers, schedules for recording.
3. Subjective and Objective Observation
One may have to observe one’s own
immediate experience, it is called subjective
observation. In any investigations, the observer is
an entity apart from the thing observed, that type
of observation is called objective observation
4. Intra – subjective and inter subjective
observation
If repeated observation of a constant
phenomenon by the same observer yield constant
data the observation is said to be intra subjective.
If repeated observations of a constant
phenomenon by different observers yield constant
data the observation is said to be inter subjective
5. Direct and indirect observation
The direct observation describes the
situation in which the observer is physically
present and personally monitors what take place.
Indirect observation is used to describe studies in
which the recording is done by mechanical,
photographic or electronic means.
6. Structured and Un structured
observation
Structured observation is organised and
planned which employs formal procedures, has a
set of well defined observation categories, and is
subjectd to high levels of control and
differentiation. Unstructured observations is
loosely organized and the process is largely left to
the observer to define.
7. Natural and Artificial Observation
Natural observation is one in which
observation is made in natural settings while
 artificial observation is one in which observation
is made in a laboratory conditions
8. Participant and Non-participant
observation
When the observer participates with the
activities of these under study is called participant
observation Merits:- Acquiring wide information,
Easy in exchange of clear observation of neutral
and real behavior. Limitations :- larger time
required, greater resources required lack of
objectivity.
When the observer does not actually
participate in the activities of the group to be
studied but simply present in the group it is
common as non participant observation. The
observer in this method makes not effort to his
influence or to create a relationship between him
and the group.
Merits:- Acquiring information with influence ,
maintaining impartial status, maintaining
objectivity and scientific outlet.
Limitations:- Inadequate and incomplete
observation, subjectivity, Unnatural attitude of the
subject matter of observation
Organization Of Field Observation
For valid and useful field observation, the
following steps have be taken .
1. Determination of the method of study ie the
field observation in relation to the
phenomena.
2. Determination of the nature and limits of
observation is the preparation of a plan of
observation
3. Decision as of directness of observation ie
the relationship between the observer and
the subject must be direct.
4. Determination of Expert investigations
/Agency of field observation is the person
who makes observation may be the
researcher himself or the field workers
5. Determination of time, place and subject to
study
6. Provision of mechanical Appliances needed
in the usage of various instrumental aids
like camera, maps.
7. Data collection, having arranged all the
necessary tools and equipments need for
research.
8. Data analysis :- The data should be
analyzed and processed
through classification, tabulation etc.
9. Generalization :- The interpretation
leading to draw general conclusion
Steps In Observation.
1. Selection of the topic :- This refers to
determining the issue to be studied
through observations e.g.:- material
conflict, riot etc.
2. Formulation of the topic :- This
involves fixing up categories to be
 observed and pointing out situations in
which cases are to be observed.
3. Research design :- This determines
identification of subjects to be observed
preparing observation schedule if any
and arranging entry in situations to be
observed.
4. Collection of data :- This involves
familiarization with the setting,
observation and recording.
5. Analysis of data :- The researcher
analyze the data, prepares tables of
interprets.
6. Report writing :- This involves writing
of the report for submission to the
sponsoring agency or for publication.

Guidelines To Effective Observation

1. Obtain Prior knowledge of what to observe.

2. Examine general and specific objective.
3. Define and Establish categories, each
category or level of data being collected
should be concisely and carefully
described by indicating the phenomena the
investigator expects to find in each.
4. Observe carefully and critically.
5. Rate specific phenomena independently,
using well defined
rating scale.
6. Devise a method of recording results ie the
observation schedule.
7. Become well acquainted with the recording
instrument.
8. Observers would separate the facts from
their interpretation at a later time. They can
observe the facts, and make interpretation
at a later time.
9. Observations are to be checked and
verified, wherever possible by repetition or
by comparison with those of other
competent observers.

Instruments In Observation

Instruments such as the camera, stopwatch,

light meter, audiometer, SET meter, audio and
video tape recorders, mechanical counter, and
other devices like detailed field notes, checklist,
maps, schedules, store cards , socio-metric scales
etc make possible observations that are more
precise than mere sense observations. Such things
are also referred as techniques of control as used
in controlled observation.

Process Of Observation

Observation involves three process ie

sensation , attention perception. Sensation in
gained through the sense organs which depends
upon the physical alertness of the observer. Then
 comes attention on concentration which is largely
a matter of habit. The third is perception which
comprises the interpretation of sensory reports.
Thus sensation merely reports the mind to
recognize the facts.
Qualities Of A Good Observer

 The observer should pocess efficient sense

organs.
 The observer must able to estimate rapidly and
accurately
 The observer must possess sufficient alertness’
to observer several details simultaneously .
 The observer must be able to control the effects
of his personal prejudices.
 The observer should be in good physical
conditions
 The observer must be able to record
immediately and Accurately
 The observer should be a visiting stranger, an
attentive, listener eager learner of a participant
observer.

VARIOUS STEPS OF GOOD OBSERVATION

1. Intelligent planning
Intelligent planning should be needed in a
good observation, the observer should be fully
trained as well equipped, too many variables may
not be observed simultaneously, the conditions of
observation should remain constant.
2. Expert execution
An expert execution demands utilizing the
training received in terms of expertness, proper,
arrangement of special conditions for the subject,
occupying, phisical observing, focussing attention
on the specific well defined activities, observing
discreet keeping in mind the length, number and
intervals of observation decided up on and
handling well the recording instruments to be
used.
3. Adequate recording
The recording should be as comprehensive
as possible to over all the points and not miss any
substantive issues
4. Scientific Interpretation
The interpretation made and recorded
comprehensively need to be interpreted carefully.
So adequacies and competencies required for this
need to be present in an observer. This alone
facilities a good interpretation.

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION

1. It allows collection of wide range of

information
2. It is a flexible technique in which research
design can be modified at any time
3. It is less complicated and less time
consuming.
4. It approaches reality in its natural structure
and studies events as they evolve.
5. It is relatively inexpenience
6. The observer can assess the emotional
reaction of subjects.
7. The observer is able to record the content
which gives meaning to respondant’s
expression
8. The behaviour being observed in natural
environment will not cause any bias.
9. Superior in data collection on dependable
and convincing
10. Greater accuracy and reliability of data.
11. Results are more dependable and
convincing
LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION
1. Establishing the validity of observation is
always difficult
2. The problem of subjectivity also involved
3. There is the possibility of distortion of the
phenomena through the very act of
observing.
4. It is a slow and laborious process
5. The events may not be easily classifiable
6. The data may be unmanageable
7. It is going to be a costly affair
8. It cannot offer quantitative generations.

SELF REPORTING
 Self-reporting is one of the modern
technique of assessing student’s views and
personality. It gives a clear cut idea about student’s
needs, attitudes, wants, etc. A self-report is a type
of survey, questionnaire, or poll in which
respondents read the question and select a response
by themselves without researcher interference. A
self-report is any method which involves asking a
participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs
and so on. Examples of self-reports are
questionnaires and interviews; self-reports are
often used as a way of gaining participants'
responses in observational studies and
experiments.
Questionnaires are a type of self-report
method which consist of a set of questions usually
in a highly structured written form. Questionnaires
can contain both open questions and closed
questions and participants record their own
answers. Interviews are a type of spoken
questionnaire where the interviewer records the
responses. Interviews can be structured whereby
there is a predetermined set of questions or
unstructured whereby no questions are decided in
advance. The main strength of self-report methods
are that they are allowing participants to describe
their own experiences rather than inferring this
from observing participants. Questionnaires and
interviews are often able to study large samples of
people fairly easy and quickly. They are able to
examine a large number of variables and can ask
people to reveal behaviour and feelings which
have been experienced in real situations. However
participants may not respond truthfully, either
because they cannot remember or because they
wish to present themselves in a socially acceptable
manner. Social desirability bias can be a big
problem with self-report measures as participants
often answer in a way to portray themselves in a
good light. Questions are not always clear and we
do not know if the respondent has really
understood the question we would not be
collecting valid data. If questionnaires are sent out,
say via email or through tutor groups, response
rate can be very low. Questions can often be
leading. That is, they may be unwittingly forcing
the respondent to give a particular reply.
Unstructured interviews can be very time
consuming and difficult to carry out whereas
structured interviews can restrict the respondents’
replies. Therefore psychologists often carry out
semi-structured interviews which consist of some
pre-determined questions and followed up with
further questions which allow the respondent to
develop their answers.
Closed questions are questions which
provide a limited choice (for example, a
participant’s age or their favourite type of football
team), especially if the answer must be taken from
a predetermined list. Such questions
provide quantitative data, which is easy to analyse.
However these questions do not allow the
participant to give in-depth insights. Open
questions are those questions which invite the
respondent to provide answers in their own words
and provide qualitative data. Although these type
of questions are more difficult to analyse, they can
produce more in-depth responses and tell the
researcher what the participant actually thinks,
rather than being restricted by categories.
One of the most common rating scales for
self-reporting is the Likert scale. A statement is
used and the participant decides how strongly they
agree or disagree with the statements. One strength
of Likert scales is that they can give an idea about
how strongly a participant feels about something.
This therefore gives more detail than a simple yes
no answer. Another strength is that the data are
quantitative, which are easy to analyse statistically.
The great advantage of self reporting is that
it gives free environment to response or show their
emotions. At the same time there may be
possibilities for hiding natural emotions as per
situations.
ANECDOTAL RECORDS
A fundamental purpose of assessment is to
communicate what the child knows and is able to
do. Teacher-generated, anecdotal records provide
an insider’s perspective of the child’s educational
experience. This perspective is vital to
communication with the child and the child’s
family about academic progress. Anecdotal records
also facilitate assessment conversations as
educational professionals describe their
observations of student learning and consider ways
to develop appropriate strategies to build on
strengths and address academic needs. The more
focused the observational records, the more helpful
they can be in making daily decisions about
instructional approaches.
Anecdotal Records are collections of
narratives involving first-hand observations of
interesting, illuminating incidents in children’s
literacy development. Anecdotal records are
reports about the teacher informal observations
about students. It will helps the teacher to collect
details regarding student’s behaviours at different
situations. It will be a good tool to bring positive
behavioral patterns through daily observation and
correction. It involves the following informations ;
 Social interactions and literacy exchanges that
teacher have observed
 Children’s everyday routines, such as what they
choose to do in center workshops; a particular
writing topic in a journal or on a sheet of paper
during independent writing time; the book they
choose during independent reading time; and
when they spend time with blocks, sand,
painting, or other forms of creative expression
 Children’s learning styles
 Recurring patterns in children’s ways of
understanding
 Changes in children’s behaviors
 Milestones in children’s development
Steps Involved In Preparation Of Anecdotal
Records
Teachers basically use the following steps
for the preparation of Anecdotal records ;
1. Observing children in instructional settings :
Formal and information is the starting point in the
preparation of anecdotal records.
2. Maintaining a standards-based focus :
Follow some criterias as standards at the time of
observation.
3. Making anecdotal records :
Writing quality anecdotal records is facilitated by
keeping in mind the following considerations:
Write observable data, use significant
abbreviations, write records in the past tense.
4. Managing anecdotal records :
Once the records are coded for strengths,
needs, or information, simply list an abbreviated
summary of the strengths and the needs in the
space provided below the records. Separating the
records into strengths and needs allows the teacher
to summarize what patterns are being exhibited by
the student. The summary also helps clarify and
generate appropriate instructional
recommendations.
5. Analysis of anecdotal records:
Anecdotal records assessment is informed by
comparing the standards to the child’s
performance. The standards also inform the
selection of strategies and activities for
instructional recommendations. Periodically,
analyze the compiled records for each student. The
time between analyses may vary according to your
own academic calendar.
RATING SCALE
Rating scale is one of the scaling techniques
applied to the procedures for attempting to
determine quantitative measures of subjective
abstract concepts. It gives an idea of the
personality of an individual as the observer judge
the behavior of a person includes a limited number
of aspects of a thing or of traits.
Rating means the judgment of one person by
another. “Rating is in essence directed
observation”. Writes Ruth Strang. A.S. Barr and
other define, “Rating is a term applied to
expression of opinion or judgment regarding some
situation, objects or character. Opinions are
usually expressed on a scale or values. Rating
techniques are devises by which such judgments
may be qualified.”
A rating scale is a method by which we
systematize the expression of opinion concerning a
trait. The ratings are done by parents, teachers, a
board of interviewers and judges and by the self as
well.
Rating is a term applied to expression of
opinion or judgment regarding some situation,
object or character. Opinions are usually expressed
on a scale of values.
 Rating scale refers to a set of points which
describe varying degrees of the dimension of an
attribute being observed.
CHARACTERISTICS
There are two characteristics of a rating
scale.
1. Description of the characteristics to be
related,
2. Some methods by which the quality,
frequency or importance of each item to be
rated may be given.
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING RATING SCALE
1. The trait to be treated should be reading
observable.
2. The specific trait or mode of behavior
must be defined
properly. For example, we want to rate a
child’s originality in performing a task.
First of all we must formulate a definition
of ‘originality’ and then try to rate it.
3. The scale should be clearly defined ie, We
are rating at a three, four or fire-point
scale.
4. Uniform standards of rating scale should
be observed.
5. The rater should observe the rates in
different situations involving the trait to be
rated.
6. The number of characteristics to be rated
should be limited.
7. In the rating scale, card, some space may
be provided for the rater to write some
supplementary material.
8. The directions of using the rating scales
should be clear and comprehensive.
9. Several judges may be employed to
increase the reliability of any rating scale.
10. Well informed and experienced persons
should be selected for
rating.
TYPES OF RATING SCALE
A number of rating techniques have been
developed which enable the observers to assign
numerical values or ratings to their judgments of
behavior.
According to Guilford (1954, P. 263) these
techniques have given rise to five board categories
of rating scale.
1. Numerical scale (Itemized rating scale)
2. Graphic scale
3. Standard scale
4. Rating by cumulative points
5. Forced choice ratings.
Numerical Scale
In the typical numerical scale, a sequence of
defined numbers is applied to the rater or the
observer, The rater assigns an appropriate number
in line to each stimulus.
Eg. Guilfor (1954, P 263) used in obtaining
ratings of the effective values of colours and
orders as follows:-
 10. Most pleasant imaginable
9. Most pleasant
8. Extremely pleasant
7. Moderately pleasant
6. Mildly present
5. Indifferent
4. Mildly unpleasant
3. Modularity unpleasant
2. Extremely unpleasant
1. Most unpleasant
0. Most unpleasant imaginable
Thus in a typical numerical scale, numbers
are assigned to each trait. If it is a seven point
scale the number of 7 represents the maximum
amount of that trait in the individual and 4
represents the construct.
Numerical rating scale are easiest to
construct and to apply. They are simplest in
handling the results. But this rating scales are
rejected in favor of other types of scales because it
is believed that they suffer from many biases and
errors.
Graphic Scale
Graphic scale is the most popular and
widely used type of rating scale. In this scale, a
straight line is shown. Vertically or horizontally,
The line is either segmented in units or it is
continuous. Scale points with brief description
may be indicated along the line.
There are many advantages of graphic scale.
- Simple and easy to administer
 - Require little added motivation
- Provides opportunity for fine
discrimination
It has certain limitation also. The
respondents may check at almost any position
along the line which fact may increase the
difficulty of analysis. The meaning of the terms
like ‘very much’ and ‘some what’ may depend
upon respondent’s frame of reference.
Standard scales.
In standard scales a set of standards is
presented to the rater. The standards are usually
objects of some kind to be rated with
preestablished scale values. The man to man scale
and portrait matching scale are other two forms
that conform more or less to the principle of
standards scales. Man – to – man scale is used in
connection with military personal. The portrait –
matching technique was first used in connection
with the studies of character by Hartyshorne and
May
(1929)
Rating By Cumulative PointS
Here the rates is asked to give the
percentage of the group that prosses the trait on
which the individual is rated
Forced Choice Ratings:
In this method, the rater is asked, not to say
whether the rate has a certain trait or to say how
much of a trait the ratee has but to say essentially
whether he was more of one trait than another of a
pair. In the construction of a forced – choice rating
instrument, descriptions are obtained concerning
persons who are recognized as being at the highest
and lowest extremes of the performance continue
for a particular group to be rated. Descriptions are
analyzed into simple behavior qualities stated in
very short sentences, which have been called –
‘elevents’ by Sission (1945) and preference value
are determined for each element. In forming an
item, elements are paired. Two statements or terms
with the same high preference value are paired,
one of which is valid and the other not. Two
statements or terms with about equally low
preference value are also paired, one being valid
and the other not.

USE AND ADVANTAGES OF RATING

SCALES

1. Helpful in measuring specified outcomes or

objectives of education
2. Helpful in supplementing other sources of
understanding about the child.
3. Helpful in their simulating effect upon the
individuals who are rated.
4. Helpful in writing reports to parents
5. Helpful in filling out admission
6. Helpful in finding out student’s needs
7. Helpful in making recommendations to the
employers.
8. Helpful to the students to rate himself.
LIMITATIONS

1. Some characteristics are more different to

rate.
2. Subjective element is present.
3. Lack of opportunities to rate students.
4. Rates tend to be generally generous.
ERRORS IN RATING
Rating scales have several limitations. Some
of them are discussed as under.
a) Generosity Error.
Sometimes raters would not like to bring down
their own people by giving them low ratings. The
result is that high ratings are given in almost all
cases. Such an error is known as generosity error.
b) Stringency Error
The opposite of generosity error may be called
stringency error.
Some raters have a tendency to rate all individuals
low.
c) Halo Error : ‘Halo’ means a tendency to
rate in terms of general impressions about the rates
formed on the basis of some previous
performance.
d) Error Of Central Tendency. There is a
tendency in some observers to rate all or most of
the rates near the midpoint of the scale. They
would like to put most of the rates as ‘Average’
etc.
e) The Logical Error. Such an Error occurs
when the characteristics or the trait to be rated is
misunderstood.

CHECK LIST

A checklist is a simple device consisting of

a prepared list of items which are thought by the
researcher to be relevant to the problem being
studied. A checklist is a selected list of words,
phrases, or sentences following which an observer
records a check ( ) to denote the presence or
absence of whatever being observed. When we
want to asses whether some traits are present or
absent in the behavior of an individual, we can use
check list method. This consists of a number of
statements on various traits of personality. The
statement which applies to the individuals is
checked.
Thus responses to the checklist items are a
matter of ‘fact’, not of ‘judgment’. The checklist is
an important tool in gathering facts for educational
surveys, that is for checking of library, laboratory,
game facilities, school building, textbooks,
instructional surveys, that is for checking of
library, laboratory procedures, etc. checklist are
sometimes used in the form of a questionnaire.
Which are completed by the respondent rather than
by the observer.

CONSTRUCTION OF A CHECKLIST
 The items are determined may be arranged
in logical and psychological order. There are
various ways of writing and arranging the items in
a checklist.
Kempler (1960) has suggested four ways
and the researcher may make use of all or some of
them to serve his purpose best.
1. The form in which the observer or
respondent is asked to check all items found
in a situation for example, put a tick mark
(*) in the blank provided before each game
played in your school.
* Football
* Hockey
* Cricket * Volleyball
* Basket ball
2. The form in which questions with ‘yes’ or
‘no’ are asked to be encircled, underlined or
checked in response to the item given. Eg.
Does your university have a Teacher’s
Union? Yes/No.
3. The form in which items are positive
statements and the respondent or observer is
asked to put a tick mark ( ) in the space
provided
Eg. Our school has a student’s union
4. The form where items can best be put in
sentences and the observer on respondent is
asked to check, underline or encircle the
appropriate word/words.
Eg. The school organizes debates weekly,
fortnightly, monthly,
annually, irregularly.
The items of the checklist should be phrased
in such a way that they are discriminative in
quality. It will increase the validity of the
check list. A preliminary tryout of the check
list may also prove helpful in making the
tool one objective.
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF
CHECK LIST RESPONSES.
The tabulation, qualification and
interpretation of the checklist response is done in
very much the same way as that of the
questionnaire responses.
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
The word projection has been described in
many ways. According to Covillo Costallo and
othrs. It is “the mechanism by which the
individuals projects himself from awareness of his
own undesirable traits or feelings by contributing
them to others’
Projection, according to Freud, means
externalizing of conflicts or other internal
conditions that has given rise to conscious pain
and anxiety. Projective tests of personality
assessment are those which evoke responses from
the unconscious and provide an opportunity to **
into the depth of unconscious built of an
individual’s personality.
DEFINITIONS FOR PROJECTION
TECHNIQUES
Lindzev (1961) defines “A projective
techniques is an instruments that is considered
especially sensitive to connect or unconscious
aspects of behavior, it permits or encourage a wide
variety of subject responses, it is highly
multidimensional and it evokes usually rich
response data with a minimum of subject
awareness concerning the purpose of the test”
Frank (1939) Projective techniques as a
king of ‘X-ray” into those aspects of personality
which subjects either cannot or will not openly
reveal.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROJECTIVE
TECHNIQUES.
1. Ambiguous material : Projective tests often
use ambeyours material to which the subject
must respond freely often in descriptive
form. Ambigious material mean that every
subject can interpret the test stimulate in his
own way.
2. Evoke responses from unconscious : The
test stimulate evoke responses from
unconscious of the subject. The subject
projects his inner feelings in the test
situation.
3. Multi dimensionality of responses: The
dimensions in which the subject can
respond are various as physical, intellectual,
social and emotional. There is more
 freedom to respond against the instrumental
stimuli of the tests. It is possible for the
subject to make a great variety of responses
to the test task.
4. Freedom to respond. The projective
techniques provide full freedom to the
subject to test stimuli. He is not restricted as
regards the nature of responses.
5. Holistic approach : It means that projective
tests attempt to study the totality of
behavior. They do not explore the molecular
behavior of the individual. They emphasizes
the moral approach to understand
personality.
6. Answers are not right or wrong : The
responses of the subject are not second or
evaluated as right or wrong. They are
evaluated qualitatively.
7. Purpose of the test is disguised. The purpose
of the test is not disclosed to the subject
otherwise he becomes test conscious and
may hide his real feelings.
8. Types of projective measures.
9. Pictorial Technique
• Rorschach Inkbot test
• Thematic apperception test (TAT)
• Pictures
Verbal Techniques
• Story or sentence completion test
• Word association test (WAT)
Play Techniques
 • Doll play
Psycho drama or socio drama techniques
• Role playing
Rorchach Inknot test
This is the best known projective technique
developed by a Swiss Psychiatrict Heemann
thorschach in 1942. In this test ten standard cards,
each bearing an inkblot, representing different
diagnostic categories, are administered to subjects,
who are then asked to interpret and describe what
they see. The test administrator notes down this
description for subsequent analysis i.e. the
individual is arise in his mind etc. The scoring is
done objectively on the basis of colour, form,
movement, content speed originality . Scores can
be categorized three…..
1. Location
2. Contents
3. Determinants.
Location involves seeing of the whole.
Determinant includes shape, colour, shading
movement human figure, animal figures.
This thorschach technique has been used
in clinical personality as also some aspects of
subjects mental life , adjustment process,
depression define mechanism etc.
Thematic apperception test TAT
This test was devised by morgan and
Murray in 1935. It consists of 20 pictures
(Morgan) Each picture is ambiguous enough to
permit a variety of interpretations. Presenting the
picture, the testee is asked to make up a stony of
what is happening in the picture. Most people
when they makeup such stories identify
themselves with one of the characters in the
picture and their stories may be little more than
thirty disguised autobiographies. If makes an hour
to administer the test and the testee may be asked
to appear before an interview.
The stories are analyses to know the testee
attitudes wishes and mental life. These stories
reflect the repressed motivations of the subject.
The test is more useful in knowing general
personality rather than the diagnostic aspects. If
can be used with Thorchach to obtain better
results. The children’s appreciation test has been
made for children in which pictures of animal
have been used.
Each story is scored out under four main
Categories vectors levels conditions qualifies.
Vectors : drives, feeling direction of
Behaviour
Levels : Object description, wish intention
night dream
Conditions : psychological, physical, social,
valences, depression,anxiety, security and
Qualifies : temporal characteristics contingency
casualty,negation
This test is being employed in clinical
studies of the maladjusted and abnormal section of
students normal group. It is permitting wide
quantitative and qualitative frustrstion modes of
adjustments.
Pictures Instead if using dolls, the researcher
presents pictures to the child and ask questions
about them one could present pictures of rural and
urban persons, Rajasthani and Gujarathi females,
Hindus and Muslims, Brahmins and lalits and soon
and ask with whom the child would like to play
with.
VERBAL TECHNIQUES
Story Or Sentence Completion Test
Lindzey call this completion technique. The
respondents are given some incomplete stories on
sentences for completion. In the story , the end is
not given but the children are asked to finish it. A
partial sentence is asked to complete with the first
word or phrase that comes to mind. For example.
• A female teacher should be ………… •
A male teacher should not be. ……….
• A good house wife is…………….
• An efficient manager is ………………
• When someone interferes in may studies,
I feel ………..
Words Association Test (WAT)
Lindzey calls this also as association
techniques in this test, the subject is given a list of
words, one at a time, and asked to link it with the
word that immediately comes to his the mind.
These wards are recorded. For example, a teacher
is asked about the roles which a teacher is
expected to perform. It is not necessary that all
respondents will point out all roles which a teacher
is to perform. Say, to teach, to guide, to control, to
increate, values, and so on. Every respondent will
answer the question as he perceives it… A doctor
is described as commercial – minded, greedy,
inefficient, careless. A vegetable, seller is seen as
cheat, liar greedy, impolite. A college / University
lecture / Professors, is described thee days as a
politician, class – cutting person asking for more
and more pay and privileges and less and less and
less interested in studies, research, publications
and seminars / conferences.
It is assumed that respondent’s first thought
is a spontaneous answer because the subject does
not have much time to think about it. It is only is
face association process that the person reveals
him inner feelings about the subject. Ward
association test are affected by clasped time. If a
person is caught asserting a your girl, and the man
who watched it is immediately asked how to deal
with the assaulter his immediate replay could be
“severe, retributive and deterrent punishment’. But
if he is asked the same questions after a month or
so, he could only say, “he should be punished”.
PLAY TECHNIQUE
DOLL PLAY
This projective method is used extensively
both in theory and in data gathering interviews.
For example, the interviewer studying sibling
rivalry can setup a scene containing a mother doll
breast – feeding respondent looking on. The
investigator then asks the child what he/ She
encounters the mother and baby (Yarrow, 1960 :
584). Dolls have also been used extensively in
studying prejudies.
PSYCHO – DRAMA OR SOCIO DRAMA
TECHNIQUE
Role playing
Sometimes students in a college are asked
to organize a ‘mock parliament’ session and
different students are asked to play the role of as
speaker, Prime Minister, foreign minister,
Opposition leader, MPs of different political
parties an independent MP and so on. This is
called a third person technique because it is a
dynamic –re-enactment of the third person
technique in a given situation. The role player acts
our someone else’ behavior in a particular setting.
Many a time a student is asked to perform a
teacher’s task. This techniques can be used to
determine a true feeling of a student about a
teacher in a class situation. Role playing is
particularly useful in investigating situations.
Where interpersonal relationship are the subject of
the research, eg : husband – wife, shop keeper –
customer – employer-employee officers – clerk
etc.
ADVANTAGES OF PROJECTIVE
TECHNIQUES
1. An individual reveals himself in various
situations and
sometimes he is not aware of this fact.
Thus we get reliable information.
2. The connection between diagnosis and
the situation is very close
3. It is not possible for the individual to
give readymade habitual or conventional
responses as the tasks presented are
novel and instrumented.
4. These techniques encourage spontaneous
responses.
5. These enable us to have a total view of
the personality of an individual rather
than in piece – meal.

LIMITATIONS

- They are very subjective

- They require a lot of training in their
administration only trained psychologist can
administer them.
- It is time consuming
- Difficult to interpret
- There are very few standardized tests.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire is the structured set of
questions . It is described as a “A document that
contains a set of questions , the answers to which
are to be provided personally by the respondents.”
It is a device for securing answer to questions by
using from which the reaspondent fill by himself .
It is the most flexible tool in collecting both
quantitative and qualitative information.
A questionnaire cannot be judged as good or
bad , efficient or inefficient unless the job it was
intended to accomplish is known. Developing a
questionnaire requires a certain amount of
technical knowledge. The researcher must decide
the points like method of data collection ,
procedure to be followed in approaching the
respondent order of sequence of questions
structured vs unstructured questions while framing
a questionnaire.
Scope of Questionnaire.
1. When very large samples are desired .
2. Cost have to be kept low.
3. The target groups who are likely to have high
response rates are specialized.
4. Ease of administration is necessary.
5.Moderate response rate is considered satisfactory
.
It has been used for wide range of problems like ;
1.The problem of teacher training .
2. Administrative difficulties ,
3. suitability of the curriculam.
4. Method of teaching.
5 Study habits
6. Testing of achievements.
7. Duties difficulties of teachers.
8.Rating of school textbooks, etc .
Characteristics of A Good Questionnaire.
1. It deals with an important or significant topic so
that it enthuses respondent to give response. Its
significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire
itself.
2. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained
from the resources like books reports and records .
3.It is as short as possible because long
questionnaire are frequently thrown away into the
waste paper –basket.
4.It is at the same time as much comprehensive as
necessary so that it does not leave out any relevant
and crucial information.
5. It is attractive in appearance, neatly arranged
and clearly duplicated or printed .
6. Directions are clear and complete , important
terms are clarified each question deals with single
idea and is worded in simple and clear manner as
possible and provide an opportunity for easy
accurate unambiguous response.
7.The questions are objective with no clues ,hints
or suggestions as to the responses desired .
Leading questions are carefully avoided .
8.Questions are presented in good psychological
order proceeding from general to more specific
responses.
9. The offending annoying or embarrassing
questions have to be avoided as far as possible.
10. Items are arranged in categories to ensure easy
and accurate responses.
11. Descriptive adjectives and adverbs that have no
agreed up on meaning are avoided .
12. Double negatives are also avoided.
13. The questions carry adequate number of
alternatives .
14. Double barreled questions or putting two
questions in one questions or putting two questions
in one question are also avoided.
15. It is easy to tabulate summarize and interpret.
Various Forms of questionnaire
Questions in the questionnaire may vary with
respect to a number of criteria.
1.Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Questions
On the basis of the nature of information
elicited questions may be classified as primary ,
secondary, and tertiary . Primary questions elicit
information directly related to the research topic.
Secondary questions elicit information
which do not relate directly to the topic , ie, the
information is of secondary importance.
Tertiary questions only establish a frame
work that allows convenient data collection and
sufficient information without exhausting or
biasing the respondent.
2. Closed –ended and open –ended questions
The closed- ended are the fixed choice
questions. They require the respondent to choose a
response from those provided by the researcher . It
is easy to fill out, takes less time keeps the
respondent on the subject is relatively more
objective , more acceptable and convenient to
respondent and is fairly easy to tabulate and
analyse.
 The open-ended type questions
which respondents to answer in their own words.
The subject reveals his mind gives his responses .
This type of item is some times difficult to
interpret, tabulate and summarize in the research
report.
3. Structured and non- structured questions
The structured questions contains definite concrete
and direct questions where as non – structured may
consist of partially compleated questions or
statements . A non- structured questionnaire is
often used as the interview guide which is non –
directive. The interviewer posses only a blue print
of the enquires and he is largely free to arrange the
from or statements of the questions.
Steps In Questionnaire Construction
Questionnaires are constructed in a systematic
manner .The process goes through a number of
interrelated steps. They are;
1. Preparation; The researcher thinks of various
items to be covered in the questionnaire and
arrangement of these items in relation to another .
2. Constructing the first draft; The researcher
formulates a number of questions including all
types of questions.
3. Self evaluation; The researcher thinks about
relevance systemtically, clarity in language, etc.
4. External evaluation; The first draft is given to
one or two experts/ colleges for scrutiny and
suggestions for changes.
5. Revision ; After receiving suggestions some
questions are eliminated some changed and some
questions are added .
6. Pre – test or pilot study; A pre test is undertaken
to check the suitability of the questionnaire as a
whole .
7. Revision ; The minor and major change may be
made on the basis of experience gained in pre-
testing.
8. Second pre –testing ; The revised questionnaire
is then subjected to a second test and amended if
necessary.
9. Preparing final draft; After editing ,checking
,spelling , space for response , pre coding, the final
–draft is prepared.
Administering Questionnaire
It can be administered in several ways;
1. Self Administered questionnaire ; there are two
type of self administered questionnaires . They are
a) Self administered questionnaires in the
presence of the researcher ; The presence of a
researcher is helpful in that it enables any queries
or uncertainties to be added immediately with the
questionnaire designer .
b) Self- administered questionnaire without the
presence of the researcher; Absents of the
researcher helps the respondents to complete the
questionnaire in private by devoting as much as
time in familiar surroundings. It can be
inexpensive to operate .
2) Postal questionnaires ; The postal questionnaire
is the best form of survey in an educational inquiry
. In postal questionnaire use good quality envelop ,
typed and addressed to a named person wherever
possible , also first class rapid postage service to
send the questionnaire . Also enciose a first class
stamped envelope for the respondent’s reply.
3. Telephone ; In this respondents can be contacted
at their convenient time even in the evening. It can
be recorded in machine.
4.Internet ; It is conducted with the help of the help
computers .It can be administered only between
those persons both of them have computer and
internet facility.
Advantages of Questionnaire
It has greater potentialities when it is properly used
otherwise progress in many areas of education
would be greatly handicapped.
It is economical way of collecting information to
educaters.
3.It permits a nation wide or even international
coverge.
it can cover a large group at the same time .
It is easy to plan construct and administer .
Once it has been constructed skillfully the
investigator may ask anybody to administer it on
his behalf.
Confidential informations often may be obtained
more readily by means of questionnaire.
It places less pressure on the subject for immediate
response .
It helps in focusing the respondent’s attention on
all the significant items.
10.It may be used as a preliminary tool for
conducting a depth study later on by any other
method.
Limitations of Questionnaire
1. The mailed questionnaires can be used only for
educated people also restricts the number of
respondents .
2. The return rate of questionnaire is low.
3. The mailing address may not correct which may
omit some eligible respondents .
4. Sometimes different respondents interpret
questions differently .
5. The researcher is not present to explain the
meaning of certain concepts the respondent may
leave the question blank.
6. It does not provide an opportunity for collecting
additional information.
7. The respondent can consult others before filling
in the questionnaire this response cannot be
considered as his own views.
8. There is a lack of depth or probing for a more
specific answer.

SOCIOGRAMS

Social interaction plays an important role

in the development of personality of an individual.
Children in school situations mostly interact in
groups. The teacher parents, social workers,
psychologists and other persons who are interest in
the improvement of social relations must study the
mechanism that operate in social interaction. To
deal effectively with social groups one must study
the dynamics of social behavior.
Sherif and Sherif in their book on Social
Psychology defined a group as “A groups is a
social unit consisting of a number of individuals
who stand in role and status relationships to one
another, stabilized in some relationships to one
another, stabilized in some degree at the time and
who possess a set of values of norms of their own
regulating their behavior, at least in matters of
consequence to the group.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS AS A
GROUP
A class in the school fulfills all the
characteristics of a group. The class has the
following essential properties which make it a
group in the psychological sense:
1. A common goal
2. Organised structure
3. Motivation
4. Leadership
MEASUREMENT OF SOCIAL RELATIONS -
SOCIOMETRY
An Austrian psychologist by name, J.L.
Moreno invented the technique of sociometry.
‘Sociomery is the study of those aspects of the
socio-
emotional climate in the classroom having to do
with feelings of attraction, rejection, and
indifference which faced with situations calling for
interaction within the classroom.
After a few weeks of commencement of school,
teacher
has to conduct this test. It is not really a test like an
intelligence test. It is to test the reactions of student
among themselves. Within a few weeks each one
would have known one another sufficiently to get
close as friends or to maintain a distance. Teacher
has to prepare open ended questionnaire. This
could be administer quite informally in one of the
class hours assuring students of utmost
confidentiality of their responses. They should be
urged to be frank and forthright.
Sometimes students may be asked to state the
names of
three classmates for each question in order of
preference. Students tend to be a little reserved in
the beginning, particularly in giving their negative
choices. Tact is needed on the part of teachers to
establish rapport and trust that their responses
would never be leaked out. The responses are
recorded in a rectangular card in which a student
could write his name at the top, write down the
question number and their choice of class – fellow
so that it would be easily processed and tabulated.
On the basis of student reactions teacher could
prepare a socio matrix.
Chooser
A B C D E
Choosen

A 1 -1

B 1 -1

C 1 -1

D 1 -1

E 1 -1

+1 -1
Total 3 -1 +1 -3
Each card could be checked and the choice
entered in the matrix in the form of tallies so that
in a class of 40 students there would be 40 squares
horizontally and 40 vertically down, making a total
of 1600 squares of which 40 squares would be
eliminated by drawing a diagonal line from the top
left to the bottom right square. Total for each
student could be counted and entered. This would
give a measure of acceptance or popularity for
positive responses and rejection or unpopularity
for negative responses. Some studies might fear
that revelation of negative choice would invite
trouble from bullies and embitter relationship. It
teachers could ensure confidentiality of pupil
responses and avert leakages of preferences,
students could be persuaded to fill in both set of
questions.

SOCIOGRAMS

The Martix could also be represented in the

form of a diagram, called sociogram. To draw such
a diagram, a few rules have to be followed. Eg. If
‘A’ likes ‘B’, it is represented thus; A B. If ‘B’
in turns like ‘A’ is becomes a receiprocated choice
A B If ‘A’ dislikes
‘B’ it is represented thus : A------- B.
If ‘A’ were to like ‘B’ and ‘B’ were to
reject it is represented thus A B. If neither a
broken line nor a continuous line is drawn towards
a student. It has to be understood that the student is
ignored.
To draw in sociogam for a class consisting of 30 or
40 students four Concentric squares one with in
others are draw and students are placed in various
positions depending upon their scores obtained in
the sociomatrix. Thus a sociogram is a
diagrammatic representation of the mutual choice,
rejection and indifference of the pupils in a class
room torwards one another. On the basis of
relationship among, the students in class may be
classified in two 4 types
1. Stars
 2. isolates
3. chains
4. mutual choice
1. STARS.
Stars are those students in the class room
whom large number of students are attracted or
student like. Such students are known as stars of
the class or popular students of the class

CHARACTERISTICS OF STARS.

1. They have attractive physique or good

health
2. They are usually of above average
intelligence
3. They have better or high achievement in the
class
4. They have extrovert personality
5. They are of high self-esteem and high self
concept or high level of aspiration.
6. They are talkative or take part in all type of
conversation and have self confidence.
7. They are very co-operative and helpful to
others.
The teacher can take help of popular
students in organizing effective teaching. They are
helpful for adjusting the isolates of the class. The
classroom problem can be easily solved by teacher
taking them into his confidence, but he should not
give undue weightage to them. they may play a
constructive role in classroom teaching learning
situation.

3. ISOLATES

Isolates are those students of the class

room whom no student of the class like or does not
make friendship with them, such students are
called insolates or rejected student of the class.
They require help of the teacher.

ADJUSTMENT OF ISOLATES IN THE

CLASS

1. The teacher should try to identify their

problems by discussing with them. The
physical, psychological and educational
tests should be used for the diagnosis
purposes.
2. The Isolates should be given the awareness
of the
characteristics of stars.
3. The teacher should make moderate praise
of the isolates whenever they succeed in
some school work.
4. The teacher must find out those skills and
hobbies in which isolates show promise
and should try to develop them.
5. The teacher should discuss the problem of
the isolates with
 their parents.
6. They should be encouraged and teacher
should deal with sympathetically by
developing report with them.

3. MUTUAL PAIRS OR FRIENDS

Mutual pairs are those students who have

the mutual attraction of liking with each other. The
students have their close friendship or mutual
attraction are known as mutual pairs of friends.

(5). CHAINS OR STUDETNS

RELATIONSHIP

There are chains of attractions among the

students of a class. The mutual pairs have their
liking with third or fourth students. The third and
fourth have the attractions or liking with sixth or
seventh student. Thus their liking or attraction
form chains of relationship among the classmates.
Another category of students are
“rejectee”. A rejectee is one who creates niisance
in class by frequent fighting and quarelling. His
classmates may avoid him out of fear. He may be
a fully. One who receives maximum
Number of negative scores is a rejective.
He is disliked by most of his classmates.
SOME GUIEDNPOSTS IN THE
ADMINISTRAION OF SOCIOMETRY
1. Students in the class should be well
acquainted with each other.
Sociometric test should not be administered in the
first week.
At least six weeks interval should be
allowed.
2. Positive teacher-pupil relationship chould
exist
3. Student responses should be kept
confidential.
4. Students should know that results will be
used positively.
5. A relaxed, informal classroom atmosphere
should prevail when it is administered.
6. No prior announcement is needed. It should
not take more than fun to fifteen minutes.
7. Directions should be clear and simple.
 2
3
11
4

1
10
13 5
15

9
12
6

8
7 14
Star - 10
Isolates - 5, 12, 1
Mutual pairs - (9,10), (10,13), 6,15)
We must remember that sociometry is
concerned with feelings as opposed to Considered
judjements. Spontaneity underlines Sociometric
choice.
Feelings are not always based on reason.
Every member must be present on the day of the
test. It should not be administered shortly after a
new student has joined the class.
TEST AND TESTING
Test is an instrument or systematic
procedure for measuring a sample of behavior by
posing a set of questions on a uniform manner. A
test is a form of assessment. It answers the
question how well did the individual performed. It
can be either in comparison with others or in
comparison with a domain of performance tasks.
So we can say – a list is a type of assessment
consisting of a set of questions administered
during a fixed period of time under reasonably
comparable conditions for all students.
Purpose of Testing
The use of psychological testing is to
evaluate behavior, cognitive behavior personality
traits and other individual and group characteristics
in order to assist in making judgments, predictions
and decisions about people. To say it specifically
list are used for screening applicants for jobs,
educational programs etc and to classify and place
people in the right contexts. It helps to council and
guide individuals and also to prescribe
psychological treatment and many more. To get an
apt result for the test there is a need to follow same
steps.
Steps in the listing program
1. Determining the purpose of testing
The first step in the listing program is to
define specifically the purpose of listing and the
type of information being sought through testing.
As is emphasized by the firsts standard for list
users in the code of fair testing practices in
education, is critical that the purpose must be
clearly defined and that the list match the purpose.
2. Selecting the appropriate test
To make a proper selection, we must first
identify the objectives and specific learning
outcome of the instructional program. This is
necessary in choosing relevant test irrespective of
the size of the group to the tested single
Test or school wide testing program.
Selection must be preceded by an analysis of the
intended use of the results and the type of the data
most appropriate for each use. When need and use
are identified, a list of possible test can be had
from test publishers. The users should select test
that meet the intended purpose and that are
appropriate for the intended test takers.
Points to be kept in mind while selecting the list
*review and select test based on the
appropriateness of test content, skills listed and
content coverage.
*review materials provided by test developers and
select test for which clear, accurate and complete
information is provided.
*evaluate evidence of the technical quality of the
test provided by the test developer and any
independent reviewers
*evaluate representative samples of test questions,
directions, answer sheets, manuals and score
reports before selecting a list.
*evaluate procedures and materials used by test
developers as well as the resulting test, to ensure
that potentially offensive content or language is
avoided.
*select test with appropriately modified forms or
admission procedures for test takers with
disabilities who need special accommodations.
3. Administering the test
The main requirement to administer a test is
that the testing procedures prescribed in the test
manual be generously followed. When we alter the
procedures for administering a published test we
loss the basis for a meaningful interpretation of the
scores.
The administration of the group test is
relatively simple.
a) Motivates the students to do their best
b) Follow the directions closely
c) keep time accurately
d) Record any significant events that might
influence test scores.
e) Collects the materials promptly
a. Motivates the students
In testing our goals should be to obtain
maximum performance within the standard
conditions set forth on the testing procedures. We
want all students to earn as high a score as they are
capable of achieving. This obviously means that
they must be motivated to put forth their abilities
or else will not work seriously at the task unless
they are convinced that the test result will be
beneficial to them.
b. Follow directions strictly
The importance of following the directions
given on the test manual cant be over emphasized
unless the test is administered in exact accordance
with the standard directions. The best results
containing errors may prevent proper
interpretations and use.
c. Keep time accurately
To ensure accurate timing, keep a written
record of starting and ending test time.
d. Record significant events
The students should be carefully observed
during testing a record must be made of any
unusual behavior or events that might influence the
scores.
e. Collects list materials promptly
When the test ends the test materials should
be collected promptly so that students cannot work
or correct the materials after the time limit.

4. Scoring the test

Essay tests may be scored holistically or
analytically. For both the examinee should be
informed of the methods used. Numerical scores
added with written comments and explanations are
often helpful in providing feedback on essay test
performance.
In the case objective type tests computers
and other machines take the place of human
scoring. Machine scoring is generally superior in
terms of speed and accuracy but less flexible than
hand scoring.
5. Analyzing and interpreting the scores
Test result can be interpreted in terms of the
types of task that can be performed or the relative
position held in reference to group. Once refers to
what a person can do and the other how the
performance is compared with that of others.
6. Applying the results
The object of test is to bring in some change
in instruction, educational support or inform some
other aspect for which the test was conducted. This
cannot be achieved unless the results are
interpreted correctly but reported accurately and
appropriately to those who have a need the
outcomes too must be informed. The feedback that
the test administration provides to the test taker
and the other relevant authorities are of great
importance. These achievement and learning
ability test can serve many different purposes in
the school educational program. They help to
identify the level and range of ability among
students – helps to identify areas of instruction
needing greater emphasis – helps to identify
learning errors and plan remedial instruction.
Helps to identify individual difference and helps to
provide individualized instruction – exceptional
students can be identified and necessary steps can
be taken to promote their education through
enabling them opt for right course.
7. Retesting to determine success of program
After applying the results a retest should be
conducted to find out the success of the remedial
programs.
8- Making suitable records and reports
The final step is to set suitable records and
reports of the testing program. The result should be
reported clearly which can be easily understood
and usable for future purpose.
TYPES OF TEST ITEMS
The objective type are constructed on
educational achievements aptitude, and
intelligence objective type test much more precise
than essay type tests. The objective types test are
standardized this type test mainly used in research
work, guidance and counseling and also in
administration for selecting candidates for different
jobs. The obtained scores are transformed into
standard scores which can be easily interpretable
and understandable.
R-L Ebel and D.A Frishe (1986) define an
objective tent as “one that can be provided with a
simple predetermined tent of correct answers that
objective opinion or judgement in the acoring
procedure is eliminated.”
W. Wiersma and S.G. Jurs (1990) states,
“objective items are items can be objectively
scored, items on which persons select a response
from a list of opinions.” There are three type of
objective type tests are following.
1. Alternate – Response test item
2. Matching type system
3. Multiple choice type system.
ALTERNATE-RESPONSE TEST ITEM

According to N.E Gronlernd (1985), “the

alternative response test item consists of a
declarative statement that the pupil is asked to
mark true or false, right or wrong , correct or
incorrect, yes or no, factor opinion, agree or
disagree and the like. In each case there are only
two possible answers. Because the true-false
opinion is the most common, this item type is most
frequently referred to as true false item.”
In the alternative-response test, one of two
responses only one is correct. Some of the
common variations of the alternate –response test
are
a) True of False b) Yes-No
c) Right-wrong d) Correct-incorrect.
For example : The Vedas are the religious books of
the Hindus Yes/
No
MERITS OF ALTERNATE-RESPONSE
TEST ITEMS.
1. It is easy to correct them
2. They are capable of sampling very
quickly a wide range of the subject
matter.
3. They are more suitable for young
children who have poor vocabulary.
 4. They are more reliable per unit of testing
item.
5. They can be scored objectively.
6. They are adaptable to most content areas.
7. They are early to construct.
8. They are time savers.
9. They provide simple and direct means for
measuring the out comes of formed
instruction.

LIMITATIONS

1. Generally they emphasis rote memorization.

2. The examinees are not required to apply
principles to new
situations.
3. These are only two choices, they allow a
high degree of guessing.
4. They may motivate students to study and
accept only over
simplified statements of facture details.
5. There can be attempted even by those who
know nothing of
the subject matter.
6. They are largely limited to learning out
comes in the knowledge domain.

SUGGESTIONS FOR TRUE OR FALSE

ITEMS.
1. Be sure that the item as written can be
classified unequivocally as aided true or
false.
2. Avoid ambiguous and indefinite terms of
degree or amount.
3. Keep true or false statements approximately
equal in length.
4. Employ a random occurrence of true or false
statements to avoid giving irrelevant clues.
5. Avoid double negative statements.
6. The direction regarding the answers should
be very clear.
7. Long and complex statements should not be
used because they measure regarding.
Comprehensive also and which may not be
the objective of the examiner.

MATCHING TYPE TEST ITEM

N.E. Gronlund (1985), “The matching

exercise consists of two parallel columns with
each word, number or symbol in one column
being matched to a word, a sentence or phrase in
the other column. The items in the column for
which match is sought are called premises and the
items in the column from which the selection is
made are called responses.
There are several varieties of matching tests.
In the traditional format of a matching test consists
of two column. The examinee is required to make
some sort of association between each premise and
each response in the two columns he pairs the
corresponding elements and records his answers.
MERITS OF MATCHING TESTS
1. Many questions can be asked in limited
time between they
require little reading time.
2. Reliability of the test increases as they
afford as an opportunity to have a large
sampling of the content.
3. Scoring is comparatively easier.
4. Matching test can be constructed
relatively easily and quickly.
5. There is less scope for guessing as
compared with true –
false tests
6. A good deal of space can be saved.

LIMITATIONS

1. They are not well adapted testing for

the acquision of
knowledge or understanding of and
ability to use relatively complete
interpretive ideas.
2. They may encourage serial
memorization rather than
 association is sufficient care is not
taken in their construction.
3. Generally they provide clues.
4. It is at times difficult to get dusters of
questions that are
sufficiently similar questions that a
common set of response can be used.

SUGGESTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING

MATCHING TESTS

1. Keep each lists relatively short.

2. Each matching tests should consists of
homogeneous
items.
3. Avoid an equal members of premises
and responses.
4. All items of the tests should be on the
same page.
5. Do not more statements or responses
highly dissimilar in
character.
6. Avoid using matching tests for testing
small units of the
subject matter

MULTIPLE CHOICE TYPE TEST ITEM

“ According ti N.E Gronlund (1985)”A multiple
choice
item consists of a problem and lists suggested
solutions. The problem may be stated as direct
acquisition or an incomplete statements and is
called the stern of item. The tent of suggested
solutions may include words numbers, symbols or
phrases and are called alternatives. The pupil is
typically requested to read the stem and the list of
alternatives and to select the one correct or best
alternative” A multiple item of two parts.
1. The “stem” which contains the problem.
2. Options or responses it list of suggested
answers. The stem be stated as direct
question or an incomplete statements.
FORMS OF MULTIPLE TESTS
a) The correct answer form
It contains three or more choices but only one of
them is correct.
b) The best answer form
One or more all choices may be correct but
one of them is the best answer the examine
is required to select the best one.
c) The multiple response them
The correct answers may consist of more
than one choices and the examine is asked to
identify all those which are correct.
d) The complete statement form the stem is
incomplete and can be completed by the
correct choice. The examinee is asked to
select one.
e) The substitution form
The word outline the stem is to the substituted by
the
correct response. Responses are given are the
examinee is asked to select one which can
substitute the desired word.
f) The combined response form
The choices are different spaces or sentence or
paragraph.
The examinee required to correct order of the
phrases or sentences.

MERITS OF MULTIPLE CHOICE TEST

ITEM

1. They can measure cognitive levels better

than true false items because examine do not
score for merely knowing whether the
statement is true or false but for knowing
which is the correct answer.
2. They can measure from the most element the
knowledge lent to the most complex level.
3. A substantial amount of the subject matter
can be tested because the examinees do not
require much time for righting the answer.
4. They are objective in scoring because they
key for the correct answer is prepared along
with the test.
5. They reduce the effect of guessing because
there are three or four choices.
6. Their format is helpful in item analysis to
find out he areas of weakness of the
examinee.
7. They can be easily adopted for machine
scoring.

LIMITATIONS

1. They donot permit the exminees to express

their own views
2. They cannot measure attitudes or motor
skills .
3. It is difficult to find four choices for each
item out of which thir may be plausible in
correct answers.
4. they cannot evaluate the ability to organize
any present ideas.
5. They require more time to construct.
6. They check only limited knowledge

SUGGESTIONS FOR MULTIPLE CHOICE

QUESTION

1. Be sure the stem of the item clearly

formulates a problem
2. Include as mush of the item as possible in
the stem and keep options as short as
possible.
3. Include in the stem only the metric required
to make the problem clear and specific.
4. us e the negative sparing the amid stem of
the item
5. Repetition of words in the options should be
avoided
6. Unfamiliar and difficult symbols and
vocabulary should avoided.

MERITS OF OBJECTIVE TYPE TEST.

1. The new type examinations are motive

objective in their scoring they are free from
personal factor of the teacher.
2. They may be very comprehensive and can
be made to cover a great deal more material
than the old type of examinations
3. They are very easy to score.
4. They are more education for the pupils.
5. It discourage examine and encourage
thinking observation and scrutiny
6. They are more reliable
7. Objective tests can be standardized by
applying before hand to a large numbers of
students of the same age group before the
actual examination

LIMITATIONS

1. The pupil does not have an opportunity to

show his ability to organize his thoughts .
This type of tests are not diagnostic in that they do
not tell where the pupils reasoning process goes
wrong or where he stops reasoning all together and
starts guessing.
2. It is commonly said that this type of tests
fail to check cramming
Short Answer Questions

Short-answer questions are open-ended

questions that require students to create an answer.
They are commonly used in examinations to assess
the basic knowledge and understanding (low
cognitive levels) of a topic before more in-depth
assessment questions are asked on the topic. Short
Answer Questions do not have a generic structure.
Questions may require answers such as complete
the sentence, supply the missing word, short
descriptive or qualitative answers, diagrams with
explanations etc. The answer is usually short, from
one word to a few lines. Often students may
answer in bullet form.

Advantages of Short Answer Questions

 Short Answer Questions are relatively fast to

mark and can be marked by different
assessors, as long as the questions are set in
such a way that all alternative answers can
be considered by the assessors.
  Short Answer Questions are also relatively
easy to set compared to many assessment
methods.
 Short Answer Questions can be used as part
of a formative and summative assessment,
as the structure of short answer questions are
very similar to examination questions,
students are more familiar with the practice
and feel less anxious.
 Unlike MCQs, there is no guessing on
answers, students must supply an answer.

Disadvantages of Short Answer Questions

 Short Answer Questions (SAQ) are only

suitable for questions that can be answered
with short responses. It is very important
that the assessor is very clear on the type of
answers expected when setting the
questions, because SAQ is an open-ended
questions, students are free to answer any
way they choose, short-answer questions can
lead to difficulties in grading if the question
is not worded carefully.
 Short Answer Questions are typically used
for assessing knowledge only, students may
often memorize Short Answer Questions
with rote learning. If assessors wish to use
 Short Answer Questions to assess deeper
learning, careful attention (and many
practices) on appropriate questions are
required.
 Accuracy of assessment may be influenced
by handwriting/spelling skills
 There can be time management issues when
answering Short Answer Questions

Design A Good Short Answer Question

 Design short answer items which are

appropriate assessment of the learning
objective
 Make sure the content of the short answer
question measures knowledge appropriate to
the desired learning goal
 Express the questions with clear wordings
and language which are appropriate to the
student population
 Ensure there is only one clearly correct
answer in each question
 Ensure that the item clearly specifies how
the question should be answered (e.g.
Student should answer it briefly and
concisely using a single word or short
phrase? Is the question given a specific
number of blanks for students to answer?)
  Consider whether the positioning of the item
blank promote efficient scoring
 Write the instructions clearly so as to
specify the desired knowledge and
specificity of response
 Set the questions explicitly and precisely.
 Direct questions are better than those which
require completing the sentences.
 For numerical answers, let the students
know if they will receive marks for showing
partial work (process based) or only the
results (product based), also indicated the
importance of the units.
 Let the students know what your marking
style is like, is bullet point format
acceptable, or does it have to be an essay
format?
 Prepare a structured marking sheet; allocate
marks or part-marks for acceptable
answer(s).
 Be prepared to accept other equally
acceptable answers, some of which you may
not have predicted.

ESSAY TYPE TEST

 The word essay has been derived from a
French word ‘essayer’ which means ‘to try’ or ‘to
attempt’.
“Essay test is a test that requires the student
to structure a rather long written response up to
several paragraphs.”
-William weirsama
The essay test refers to any written test that
requires the examinee to write a sentence, a
paragraph or longer passages. Essay questions
provide a complex prompt that requires written
responses, which can vary in length from a couple
of paragraphs to many pages. Like short answer
questions, they provide students with an
opportunity to explain their understanding and
demonstrate creativity, but make it hard for
students to arrive at an acceptable answer by
bluffing. They can be constructed reasonably
quickly and easily but marking these questions can
be time-consuming and grader agreement can be
difficult.
Essay questions differ from short answer questions
in that the essay questions are less structured. This
openness allows students to demonstrate that they
can integrate the course material in creative ways.
As a result, essays are a favoured approach to test
higher levels of cognition including analysis,
synthesis and evaluation.
Characteristics of essay test:
1. The length of the required responses varies
with reference to marks and time
2. It demands a subjective judgment: Judgment
means making judgment or assessing whereas
subjective means not fair enough i.e. it differs from
person to person.
3. Most familiar and widely used:Essay has
become a major part of a formal education.
Secondary students are taught structured essays
format to improve their writing skills.
Types of Essay Test
1. Restricted response questions:
The restricted response question usually limits
both the content and the response the content is
usually restricted by the scope of the topic to be
discussed limitations on the form of response are
generally indicated in the question another way of
restricting responses in essay tests is to base the
questions on specific problems. For this purpose,
introductory material like that used in interpretive
exercises can be presented. Such items differ from
objective interpretive exercise only by the fact that
essay questions are used instead of multiple choice
or true or false items. Because the restricted
response question is more structured it is most
useful for measuring learning outcomes requiring
the interpretation and application of date in a
specific area.
2. Extended response questions:
No restriction is placed in students as to the points
he will discuss and the type of organization he will
use. Teachers in such a way so as to give students
the maximum possible freedom to determine the
nature and scope of question and in a way he
would give response of course being related topic
and in stipulated time frame these types of
questions.
The student may be select the points he thinks are
most important, pertinent and relevant to his points
and arrangement and organize the answers in
whichever way he wishes. So they are also called
free response questions. This enables the teacher to
judge the student’s abilities to organize, integrate,
interpret the material and express themselves in
their own words. It also gives an opportunity to
comment or look into students’ progress, quality of
their thinking, the depth of their understanding
problem solving skills and the difficulties they
may be having. These skills interact with each
other with the knowledge and understanding the
problem requires. Thus it is at the levels of
synthesis and evaluation of writing skills that this
type of questions makes the greatest contribution.
Merits of essay writing:
1. It is relatively easier to prepare and administer a
six-question extended response essay test than to
prepare and administer a comparable 60 item
multiple choice test items.
2. It is the only means that can assess an
examinee’s ability to organize and present his
ideas in a logical and coherent fashion and in
effective prose.
3. It can be successfully employed for
practically all school subjects.
4. Some of the objectives – such as ability to
organize idea effectively ability to criticize or
justify a statement, ability to criticize or justify a
statement, ability to interpret etc. can be measured
by this type of test.
5. Logical thinking and critical reasoning,
systematic presentation etc. can be best developed
by this type of test.
6. Its helps induce good study habits such as
making outlines and summaries, organizing the
arguments for and against, etc.
7. The student can show their initiative, the
originality of their thought and the fertility of their
imagination, as they are permitted freedom of
response.
8. The response of the students need not be
completely right or wrong. All degrees of
comprehensiveness and accuracy are possible.
9. It largely eliminates guessing.

Demerits of essay writing:

Every coin has 2 sides same ways in essay
test if there are merits than demerits are also there
so we will see demerits of essay test writing.
1. Limited sampling of the content: -
It means few questions can be included in given
test. Example if in one particular book 18 chapter
are given, teacher cannot ask question from all the
chapters. They have to neglect some areas.

2. Subjectivity of scoring:
If all students are writing same answer of one
question, why they get different marks? In essay
test answer of question are scored differently by
different teacher. Even the same teacher scores the
answer differently at different times.
3. Halo effects:
It means teacher knows the particular student very
well and has good impression because of his
previous paper and writing skills.

4. Mood of the examiner:

The general feeling of all students after writing
your S.S.C board paper what you had discussed
with your fried. I hope the teacher who is checking
my paper has not quarreled with some”
5. Ambiguous wording of the question:
Sometime essay questions are so worded that
students do not know the exact implications of the
questions.
6. Examiner contaminated by various factors:
The examiner is contaminated by various factors
like hand writing, spelling, grammar etc some
students who has good verbal knowledge may
write many things on an essay topic.
7. It requires an excessive time on the part of
students to write while assessing reading essays is
very time-consuming and laborious.
8. Only a teacher or competent professionals can
assess it.

9. The speed of writing can influence the

performance of the learner. This results in low
scores even if the learner may know the correct
answer of all questions.

10. It may not provide a true picture of the

comprehension level of the leaner. Grammars may
get good marks.
Suggestions for improving essay questions:
1. Restrict the use of essay questions to those
learning outcomes that cannot be satisfactorily
measured by objective items. Such functions as
ability to organize’ to express, to interpret and to
elicit understanding may be tested through essay
questions.
2. Do not start the essay questions with words
such as what, who, when, enumerate etc. in general
start with compare, contrast, discuss, explain etc.
3. Write the essay question in such a way that
the task is clearly and unambiguously defined for
each examinee.
4. Directions for the test should be explicitly
written.
For example, (a) each question carries 20 marks
(b) Marks will be deducted for spelling mistakes.
5. Avoid the use of optional questions. A fairly
common practice in the use of essay questions is to
provide pupils with more questions than they are
expected to answer. When pupils answer different
questions, it is obvious they are taking different
test and the common basis for evaluating their
achievement is lost.
6. Students are found to be misinformed about
the meaning of important terms used in essay
questions. For example: students frequently
discuss or describe when asked to define. A
solution would be to supply the necessary training
to the students in writing essay questions.
7. Allow liberal time limit so that the essay test
will not be a test of speed of writing. While setting
up the question paper s that it can be answered in
the allotted time, leaving some time for reading the
question, drawing up an outline of the answers and
finally for revision.
8. We have seen that the essay examination
suffers from lack of adequate sampling. This
defect can to some extent be overcome by
increasing the number of questions any limiting
the length of their answers. A question paper with
10 questions would represent a better sample than
one with 5 questions only.
9. One of the favourite questions of examiners is
:
for example: write short notes on: 1. Social
education. 2. Homework.
This type of question is worse than the one
mentioned in above. The student dos not know the
limits and he goes on writing pages after pages.
The better way to write is e.g. write short notes on
(a) objectives of social education (b) misuse of
homework.
Suggestions for scoring the essay examination
1. Prepare on outline of the expected answers
in advance, showing what points are required and
the credits to be allowed for each. This will
provide a common frame of reference for
evaluating the individual papers
2. Decide in advance that factors are to be
measured. If the ability to organize, to interpret or
to apply the principles is to be assessed, the
examiner should not allow him to be biased by bad
handwriting, spelling, sentence structure or
neatness. The ability to write, to spell or to use
correct English can be assessed through other
suitable tests
3. Examination should be scored as far as
possible by the one who frames the questions. He
is the person who can give a clear picture of the
expected responses whenever more than one
examiner is involved; they should be brought
together to develop a uniform scoring procedure.
Model answers and marking schemes may be
discussed and finalized in this meeting
4. Grade the paper as nearly anonymously as
possible, the less you know about who wrote an
answer, the more objectively you can grade papers
before considering another question. This type of
scoring permits the examiner to concentrate on the
answer to a single question and judge better the
merits of the several pupil responses to the same
question.

5. Score one question through all of the papers

before considering another question. This type of
scoring permits the examiner to concentrate on the
answer to a single question and to judge better the
merits of several pupils responses to the same
question.

6. When important decisions such as selection

for awards or scholarships are to be based on the
results, obtain two or more independent rating and
average them.

7. The mechanics of expression (legibility,

spelling, punctuation, grammar) should be judged
separately from what the student writes i.e. the
subject matter content. Provide comments and
correct answers in the answer book. This will
explain the teacher’s, method of assigning a
particular score or grade to particular paper.
RUBRIC
The traditional meanings of the
word rubric stem from "a heading on a document
(often written in red — from Latin, rubrica, red
ochre, red ink), or a direction for conducting
church services". In modern education circles,
rubrics have recently come to refer to an
assessment tool. The first usage of the term in this
new sense is from the mid-1990s, but scholarly
articles from that time do not explain why the term
was co-opted. Perhaps rubrics are seen to act, in
both cases, as metadata added to text to indicate
what constitutes a successful use of that text. It
may also be that the color of the traditional red
marking pen is the common link.
In education terminology, rubric means "a
scoring guide used to evaluate the quality of
students' constructed responses". Rubrics usually
contain evaluative criteria, quality definitions for
those criteria at particular levels of achievement,
and a scoring strategy. They are often presented in
table format and can be used by teachers when
marking, and by students when planning their
work.
A scoring rubric is an attempt to
communicate expectations of quality around a
task. In many cases, scoring rubrics are used to
delineate consistent criteria for grading. Because
the criteria are public, a scoring rubric allows
teachers and students alike to evaluate criteria,
which can be complex and subjective. A scoring
rubric can also provide a basis for self-evaluation,
reflection, and peer review. It is aimed at accurate
and fair assessment, fostering understanding, and
indicating a way to proceed with subsequent
learning/teaching. This integration of performance
and feedback is called ongoing assessment
or formative assessment.
The benefits of using a rubric are that it
creates a more objective method of scoring;
specific criteria are identified and the students are
evaluated only on those criteria. Students can often
be involved in the creation of a rubric in order to
have a say in what they believe to be the most
important aspects of the task; this can help with
student motivation and investment. Even if
students are not involved in the creation of the
rubric, they should have a copy of it so they are
aware of what is being assessed. This ensures
fairness is maintained and pushes students to
prepare to the best of their ability.

Components Of A Scoring Rubric

Scoring rubrics include one or more
dimensions on which performance is rated,
definitions and examples that illustrate the
attribute(s) being measured, and a rating scale for
each dimension. Dimensions are generally referred
to as criteria, the rating scale as levels, and
definitions as descriptors. The components of
rubrics are;
1) One or more traits or dimensions that serve as
the basis for judging the student response
2) Definitions and examples to clarify the meaning
of each trait or dimension
3) A scale of values on which to rate each
dimension
Steps To Create A Scoring Rubric
Scoring rubrics may help students become
thoughtful evaluators of their own and others’
work and may reduce the amount of time teachers
spend evaluating student work
1. Have students look at models of good versus
"not-so-good" work. A teacher should
provide sample assignments of variable
quality for students to review.
2. List the criteria to be used in the scoring
rubric and allow for discussion of what
counts as quality work. Asking for student
 feedback during the creation of the list also
allows the teacher to assess the students’
overall writing experiences.
3. Articulate gradations of quality. These
hierarchical categories should concisely
describe the levels of quality (ranging from
bad to good) or development (ranging from
beginning to mastery).
4. Practice on models. Students can test the
scoring rubrics on sample assignments
provided by the instructor. This practice can
build students' confidence by teaching them
how the instructor would use the scoring
rubric on their papers. It can also aid
student/teacher agreement on the reliability
of the scoring rubric.
5. Ask for self and peer-assessment.
6. Revise the work on the basis of that
feedback.
7. Use teacher assessment, which means using
the same scoring rubric the students used to
assess their work

Type of
Rubric Definition Advantages Disadvantages
Analytic Each criterion Gives Takes more
(dimension, diagnostic time to score
trait) is information than holistic
evaluated to teacher. rubrics.
separately. Gives Takes more
formative time to
feedback to achieve inter-
 students. rater reliability
Easier to link than with
to instruction holistic
than holistic rubrics.
rubrics.
Good for
formative
assessment;
adaptable for
summative
assessment;
if you need
an overall
score for
grading, you
can combine
the scores.
Holistic All criteria Scoring is Single overall
(dimensions, faster than score does not
traits) are with analytic communicate
evaluated rubrics. information
simultaneously. Requires less about what to
time to do to improve.
achieve Not good for
inter-rater formative
reliability. assessment.
Good for
summative
assessment.
General Description of Can share Lower
work gives with reliability at
characteristics students, first than with
that apply to a explicitly task-specific
whole family of linking rubrics.
tasks (e.g., assessment Requires
 writing, and practice to
problem instruction. apply well.
solving). Reuse same
rubrics with
several tasks
or
assignments.
Supports
learning by
helping
students see
"good work"
as bigger
than one
task.
Supports
student self-
evaluation.
Students can
help
construct
general
rubrics.
Task- Description of Teachers Cannot share
Specific work refers to sometimes with students
the specific say using (would give
content of a these makes away
particular task scoring answers).
(e.g., gives an "easier." Need to write
answer, Requires less new rubrics
specifies a time to for each task.
conclusion). achieve For open-
inter-rater ended tasks,
reliability. good answers
not listed in
 rubrics may be
evaluated
poorly.

How To Use Rubrics Effectively

 Develop a different rubric for each assignment.

Although this takes time in the beginning,
you’ll find that rubrics can be changed slightly
or re-used later.
 Give students a copy of the rubric when you
assign the performance task.
 Require students to attach the rubric to the
assignment when they hand it in.
 When you mark the assignment, circle or
highlight the achieved level of performance for
each criterion.
 Include any additional comments that do not fit
within the rubric’s criteria.
 Decide upon a final grade for the assignment
based on the rubric.
 Hand the rubric back with the assignment.
 If an assignment is being submitted to an
electronic drop box you may be able to develop
and use an online rubric. The scores from these
rubrics are automatically entered in the online
grade book in the course management system.

ASSESSMENT TOOLS FOR AFFECTIVE

DOMAIN
 The affective domain is a part of a system
that was published in 1965 for identifying
understanding and addressing how people learn.
This describes learning objectives that emphasize a
feeling tone, an emotion, or a degree of acceptance
or rejection. It is far more difficult domain to
objectively analyze and assess since affective
objectives vary from simple attention to selected
phenomena to complex but internally consistent
qualities of character and conscience.
Nevertheless, much of the educative process needs
to deal with assessment and measurement of
students’ abilities in this domain.
This simply refers to the fact that much of
the processes in education today are aimed at
developing the cognitive aspects of development
and very little or no time is spent on the
development of the affective domain. The
Taxonomy in the Affective Domain. The
taxonomy in the affective domain contains a large
number of objectives in the literature expresses as
interests, attitudes, appreciation, values, and
emotional sets or biases. The descriptions of step
in the taxonomy was culled from Kratwohl’s
Taxonomy of Affective Domain:
1. Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to the
existence of certain ideas, material, pr phenomena
and being willing to tolerate them. Examples: To
differentiate, To accept, To listen, To respond to.
2. Responding is committed in some small
measure to the ideas, materials, or phenomena
involved by actively responding to them.
Examples: to comply with, to follow, to commend,
to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to acclaim
3. Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as
valuing certain ideas, materials, or phenomena.
Examples: to increase measured proficiency in, to
relinquish, to subsidize, to support, to debate
4. Organization is to relate the value to those
already held and bring into a harmonious and
internally consistent philosophy. Examples: To
discuss, To theorize, To formulate, To balance, To
examine
5. Characterization by value or value set is to act
consistently in accordance with the values he or
she has internalized. Examples: To revise, To
require, To be rated high in the value, To avoid, To
resist, To manage, To resolve .
Development of Assessment Tools/Standard
Assessment Tools
Assessment tools in the affective domain are
those which are used to assess attitudes, interest,
motivations and self efficacy. These include:
1. Self-report. This the most common
measurement tool in the affective domain. It
essentially requires an individual to provide an
account of his attitude or feelings toward a concept
or idea or people. It is also called “written
reflections” (“Why I Like or Dislike
Mathematics”. The teacher ensures that the
students write something which would
demonstrate the various levels of the taxonomy (
receiving to characterization)
2. Rating Scales refers to a set of categories
designed to elicit information about a quantitative
attribute in social science. Common examples are
the Likert scale and 1-10 rating scales for which a
person selects the number which is considered to
reflects the perceived quality of a product. The
basic feature of any rating scale is that it consists
of a number of categories. These are usually
assigned integers.
3. Semantic Differential (SD) Scales tries to
assess an individual’s reaction to specific words,
ideas or concepts in terms of ratings on bipolar
scales defined with contrasting adjectives at each
end.
4.Checklists : Checklists are the most common
and perhaps the easiest instrument in the affective
domain. It consist of simple items that the student
or teacher marks as “absent” or “present” .
ATTITUDE SCALES
The term personality is a broad complex. It
has inner as well as outer aspects. The inner
aspects of the personality; the motivation
perceptions, feelings, attitudes, interest, values and
preferences are prejudices that are the basis one’s
behavior. The inner aspect of the personality play
the significant role in the performance of an
individual. The measures of attitude, interests and
values are different as these are independent traits.
These aspects of one’s personality influence one
another.
An attitude is a tendency to react favourably
or unfavourably towards a disginted class of
stimuli, such as a custom, a caste, an institution or
a nation. An attitude can be observed directly. An
attitude stands for response consistency to certain
categories of stimuli. Attitude is frequently
associated with social stimuli and emotionally
toned responses.
Meaning And Definition Of Attitude
An attitude is a variable which directly
observed but it is inferred from overt behavior both
verbal and non- verbal responses. In more
objective term the concept of attitude may be said
to can not response tendency with regard to certain
categories of stimuli.
In actual practice the term attitude has been
most frequently associated with emotionally toned
responses. The deep rooted feelings are the
attitudes which can not be changed easily. An
attitude is defined as a tendency to react in certain
way towards a designated class of stimuli or an
object.
Attitude has been defined by others in the
following ways. “an attitude is essentially a form
of anticipatory response, a beginning of action not
necessarily completed” –K. Young
“An attitude can be defined as an enduring
organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual
and cognitive processes with respect to some
aspect of the individual’s word”- Krech and
Crutchfield. Attitude is the sum total of an
individual’s inclination, feelings, prejudices or
biases, preconceived notton’s ideas threats and
convictions or beliefs about any specific object”-
L.L. Thurstone.
“An attitude is a mental and neutral state of
readiness, exerting directive or dynamic influence
upon the individuals response to all objects and
situations with which it is related”- Britt.
Characterstics Of Attitude
 There are individual differences in attitudes
 It is a bi-polar triat as it is a position towards
an object either for or against.
 It mat be overt or covert and it is fathemless
or unlimited.
 It is integrated in to an organized system
and can no be changed easily.
 It varies culture to culture and society to
society.
 It implies a subject-object relationship.
Determinents of attitude
The following factors may influence the
attitudes of a person
 Cultural and social factors
 Psychological factors (needs, emotions,
perceptions,
 experiences etc.)
  Functional factors (role of temperament)
The attitudes are formed on the following
basis.
 Acceptance of social norms and calues.
 Emotional and personal experiences
 Ego-involvement and social perceptions
 Technology changes and economic
developments
 Suggestions and self concept or ideals of life
MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES
There are various techniques for the
measurement of attitudes. The projective
techniques used are Rorschach, T.A.T, Word
Association Test and Sentence Completion test,
Questionnaires, inventories, Situational test and
interviews are also helpful. The most important
technique of measuring attitudes is the ‘Scaling’
techniques.
TYPES OF ATTITUDE SCALES
 Numerical Scales
 Graphic scales
 Standard scales
 Check lists
 Forced choice scales
 Ranking method
 Q sort method
Numerical Scales:- One of the simplest to
constract and easiest to use, is the numerical rating
scale. This type of tool usually consists of several
items each of which names or describes the
behaviour to be rated and then offers as alternative
responses a series of numbers representing points
along the scale. This simple cumerical scale does
ave face validity and therefore seems to be widely
accepted. It is more subjective or bias tool.
Graphic Scales: if the format of the rating scale is
such that the characteristics to be rated is
represented as a straight line along which are
placed some verbal guides, the tool is referred to as
a graphic rating scale.
It is easy to construct and easy to administer
therefore it is widely used of all the specific types
of rating scales, but it is less reliable measure.
Standard scale: in the standard scale approach an
attempt is made to provide the rater with more than
verbal uses to describe various scale points.
Ideally, several samples of the objects to be rated
are included each with a given scale
value which has been determined in experimental
studies prior to the use of the scale.
Check lists:
An approach which is widely popular because it is
simple to administer and still permits wide
coverage in short time is the behavior check list. It
contains a long list of specific behavior which
supposedly represented individual differences and
rater simply checks whether the item applies. The
behavior index of individual is obtained by
summing up the items, which have been checked.
Forced choice scale
One of the most recent innovations in the rating
scale area has been developed a forced choice
technique which has been designed to overcome
the major difficulties faced on with earlier
techniques. In a forced choice rating the rater is
required to consider not just one attribute, but
several characterstics all at one time.
Rater is asked to select one which is most
appropriate statement.
Ranking method
It is not possible that rater can accurately judge
equivalent distances at various points along the
scale. Under these conditions a ranking method
which requires only that subjects who are being
rated to be placed in order of each trait cab be
used. This approach is essential for large number
of persons are to be rated.
The ranking approach has the advantage of forcing
the judge to make a definite discriminations among
this rates by eliminating the subjective differences
faced by the judges, second advantage that group
ranking is uniform.
Q Short
Q Short is developed by Stephenson. It is one of
the best approach to obtain a comprehensive
description of an individual while ranking method
gives the comprehensive friction of a group of the
individuals. Q short is widely used for rating
persons School or on the job for individual
guidance.
SOME MAJOR APPROACHES TO SCALE
CONSTRUCTION
Thurstone scale
The outstanding features of this scale is the use of
judges to determine the points on the attitude
continuum. Thursone’s quantification of
judgement data represented a great achievement in
attitude scale construction. Several hundred
statements are gathered which seem to express
various degrees of negative and positive attitudes
towards the objects being studied. Several hundred
persons are then chosen as judges. Each judge is
handed all the statements and asked to sort them
into 11 piles from extremely favourable through
neutral to extremely unfavourable. The judges are
not to indicate their own attitudes but only classify
the statement. The medium position assigned to
each statement is regarded it’s scale value. The
variability of the judgement is taken as an index of
it’s ambiguity. Items are chosen so as to represent
minimum variability and a wide spread of scale
values, providing equal spacing across the 11-point
range. The Scale position for each item is
considered to be the median intensity judgement.
The final scale consists of twenty or so items
which spread most evenly over the intensity range.
Ideally, the items should have median intensity
judgement respectively of 0,0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and so on.
In the final form of the scale, the statements are
presented in random order, without giving any
indication of their scale values. The respondents’s
score is the median scale value of all the
statements be endorses.
By these procedures, Thurstone, (1959) and his co-
workers prepared about 20 scales for measuring
attitudes towards war, church, patriortrism, capital
punishment, censorship, and many other
institutions,, practices, issues and groups.
Likert-Type Scale
Likert (1932) developed a scale that is easier to
construct. At the same time it yields satisfactory
reliability. It also starts with the collection of a
large number of positive and negative statement
about an object. Judges are not employed in this
method. Instead, the scale is derived by item
analysis techniques. The items are administered to
a group of subjects. Each item is rated on a five
point continuum. Only those items which have
high correlation with total score are retained for
the attitude scale. The principal basis for item
selection is internal consistency. This method more
directly determines whether or not only one
attitude is involved in the items collected. On the
five point scale an individual gets scores from 5 to
1 for positive items and from 1 to 5 for negative
items. His final score is obtained by summing up
the item scores.
Comprising the Likert and Thurstone methods, the
Likert approach is more empirical because it dealts
directly with respondents score rather than
employing judges.
The Likert method more directly determines
whether or not only one attitude is involved in the
original collection of items
and the scale which is derived measures the most
general attitudinal factor which is present. The use
of a five points scale for each item provides more
information than the simple dictionary of agree or
disagree.
The only place in which the Thurstone method
mi9ght be superior is in the direct meaning-fulness
of scale scores but the Likert method fails to
provide absolute meaning.
The Likert also uses more statements as a rule,
therefore it is reliable than the Thurstone type.
Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory
It is a modified form of Likert-type Scale. Each
statement is to be marked in the same way on the
five point-scale. The numerical weights for these
responses are based on criterion keying, rather than
on the usual 1 to 5 scale. It was developed by
administering over 700 items to 100 teachers
nominated as superior in studentteacher
relationship and 100 teachers nominated as
inferior in this relationship. Cross-validation of
the final 150 item inventory in different groups
yielded concurrent- validity co-efficients of 0.46 to
0.60 with a composite criterion derived from the
principal’s estimate pupils rating and evaluation y
an expert. Subsequent longitudinal studies by the
author found predicitive validation against the
same criterion.
The Bogardus Social Distance Scale
Bogardus developed a technique for measuring
attitude towards different national groups. This
scaling procedure, such as the Thurstone and
Likert methods, the Bogardus scale is identified by
a novel type items in social distance form. The
Bogardus social distance scale is much easier to
construct than other scales.
The Guttman Method of Scale
An interesting new approach to attitudes scaling is
the procedure developed by Guttman in connection
with studies of the morale of American soldiers
during the second world war. The response pattern
found in the perfect Guttman Scale is exactly what
is obtained if people are rule-ordered on a
physical conditions. The purpose of the Guttman
procedure is to test whether or not a collection of
attitude statements will exhibit the characteristic
pattern.
INTEREST INVENTORY
The nature and strength of one’s interests
and attitudes represents an important aspect of
personality. These charecteristics materially affect
educational and occupational achievement
,interpersonal relations ,etc. The greatest aid to
attention is interest. Interest is A feeling both
painful or pleasure and is generally accompanied
by attention . Without interest however the
attention cannot hold for a long time. To secure
attention among students an effort has to be made
to evoke their interest in the classroom. One of the
cardinal aims of education is fostering many sided
interests of students .Broadly speaking interests are
our likes and dislikes. We are not born with
specific interests we acquire them due to
environmental stimulation. Healthy interests are
called ‘hobbies’. Achievement is a resultant of
aptitude and interest . The large majority of
interests inventories are designed to assess the
individual’s interest in different fields of work.
Meaning And Definition
Interests is a disposition in its
dynamic aspect. It is a feeling of liking associated
with a reaction . It is the motivating force that
impels one for activity . If an individual is
interested in a job he will probably like the job .As
interests are subjective experiences the direct way
to measure them is to ask the individual to report
his likes and dislikes .We measure interests from
the responses we get from the individual by
administering interest inventories .
In the words of Cronbach [1949],
interest is ” A tendency to seek out an activity or a
tendency to choose it rather than some
alternatives”
Qualitatively interests could be
classified under various headings such as social
interests, vocational interests intellectual interests
,scientific interests ,literacy and musical interests,
business interests ,etc. Many researcher studied
about the phenomenon of interests interms of their
duration their extensity, and their intensity
.Duration would denote the temporal aspects of
interests , extensity would denote the temporal
aspects of interests extensity would be described as
the number of interests which the individual is
showing and the intensity would denote the
strength in the interests.
Classification Of Interests.
Interest in an object or in an
activity reveals itself a heightening of attention to
it . Mainly three types of interests are their they are
;
[A] Expressed Interests : Expressed interest are
identified by asking a pupil to tell or write about
the activities , vocational and avocational interests
which a person most and least enjoys.
[B]Manifested Interests : Manifested interest may
be identified by directing and observing the pupil
or by finding out about his hobbies and other
activities .
[C] Interests inferred from tests : From tests also
interests can be inferred . Inventories are interests
that are measured with standardized instruments
which require a person to choose from a large
number of activities.
Types of Interest Inventories
In the year 1920, the Carnegie Institute of
Technology USA organized a Graduate seminar on
“Interest” . Interest at a time is considered as a
verbal expression of one’s aptitude. The interest
inventories are those which are designed to assess
the individual’s interest in different fields of work .
It is generally observed that what a person may say
about his interest. Interest inventories have
stimulative value and they have also informative
value.
The stimulative value of it is seen
from the fact that it encourages the person to have
a thoughtful self-scrutiny in depth. The
informative function of it is availed of due to the
fact that these are specially constructed to obtain
various informations regarding person’s likes and
dislikes . Interest inventories must be able to
identify not only a person’s specific likes and
dislikes but also the major trends of interest.
Researches have shown that the
measurement of a person’s present interests is a
means to provide symptoms indicative of what his
interests are likely to be in the future . Such an
assessment throws light on four possibilities of the
person;
1) It will indicate the probability of the actual work
of the occupation that the person is considering
well enough to identify himself with to follow it.
2) It will indicate the probability of finding himself
among congenial associates with similar interest
patterns as his own .
3) It will indicate the symptoms of his future
abilities .
4) It will suggest alternative fields of occupation
which may not yet have been seriously considered.
Measurement of Interest
 Interest has been pointed to be more
amenable to measurement than the measurement of
personality . E.K.Strong ,Jr. developed the first
Interest Inventory known as Strong’s Vocational
Interest Blank. Many instruments have been
instructed to measure different interests among
individuals. Tests and scales with a real
psychological meaning have been produced . Some
of the instruments employed in the measurement
of interest are given below;
[A] Interest Questionnaire for high school
students : In this questionnaire there are 68 items
indicating liking, indifference or dislike . The
questionnaire can predict success in the
curriculum of the subject’s choice more accurately
than it is predicted by a general intelligence test.
The instruments carefully and completely
constructed.
B] Strong’s Vocational Interest Blank :
This blank lists 100 occupations
,38 amusements 36 school subjects and contains 46
items having to do with types and peculiarities of
people. Responses are scored in terms of ‘L’[for
likes] and ‘D’ [for dislikes ], ‘I’ [for indifference].
Self rating of preferences , habits and traits are
also solicited. Generally this blank has been found
useful when combined with other criteria.
C] Vocational interest for women :
This has been constructed
particularly for women and follows the same
technique of construction and same general
organization as are embodied in the Vocational
Interest Blank for men. It includes references to
‘17’ occupations and the traits of masculinity-
feminity. The blanks has been standardized on
mature women. Its applicability is therefore,
limited.
D] Kurdar Preference Record:
It consist of 14 sets of ‘3’
choice items. There is no limits but the time
required is usually about 40 minutes .Scores are
classifiable into nine areas mechanical ,
computational, scientific , persuasive , artistic ,
literary, musical ,social service and the clerical
.The Preference records has been shown to be
reliable enough for counseling.
MOTIVATION SCALE

Motivation is of particular interest

to educational psychologists because of the crucial
role it plays in student learning. However, the
specific kind of motivation that is studied in the
specialized setting of education differs
qualitatively from the more general forms of
motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.
Motivation in education can have several effects
on how students learn and how they behave
towards subject matter. It can:

 Direct behavior toward particular goals

 Lead to increased effort and energy
  Increase initiation of, and persistence in,
activities
 Enhance cognitive processing
 Determine what consequences are
reinforcing
 Lead to improved performance.

Because students are not always internally

motivated, they sometimes need situated
motivation, which is found in environmental
conditions that the teacher creates. If teachers
decided to extrinsically reward productive student
behaviors, they may find it difficult to extricate
themselves from that path. Consequently, student
dependency on extrinsic rewards represents one of
the greatest detractors from their use in the
classroom. Generally, motivation is conceptualized
as either intrinsic or extrinsic.

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are

internally motivated to do something because it
either brings them pleasure, they think it is
important, or they feel that what they are learning
is significant. Extrinsic motivation comes into play
when a student is compelled to do something or act
a certain way because of factors external to him or
her (like money or good grades).
Thematic Apperception Test

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is

a projective psychological test. Proponents of the
technique assert that subjects' responses, in the
narratives they make up about ambiguous pictures
of people, reveal their underlying motives,
concerns, and the way they see the social
world. Historically, the test has been among the
most widely researched, taught, and used of such
techniques.

The TAT was developed during the 1930s

by the American psychologist Henry A.
Murray and lay psychoanalyst Christiana D.
Morgan at the Harvard Clinic at Harvard
University.Murray wanted to use a measure that
would reveal information about the whole person
but found the contemporary tests of his time
lacking in this regard. Therefore, he created the
TAT. The rationale behind the technique is that
people tend to interpret ambiguous situations in
accordance with their own past experiences and
current motivations, which may be conscious or
unconscious. Murray reasoned that by asking
people to tell a story about a picture, their defenses
to the examiner would be lowered as they would
not realize the sensitive personal information they
were divulging by creating the story. Later, in the
1970s, the Human Potential Movement encouraged
psychologists to use the TAT to help their clients
understand themselves better and
stimulate personal growth.