Chapter 18 Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory

Chapter 18
Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning
Theory

Learning Objectives

After reading Chapter 18, you should be able to:

1. List Rotter's four variables of prediction and briefly explain each.

2. Discuss Rotter's basic prediction formula and its uses.

3. List and give examples of Rotter's categories of needs.

4. Discuss Rotter's generalized expectancies and their measurement.

5. Explain the difference between internal and external control and list
several misconceptions regarding internal and external control of
reinforcement.

6. Discuss Mischel's conditional view of personal dispositions.

7. Critique Mischel's notion of the consistency paradox.

8. Discuss Mischel and Shoda's cognitive-affective view of personality.

9. List and discuss Mischel and Shoda's cognitive-affective units.

10. Discuss research on Rotter's locus of control model.

1. Overview of Cognitive Social Learning Theory

Both Julian Rotter and Walter Mischel believe that cognitive
factors, more than immediate reinforcements, determine how
people will react to environmental forces. Both theorists suggest
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 Chapter 18 Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory

that our expectations of future events are major determinants of

performance.
II. Biography of Julian Rotter
Julian Rotter was born in Brooklyn, New York in 1916. As a high
school student, he became familiar with some of the writings of
Freud and Adler, but he majored in chemistry rather than
psychology at Brooklyn College. In 1941, he received a PhD in
clinical psychology from Indiana University. After World War II,
he took a position at Ohio State, where one of his students was
Walter Mischel. In 1963, he moved to the University of
Connecticut and has remained there since retirement.
III. Introduction to Rotter's Social Learning Theory
Rotter's ​interactionist​ theory is based on five basic hypotheses.
First, it assumes that ​humans interact with their meaningful
environments​: that is, human behavior stems from the interaction
of environmental and personal factors (Rotter). Second, ​human
personality is learned​, which suggests it can be changed or
modified as long as people are capable of learning. Third,
personality has a basic unity​, suggesting that personality has some
basic stability. Fourth, ​motivation is goal directed​, and fifth, p​ eople
are capable of anticipating events​, and thus they are capable of
changing their environments and their personalities.
IV. Predicting Specific Behaviors
Rotter suggested four variables that must be analyzed in order to
make accurate predictions in any specific situation. These
variables are behavior potential, expectancy, reinforcement value,
and the psychological situation.
A. Behavior Potential
Behavior potential is the possibility that a particular response will
occur at a given time and place in relation to its likely
reinforcement.
B. Expectancy
People's expectancy in any given situation is their confidence that
a particular reinforcement will follow a specific behavior in a
specific situation or situations. Expectancies can be either general
or specific, and the overall likelihood of success is a function of
both generalized and specific expectancies.
C. Reinforcement Value
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Reinforcement value is a person's preference for any particular

reinforcement over other reinforcements if all are equally likely to
occur. ​Internal reinforcement​ ​is the individual's perception of an
event, whereas ​external reinforcement​ refers to society's
evaluation of an event. ​Reinforcement-reinforcement sequences
suggest that the value of an event is a function of one's expectation
that a particular reinforcement will lead to future reinforcements.
D. Psychological Situation
The psychological situation is that part of the external and internal
world to which a person is responding. Behavior is a function of
the interaction of people with their meaningful environment.
E. Basic Prediction Formula
Hypothetically, in any specific situation, behavior can be predicted
by the ​basic prediction formula,​ which states that the potential for a
behavior to occur in a particular situation in relation to a given
reinforcement is a function of people's expectancy that their
behavior will be followed by that reinforcement in that situation.
V. Predicting General Behaviors
The basic prediction is too specific to give clues about how a
person will generally behave.
A. Generalized Expectancies
To make more general predictions of behavior, one must know
people's generalized expectancies, or their expectations based on
similar past experiences that a given behavior will be reinforced.
Generalized expectancies include people's needs, that is, behaviors
that move them toward a goal.
B. Needs
Needs refer to functionally related categories of behaviors. Rotter
listed six broad ​categories of needs​, with each need being related to
behaviors that lead to the same or similar reinforcements: (1)
r​ecognition-status​ refers to the need to excel, to achieve, and to
have others recognize one's worth; (2) ​dominance​ is the need to
control the behavior of others, to be in charge, or to gain power
over others; (3) ​independence​ is the need to be free from the
domination of others; (4) ​protection-dependence​ is the need to
have others take care of us and to protect us from harm; (5) ​love
and affection​ are needs to be warmly accepted by others and to be
held in friendly regard; and (6) ​physical comfort​ includes those
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behaviors aimed at securing food, good health, and physical

security. Three ​need components​ are: (1) ​need potential​, or the
possible occurrences of a set of functionally related behaviors
directed toward the satisfaction of similar goals; (2) ​freedom of
movement,​ or a person's overall expectation of being reinforced
for performing those behaviors that are directed toward satisfying
some general need; and (3) ​need value​, or the extent to which
people prefer one set of reinforcements to another. Need
components are analogous to the more specific concepts of
behavior potential, expectancy, and reinforcement value.
C. General Prediction Formula
The general prediction formula states that need potential is a
function of freedom of movement and need value. Rotter's two
most famous scales for measuring generalized expectancies are the
Internal-External Control Scale ​and the ​Interpersonal Trust Scale.
D. Internal and External Control of Reinforcement
The Internal-External Control Scale (popularly called "locus of
control scale") attempts to measure the degree to which people
perceive a causal relationship between their own efforts and
environmental consequences.
E. Interpersonal Trust Scale
The Interpersonal Trust Scale measures the extent to which a
person expects the word or promise of another person to be true.
VI. Maladaptive Behavior
Rotter defined maladaptive behavior as any persistent behavior that
fails to move a person closer to a desired goal. It is usually the
result of unrealistically high goals in combination with low ability
to achieve them.
VII. Psychotherapy
In general, the goal of Rotter's therapy is to achieve harmony
between a client's freedom of movement and need value. The
therapist is actively involved in trying to (1) change the client's
goals and (2) eliminate the client’s low expectancies for success.
A. Changing Goals
Maladaptive behaviors follow from three categories of
inappropriate goals: (1) conflict between goals, (2) destructive
goals, and (3) unrealistically lofty goals.
B. Eliminating Low Expectancies
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In helping clients change low expectancies of success, Rotter uses

a variety of approaches, including reinforcing positive behaviors,
ignoring inappropriate behaviors, giving advice, modeling
appropriate behaviors, and pointing out the long-range
consequences of both positive and negative behaviors.
VIII. Introduction to Mischel's Personality System
Like Bandura and Rotter, Mischel believes that cognitive factors,
such as expectancies, subjective perceptions, values, goals, and
personal standards are important in shaping personality. In his
early theory, Mischel seriously questioned the consistency of
personality, but more recently, he and Yuichi Shoda have
advanced the notion that behavior is also a function of relatively
stable cognitive-affective units.
IX. Biography of Walter Mischel
Walter Mischel was born in Vienna in 1930, the second son of
upper-middle-class parents. When the Nazis invaded Austria in
1938, his family moved to the United States and eventually settled
in Brooklyn. Mischel received an MA from City College of New
York and a PhD from Ohio State, where he was influenced by
Julian Rotter. He is currently a professor at Columbia University.
X. Background of the Cognitive-Affective Personality System
Mischel originally believed that human behavior was mostly a
function of the situation, but more lately he has recognized the
importance of relatively permanent cognitive-affective units.
Nevertheless, Mischel's theory continues to recognize the apparent
inconsistency of some behaviors.
A. The Consistency Paradox
The consistency paradox​ ​refers to the observation that, although
both lay people and professionals tend to believe that behavior is
quite consistent, research suggests that it is not. Mischel
recognizes that, indeed, some traits are consistent over time, but he
contends that there is little evidence to suggest they are consistent
from one situation to another.
B. Person-Situation Interaction
Mischel believes that behavior is best predicted from an
understanding of the ​person,​ the​ s​ ituation, ​and the​ ​interaction
between person and situation. Thus, behavior is not the result of

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some global personality trait, but rather of people's perceptions of

themselves in a particular situation.
XI. Cognitive-Affective Personality System
However, Mischel does not believe that inconsistencies in behavior
are due solely to the situation; he recognizes that inconsistent
behaviors reflect ​stable patterns of variation ​within a person. He
and Shoda see these stable variations in behavior in the following
framework: ​If A, then X; but if B, then Y​.​ People's pattern of
variability is their ​behavioral signature,​ or their unique and stable
pattern of behaving differently in different situations.
A. Behavior Prediction
Mischel's basic theoretical position for predicting and explaining
behavior is as follows: If personality is a stable system that
processes information about the situation, then as people encounter
different situations, they should behave differently as those
situations vary. Therefore, Mischel believes that, even though
people's behavior may reflect some stability over time, it tends to
vary as situations vary.
B. Situation Variables
Situation variables include all those stimuli that people attend to in
a given situation.
C. Cognitive-Affective Units
Cognitive-affective units include all those psychological, social,
and physiological aspects of people that permit them to interact
with their environment with some stability in their behavior.
Mischel identified five such units. First are ​encoding strategies​,
or people's individualized manner of categorizing information they
receive from external stimuli. Second are the ​competencies and
self-regulatory strategies​. One of the most important of these
competencies is intelligence, which Mischel argues is responsible
for the apparent consistency of other traits. In addition, people use
self-regulatory strategies to control their own behavior through
self-formulated goals and self-produced consequences. The third
cognitive-affective units are ​expectancies and beliefs​, or people's
guesses​ a​ bout the consequences of each of the different behavioral
possibilities. The fourth cognitive-affective unit includes people's
subjective goals and values,​ which tend to render behavior fairly
consistent. Mischel's fifth cognitive-affective unit includes
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affective responses​, including emotions, feelings, and the affect

that accompanies physiological reactions.
XII. Related Research
The theories of both Rotter and Mischel have sparked an
abundance of related research, with Rotter's ​locus of control ​being
one of the most frequently researched areas in psychology, and
Mischel's notion of ​delay of gratification,​ and Mischel and Shoda's
cognitive-affective personality system​ ​also receiving wide
attention.
A. Locus of Control, Depression, and Suicide
During the genocide of 6 million Jews by the Nazis during World
War II, only one half of one percent of people in Nazi-occupied
territory helped Jewish neighbors whose lives were in peril (Oliner
& Oliner, 1988), in part because the peril to their own lives
equaled the danger to the lives of those they assisted. Elizabeth
Midlarsky and her colleagues wanted to use personality variables
to predict who was a Holocaust hero and who was a bystander
during World War II (Midlarsky, Fagin Jones, & Corley, 2005).
One of the personality variables they selected was locus of control,
along with autonomy, risk taking, social responsibility,
authoritarianism, empathy, and altruistic moral reasoning. They
found that internal locus of control was positively related to more
autonomy, risk taking, sense of social responsibility, tolerance,
empathy, and altruistic moral reasoning, and to less
authoritarianism. Statistical analysis supported the researchers’
hypothesis that personality would predict who was a hero and who
was not, being correct 93% of the time. A higher sense of internal
control was associated with heroism in this study.
B. Person-Situation Interaction
Mischel and associates have reported hundreds of studies
influenced by his cognitive-affective personality system. These
studies—which are based on the statement, "If I am in situation A,
then I do X; but If I am in situation B, then​ I do Y." ​These
studies have generally supported Mischel and Shoda's conception
of the conditional nature of human behavior. One of Mischel’s
students, Lara Kammrath, and her colleagues recently conducted
an elegant study (2005) illustrating the “If…then…” framework
very clearly (Kammrath, Mendoza-Denton, & Mischel, 2005).
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This study showed that people understand the if-then framework

and use it when judging others; in other words, the average person
understands that people behave differently in different situations,
and depending on their personality, people adjust their behavior to
match the situation. Mischel and colleagues conducted further
studies on the conditional nature of dispositions (Mendoza-Denton,
Ayduck, Mischel, Shoda, &Testa, 2001), and found that
conditional and interactionist self-evaluations tend to buffer
negative reactions to failure. They concluded that their
conceptualization of the person-situation environment as
social-cognitive and interactionist is more applicable to
understanding human behavior than the traditional,
“decontextualized” views of personality, in which people behave
in a given way regardless of the context.
XIII. Critique of Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Cognitive social learning theory combines the rigors of learning
theory with the speculative assumption that people are
forward-looking beings. It rates high on generating research,
internal consistency; it rates about average on its ability to be
falsified, to organize data, and to guide action.
XIV. Concept of Humanity
Rotter and Mischel see people as goal-directed, cognitive animals
whose perceptions of events are more crucial than the events
themselves. Cognitive social learning theory rates very high on
social influences, and high on uniqueness of the individual, free
choice, teleology, and conscious processes. On the dimension of
optimism versus pessimism, Rotter's view is slightly more
optimistic, whereas Mischel's is about in the middle.

Test Items

Fill-in-the-Blanks

1. The theories of Rotter and Mischel are ________________-directed,

meaning that they see people as being guided by their expectations of
the future.

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2. As an interactionist, Rotter believes that a combination of

environmental and __________________ variables are responsible for
behavior.

3. Any condition that moves a person toward a ___________________

defines Rotter's empirical law of effect.

4. Behavior _________________ refers to the likelihood that a given

behavior will occur in a particular situation.

5. People's expectation of being reinforced is called their

____________________________.

6. Behavior potential is a function of both ___________________ value

and expectancy.

7. External ____________________ includes events, conditions, or

actions that our culture values.

8. Rotter sees people as ________________ animals whose perceptions

of events are more important than the events themselves.

9. The need to be free of the domination of others is called

______________________.

10. Need _________________________ refers to the possible occurrence

of a set of functionally related behaviors directed toward the
satisfaction of the same or similar goals.

11. Internal control of reinforcement is a ____________________

expectancy.

12. Rotter sees _______________________ behavior as those actions that

fail to move a person closer to a desired goal.

13. Mischel proposed a _______________________ view of personal

dispositions that suggests that behavior is caused by people's
perception of themselves in a particular situation.
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14. The ______________________ paradox refers to the observation that

many people believe that behavior is stable from one situation to
another despite evidence that it is not.

15. Mischel and Shoda's cognitive-____________________ personality

system suggests that behavior reflects stable patterns of variation.

16. Intelligence is a ________________________ variable and may be

one reason why traits are as consistent as they are.

17. Our ____________________ strategies enable us to categorize

information from external stimuli.

18. Mischel's cognitive-affective personality system suggests that

behavior is largely shaped by an interaction of _________________
personality traits and the situation.

19. Behavior _____________________ expectancies refer to people's

guesses about the results of their behavior.

20. Rotter's concept of ________________ of control is one of the most

frequently researched areas in psychology.

True-False

_____1. Rotter's theory is future-oriented; that is, it allows for a person's

expectations of future events.

_____2. Rotter believes that personality is shaped solely by one's

environment.

_____3. Rotter believes the individual is solely responsible for behavior.

_____4. Rotter assumes that motivation is goal-directed.

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_____5. While still an adolescent, Rotter was influenced by the writings

of Alfred Adler.

_____6. Behavior potential and expectancy are variables used in

predicting general behaviors.

_____7. Freedom of movement is analogous to the concept of

expectancy.

_____8. According to Rotter, people's psychological situation is more

important than their physical environment.

_____9. One of the components of Rotter's general prediction formula is

freedom of movement.

____10. Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale classifies people into

two distinct groups.

____11. Interpersonal trust refers to the belief that people are naturally
good.

____12. A person who scores high on the Interpersonal Trust Scale is

likely to believe that most people can be counted on to do what
they say they will do.

____13. Rotter believes that maladaptive behavior inevitably arises from

the combination of high need value and low freedom of
movement.

____14. The personality theory of Mischel and Shoda is called behavioral

social learning theory.

____15. Mischel's theory of personality shows the influence of both

Bandura and Rotter.

____16. Mischel was born in Vienna, at a time when Carl Jung was
living there.

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____17. Mischel believes that behavior is much more consistent than

most psychologists assume.

____18. During the late 1920s, Hartshorne and May found that school
children who were honest in one situation were also honest in
other situations.

____19. Mischel holds that people have no consistent traits or

dispositions.

____20. Mischel and Shoda argue that inconsistencies in a person's

behavior are due solely to the situation.

Multiple Choice

______1. Rotter's theory assumes that

a. most human motivation is unconscious.
b. motivation is goal directed.
c. natural selection determines behavior.
d. people are primarily motivated to reduce tension.

______2. An event or condition that moves a person toward a goal would

express Rotter's concept of
a. the purposive postulate.
b. empirical determinism.
c. metamotivation.
d. dynamic dualism.
e. the empirical law of effect.

______3. Which of these is NOT one of Rotter's four variables of

prediction?
a. expectancy
b. locus of control
c. the psychological situation
d. reinforcement value
e. behavior potential

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______4. Behavior potential in any situation is a function of

reinforcement value and
a. interpersonal trust.
b. need value.
c. expectancy.
d. internal locus of control.

______5. Behavioral potential can be predicted when reinforcement

value is held constant and
a. expectancy is also held constant.
b. expectancy varies.
c. drive strength is held constant.
d. drive strength varies.

______6. Rotter called a person's subjective perception of the value of an

event
a. the empirical law of effect
b. generalized expectancy
c. external reinforcement
d. internal reinforcement
e. negative reinforcement

______7. Rotter's basic prediction formula states that behavior potential

is a function of a person's expectancy that behavior will be
followed by reinforcement in a particular situation and by
a. one's physical comfort.
b. need potential.
c. reinforcement value.
d. freedom of movement.

______8. The basic prediction formula is most useful for making specific
predictions. To make more generalized predictions, Rotter
introduced the concept of
a. needs.
b. cognition.
c. goals.
d. reinforcement value.

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_____9. Which of these is NOT included among Rotter's list of needs?

a. physical comfort
b. dominance
c. esteem
d. love and affection
e. independence

_____10. The specific concept of expectancy is analogous to this term in

the general prediction formula.
a. need potential
b. need value
c. freedom of movement
d. reinforcement value

_____11. The extent to which a person prefers one set of reinforcements

to another is called ______.
a. need potential
b. the law of effect
c. need value
d. interpersonal trust

_____12. In the general prediction formula, need potential is a function

of freedom of movement and
a. expectancy.
b. reinforcement value.
c. interpersonal trust.
d. need value.

_____13. The Internal-External Control Scale measures

a. interpersonal trust.
b. generalized expectancies.
c. two types of people.
d. freedom of movement and need value.

_____ 14. The Interpersonal Trust Scale measures

a. belief that people are naturally good.
b. belief that we live in the best of all possible worlds.
c. belief in behavior-outcome expectancies.
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d. belief that one can rely on other people.

_____15. Low freedom of movement and high need value are most likely to produce
a. a favorable outcome.
b. guilt.
c. conflict.
d. performance accomplishments.
e. shame.

_____16. Compared with Bandura and Rotter, Walter Mischel placed more emphasis
on
a. unconscious motivation.
b. self-efficacy.
c. generalized expectancies.
d. interpersonal trust.
e. delay of gratification.

_____17. Mischel's consistency paradox states that

a. human behavior is quite consistent from childhood to old age.
b. human behavior is much less consistent than most people realize.
c. most people regard behavior as relatively variable whereas empirical
evidence suggests that it is quite consistent.
d. most people regard behavior as relatively consistent, whereas empirical
evidence suggests that it is quite variable.

_____18. Mischel assumed that behavior

a. is consistent from one situation to another.
b. is shaped by the interaction of person variables and situations variables.
c. is determined by genetic factors and personal variables.
d. is a hypothetical construct and thus is beyond scientific analysis.

_____19. Mischel and Shoda's system that accounts for variability across situations
as well as stability of behavior within the person is called a
a. consistency paradox system.
b. cognitive-affective personality system.
c. trait and factor system.
d. variable disposition system.

_____20. Mischel and Shoda use the term behavioral signature of

personality to refer to
a. a person's pattern of variability of behavior.
b. personality as revealed by graphology.
c. a set of stylistic traits that guide behavior.
d. a set of motivational traits that generate behavior.

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_____21. Which of these is NOT one of Mischel's person variables?

a. locus of control
b. competencies
c. expectancies
d. encoding strategies

_____22. Mischel and Moore found that children who were encouraged
to imagine real rewards while viewing pictures of rewards
a. were able to wait the entire test time for their rewards.
b. could not wait as long for the rewards as children who were
exposed to pictures of rewards.
c. could not wait as long for the rewards as children who were
exposed to the actual rewards.
d. could not wait as long as children who were exposed to no
rewards.

_____23. Rotter's concept of humanity assumes that people

a. are motivated by their view of events more than by the events
themselves.
b. are motivated by unconscious needs.
c. react to events rather than interacting with their meaningful
environments.
d. have unlimited free will.
e. are motivated primarily by past experiences.

_____24. Mischel's cognitive-active personality system conceptualizes

humans as
a. being motivated mostly by personal dispositions.
b. being goal-directed and active, not passively reactive.
c. primarily motivated by past experiences with rewards.
d. shaped largely by an interaction of variable personality traits and
the situation.

Short Answer

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 Chapter 18 Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory

1. Explain the difference between Rotter's concepts of need potential and

behavior potential.

2. Name and briefly discuss Rotter's two most famous scales for
measuring generalized expectancies.

3. State Rotter's goal of therapy and name two ways of achieving this
goal.

4. Name and briefly define the five cognitive-affective units suggested

by Mischel.

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5. Define the consistency paradox.

Answers

Fill-in-the-Blanks​ ​True-False ​ ​Multiple Choice

1. goal 1. T 1. b
2. personal 2. F 2. e
3. goal 3. F 3. b
4. potential 4. T 4. c
5. expectancy 5. T 5. b
6. reinforcement 6. F 6. d
7. reinforcement 7. F 7. c
8. cognitive 8. T 8. a
9. independence 9. T 9. c
10. potential 10. F 10. c
11. generalized 11. F 11. c
12. maladaptive 12. T 12. d
13. conditional 13. F 13. b
14. consistency 14. F 14. d
15. affective 15. T 15. c
16. competency 16. F 16. e
17. encoding 17. F 17. d
18. stable 18. F 18. b
19. outcome 19. F 19. b
20. locus 20. F 20. a
21. T 21. a
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22. T 22. b
23. a
24. b

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