molecules

Review
Continuous Flow Photochemistry for the Preparation
of Bioactive Molecules
Mara Di Filippo, Cormac Bracken and Marcus Baumann *
School of Chemistry, University College Dublin, Science Centre South, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland;
[email protected] (M.D.F.); [email protected] (C.B.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +353-01-617-2117

Academic Editors: Gioiello Antimo and Cerra Bruno




Received: 28 December 2019; Accepted: 10 January 2020; Published: 15 January 2020

Abstract: The last decade has witnessed a remarkable development towards improved and new
photochemical transformations in response to greener and more sustainable chemical synthesis
needs. Additionally, the availability of modern continuous flow reactors has enabled widespread
applications in view of more streamlined and custom designed flow processes. In this focused review
article, we wish to evaluate the standing of the field of continuous flow photochemistry with a
specific emphasis on the generation of bioactive entities, including natural products, drugs and their
precursors. To this end we highlight key developments in this field that have contributed to the
progress achieved to date. Dedicated sections present the variety of suitable reactor designs and
set-ups available; a short discussion on the relevance of greener and more sustainable approaches;
and selected key applications in the area of bioactive structures. A final section outlines remaining
challenges and areas that will benefit from further developments in this fast-moving area. It is hoped
that this report provides a valuable update on this important field of synthetic chemistry which may
fuel developments in the future.

Keywords: continuous flow chemistry; photochemistry; photocatalysis; bioactive molecules;

medicinal chemistry; process development; enabling technologies

1. Introduction
The last decade has witnessed a much-welcomed renaissance and subsequent exploitation of
photochemical transformations within the chemistry community. This renewed interest in utilizing light
to bring about chemical reactions is largely fueled by a desire to realize more sustainable approaches
for target molecule synthesis, along with significant advances in the field of photoredox catalysis
where both transition metals and organic dyes have been exploited. The availability of suitable
light sources, ranging from light-emitting diodes (LED) to continuous fluorescent lamps (CFL) and
powerful UV lamps (e.g., medium-pressure mercury lamp), furthermore, has driven this development.
Consequently, a plethora of known and newly developed photoreactions has been reported in the
literature, rendering facile access to diverse chemical entities through selective transformations that
oftentimes offer orthogonal approaches to the synthetic chemist [1–6].
In addition, continuous flow technology [7–13] has had a major impact on popularizing
photochemical reactions, as it not only provides the tools to effectively perform photochemical
reactions, but moreover helps overcoming limitations that are inherent to photochemistry. As such, the
short path lengths provided by narrow, light-permeable tubing ensure that light can easily penetrate
the substrate solution, thereby mitigating limitations commonly arising from the Beer–Lambert law.
Furthermore, by placing the light source near the reactor coil or microchip of the flow set-up, very
efficient and uniform radiation of the substrate can be achieved. Oftentimes low-energy, tunable
light sources are favored in combination with suitable cooling mechanisms to effectively control

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both temperature and energy input. Finally, continuous flow processing allows for simple reaction
scale-up of the resulting photoreaction without alteration of reaction parameters and the short residence
times within the photoreactor reduce the likelihood of decomposition of substrate or product due
to over-radiation.
As a consequence of the successful union of flow reactor technology with modern photochemical
applications, a growing body of literature has emerged, including topical reviews by leading experts
in the field [14–17]. As the field of continuous flow photosynthesis is moving forward at fast pace,
we wish to provide a focused review on its impact on generating bioactive molecules [18–20]. This
appears both timely and paramount, as the last ten years have provided the foundations to now apply
continuous photochemistry to the syntheses of various biologically active entities—drugs, natural
products and their precursors. In addition, we wished to evaluate whether there had been significant
uptake of this technology by chemists outside traditional academic laboratories and whether flow
photochemistry had advanced to be a viable option to generating bioactive molecules in industrial
settings. To accomplish this, we first review the design of various reactor types and outline innovative
aspects that aid in overcoming traditional bottlenecks. The second section investigates progress on
continuous photochemical approaches targeting greener and more sustainable synthesis means. That is
then followed by a dedicated section reviewing recent applications of photochemical transformations
to enable the formation of bioactive species, before an assessment of the feasibility of readily integrating
photochemical transformations into advanced multistep sequences in flow mode.

2. Reactor Design and Technology

The diminishing penetration depth of light into solutions of substrates is one of the major challenges
that has prevented effective exploitation of photochemistry in research settings. This phenomenon,
described by the Beer–Lambert law, means that photochemical batch processes that typically suffer
from poor mass transfer cannot be scaled effectively. Consequently, most batch photo-reactors (e.g.,
Rayonet reactor) use a set of lamps closely arranged around the reaction vessel to maximize irradiation.
Alternatively, a single light source may be placed at the center of a double jacketed reaction vessel to
irradiate the solution in an inverse arrangement. In both cases, appropriate cooling mechanisms are
vital to ensure effective dissipation of the heat generated by the lamps.
The superior performance of continuous flow reactors over batch systems arises from
miniaturization of mixing and reactor elements that results in excellent mass and heat transfer.
Therefore, chemists and chemical engineers have taken inspiration from flow reactor designs to address
the aforementioned challenges regarding photochemical reactors. Consequently, several diverse
and effective flow reactor designs have been reported over the last decade and applied to different
photochemical transformations [21].
An example by Oelgemöller and coworkers [22] demonstrates a falling film reactor set-up to
bring about the effective photooxygenation of α-terpinene in the presence of Rose Bengal to generate
ascaridole (Figure 1). More recently, the Corning reactor system that is based on irradiated reactor plates
has gained popularity as it allows one to effectively perform continuous photochemical reactions at
various scales. In this system, panels of LEDs are arranged next to mesofluidic reactor plates, allowing
for uniform radiation of the substrate solution. Published examples include the photooxidation of
methionine, α-terpinene or citronellol in the presence of organic dyes (e.g., Rose Bengal, methylene
blue or tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl)porphyrin) [23,24].
Molecules 2020, 25, 356 3 of 13

Figure 1. Images of a falling film reactor plate (reproduced with permission from [25]) and the Corning
G3 photoreactor [26].

Another approach to realize such photooxygenation reactions in a continuous manner was

reported by Pergantis and Vassilikogiannakis, who developed a nebulizer-based photo-reactor [27].
Therein, an aerosol is generated and sprayed into an irradiated reaction chamber by mixing a stream of
air or oxygen with the substrate solution. Low-energy LED strips are mounted around this chamber
providing uniform radiation of the aerosol, which upon condensation is collected at the outlet of this
set-up (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Image of the nebulizer-based photo-reactor (reproduced with permission from [27]).

Related applications that also exploit thin films were recently reported by Poliakoff and George
who used a modified rotary evaporator set up (Figure 3). In this case substrate solutions are delivered
into the rotating flask via the side port of the set-up. LEDs or UV–Vis lamps effectively irradiate the
film generated rendering a system that can be run either continuously or semi-continuously based on
low budget components that are readily available in research laboratories [28].

Figure 3. Image of the photochemical reactor set up (reproduced with permission from [28]).

Raston and Stubbs recently reported on a vortex fluidic device that comprises a
temperature-controlled reactor zone into which the substrate solution can be delivered continuously
(Figure 4). The resulting thin film again provides a high surface-to-volume ratio, and thus enables
effective and uniform irradiation. This was effectively demonstrated for the generation of new C–C
bonds via photo-redox transformations [29].
Molecules 2020, 25, 356 4 of 13

Figure 4. Representations of the vortex fluidic device. (A) A schematic of the vortex fluidic device; (B)
A photograph of the vortex fluidic device; (reproduced with permission from [30]).

In order to enable large scale generation of desired photo-products, Booker-Milburn and co-workers
recently reported on a new photo-flow reactor known as Firefly (Figure 5). In this set-up, several
parallel tubes are interconnected and arranged around a powerful light source (e.g., 400 W Hg-lamp).
Equipped with an effective cooling mechanism, this reactor provides an internal volume of 120 mL
and can deliver multigram quantities of photo-adducts per minute, which can be scaled to kilogram
quantities per day [31].

Figure 5. Representations of the firefly photoreactor. (a) Diagram of reactor; (b) Firefly reactor in
operation; (reproduced with permission from [31]) .

In addition to the above photo-flow reactors that display innovative engineering to uniquely
resolve limitations known from batch applications, a variety of photochemical reactors exist that
are readily integrated with commercial flow modules. These are typically based on reactor coils
made of various fluorinated polymers that are combined with suitable light sources ranging from
LEDs to medium pressure Hg lamps. Examples of these systems include Vapourtec’s UV150 and
high-power LED reactor (e.g., [32–34]) system and Uniqsis’s PhotoSyn (e.g., [35,36]), as depicted in
Figure 6. Due to their modular nature, these systems are easy to use in everyday lab applications, and
can be complemented with broad-band filters or dedicated photo-spectrometers. The popularity and
effectiveness of these continuous flow photoreactors can be seen in many applications that have been
reported over the years.
Molecules 2020, 25, 356 5 of 13

Figure 6. Images of the Vapourtec high-power LED reactor and Uniqsis’s PhotoSyn reactor.

As can be seen from this compilation of continuous photo-reactors, numerous reactor types
have been developed, and their successful application to different types of chemical reactions
(i.e., cycloadditions, photooxygenations, etc.) demonstrates how limitations inherent to batch
photochemistry can be overcome by appropriately engineered devices. All these systems have
short pathlengths in common that result from thin films or small tubing diameters, and thus enable
the effective and uniform irradiation of molecules. In addition, continuous flow processing ensures
homogeneous irradiation profiles without over-irradiating substrates that might otherwise lead to
undesired side reactions and accompanying discoloration of reaction products.

3. Greener and More Sustainable Approaches

Photochemistry is recognized as a valuable means for making new molecules, not only because it
complements traditional thermal reactions, but also as it utilizes photons as cheap and readily available
reagent equivalents. As such, photons may be viewed as traceless inputs, whose energy can be tuned
based on their wavelength via Planck’s equation. Together with the notion that continuous flow
chemistry may offer a more sustainable technology for chemical synthesis compared to traditional
batch chemistry [37–40], this suggests that flow photochemistry is a green and almost ideal approach
towards the synthesis of target molecules. In fact, photochemical transformations share this feature
with electrochemical syntheses, as discussed in a recent comparative study [41]. While several articles
have reported on the greener credentials of flow chemistry, and photochemistry potentially provides
a cleaner means to making molecules, this section attempts to assess the remaining limitations of
continuous flow photochemistry in this context.
One key to successfully performing photochemical reactions is the exploitation of appropriate
light sources that emit photons of suitable wavelength to bring about a desired transformation. While
traditional applications have been based on UV light, modern photochemical transformations such as
those based on photoredox catalysis, commonly exploit LEDs. This change is desirable not only as it
allows one to use lower energy light sources (≈10 W for LED versus ≈100 W for Hg lamp) that provide
better selectivity, but also as considerably less heat is generated by LEDs. Consequently, using LEDs
oftentimes avoids the need for high-power cooling systems, and concurrently minimizes the formation
of thermal side-products. Arguably, the availability of LEDs delivering light of specific wavelengths
contributes to more energy efficient chemical synthesis. In this vein, Ryu and co-workers reported in
an early study on the energy efficiency of various light sources used in a typical [2 + 2]-cycloaddition
reaction [42]. This comparative study evaluated a Hg lamp (300 W), a black light source (15 W) and
an UV LED (1.7 W), and found that the LED not only gave the highest yield, but with a significantly
higher energy efficiency.
Noël and co-workers [43,44] have recently described the exploitation of solar light in continuous
flow settings. The use of solar light is highly attractive [45]—and in fact the first photochemical
transformations were studied using sunlight [46,47] (many of which are associated with the pioneering
Molecules 2020, 25, 356 6 of 13

works of Cannizzaro, Paterno and Ciamician); however, the heterogeneity of solar light (≈5% UV, ≈43%
visible, ≈52% IR), together with inconsistent photon flux (seasons, cloud coverage, day/night pattern
and geographical impact), make this approach challenging. In order to mitigate these challenges,
luminescent solar concentrators (LSC, Figure 7) can be used to down-convert solar radiation to
low-energy visible light that matches the absorption of specific photo-redox catalysts (e.g., methylene
blue) which would then enable a given transformation. In such set-ups most of the incoming solar light
is thus down-converted by fluorescent dyes embedded within the LSC, and transported within the
device to microchannels where it is absorbed by a specific photocatalyst that triggers a chemical reaction.
Although this technology is attractive, inevitable fluctuations in solar light input may require this
approach to be coupled with conventional light sources to achieve a consistent photochemical process.

Figure 7. Exploiting solar light for scaled luminescent solar concentrators (LSC) applications
(reproduced with permission from [48]).

Besides the availability and use of suitable and energy-efficient light sources, a further challenge
impacting the sustainability of photochemical reactions is the excessive use of solvents. An inherent
problem in photochemistry is the requirement for high dilutions to favor productive interactions
between photons and substrate (or catalyst) molecules. Therefore, most photochemical reactions are
run at or below concentrations of 20 mM, which in turn results in the generation of copious amounts of
solvent waste. It is therefore paramount to develop effective photochemical transformations based
on non-hazardous solvents such as water, alcohols, acetone and ethyl acetate. Additionally, future
continuous photoreactions should aim to incorporate solvent recycling systems whilst striving for
processes that are tolerant to higher effective concentrations. Recent progress in this area has already
highlighted the feasibility of performing multi-phasic photoreactions in slug-flow where suspensions
of substrate and/or photocatalyst can be processed through microchannels. Micro-mixing can be
achieved by Taylor flow in between immiscible phases (liquid/liquid, liquid/gas), which enhances the
performance of such systems ([49]).

4. Synthesis of Bioactives: Drugs and Natural Products

As can be seen from the previous sections, several continuous photochemical approaches have
been developed to overcome some of the intrinsic restrictions associated with light-driven reactions
and subsequently applied to the synthesis of various compounds. Whilst this was in many cases
directed towards establishing new or improved synthetic methods, this section will highlight some
recent applications that have generated bioactive target compounds. This will showcase a selection of
natural products, drugs and drug-like entities prepared in both academic and industrial laboratories.
Early applications of continuous photochemical approaches oftentimes demonstrate the complexity
of structures that can be realized in an effective manner. Several prominent examples, such as the
generation of the anti-malaria drug artemisinin and its derivatives [50,51] and the preparation of
vitamin D3 [52–54], outline the power of photochemistry when applied to the construction of unique
targets. Further examples include the synthesis of neostenine [55] and goniofufurone [56], in which
key bonds were realized photochemically, providing rapid access to advanced bioactive structures
(Figure 8).
Molecules 2020, 25, 356 7 of 13

Figure 8. Structures of complex bioactive molecules featuring flow photochemistry key steps.

Other examples include the photochemical preparation of the anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen
by a photo-Favorskii rearrangement, which highlights an attractive and atom-economical continuous
approach to this important target [57].
More recent examples describe routes towards various poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors
aided by an intramolecular photocyclization reaction [58], unnatural aza-rocaglates via an excited state
intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT)-mediated (3 + 2) photocycloaddition [59] or the preparation of
new derivatives of clausine A via an azide-mediated carbazole formation followed by an arylation
reaction [60] (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Structures of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors and natural product analogues prepared
in flow.

Pyocyanin, a small naturally occurring virulence factor, was recently prepared in an effective and
scalable multi-step approach featuring a photochemical oxygenation reaction (Figure 10). This process
was, furthermore, coupled with immobilized reagents to facilitate the purification and isolation of the
target product [61].
Molecules 2020, 25, 356 8 of 13

Figure 10. Continuous photosynthesis of pyocyanin (reproduced with permission from [61]).

In addition to natural products and their analogs, several recent reports detail the use of
continuous photochemical methods for the generation of drug-like heterocyclic scaffolds that hold
interest in medicinal chemistry programs. 2,4-Methanopyrrolidines are an important heterocyclic
class of compounds that display higher hydrophilicity than regular pyrrolidines. Several applications
demonstrate that their continuous photochemical synthesis based on an intramolecular [2 + 2]
cycloaddition (Figure 11A) can be scaled to kilogram quantities in order to facilitate further
derivatization [31,62,63]. The synthesis of 3-hydroxyazetidines via a continuous Norrish–Young
photocyclization reaction (Figure 11B) represents a further demonstration of effectively creating
drug-like structures in a simple and atom-economical fashion, and a recent study reports on the
versatility of this transformation [64]. A final example outlines the combination of photochemical with
thermal processes in a reaction sequence rendering several isoindolin-1-one derivatives in a continuous
manner, in which a photobenzylation of substituted phthalimides features as key step [65] (Figure 11C).

Figure 11. Structures of drug-like heterocyclic entities prepared photochemically and their precursors.
(A) synthesis of 2,4-Methanopyrrolidines; (B) synthesis of 3-hydroxyazetidines; (C) photobenzylation
of substituted phthalimides.
Molecules 2020, 25, 356 9 of 13

5. Remaining Challenges for Effectively Integrating Photoreactions within Multistep Sequences

The previous section outlined the breath of applications in which continuous photochemical
transformations were effectively exploited to bring about the generation of bioactives in the form
of drugs, natural products or their analogues. A variety of chemical transformations features in
these syntheses ranging from cycloadditions and rearrangements to different radical-mediated
sequences. In addition, photochemical flow approaches have been developed with great
success for functionalization reactions, such as halogenations [66–69], trifluoromethylations [70–72],
oxygenations [73–75] and C-H activations [76–78]. All these applications showcase how continuous
set-ups help to overcome limitations commonly encountered with classical photochemistry, and it is
apparent that a variety of light sources as well as reactor configurations are exploited to best serve the
intended chemical route.
At this stage it appears that most of the highlighted studies were exploring the feasibility of
photochemistry to achieve the improved flow synthesis of molecules of interest, which in many cases
also addressed scalability to gram or even kilogram quantities based on tailored reactor designs.
However, it is currently less common that such continuous photochemical syntheses are embedded
within telescoped flow sequences in the same manner; this has been achieved for non-photochemical
reactions [10]. Based on the advances presented in this review, it will take place; however, some
bottlenecks will need to be overcome. As such, many photochemical reactions are still prone to generate
multiple impurities, albeit in significantly lower amounts than in most batch applications. Currently,
the effective separation of these impurities is typically achieved by off-line column chromatography
rather than effective in-line purification tools. In addition, most cases reported in this review still rely
on relatively high dilutions in order to realize effective photochemical transformations. While this will
prevent formation of precipitates that can be detrimental to flow reactions, these high dilutions are
unattractive, as they result in larger amounts of solvent waste. Furthermore, as the effective telescoping
of additional downstream reactions requires matched concentrations of reactive species, various in-line
analysis tools will be vital in achieving effective multi-step sequences [13,79]. Additional tools for unit
operations that help with recycling solvents and concentrating streams in situ may be required both to
improve the sustainability (E-factor and process mass index) and ensure the kinetics of bimolecular
reactions are not hampered by exceedingly high dilutions.
Additional advances can be expected based on substituting high-power UV lamps with
high-efficiency LEDs and utilizing solar light to bring about the photochemical synthesis of target
molecules in a much more sustainable manner.

6. Conclusions and Outlook

Based on the applications highlighted in this short review, continuous photochemistry has indeed
enjoyed a very successful period with numerous reports detailing its various benefits. From this, it is
evident that the best solutions are obtained when innovative reactor designs are developed and applied
to a given synthetic challenge, thereby exemplifying the synergy that can be gained from the union of
synthetic chemistry and chemical engineering.
At this point it appears that most applications of continuous flow photochemistry target synthetic
methodology based on photo-cycloadditions and photo-rearrangement reactions. However, several
reports demonstrate the applicability of these methods to the generation of more complex structures,
such as natural products and their analogs, which in many cases is complemented by more scalable
processes to deliver gram or even kilogram quantities of material.
A further positive development in this field concerns the transition from non-selective UV
lamps to more energy-efficient, high-power LEDs, and in some cases even solar light. This directly
impacts the sustainability of the resulting processes and will be a key element in achieving greener
chemical synthesis.
Whilst these developments were typically led by academic researchers, it is understood that all
major pharmaceutical companies are developing their own continuous photochemical transformations.
Molecules 2020, 25, 356 10 of 13

In addition, many publications outline collaborative efforts between academics and their industry-based
colleagues, again highlighting the synergy of such joint projects. It can be anticipated that this
development will render further applications of continuous light-driven reactions, enabling the
synthesis of bioactive compounds, and as a consequence, will compensate for the relative scarcity of
drug-based applications at this point through innovative and powerful applications in both medicinal
chemistry settings and the scaled production of drugs.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, writing, editing and reviewing—M.D.F., C.B. and M.B. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge support of our research in this area from the School of
Chemistry (PhD demonstratorships to M.D.F. and C.B.) and University College Dublin (SF1606 and SF1609) as
well as SSPC through PharM5.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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