Academic Research on Consumer Behaviour

--- 'Guiltless Gluttony: The Asymmetric Effect of Size Labels on

Size Perceptions and Consumption'

Course: Buyer Behaviour

Course Code: MRKT20021

Student Name: Yan Chen

Student No.: s0241465

Lecturer: Sangeeta Rai

Due Date: 17th May

Course Coordinator: En Li
Yan Chen s2041465 Academic Research on Consumer Behaviour

Table of Contents

Title Page
Table of Contents.........................................................................1

List of Tables..............................................................................3

1.0 The Research Problem.............................................................4

2.0 Research Rationale.................................................................5

3.0 Research Objectives...............................................................5

4.0 Overview of Theories and Hypotheses..........................................6

4.1 Hypothesis 1......................................................................6

4.2 Hypothesis 2......................................................................6

4.3 Hypothesis 3......................................................................6

4.4 Hypothesis 4......................................................................7

4.5 Hypothesis 5......................................................................7

4.6 Hypothesis 6......................................................................7

4.7 Hypothesis 7......................................................................7

4.8 Hypothesis 8......................................................................7

5.0 Overview of Methodology.........................................................8

5.1 Quantitative.....................................................................10

5.2 Qualitative Research..........................................................10

6.0 Main Findings......................................................................10

6.1 Study One: Findings............................................................10

6.2 Study Two: Findings...........................................................12

6.3 Study Three: Findings.........................................................13

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6.4 Study Four: Findings...........................................................15

6.5 Study Five: Findings...........................................................15

7.0 Theoretical Contributions.......................................................16

8.0 Managerial Implications..........................................................17

8.1 Provide the Example of a Real-world.......................................17

8.2 Recommendations..............................................................18

9.0 Research Limitations.............................................................18

10 New Directions for Future Research............................................18

References................................................................................20

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List of Tables
Table 1 Overweight and Obesity.………………………………….……………………………………4

Table 2 Conceptual Framework.………………………………………..…………………………….8

Table 3 Results from Study 1.………………………………………….………………………………11

Table 4 Results from Study 2.……………………………………….…………………………………13

Table 5 Study 3 Procedure………………….………………………….………………………………14

Table 6 Results from Study 3.…….……………………………………………………………………14

Table 7 Results from Study 4.………………………………………….………………………………15

1.0 The Research Problem

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It is widely accepted that in the United States obesity has become a

major health issue contributing to approximately 100,00 to 400,000
deaths per year. The Journal of the Trust for America’s Health (2012)
stated that the obesity rates have increased for all population groups
over the last several decades and if current trends continue on its
trajectory, by the year 2030, more than 44 % of people could be obese
which could threaten America’s future. Clearly, it is of significant
importance for Americans to identify all the contributing factors to
obesity epidemic so as to alleviate this urgent matter. According to
general consensus, the increase in food portions is one of the most
significant factors, which lead to the obesity epidemic in the United
States. Since the 1970s, portion sizes for some food types, especially
fast food, have increased significantly. As a result, people are
encouraged to eat more when they see a larger food portions (Nielsen
& Popkin 2006, Yong & Nestle 2002, cited in Aydinoglu & Krishna 2011).
Therefore, Aydinoglu and Krishna (2011) conducted a further research
so as to seek to identify whether or not size labels can result in larger
consumption without consumers even being aware of it, in other words,
“guiltless gluttony”.

Table 1: Overweight and Obesity

Source: Trust for America’s Health (2012)

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2.0 Research Rationale

According to this article (Aydinoglu & Krishna 2011), there has been a
tremendous increase occurring for food consumed in the United Stated
over the last decades. Take fast food consumption as a case in point.
Since French fries, hamburgers, and soda expanded to portions more
than twice as they used to be, without a doubt, people also consumed
more than before. Consequently, American portion sizes have also
increased, with the adults and children in particular, which has become
a public challenges, because obesity has been regarded as the cause of
preventable death in the United States. If the obesity rates keep
increasing, approximately 44% of Americans would face obesity-related
diseases by the year 2030. To be more specific, according to Trust for
America’s Health (2012), obesity could lead to a variety types of
diseases, such as more than 6 million cases of type 2 diabetes, 5 million
cases of coronary heart disease and stroke, and more than 400,000
cases of cancer to name a few. Undoubtedly, action needs to be taken
so as to identify all the contributing factors of obesity and tackle this
serious issue. Therefore, it is of great importance to examine whether
or not size labels affect consumers’ purchasing and consumption
behaviour.

3.0 Research Objectives

The objective of this article is to identify all the impacts that size
labels have on size judgments and consumption. Specifically, this
research looks at consumers’ size perception, actual consumption and
perceived consumption, which are influenced by size labels. Through
this research, the authors aim to find out whether or not labeling does
influence people’s consumption and whether or not larger consumption
can be occurred without the consumer even being aware of it due to
the asymmetric effect of size labels.

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4.0 Overview of Theories and Hypotheses

This article focuses on the impact of size labels on size estimation and
food consumption. As people use different cues, such as visual cues,
satiation cues and semantic cues to obtain a size judgment. Therefore,
this research clearly illustrates customers’ judgments of size
estimations by using dual process theories, namely, theories of
persuasion. Additionally, Heuristic-Systematic Model is adopted to
develop all research hypotheses. To be more specific, both systematic
processing, which is a comprehensive and analytic orientation to
information processing, and heuristic processing which is a more
limited mode of information processing, are used in this selected
research article (Aydinoglu & Krishna 2011).

The following are eight hypotheses, which are proposed in this

particular article:

4.1 Hypothesis 1
The size label affects consumers’ food size estimates even if
they have access to the physical stimuli (sensory input) or to
verbal information on the actual size.

4.2 Hypothesis 2
Consumers’ size estimates are influenced by size labels. For
example, consumers’ perceived size estimates is bigger when a
larger item has a smaller size label as compared to a smaller
item with a larger size label.

4.3 Hypothesis 3
The size label affects consumers’ perception of consumption
amount. Consumers tend to believe that they have consumed
less when a large size item is labeled as being smaller.

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4.4 Hypothesis 4
Customers’ perceived size could moderate the effect of size
label.

4.5 Hypothesis 5
The size labels have impact on customers’ actual consumption.
Consumers tend to consume more when large sizes are labeled
as being smaller.

4.6 Hypothesis 6
The perceived consumption could moderate the impact of size
label on actual consumption.

4.7 Hypothesis 7
The influence of size labels on perceived size could be mediated
by availability of cognitive resources. There is greater impact on
people who are under cognitive load when compared to people
who are not under load.

4.8 Hypothesis 8
The influence of size labels on perceived size could be mediated
by concern for nutrition. There is smaller effect on people with a
high concern for their nutrition intake when compared to people
who have a low concern for nutrition.

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Table 2: Conceptual Framework

Source: Aydinoglu & Krishna (2011)

5.0 Overview of Methodology

In the first study, fifty-eight students were selected to participate in
the experiment. They were asked to estimate the size of two particular
labelled snack-size plates, which were a set of eight-pretzel plates and
a set of six-pretzel plates. Participants’ size judgments were based on
the visual cue and the size label cue.

In study two, eight-two students participated in the experiment. Mixed

nuts were used as the stimuli. Even though nuts are smaller in
individual weight, they are larger in total number, therefore, it is
difficult for participates to count the number of the nuts. The study
was conducted in two phases. In phase one, participants were asked to
estimate the size of the food; while in phase two, they ate the food
and then estimate the size of their food consumption. Data was
collected on perceived consumption so as to test hypothesis three and

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four. Also, actual consumption data was collected for the purpose of
testing hypothesis five and six.

In study three, Two hundred and twenty-four students participated in

the experiment. Mini-sandwiches were prepared both in the disposable
and identical bowls. Two pieces of additional nutrition information
were attached to the bowls, such as size label and additional nutrition
information. During the experiment, participants were asked to study
the memory task, evaluate the size of mini-sandwiches with and
without cognitive load, do the questionnaire, and complete memory
task and unrelated task.

In study four, two hundred students were asked to review the

Information provided about serving size and size label packages of
“Mini Oreo Chocolate Sandwich Cookies.” After reviewing this
information, they were asked to tell the number of cookies they
thought the package contained and answer questions, and complete
the nutrition consciousness scale.

There were seventy-six participants with different age groups in

experiment five. Participants were presented with a survey asking to
estimate the particular labelled cookie size and their consumption
amount. They were also asked to tell how “sufficient” the cookie
portion was on a scale ranging from.

In general, there are two major types of research models, namely,

quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. This research is
conducted by using quantitative and qualitative research method
together (Vogt 2007, Hoy 2010, Johnson & Christensen 2012, Creswell
2005, 2009).

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5.1 Quantitative
Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical
investigation of social phenomena via statistical,
mathematical or computational techniques. According to the
five studies in this article, the participants are asked some
specific questions and then a sample of numerical data is
collected. Through analysis of the data, hypotheses are verified.
Data is used to generate new hypotheses based on the
results of data collected about different variables. All these
procedures indicate that quantitative research method is
adopted in this article.

5.2 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research model is a method of inquiry, which aims to
gather an in-depth understanding of human behaviour and the
reasons that govern such behaviour. This model is also employed
in this research. Participates were asked some broad
questions in the experiments and data was collected from
participants. Focused smaller samplers are used in this research.

6.0 Main Findings

The following are five findings, which are identified in the above
experiments:

6.1 Study One: Findings

Hypothesis one and two were verified through this study. Study
one shows that participants perceived the size of the eight-
pretzel plates to be larger than the size of the six-pretzel plates.
Furthermore, in the contrast tests, the small six-pretzels plates
were not perceived as being different in size when they were

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labeled medium or small. However, the medium eight-pretzels

plates were perceived as being significantly smaller when
labeled “small” versus when labeled “medium”. Therefore, this
results support the hypotheses two. Additionally, the results
indicate that the subjects were more willing to believe the
larger-sized plate being labeled “small” versus the smaller size
plate being labeled “medium.” Overall, preconsumption size
estimation is affected by size label when a larger item is
mislabeled toward a smaller size.

Table 3: Results from Study 1: Size Labels can Affect

Preconsumption Size Perception

Source: Aydinoglu & Krishna (2011)

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6.2 Study Two: Findings

Study two showed that size labels affected consumers’ perceived
and actual consumption. It also illustrated that the influence of
size label on perceived consumption is moderated by perceived
size and the influence of size label on actual consumption is
moderated by perceived consumption. To be more specific, this
study demonstrated that the small nuts package was not viewed
as different when it was labeled “medium” compared to when it
was labeled “small”. However, when the medium nuts package
was labeled “small”, the perceived weight was smaller than
when it was labeled “medium”. Therefore, this shows that
hypothesis two is correct.

Furthermore, this study also verifies hypothesis three because

participants’ perception of consumption amount was lower when
the food item was labeled as “small” compared to when it was
labeled as “medium”. When participants were eating from the
nuts package, their preconsumption perceptions of size were
lower to the people who got the package labeled small,
therefore, they thought they actually ate less. Clearly,
hypothesis two, three and four are supported.

Besides this, hypothesis five was proved to be correct.

Participants who got the package with “small” labeling, ate
more than those who received the package labeled as
“medium”. The study also showed that males ate more than
females, but size labels had similar impacts on females and
males.

Additionally, this study also verified hypothesis five and six.

While participants were eating from the nuts package, their

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perception of consumption size was lower for those people who

received the package labeled as “small”. As a result, they
guiltlessly consumed more.

Table 4: Results from Study 2: Size label can Affect

Preconsumption Size Perceptions

Source: Aydinoglu & Krishna (2011)

6.3 Study Three: Findings

This study provided support for hypothesis seven and eight. This
study demonstrated that the influence of size labeling was
stronger when individuals’ cognitive capacity was limited. Less
size label effect could be seen if consumers are motivated to be
accurate in their perceptions. This study also described that
even participants were given direct information on serving sizes,
their perception of size estimation was still affected by size
labels. However, the size label effect was moderated by
nutrition concern. That is to say, when consumers care more

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about the accuracy of food size estimation, the nutrition and

energy intake, they are less likely to rely on size.

Table 5: Study 3 Procedure

Source: Aydinoglu & Krishna (2011)

Table 6: Results from Study 3: Cognitive Load Exacerbates the Size Label
Effect

Source: Aydinoglu & Krishna (2011)

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6.4 Study Four: Findings

Study four showed that consumers were still affected by size
labels in their size judgments even though they were verbally
given simple and direct size information. However, the labeling
influence could be mitigated if participants were highly
motivated to be more accurate. Moreover, this study also
indicated that participants perceived the larger food item
labeled as “smaller” to be less in size versus the smaller food
item labeled as “larger”.

Table 7: Results from Study 4: High Motivation for Accuracy Extenuates the
Size Label Effect

Source: Aydinoglu & Krishna (2011)

6.5 Study Five: Findings

In study five, the effects of size labeling on actual and perceived
consumption was explored. The research showed that people’s
consumption was affected by the use of different size labels for
the same product. What’s more, consumers did not notice the
size label has great effect on their consumption behavior.

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7.0 Theoretical Contributions

This article clearly demonstrated that the labeling of a product could
have a significant impact on consumer perceptions of that product. The
studies also indicated that as a matter of fact, consumers are more
likely to believe a larger item as being small if labeled by marketers,
because they also want to balance the enjoyment of consuming large
quantities and motives of maintaining good health and body image.
However, when a small item is labeled as “large,” consumers often do
not accept it.

Undoubtedly, product size is directly linked to price in the real world.

The increasing portion sizes in the marketplace usually indicate
increased value to consumers. Consumers would be more likely to
purchase larger sizes as having better value. Furthermore, in some
circumstances, larger package sizes can encourage greater use but this
effect of package size on usage volume is often perceived with lower
cost. Therefore, because of this type of customer behaviour, the
marketers tend to use low price with high quality promotion strategy to
obtain more customers (Solomon, Previte, & Russell-Bennett 2013).

This article also laid a good foundation for future research as it

indicated that further research could be focused on uncovering how to
motivate consumers to use more comprehensive perceptual processes
to make product size judgments. This is beneficial both from a public
policy perspective and the firm’s perspective. By doing this, it will not
only help consumers better control their consumption but also help
promote more preferable attitudes toward the brand.

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8.0 Managerial Implications

It has been stated from the studies that size label can mislead food
perceptions of consumers, which can lead to overconsumption.
However, making consumers more nutrition conscious may reduce the
impact of size labels. Therefore, marketers play a vital role in
preventing mislabeling from happening.

8.1 Provide the Example of a Real-world

McDonald's Corporation is the world's largest chain of hamburger
fast food restaurants, serving consumers daily all over the world.
It sells different fast food, such as hamburgers, cheeseburgers,
chicken, French fries, breakfast items, soft drinks, milkshakes
and desserts. Additionally, in order to cater the needs for more
customers, the company also provides salads, fish, wraps,
smoothies and fruit. Overall, McDonald’s Corporation has a lot of
strong strengths. However, most of the food provided in
McDonald’s is unhealthy and too much consumption of
McDonald’s fast food would definitely lead to obesity. Clearly,
this is the major weakness of the company. McDonald’s also
faces severe competition, as there are many other brand fast
food restaurants in the world. Moreover, a clear label of the
notation of its food items will definitely add more threats to the
company. However, McDonald’s also has great opportunities to
win the completion and keeps attracting more consumers. From
long-term consideration, a correct food labeling can promote
more favorable customer attitudes toward McDonald’s food.
Besides this, the company is a flexible and creative business
industry, as it always updates its menu and adjusts its food
price. Overall, McDonald’s can continue obtain a vast number of
consumers.

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8.2 Recommendations
The studies show that size labels have great impact on
consumers’ food perceptions and consumptions; therefore,
McDonald’s Corporation needs to be careful in its adoption of
food labels. It is highly recommended that the size label
notation should match the actual product. By doing this, it will
help consumers better control their food consumption. From the
McDonald’s perspective, over the long run, this could not only
reduce the possible adverse regulations but also help promote
more preferable customer attitudes toward its brand. However,
if McDonald provides false notation for its food items, then it can
result in serious negative consequence for the firm once the
government, the public and the media recognise this. Therefore,
it is wise for McDonald Company to provide the suggested daily
consumption amount with the correct label notation to its
consumers. What’s more, McDonald’s could also lower its food
price as customers are always in favour of the product with high
quality or amount but lower price.

9.0 Research Limitations

The studies in this article did not provide specific hypotheses about the
level of accuracy in comparison to actual size. Moreover, no conclusion
was made since there was not systematically test for it. Furthermore,
the concepts of price and value were not discussed in this article. It
would be of great importance to study the effects of size labeling,
price and perceived value on customers’ purchase and consumption
patterns.

10 New Directions for Future Research

It is highly recommended that in the near future, research should focus
on exploring whether or not the size labeling effects still exist when
customers can visually see a variety of stimuli simultaneously. This

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would play a vital role in people’s daily lives as different sizes are
often displayed in stores, such as small, medium, and large size.
Researchers should also examine labeling effects in other product
categories. Take fashion industry as a case in point. The future study of
label effects for clothing could provide people with valuable insights
about perceptions of body image. It is a matter of fact that in the
clothing industry, misleading labeling practices also exist. For example,
there are some marketers who label the same size as a 12 versus a 16
so as to make consumers feel thinner. Overall, if this study is
conducted, then it will also make a great contribution to the future
society.

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