MEBS6000 Utility Services

http://www.hku.hk/mech/msc-courses/MEBS6000/index.html

Design of Cold and Hot Water Systems

Dr. Sam C M Hui
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Hong Kong
E-mail: [email protected]
Feb 2009
Contents

• Design principles
• Water demand
• Water storage
• Pipe sizing
• Pipe materials
• Pump systems
• Other considerations
 Design principles

• Common water supply systems

• Cold water system
• Potable/fresh water
• Flushing (salt water in HK)
• Cleansing water
We will • Fire service
focus on • Swimming pool filtration
these
• Irrigation (e.g. for landscape)
• Fountain circulation
• Air-conditioning water, etc.
• Hot water system (e.g. in hotels & hospitals)
Design principles

• Major tasks of water systems design:

• 1. Assessment & estimation of demands
• 2. Supply scheme & schematic
• 3. Water storage requirements
• 4. Piping layout
• 5. Pipe sizing
• 6. Pump system design
• The systems must comply with Water
Authority (WSD) requirements
Design principles

• General principles for installing plumbing works

(from WSD Plumbing Installation Handbook)
• All water fittings and pipework shall comply with the
relevant Waterworks Regulations
• All plumbing works shall be carried out in accordance with
the Hong Kong Waterworks Requirements
• All plumbing works shall be carried out by a licensed
plumber
• System main pipes should preferably not be run through
the individual premises
• Also, Building (Standards of Sanitary Fitments,
Plumbing, Drainage Works and Latrine) Regulations
Design principles

• Plumbing proposal (vetted by WSD)

• A block plan in a scale of 1:1000 showing the location and
boundary of the development
• The locations should be marked with datum level
• A plan showing the alignment and size of the proposed
connection pipes from the main to the development
• A plan showing the proposed alignment and size of the
internal underground water pipes to be laid in the
development
• Vertical plumbing line diagrams
 Example of a
plumbing
system
schematic
(fresh &
flushing water
supplies)

(Source: http://www.arch.hku.hk/teaching/project/f-pl.htm)
 Example of
plumbing
layout design

(Source: http://www.arch.hku.hk/teaching/project/f-pl.htm)
Design principles

• Plumbing proposal (cont’d)

• A schedule containing the following items :-
• (a) number of flats/units in each block of the building
• (b) address of each premise needs individually metered water
supply
• (c) number of draw-off points and sanitary fittings in each unit
• (d) estimated daily consumption for all trade purposes
• Meters arranged in meter rooms & fittings at the meter
positions
• The relevant standards for the pipe materials to be used
• Capacities of the water storage tanks e.g. roof storage tanks
Water demand

• Water demand depends on:

• Type of building & its function
• Number of occupants, permanent or transitional
• Requirement for fire protection systems
• Landscape & water features
• Typical appliances using the cold water
• WC cistern, wash basin, bath, shower, sink
• Washing machine, dishwasher
• Urinal flushing cistern
Water demand

• Theoretical framework: Probability Theory

• Based on statistics & a binomial distribution
⎛ n! ⎞
Pm = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × P m (1 − P ) n − m
⎝ m!(n − m)! ⎠
• Pm = probability of occurrence; n is the total number of
fittings having the same probability and m is number of
fitting in use at any one time
• Probability factor of a particular no. of draw off’s
occurring at any one time is:
• P = (t – time of appliance filling) / (T – time between
successive usage of the appliance)
 Probability graph
Example:
If 100
appliances each
take 30 sec to
be filled, and
are used at 1200
sec (20 min)
frequency
interval, then:
P=t/T
= 30/1200
= 0.025

Using the graph,

out of 100
appliances, only
7 would be in
use at any one
time.
(Source: IOP, 2002. Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide)
Water demand

• Simultaneous demand
• Most fittings are used only at irregular intervals
• It is unlikely that all the appliances will be used
simultaneously
• No need to size pipework on continuous max.
• Key factors to consider:
• Capacity of appliance (litres)
• Draw-off flow rate (l/s)
• Draw-off period, or time taken to fill appliance (sec)
• Use frequency, time between each use (sec)
Water demand

• Loading Unit (L.U.)

• A factor given to an appliance relating the flow
rate at its terminal fitting to
• Length of time in use
• Frequency of use for a particular type
• Use of building
• Evaluate the ‘probable maximum’
• Relates the flow rate to the probable usage
• Also, consider design & minimum flow rates
 Design flow rates and loading units
Design flow rate Minimum Loading
Outlet fitting
(l/s) flow rate (l/s) units
WC flushing cistern single or dual flush (to 0.13 0.05 2
fill in 2 min.)
WC trough cistern 0.15 per WC 0.10 2
Wash basin tap size ½-DN 15 0.15 per tap 0.10 1.5-3.0
Spray tap or spray mixer 0.05 per tap 0.30 ---
Bidet 0.2 per tap 0.10 1
Bath tap, ¾-DN 20 0.30 0.20 10
Bath tap, 1-DN 25 0.60 0.40 22
Shower head (will vary with type of head) 0.2 hot or cold 0.10 3
Sink tap, ½-DN 15 0.20 0.10 3
Sink tap, ¾-DN 20 0.30 0.20 5
Washing machine size – DN 15 0.2 hot or cold 0.15 ---
Dishwasher size – DN 15 0.15 0.10 3
Urinal flushing cistern 0.004 per position 0.002 ---
(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)
Water demand

• Apply probability theory, with caution

• Assume random usage with fittings (is this true?)
• Determine max. frequencies of use
• Estimate average water usage rates & time
• The theory is valid with large nos. of fittings
• Often expect to be exceeded at 1% time only
• Reliability and risk management (what is the consequence)
• Need to understand the context/circumstance
• Is it similar to average/typical? (* adjust data if needed)
• Any foreseeable special requirements?
Water demand

• Design flow considerations

• A small increase in demand over design level will
cause a slight reduction in pressure/flow (unlikely
to be noticed by users)
• Exceptional cases, such as:
• Cleaners’ sinks (depends on one’s behaviour)
• Urinal flushing cisterns (constant small flow)
• Team changing rooms at sport clubs (high demand)
• Special events (ad hoc demand)
Water storage

• Purposes of water storage

• Provide for an interruption of supply
• Accommodate peak demand
• Provide a pressure (head) for gravity supplies
• Design factors
• Type and number of fittings
• Frequency and pattern of use
• Likelihood and frequency of breakdown of supply
(often design for 12- or 24-hour reserve capacity)
 Recommended minimum storage of cold and hot water systems
Minimum cold water Minimum hot water
Type of building
storage (litres) storage (litres)
Hostel 90 per bed space 32 per bed space
Hotel 200 per bed space 45 per bed space
Office premises:
- with canteen facilities 45 per employee 4.5 per employee
- without canteen facilities 40 per employee 4.0 per employee
Restaurant 7 per meal 3.5 per meal
Day school:
- nursery or primary 15 per pupil 4.5 per pupil
- secondary or technical 20 per pupil 5.0 per pupil
Boarding school 90 per pupil 23 per pupil
Children’s home or residential nursery 135 per bed space 25 per bed space
Nurses’ home 120 per bed space 45 per bed space
Nursing or convalescent home 135 per bed space 45 per bed space

Note: Minimum cold water storage shown includes that used to supply hot water outlets.

(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)

 Estimation of cold water storage per occupant
Type of building Storage per occupant (litres)
Factories (no process) 10
Hospitals, per bed 135
Hospitals, per staff on duty 45
Hostels 90
Hotels 135
Houses and flats 135
Offices with canteens 45
Offices without canteens 35
Restaurant (* per meal) 7
Schools, boarding 90
Schools, day 30
(Source: www.engineeringtoolbox.com)
 Estimation of hot water consumption
Consumption Peak demand Storage per
Type of building per occupant per occupant occupant
(litres/day) (litres/hr) (litres)
Factories (no process) 22 – 45 9 5
Hospitals, general 160 30 27
Hospitals, mental 110 22 27
Hostels 90 45 30
Hotels 90 – 160 45 30
Houses and flats 90 – 160 45 30
Offices 22 9 5
Schools, boarding 115 20 25
Schools, day 15 9 5

(Source: www.engineeringtoolbox.com)
 Fixtures water requirements (demand at individual water outlets)
Type of fixture Flow rate Minimum supply
(litres/min) pressure (kPa)
Bathtub faucet 19 55
Bidet 7.5 28
Laundry machine 15 55
Lavatory faucet, ordinary 7.5 55
Lavatory faucet, self closing 10 55
Shower head 19 55
Shower, temperature controlled 10 138
Sink 3/8", 1/2" 17 55
Sink 3/4" 23 55
Urinal flush valve 56 110
Water closet with flush valve 132 170
Water closet with gravity tank 10 55
(Source: www.engineeringtoolbox.com)
 Fixtures, cold water storage, hot water consumption & flow rate

Cold water Hot water Hot water

Type of fixture storage capacity consumption flow rate
(litres) (litre/hr) (litre/s)
Basin (private) 90 14 0.08
Basin (public) 90 45 0.08
Bath 900 90 – 180 0.15
Garden water tap 180 --- ---
Shower 450 – 900 180 0.5 – 0.6
Sink 90 45 – 90 0.15
Urinal 180 --- ---
WC 180 --- ---

(Source: www.engineeringtoolbox.com)
 Quantity of flushing water required
User Average demand
Domestic buildings 450 litres per number of
required soil fitment
per day
Offices, factories, department stores, 450 litres per number of
shops, public buildings and other required soil fitment
nondomestic buildings of a like nature per day
Restaurants 13.5 litres per seat per day
Cinemas 4.5 litres per seat per day
Schools 18 litres per head per day
Hotels and boarding houses 90 litres per room per day

(Source: Buildings Department HK, PNAP 17)

Water storage

• Minimum hot water storage capacities for

dwelling (from BS6700)
• 35-45 litre per occupant (unless the heat source
provides a quick recovery rate)
• 100 litres for systems heated by solid fuel boilers
• 100 litres for systems heated by off-peak
electricity
Water storage

• Recovery rate and hot water storage

• Recovery period = time to heat up the stored water
• Too high a storage volume: unnecessary costs
• Inadequate storage: loads not met
• Need to consider the following factors:
• Pattern of use
• Rate of heat input to the stored water
• Recovery period for the hot water storage vessel
• Any stratification of the stored water
 Typical heat input values
Appliance Heat input (kW)
Electric immersion heater 3
Gas-fired circulator 3
Small boiler and direct cylinder 6
Medium boiler and indirect cylinder 10
Directly gas-fired storage hot water heater (domestic type) 10
Large domestic boiler and indirect cylinder 15

(a) Bottom entry heater (b) Top entry heater (c) Twin entry heater
Effects of stratification
(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)
Water storage

• Formula to calculate recovery period

• M = V T / (14.3 P)
• M = time to heat the water (min.)
• V = volume of water heated (litres)
• T = temperature rise (oC)
• P = rate of heat input to the water (kW)
• It can be applied to any pattern of use
• It ignores heat losses from storage vessel
 Example: A small dwelling with one bath. Maximum requirement: 1
bath (60 litre at 60ºC + 40 litre cold water) plus 10 litre hot water at
60ºC for kitchen use, followed by a second bath fill after 25 min.
Thus, a draw-off of 70 litre at 60ºC is required, followed after 25 min
by 100 litre at 40ºC, which may be achieved by mixing hot at 60ºC
with cold at 10ºC.

Answer:
1) Assume good stratification (by heating w/ a top entry heater)
With 3kW heat input, the time to heat the 60 litre for the second bath
from 10ºC to 60ºC:
M = V T/(14.3 P) = (60 x 50)/(14.3 x 3) = 70 min.
The second bath is required after 25 min., thus it has to be form
storage. But in the 25 min. the volume of water heated to 60ºC is:
V = M (14.3)/ T = (25 x 14.3 x 3)/50 = 21 litre
Therefore, the minimum required storage capacity is:
70 + 60 – 21 = 109 litre
(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)
 Example: (Cont’d)
2) Assume good mixing of the stored water (by a primary coil in an
indirect cylinder)
After the first bath & kitchen use, the heat energy in the 70 litre
replacement at 10ºC equals the heat energy of the water in the full
cylinder. If V is the min. size of the storage and T is the water
temperature in the cylinder after refilling:
(V – 70) x 60 + (70 x 10) = V T
T = (60 V – 4200 + 700)/V or T = 60 – 3500/V
The second bath is required after 25 min. With 3 kW heat input:
25 = V T / (14.3 x 3)
and temperature rise T = (25 x 14.3 x 3)/ V = 1072.5/V
A temperature of at least 40ºC is required to run the second bath.
Therefore the water temperature of the refilled cylinder after the first
draw-off, plus the temperature rise after 25 min., must be at 40ºC, or:
(60 – 3500/V) + (1072.5 V) = 40 (or more)
60 – 2427.5/V = 40
V = 122 litre
(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)
 Hot water storage vessel – minimum capacities
Heat input Dwelling with 1 bath Dwelling with 2 baths*
for water
(kW) With With With With
stratification mixing stratification mixing
litres litres litres litres
3 109 122 165 260

6 88 88 140 200

10 70 70 130 130

15 70 70 120 130

Note: * Maximum requirement of 150 litre drawn off at 60ºC (2 baths plus 10 litre
for kitchen use) followed by a further bath (100 litre at 40ºC) after 30 min.

(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)

Pipe sizing

• Correct pipe sizes will ensure adequate flow rates at

appliances and avoid problems, e.g.
• Oversizing
• Additional & unnecessary installation costs
• Delays in obtaining hot water at outlets
• Increased heat losses from hot water pipes
• Undersizing
• Inadequate delivery from outlets
• Some variation in temperature & pressure at outlets (e.g. showers
and other mixers)
• Some increase in noise levels
• For small, simple installations, pipes are often sized
based on experience & convention
1 m head = 9.81 kPa
= 98.1 mbar

Available head (from cistern)

= vertical distance in metres
from water line in cistern to
point under consideration

Available head (mains supply)

= head at main minus height
above main
= 20 m – 4 m
= 16 m head

(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)

Pipe sizing

• Pipe sizing procedure

• (a) Assume a pipe diameter
• (b) Determine the flow rate:
• 1) by using loading units
• 2) for continuous flow
• 3) obtain the design flow rate by adding 1) and 2)
• (c) Determine the effective pipe length:
• 4) work out the measured pipe length
• 5) work out the equivalent pipe length for fittings
• 6) work out the equivalent pipe length for draw-offs
• 7) obtain the effective pipe length by adding 4), 5) & 6)
Pipe sizing

• Pipe sizing procedure (cont’d)

• (d) Calculate the permissible loss of head:
• 8) determine the available head
• 9) determine the head loss per metre run through pipes
• 10) determine the head loss through fittings
• 11) calculate the permissible head loss
• (e) Determine the pipe diameter:
• 12) decide whether the assumed pipe size will give the
design flow rate in 3) without exceeding the permissible
head loss in 11)
• Usually, flow velocities shall be < 3 m/s
 Required design flow
(from graph)
= 0.7 l/s
Example of use of loading units
(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)
 Measured pipe length = 4.75 m
Equivalent pipe lengths:
elbows 2 x 0.8 = 1.6 m
tee 1 x 1.0 = 1.0 m
stopvalve 1 x 7.0 = 7.0 m Example of
taps 2 x 3.7 = 7.4 m
check valves 2 x 4.3 = 8.6 m measured & effective
Effective pipe length = 30.35 m pipe lengths
(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)
 Equivalent pipe lengths (copper, stainless steel and plastics)
Bore of pipe Equivalent pipe length (m)
(mm) Elbow Tee Stopvalve Check valve
12 0.5 0.6 4.0 2.5
20 0.8 1.0 7.0 4.3
25 1.0 1.5 10.0 5.6
32 1.4 2.0 13.0 6.0
40 1.7 2.5 16.0 7.9
50 2.3 3.5 22.0 11.5
65 3.0 4.5 --- ---
73 3.4 5.8 34.0 ---

Nominal size of tap Flow rate (l/s) Head loss (m) Equiv. pipe length (m)
G1/2- DN 15 0.15 0.5 3.7
G1/2- DN 15 0.20 0.8 3.7
G3/4- DN 20 0.30 0.8 11.8
G1- DN 25 0.60 1.5 22.0
(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)
 Example of permissible head loss
(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)
Loss Determination
of of pipe diameter
head:
0.12
m/m
run
Pipe size
20 mm

Design
flow rate
Flow 0.4 l/s
velocity
1.4 m/s

(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)

 Maximum recommended flow velocities

Flow velocity (m/s)

Water temperature
(ºC) Pipes readily Pipes not readily
accessible accessible
10 3.0 2.0
50 3.0 1.5
70 2.5 1.3
90 2.0 1.0
Note: Flow velocities should be limited to reduce system noise.

(Source: Garrett, R. H., 2008. Hot and Cold Water Supply)

Pipe sizing

• Pipe sizing & design using tabular methods

• Systematic way to design
• Can also be done using spreadsheet or computer
programs
Pipe sizing

• Pipe sizing for hot water systems

• The same as cold water, except cold feed pipe
must also be considered

• Useful formulae for pipes:

• Thomas Box formula d5 × H
q=
• See example 25 × L × 105

• Relative discharging power ⎛D⎞

5

• See example N= ⎜ ⎟
⎝d⎠
 Example: Determine the pipe size using Thomas Box formula.

d5 × H
q=
25 × L × 105
where d = pipe diameter (mm)
q = flow rate (l/s)
H = head or pressure (m)
L = effective length of
pipe (actual length +
allowance for bends,
tees, etc.)

Answer: Using Thomas Box formula,

(1) 2
× 25 × 20 × 10 5
d =5 = 27.83 mm
3
Hence, the nearest commercial size is 32 mm bore steel or 35
mm outside diameter copper.
(Source: Hall, F. and Greeno, R., 2008. Building Services Handbook)
 Example: Relative discharge of pipes
5
⎛D⎞ where N = number of short branch pipes
N= ⎜ ⎟ D = diameter of main pipe (mm)
⎝d⎠ d = diameter of short branch pipes (mm)

(a) The number of 32 mm short branch that can be served from

150 mm main.
5
Answer: N = ⎛ 150 ⎞ = 47
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 32 ⎠
(b) The size of water main required to supply 15 nos. 20 mm short
branch pipes.

Answer:
D = d × 5 N 2 = 20 × 5 152 = 59
Hence, the nearest commercial size is 65 mm.

(Source: Hall, F. and Greeno, R., 2008. Building Services Handbook)

Pipe materials

• Design & selection factors:

• Effect on water quality
• Cost, service life and maintenance needs
• For metallic pipes, internal and external corrosion
• Compatibility of materials
• Ageing, fatigue and temperature effects, especially
in plastics
• Mechanical properties and durability
• Vibration, stress or settlement
• Internal water pressure
Pipe materials

• Commonly used pipe materials, such as:

• Copper (BS EN 1057)
• Galvanised iron (GI) with PVC-C lining (BS 1387)
• PVC, unplasticized PVC, PB, PE, PE-X
• Stainless steel (BS 4127)
• Ductile iron (BS EN 545) (for pipe dia. > 80 mm)
• Mild steel (for pipe dia. > 600 mm)
• * Plastic material generally will degrade on
prolonged exposure to ultra-voilet light
 Copper pipe Lined galvanized steel pipe

Polyethylene pipe Rusty unlined galvanized steel pipe

(Source: Water Supplies Department, www.wsd.gov.hk)
 Common pipe materials in fresh water plumbing systems
Pipe Material Cold Hot Standards
Water Water
Copper 9 9 BS EN 1057
Ductile iron 9 9 BS EN 545
Galvanised iron (GI) with PVC-C lining 9 9 BS 1387
GI with PVC-U/PE lining 9 X BS 1387
Polybutylene (PB)* 9 9 BS 7291
9 X BS 6572 (below
Polyethylene (PE)* ground)
9 X BS 6730 (above
ground)
Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (PVC-C) 9 9 BS 7291
Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC- 9 X BS 3505 Class D or
U) above
Crosslinked polyethylene (PE-X) 9 9 BS 7291
Stainless steel 9 9 BS 4127
(Source: Water Supplies Department, www.wsd.gov.hk)
Pipe materials

• Classification of pipe materials

• Metallic
• Copper
• Stainless steel
• Thermoplastics
• PVC-U, PVC-C
• Polyethylene (PE)
• Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE)
• High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
• Crosslinked Polyethylene (PEX)
Pipe materials

• Classification of pipe materials (cont’d)

• Thermoplastics (cont’d)
• Polybutylene (PB)
• Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
• Composite
• Lined galvanised steel
• Crosslinked Polyethylene/Aluminium/Crosslinked
Polyethylene Composite Pressure Pipe (PEX-AL-PEX)
• High Density Polyethylene/Alumnium/ High Density
Polyethylene (HDPE-AL-HDPE)
Pipe materials

• Copper pipes (BS EN 1057)

• Advantages:
• High pressure capability
• Good formability
• Good corrosion resistance
• High strength & durability to withstand external loading
• Ease of jointing (compression & capillary joints)
• Smooth surface: low resistance to water flow
• Suitable for conveying hot water
• Disadvantages:
• Soft water can cause internal corrosion attack (give rise to ‘blue’
water)
Pipe materials

• Stainless steel (BS 4127)

• Advantages:
• High pressure capability
• Good corrosion resistance
• High strength & durability
• Ease of jointing
• Good resistance to accidental damage
• Suitable for conveying hot water
• Disadvantage:
• More expensive than copper
Pipe materials

• Lined galvanised steel

• PVC-U/PVC-C/Polyethylene or epoxy resin lined
• Advantages:
• Good resistance to internal corrosion & encrustation
• Smooth surface: lower resistance to water flow
• Can be used in vulnerable conditions e.g. exposure to direct
sunlight & traffic loads
• Readily compatible with existing commonly used unlined steel
pipe
• Disadvantages:
• Heavy weight
• Susceptible to impact damage (great care in handling)
• Higher skills required for cutting, threading, jointing
Pipe materials
• PVC-U (BS 3505 Class D)
• Advantages:
• Good corrosion resistance
• Light weight, low cost
• Ease of jointing
• Smooth surface: low resistance to water flow
• Not a conductor of electricity (no galvanic/oxidative corrosion)
• Disadvantages:
• Brittle, susceptible to impact damage
• Long drying time of solvent cement in jointing
• Low abrasion resistance
• Permeation/degradation by certain organic contaminants
• UV degradation on prolonged exposure to sunlight
• Not suitable for hot water supply
Pipe materials
• PVC-C (BS 7291)
• Advantages:
• Suitable for conveying hot water
• Good corrosion resistance & chemical resistance
• Light weight
• Smooth surface: low resistance to water flow
• Not a conductor of electricity (no galvanic/oxidative corrosion)
• Can be connected to other materials easily
• Disadvantages:
• Brittle, susceptible to impact damage
• Long drying time of solvent cement in jointing
• Can be flammable
• Reduction in strength & rigidity with increase of temperature
• Permeation/degradation by certain organic contaminants
• Can be attacked by detergents & oxidizing agents
• UV degradation on prolonged exposure to sunlight
Pipe materials
• MDPE (BS 7291)
• Advantages:
• Good corrosion resistance
• Good formability
• Light weight
• Fusion & mechanical joint available
• Smooth surface: low resistance to water flow
• Strong & tough
• Flexible & durable, light & easy to handle
• Good resistance to impact
• Disadvantages:
• Fusion jointing requires skilled installers & special equipment
• Subject to creep
• Strength decrease with time (at a very slow rate)
• UV degradation on prolonged exposure to sunlight
• Permeation/degradation by certain inorganic & organic contaminants
Pipe materials

• Jointing of pipes
• Copper pipes
• Capillary solder or brazed joints
• Autogenous welding
• Compression, push, press/crimp fittings
• Steel pipes
• Screwed joints, with pipe threads
• Flange joints (screwed or welded flanges)
• Stainless steel pipes
• Compression, capillary, push, press/crimp fittings (but
not joined by soft soldering)
Pipe materials

• Jointing of pipes (cont’d)

• Unplasticized PVC pipes
• Mechanical joints
• Compression joints
• Solvent cement welded joints
• Flange joints
• Polyethylene (PE) & polybutylene (PB) pipes
• Mechanical joints (e.g. push-fit), thermal fusion
• Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) pipes
• Similar to PVC-U pipes
Pump systems

• Centrifugal pumps are commonly used

• Vertical and horizontal
• Single & multiple stages
• Two types of systems:
• Closed systems
• Recirculation
• Open systems
• Open to atmosphere
Main characteristics of centrifugal & positive displacement pumps

Centrifugal pumps Positive displacement

pumps
- Capacity varies with head - Capacity substantially
- Capacity proportional to independent of head
pump speed - Capacity proportional to
- Head proportional to the speed
square of pump speed - Self-priming
- Non self-priming - Suitable for various liquids
- Suitable for low-viscosity (reduced speeds usually
liquid necessary for high viscosity
 Neutral point

= h x density x 9.81
= atmospheric
= 101,325 Pa
Thus, h = 10.33 m

Pump pressure effects in an open system

Pump systems

• Pump considerations
• Practical suction lift is 5 m maximum
• Also known as net positive suction head (NPSH)
• Pump location is important for both closed and
open systems
• Open system: not excessive to avoid cavitation
• Close system: Influence water level of open vent
pipe & the magnitude of antiflash margin (temp.
difference between water & its saturation temp.)
• ‘Self-priming’ to evacuate air from suction line
Pump systems

• Pump characteristics
• Characteristics curves (e.g. from catalogue):
• Total head
• Power
• efficiency
• No-flow conditions (flow = zero)
• Close valve pressure
• Need to prevent over-heat
• Pump power (W) = flow (L/s) x pressure
(kPa)
Pump
characteristics
curves
(centrifugal)
(Source: ASHRAE HVAC Systems and Equipment Handbook 2004)
Characteristic curves for pump models
(Source: Fundamentals of Water System Design)
Selected pump pressure-capacity curve
(Source: Fundamentals of Water System Design)
Pump systems

• Pump characteristics (cont’d)

• Pumps with steep characteristics
• Change in pressure -> small change in flow rate
• Useful where pipes tend to scale up
• Pumps with flat characteristics
• Change in flow -> small change in pressure
• Useful where extensive hydraulic balancing is needed
 What
does this
imply?
Flat versus steep pump curves
(Source: Fundamentals of Water System Design)
Pump systems

• Pump characteristics (cont’d)

• Pumps with constant speed cannot respond to
changes in load
• Require a bypass to ensure constant flow
• Variable speed pumps
• Provides for savings in pumping costs during partial
load
• Pump materials to suit the environment, e.g.
stainless steel pumps for salt water system
Other considerations

• Noise & vibration

• Pipe noise
• Pipe should not be fixed rigidly to lightweight panels
• Flow noise
• Keep velocities under control
• Pump noise
• Use rubber hose isolators, resilient inserts, acoustic
filters
Other considerations

• Water hammer
• Such as when a valve is closed rapidly
• Pulsating type of noise by shock waves
• Preventive measures:
• Prevent sudden closing of the valve
• Absorb pressure peaks (e.g. by pneumatic vessels)
• Increase the attenuation of pressure waves when
transmitted through the pipework
• Design the pipework to avoid long straight pipe runs
• Restrict water velocities (e.g. to a maximum of 3 m/s)
Other considerations

• Back siphonage
• Occur when water mains pressure reduce greatly
• Contamination of water may happen
• Contamination might also occur due to gravity &
backpressure backflow
• Anti-siphonage device and design precautions
Other considerations

• Water economy & energy conservation

• Economy of water
• A key factor in the design (to conserve water)
• Measures:
• Detect water leakage
• Reduce water consumption
• Reuse or recycle water
• Energy conservation
• Insulation of hot water pipe, fittings & vessels
• Use of fresh water for cooling tower make-up
Other considerations

• Water efficiency labelling scheme will be

launched in HK soon
• Water saving devices
• Low-flow showerheads
• Taps with flow restrictors
• Flow control valves
• Washing machines & dish-washers with high
water efficiency
• Water plugs, self-closing taps, spray taps, aerators,
etc.
Other considerations

• Water conservation (flushing water)

• Low-water and pressure flushing cisterns
• Dual-flush toilet cisterns
• Urinal controls
• Water reuse and recycling
• Rainwater reuse/recycling
• Grey water recycling
 Example: Rainwater recycling system for house
(Source: www.bsenotes.com)