LATEX PAINT FORMULATIONS

JULIAN A. WATERS
University of Bristol
School of Chemistry
Cantock's Close
Bristol BS8 iTS
UK

1. Introduction

Latex paints have developed commercially over the last four decades or so to become the
mlijor products by volume in the coatings industry. Paints and coatings have been
described in texts [1]. Nearly all latex paints are water-based and most are designed for
the "decorative" or "architectural" paint market.
Non-aqueous latex paints are available commercially, but the output volume is
small; the science and technology of the latices for these products has been considered
elsewhere [2]. With a continuous phase of aliphatic hydrocarbon and the avoidance of
water-sensitive components in their formulation, the paints offer a number of advantages
especially for exterior use in terms of durability and application, but are obviously less
acceptable on environmental grounds.
The formulations of latex paints have been developed partly to provide improving
technical performance and partly to meet changing customer requirements. The features
sought by customers vary in different countries, influenced by climatic conditions and
areas of differing major use. The paint formulator has an understanding of how the paint
properties, characteristics and aesthetics can be altered. Suppliers of components for the
paints also benefit from knowing what the formulator has to do in order to move the
properties and characteristics in a particular direction.
Aqueous latices are used in the manufacture of a wide range of decorative paint
products, including primers and undercoats as well as tile finishing or "top-coat"
systems. For the latter, sheen levels vary from "matt" through various midsheens to
semi-gloss (described as "silk" in some countries) to relatively high gloss. In addition to
providing the correct sheen level, the paint formulation must be designed to give the
required application and technical performance as a dry paint film. Latices continue to be
developed for paints such as those required by car manufacturers and for "refinish" paints
which are used following repairs to car bodies. Although such paints can be properly
described as latex paints, they are of specialist composition and their polymer base is
complex, and not confined to latex, and they will not be included here.
421
J. M. Asua (ed.), Polymeric Dispersions: Principles and Applications, 421-433.
© 1997 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
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2. Latex Paint Components

The latex paints are mixtures of two aqueous dispersions with a number of components
minor by volume and often a co-solvent liquid (miscible with water) included. One of
the dispersions is a high-solids latex and the other, the "mill-base", is produced by
milling inorganic pigment and extender (filler) material in water with water-soluble
polymers and other dispersants.

2.1. LAlEX SELECTION

Almost all of the paint characteristics are influenced by the choice of the latex. Firstly,
there is a choice between colloid-containing and colloid-free latex. In this context, the
term "colloid" refers to a water-soluble polymer which is present in the early stage of
the manufacture of the latex by emulsion polymerisation.

2.1.1 Colloid-containing Latices

Water-soluble polymers commonly employed as colloid include:
substituted cellulose, e.g. hydroxyethyl cellulose
partially-hydrolysed poly(vinyl acetate) (PVA)
acrylic acid copolymer
poly(vinyl pyrrolidone)
Usually the colloid is dissolved in the aqueous charge before adding monomer and
commencing emulsion polymerisation. It is therefore subjected to attack by free radicals;
this can result in scissioning of the polymer chains, especially with the celluloses, and
to the formation of radicals pendant from the chains which consume some of the
monomer to produce polymer tails or grafts. After completion of the polymerisation
process, the colloid may be very different from its starting composition. It may have
significantly enhanced surface-activity for example; in this event, attempts to
manufacture the latex by addition of the colloid only after polymerisation, fail to achieve
the same characteristics.
Characteristics which usually arise from the presence of colloid are shown below:
TABLE 1. Characteristics arising with colloid in latex
Latex Derived Paint

enhanced colloidal stability stability to freeze-thaw cycles,

- appears to be steric high electrolyte and high shear
increased viscosity increase in pseudoplastic rheology
larger particle size 'effective titanium complex
thixotrope

'with cellulose and PVA

2.1.2 Colloid-free Latices

The presence of water-soluble polymer in the latex composition adversely affects some
of the properties of the derived paints. In particular, paint characteristics involving
performance under wet conditions such as scrub resistance and condensation staining can
be impaired. These weaknesses can be avoided or reduced by selecting latex which has
been manufactured without colloid, at the loss of the benefits above.
 423

Colloid-free latex for paint use is manufactured by emulsion polymerisation

processes, usually with a combination of anionic and non-ionic surfactants to provide
colloidal stability for the particles. Ionic residues from the initiator which are attached at
one end of polymer chains, contribute to the stability. The latices tend to be lower in
viscosity and to have smaller particle sizes than colloid-containing systems.

2.1.3 Glass Transition Temperature

A number of factors influence the choice of the glass-transition-temperature (Tg) for the
latex particles. It is necessary to ensure that good film integration occurs when the paint
is applied over a range of temperatures down to some stipulated minimum. However,
this is counter-balanced by a desire to maintain reasonable film-hardness for durability,
resistance to dirt-pick-up and washability.
The important issue is the effective Tg, that is allowing for possible plasticisation
of the polymer by other components in the paint, such as cosolvent or surfactants. A
useful parameter here is "minimum film forming temperature" (MFT) which can be
measured by spreading a sample of latex or modified latex over a metal platen over
which a temperature gradient is maintained and identifying the minimum temperature at
which adequate film integration has occurred [3]. Generally, with a higher loading of
pigment and extender in the paint, a lower MFf is required (below):
TABLE 2. MFr requirements for different paints

Paint Type Approximate MFr for Latex

Matt 5"C
Primer/Undercoat 7"C
Mid-sheen 15"C
Gloss 2CfC

It would be expected that MFT was closely related to Tg. The relationship has been
found to be linear for some colloid-containing latex types and non-linear for some
colloid-free systems [4].
Latex particles for paints usually comprise copolymers and the Tg can be selected by
changing the composition using the Fox equation [5] where the Tg for the copolymer
(Tc> is given by

I _ Wx Wy
----+-- (1)
TC Tgx Tgy

where the copolymer comprises a weight fraction (W) of the respective component
which would have, as a homopolymer,a glass transition temperature (Tg).

2.1.4 Copolymer Particles

To provide the film polymer with a Tg in the desired range and with a selected balance
of physical properties, the latex particles comprise copolymer with two or three
constituents. The third and minor monomer constituent which may be present at only a
few percent of the total composition, is often included in the copolymer to provide
benefits to the paint or to the latex during storage prior to paint make-up. Some of the
characteristics provided are listed (Table 3).
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TABLE 3. Commonly used monomers

Principal Plasticising Minor Characteristics

Monomer Comonomer Monomer from Minor Monomer

methyl- butyl-acrylate acrylic acid or contributes to colloidal

methacrylate 2-ethyl-hexyl- methacrylic acid stability; increases paint
acrylate viscosity.

styrene butyl-acrylate acrylic acid or contributes to colloidal

2-ethyl-hexyl- methacrylic acid stability; increases paint
acrylate viscosity.

vinyl acetate vinyl-versatate adhesion promoter improves "wet adhesion"

butyl acrylate
2-ethyl-hexyl-
acrylate

Having selected a weight ratio of monomers to provide a given Tg and other

characteristics, there is no guarantee that the particles prepared by emulsion
polymerisation will have an uniform composition throughout their structure; the surface
composition, affecting the MFf value, may be different from the bulk. Implications
from this can be important to the paint formulator. This can be illustrated by
considering a copolymer of butyl acrylate (BA) / methyl methacrylate (MMA) / acrylic
acid (AA) which is of a type commonly used to prepare latex for paint. The acrylic acid
proportion is a few percent of the total. The monomers have significantly different
solubilities in water, respectively varying from low; from requiring a few percent to
saturate water; to being fully miscible with water. Using published Q,e values [6],
values for the reactivity ratios may be obtained as follows:
butyl acrylate / methyl methacrylate / acrylic acid
(a) (b) (c)

r,(ab) = 0.34 riab) = 1.9

r1(ac) = 0.32; r2(ac) = 2.9
r1(bc) = 0.75; r2(bc) = 1.2
On the basis of the reactivity ratios and by considering the propagation rates from
each of the three terminal radicals in tum, the composition of the growing polymers
may be compared (Figure 1). It follows that with this copolymer composition the
expectations would be:
(i) a tendency to produce AA-rich polymer
- chains with sufficient AA content will be water-soluble
(i.e. solution-polymer formation)
(ii) chains produced in the earlier stages of polymerisation will be richer in MMA / AA
(higher Tg polymer and relatively hydrophilic). (But this can be offset by running
the process at low free-monomer levels). Also the higher solubility of these
monomers in the aqueous phase will in addition favour the formation of solution-
phase oligomeric radicals richer in MMA / AA.
(iii) BA will be the slowest monomer to convert. At the end of the polymerisation,
polymer chains rich in BA will be produced (low Tg and relatively hydrophobic).
In summary, the latex would be expected to comprise heterogeneous particles with
some polymer (rich in AA) remaining in the continuous phase. With regard to the
 425

interest of the paint formulator, the solution polymer is likely to affect the paint
rheology by giving an increase in low-shear viscosity and by reducing water-resistance
properties.
Where latex particles comprise a mix of polymer chains of differing composition,
the surface composition would normally be expected at equilibrium to be richer in the
relatively more hydrophilic species but this effect does not appear to be significant when
the particles are grown under normal conditions with low free-monomer levels. Also
during emulsion polymerisation a wide spectrum of composition for the polymer chains
will result, tending to mask this effect.

~ Most Preferred
~BA'
~Next
+ BA Least

~ Most Preferred
MMa
o

+ MMa- Next
~Least
~ Most Preferred
~AA'
~Next
+ BA Least

Figure 1. Propagation from the differing polymer end radicals.

2.1.5 Composite Particles

Composite latex particles, comprising at least two different (co)polymers within each
particle, have been described widely, as is evident from the patent and open literature.
Some preparation processes are likely to generate a spectrum of compositions [7] and
most involve the polymerisation of a second set of monomer(s) in the presence of a first
polymer [8-11]; this will usually lead to some graft polymer which has elements of
both polymers and which will enhance the "internal blending" of the polymers within
each particle. Recently alternative processes have been reported in which preformed
polymer particles "engulf' second particles which may comprise inorganic material or
another polymer [12,13].
Composite particles have been designed for use in specialist latex paints such as
refinish for automobiles [14]. Use of composite particles in decorative paints does not
yet appear to be wide-spread but this situation may be changing. Composite particles
offer decorative paints an opportunity for different physical property balances and
increased cost-effective performance, by controlled location of specific functional
components (expensive) and by unobtrusive location of cheaper, poor performance
components, for example by confining them to the centre of the particles. Wider use of
426

composite particles may follow improved control of particle morphology during

manufacture.
A number of theories, based on the interfacial energies involved, have been developed
concerning the morphology of composite latex particles [12,15,16J. These theoretical
considerations have included predictions for the equilibrium morphology when one of
two polymer components increases in relative size by further polymerisation [17J; they
have indicated the importance of the relative volumes of the components in determining
the equilibrium morphology [12].
Internal re-arrangement of particle morphology, presumed toward an equilibrium
structure, has been observed. In some cases this has been dramatic leading to particle
disruption [18,19]. Rearrangement altering the minimum-film-forming temperature, has
been induced by heat-treatment [4J.

2.1.6 Particle Blends

Mixtures of different latex particles are of interest to the paint formulator because in
addition to attaining desired physical property balances they offer potential for control of
film morphology especially when differentiating film surface composition from bulk.
Some of the properties of the paint film such as resistance to dirt-pick-up, gloss,
scuffing and marking resistance are more associated with surface characteristics; for
others, such as opacity and the physical properties governing durability, the bulk
characteristics are more relevant. Most water-resistance properties such as scrub-
resistance and swelling and softening when rewetted are thought to be governed mostly
by bulk combined with the characteristics of the interface with the substrate. This is
discussed below (4.2). It can be speculated that latex paint, fully optimised for technical
performance might be formulated to include surface-migrating particles for surface
properties and different latex particles for the bulk properties.

2.1.7 Surfactant Selection

The choice of surfactants used during the manufacture of the latex can affect the final
paint properties. Because they remain in the final dry paint film, some of the properties
will be determined by their location. A network of surfactant molecules throughout the
film would be expected to "wick" moisture through the coating and reduce water-
resistance properties; this would contrast with surfactant residues isolated at cusps
within the film.
Surfactants can be selected from an extensive range of anionic and non-ionic
materials. "Reactive" surfactants [20J, carrying one or more copolymerisable double
bonds are also available, as are reactive surfactant precursors which copolymerise with
particle monomer to produce surface-active polymers or to become directly and
covalently attached at the particle surfaces. The latter have been used as colloidal
stabiliser to prepare non-ionic latex by emulsion polymerisation [21,22J or by
dispersion polymerisation in water / alcohol mixtures [23J; excellent properties have
been claimed for paints derived from these latices [24J.
Surfactants which become covalently bound at the particle surfaces will not desorb,
avoiding a problem which may otherwise occur during paint make-up.

2.1.8 Removal of Residual Monomer

Residues of monomer remaining at the end of latex manufacture give an odour to the
derived paint and if they were present at a significant level, would pose a health risk to
 427

the operator during application and even possibly, in the case of interior paints, to
subsequent room users.
It is usual for the latex manufacturer to add further free-radical initiator, at a suitable
temperature, at the very end of the process and to allow sufficient time for the latex to
be exposed to a significant free-radical flux. However, this treatment does not remove all
traces, as discussed elsewhere [25]. The monomer traces may be removed chemically,
usually involving saturation of the monomer double bond, or physically, for example
by passing steam or gas through the latex [26]. It is possible to reduce levels to less
than a few parts per million.

2.1.9 Biocide Addition

Latices, like other aqueous systems containing bio-degradable components, require
protection from attack by micro-organisms. For aqueous latex and derived paint the
principal sources of infection are by bacteria and fungi (including yeasts). When
selecting biocide for use in the systems, it is necessary to test the candidate biocide's
effectiveness against both classes of micro-organisms. Some biocides are less effective
at different pH ranges and this qualification needs to be checked, mindful of the pH of
the latex during storage and the pH of the paint.
Unsuccessful protection of either latex or paint may be manifiest at first as a change
in rheology or as a fall in pH arising from some decomposition of thickener (especially
if cellulosic) or surfactant (although there may be alternative explanations for these
changes). Increasing contamination leads to odour development and further physical
deterioration and may lead to disastrous gassing.

2.2. MILL-BASE PREPARATION

The mill-base is a dispersion of inorganic pigment and extender particles. It is

conveniently prepared with a high-speed disperser which comprises a disc fitted with
small blades at its perimeter, rotated about a vertical axis within the aqueous phase held
in a containing vessel. Firstly water and aqueous phase components are pumped to the
vessel and with the disc rotating at high speed, the solid materials are metered in slowly.
Water-soluble polymers, usually present in the aqueous phase, give an increase in
viscosity and this appears to assit the comminution and dispersing process. After
addition of all particulates the milling is continued for some time to ensure complete
comminution and dispersal, giving a dispersion with a mobile, creamy consistency.

2.2.1 Inorganic Pigment

Rutile titanium dioxide is used to provide the paint with whiteness and to contribute,
usually in a major way, to opacity. Many different grades of the pigment are available to
the paint formulator. The rutile particles are supplied with differing surface layers such
as silica, alumina, zinc oxide and zirconia. Selection from the range available is usually
made on the basis of empirical testing and optimisation for paints of a given type and
end-use. Optimum particle size for scatter is around 220nm. and pigment manufacturers
produce material which can be dispersed down to this approximate range.

2.2.2 Extender Particles

Different minerals are used, including calcium carbonate, kaolin (china clay), talc and
barytes. They contribute to opacity and colour and are used in large volumes in the
428

paints with lower sheen. They are major components in "dry-hiding" systems where,
after drying of the paint film, entrapped air contributes to the opacity by providing a
matrix phase or occluded phase of lower refractive index.

2.2.3 Dispersants
Combinations of low molecular weight surfactants and water-soluble or dispersible
polymers may be included in the mill-base formulation. These are required during the
dispersing process to give colloidal stability; they also are important to help control the
paint rheology. Highly efficient stabilisation giving near-Newtonian rheology is not the
target here, as discussed later.
Because of the hydrophilic nature of the extender particle surfaces, efficient
adsorption of low molecular weight hydrophobe moieties is not guaranteed. Partially
soluble or interfacially active polymers have advantages arising from the possibility of
multi-point (but weak) adsorption along their length.

2.3. OTHER COMPONENTS

Anti-foam agents, coalescing agent which reduces the effective Tg of the latex polymer
and biocide are included in the aqueous phase when preparing the mill-base. Suitable
biocides for protecting the paint in the can may be identified as described above (2.1.9).
In addition, for some countries such as those with tropical climates, biocides may be
required to protect the dry paint film. Other materials which are added to modify paint
rheology or dry film opacity are described later.

3. Paint Preparation

The latex is added to the mill-base dispersion or the other way around, whilst stirring.
The order-of-addition is chosen to avoid "shock" to any part of the system and is strictly
adhered to during manufacture!. Some components may be added after the mixing
operation and there may be adjustments to the pH with ammonia or alternative base; the
water content may be adjusted. Some typical paint formulations are shown (Table 4)
[27]. In these examples the latex comprised a medium-fine particle sized, cellulose ether
stabilised, vinyl acetate-vinyl versatate copolymer ("Emultex VV573" - registered Trade
Mark of the Harlow Chemical Co. Ltd).
A combination of several colour pigments may be used to give the required colour
effect in the final film. Colour mixing is a sophisticated procedure and is carried out
with great precision and reproducibility. There are two distinct operating procedures.
Either the paints are fully pigmented before leaving the manufacturing site or they are
delivered as base formulations for addition of tinting pigments at the retailing store
premises to meet the individual customer's requirements.

3.1. PAINT CHARACTERISTICS

During the development of modified paint products and as a quality control check, a
number of characterisations are made routinely. These usually include measurement of
viscosity at low-shear and at high-shear for which purpose simple intruments are
available commercially. Stability to added electrolyte and to repeated cycles of freezing
 429

and thawing may also be checked; paints based on latices with sterically-stabilised
particles usually are more robust.

3.1.1 Particle Size Chllracterisation

A difficulty here is that the paint will contain particles of differing refractive index and
density as well as size. However it may be possible to do this with a disc centrifuge
photosediometer [28] because its operation involves physical fractionation of the
particles by size and density. From the raw data (particles reaching the detector with
time) it is necessary to be able to separate the peaks for the different particle types and to
apply the correct density value to each.

TABLE 4. Examples of paint composition

Matt Paint Semi-Gloss Paint

Component %age %age Component %age %age

byWt by Vol byWt by Vol

water 21.1 27.6 water 15.1 18.4

polyphosphate 1.7 2.2 propylene glycol 3 3.8
maleate copolymer 0.4 0.5 acrylic acid copoly. 0.6 0.7
ammonia (0.91) 0.1 0.1 ammonia 0.1 0.1
biocide 0.2 0.3 biocide 0.2 0.2
anti-foam 0.2 0.3 anti-foam 0.2 0.2
hydroxyethyl celIulose 19.2 25.1 hydroxyethyl celIulose 14.5 19.7
(3%) (3%)
titanium dioxide 9.7 3.1 titanium dioxide 19 5.7
calcium carbonate 21.4 12.7 talc 3 1.7
kaolin 5.1 3 titanate complex 0.3 0.4
coalescing agent 1 1.4 coalescing agent I 1.3
latex 12.9 15.3 latex 36 40
opacifying polymer 7 8.4 opacifying polymer 7 7.8
particles particles
PVC=72% PVC=35%

4. Paint Properties

The pigment volume concentration (PVC) may be defined as the volume of the
inorganic particulates divided by the total dry film volume excluding any air in the film.
In a "well-bound" paint there is sufficient polymer to fill the space between the
inorganic particulates but above a critical value (C) for the PVC this is no longer the
case and the dried paint film will include air. Because of the polydisperse nature of the
particles and irregular shape of some, the CPVC is not easily predicted. It can be readily
identified however from a range of paints of varying PVC due to a transition point when
property performance is plotted against PVC; for example this can be done with opacity
or washability assessment. In general, gloss, mid-sheen and exterior paints are
formulated below CPVC, as are interior Matt paints which are designed to be more
cleansable with improved resistance to marking and scuffing damage. Formulations
above CPVC can offer higher opacity at lower cost and provide less expensive interior
wall and ceiling paints.
430

4.1. RHEOLOGY

Decorative latex paints are applied by brush or roller and to a lesser degree by airless
spray. Usually the paints are designed for both brush and roller but exceptions to this
include the so-called "solid-emulsion" paints for which brush application is unsuitable.
This duality for application leads to a need for some balancing in the in-built rheological
characteristics.
For application by brush, the user requires (not always consciously) good pick-up of
paint onto the brush, relative ease in avoiding drips from the brush and splash when
applied to the substrate, easy unrestricted brushing and almost complete disappearance of
brush marks before the paint dries.
Rheograms showing apparent viscosity plotted against shear-rate readily differentiate
latex paints from fluid, oil-based gloss paints, which in the hands of an experienced
person give unsurpassed brushing characteristics (Figure 2). The latex paints have a
pronounced non-Newtonian character with steep shear-thinning behaviour and some
hysteresis. At low shear rates there is a high sensitivity to disperse phase volume
fraction (<p). The shear-thinning is believed to arise largely from weak, reversible
flocculation in the paint which may be considered to give loose clusters of particles
increasing the effective value for (<p); the cluster size is thought to decrease with
increasing shear rate [29].

TJ app
/ Poise
lOOf- latex paints with

I:~~g~ alkyd....B.loss

~~=====
I I I I

1 10 100 1,000
Shear rate / sec- 1

Figure 2. Rheograms comparing latex and oil-based paints

after breakdown of structure at high shear

During application by brush or roller, the wet paint is subjected to very high shear
rate, in the order of 10,000 sec-I, which is sufficient to break most of the paint structure.
Because of the pseudoplastic behaviour, the viscosity at low shear is much higher. This
is beneficial for improving resistance to sagging for the wet paint film on vertical
surfaces but may hinder flow-out of brush-marks.
The flow-out of brush-marks was considered by Orchard and Smith [30]. Taking the
brush-marks to be sinusoidal in cross-selection, they derived an equation for the
amplitude (a) of the marks after time (t), where the initial amplitude is (30) and the wave
lenght is (A)
 431

-f
a=aOe (2)

(3)

and where (Tl) is the viscosity. The mean paint thickness (h) and the surface tension (y)
are assumed to stay constant.

- h A

Figure 3. Assumed brush-mark cross-section

With oil-based paints, the equation is known to give quite good fit with
experimental observation. Because decay of brush-marks is faster at larger values of (f),
it will be faster at lower paint viscosity. The relevant shear-rate regime is very low and
with the marked non-Newtonian behaviour of the latex paints and high sensitivity of
viscosity to (<p), the relationship between decreasing brush-mark decay with increasing
paint solids, which is observed in practice, is indicated.
Major changes in the paint rheology can be effected by selecting different polymer
for the aqueous phase. A number of types of polymer are available. These include
substituted ceUuloses (already discussed), "associative thickeners" (discussed elsewhere
[31)) and (meth)acrylic acid copolymers. The latter may be supplied as latex with the
particles dissolving when the pH is raised during paint preparation.
Different rheology is obtained depending on whether colloid-containing or colloid-
free latex is selected and on the choice of minor monomers for the latex composition.
Rheology also involves aesthetics in that the appearance of the paint when its
container is opened, and the appearance on a fully-laden brush, are often taken as
indicators of "paint quality" by the user.

4.2. WATER RESISTANCE PROPERTIES

Depending on the paint type, a number of physical properties must be provided. These
might include washability, resistance to house-hold stains and to scuffing and good
adhesive performance to the substrate which it covers. Performance of the paint film
when it is wet or damp can pose special difficulties. These arise largely because the
paint was originally an aqueous composition and still contains a number of water-
432

sensitive species. The problem is severe when the latex paint is applied over a well-
sealed substrate, for example which is coated with an alkyd paint. For good performance
under these conditions, modification to the formulation is required, usually effected by
including a special monomer in the latex. Many such components ("adhesion
promoters") are described in the patent literature; several are available commercially.
Some include the heterocyclic ethylene urea (ureido) structure [32].
There are conflicting views on the possible mechanism by which "wet adhesion" is
improved. One of these is that the components reduce the loss in modulus when the
film becomes wet and consequently peel adhesive performance is retained; another is that
they generate beneficial polar-polar interactions at the interface between the film and the
substrate.

4.3. OPACITY

Comparison between latex paints (with disperse phase polymer) and oil-based gloss
paints (with solution phase polymer) suggests that light scatter from the titanium
dioxide pigment particles is more efficient in the latter systems. In a film derived from
polymer particles and pigment particles at or near optimum size, a loss in scatter would
be expected from any pigment-pigment contact. Ideally, all the pigment particles, at
optimum size, would have only polymer particles as near-neighbours.
When drying a mixed dispersion of polymer and pigment particles this ideal
arrangement will not result and random statistics will dominate the extent to which a
pigment particle will include another pigment particle amongst its near-neighbours.
This suggests that if modifications to the dispersions could be made such that pigment-
pigment contacts could be reduced or eliminated, increases in opacity would be attained.
Much current research is devoted to finding cost-effective ways of improving opacity
in latex paints, as is evident from the patent literature. Techniques which are being
developed include complete or partial encapsulation of titanium dioxide particles with
either film-forming or non-film-forming polymer [33]. Also special polymer particles
have been developed such that when they dry as part of the paint film, an air-void is
generated at the particle centre [34]. These particles are available commercially. A
method to characterise such particles with a disc centrifuge, has been described [35].
As mentioned above, air is incorporated within paint films when formulated above
the CPVC. The air reduces the refractive index of the matrix phase and increases the
differential with the pigment and extender particles. However these paints have a number
of performance limitations. Successful incorporation of air, at the correct location
within the film and without loss of film properties and with full cleansability, will yield
very significant technical advantages to the latex paint formulator.

5. References
1. Lambourne, R. (Ed) (1987). Paint & Suiface Coatings, Theory & Practice, Ellis Horwood, Chichester.
2. Barret, K.EJ. (Ed) (1975). Dispersion Polymerisation in Organic Media, J. Wiley & Sons, New York.
3. Gordon, P.G., Davies, M.A.S. and Waters, J.A. (1984),1. Oil Colour Chemists Assoc. 67, 197.
4. Hourston, DJ., Simpson, M.A., Waters, J.A. and Williams, MJ.P. (1994) Modified film from composite
latex, Waterborne Coatings, UMIST, Manchester.
5. Fox, T.G. (1950) Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. Series 2,1.
6. Brandrup, J. and Immergut, E. (1989). Polymer Handbook third Ed., Wiley-Interscience, New York.
 433

7. Bassett, D.R. and Hoy, K.L. (1980), in D.R. Bassett and A.E. Hamielec (eds.), Emulsion Polymers and
Emulsion Polymerisation, ACS Symp. Ser. 165,415.
8. Erickson, J.R. and Seidewand, R.I. (1981), in D.R. Bassett and A.E. Hamielec (eds.), Emulsion
Polymers and Emulsion Polymerization. ACS Symp. Ser. 165, 483.
9. Dimonie, V., EI-Aasser, M.S., Klein, A. and Vanderhoff, J.W. (1984). J. Polymer Sci., Polymer Chem.
Edit., 22, 2197.
10. Guillot, J., Guyot, A and Pichot, C. (1990), in Candau, F. and Ottewill, R.H. (Eds) An Introduction to
Polymer Colloids, K1uwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
11. Greenhill, D.A., Hourston, DJ. and Waters, J.A. (1990). ACS Ser. 424, 397.
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