Consolidated Written Report

Group 3

Submitted by:
Buscagan, Valleree V.

Café, Alvin Winston P.

De Castro, Ryan Joshua L.

Dublas, Maria Teresa M.

Kobayashi, July Mark N.

Submitted to:
Engr. Showna Lee Sales
RCE, RMP, ME 1

June 30, 2019

Cement - is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres
to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather
to bind sand and gravel (aggregate) together.  Cement is the basic ingredient of
concrete. Concrete is formed when Portland cement creates a paste with water that
binds with sand and rock to harden. Common materials used to manufacture cement
include limestone, shells, and chalk or marl combined with shale, clay, slate, blast
furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore. These ingredients, when heated at high
temperatures form a rock-like substance that is ground into the fine powder that we
commonly think of as cement.

Concrete – construction material used extensively in buildings, roads. Concrete is made

up of three basic components: water, aggregate (rock, sand, or gravel) and Portland
cement.

1. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

In usual construction work, Ordinary Portland Cement is widely used. The composition
of Ordinary Portland Cement:

● Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)

● Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl)

Uses of Ordinary Portland cement

● It is used for general construction purposes.

● It is also used in most of the masonry works.

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive forms. It
reacts with calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to form additional
cementations materials when it is finely divided. The composition of Portland Pozzolana
Cement:

● OPC clinker
 ● Gypsum
● Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica fumes.)

Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement

● PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near

the seashore, dam construction etc.
● It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
● As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
● It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

The strength of rapid hardening cement at the 3 days is similar to 7 days strength of
OPC with the same water-cement ratio. Thus, advantage of this cement is that formwork
can be removed earlier which increases the rate of construction and decreases cost of
construction by saving formwork cost.

Rapid hardening cement is used in prefabricated concrete construction, road works, etc.

When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with higher content,
it gains strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC is called Rapid Hardening
Cement. It’s initial Setting Time 30 minutes and Final Setting Time 600 minutes.

Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement

● Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed like
the construction of pavement.
● It also gives high strength

4. Quick setting cement

The difference between the quick setting cement and rapid hardening cement is that
quick setting cement sets earlier while rate of gain of strength is similar to Ordinary
Portland Cement, while rapid hardening cement gains strength quickly. Formworks in
both cases can be removed earlier.
Quick setting cement is used where works is to be completed in very short period and
for concreting in static or running water.

Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The initial setting
time is 5 minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes. The composition of Quick
Setting Cement:

● Clinker
● Aluminium sulphate (1% to 3% by weight of clinker)
● The aluminium sulphte increase the hydration rate of silicate.

Uses of Quick Setting Cement

● It is used in underwater construction.

● It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.
● It is used a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.
● Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunneling

5. Low Heat Cement

It is a spatial type of cement which produce low heat of hydration during setting. Some
chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is modified to reduce the heat of
hydration. The chemical composition of low heat cement:

● A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

● A higher percentage (46%) of declaim silicate (C2S).

Uses of Low Heat Cement

● It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and wind
turbine plinths.
● It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.
6. Sulphates Resisting Cement

Sulphate resisting cement is used to reduce the risk of sulphate attack on concrete and
thus is used in construction of foundations where soil has high sulphate content. This
cement has reduced contents of C3A and C4AF.

Sulphate resisting cement is used in construction exposed to severe sulphate action by

water and soil in places like canals linings, culverts, retaining walls, siphons etc.

Sulphate resisting cement is used to resist sulphate attacks in concrete. Due to the lower
percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-aluminates gets

Sulphate resisting cement is used to resist sulphate attacks in concrete. Due to the lower
percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-aluminates gets
reduced.

Uses of Sulphates resisting Cement

● Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or 0.3
% g/l sulphate salts respectively.
● Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge piers,
concrete surface in tidal zone, apron, Building near seacoast.
● Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage, sumps,
drainage works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as sea walls,
breakwaters, tetrapod etc.

7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement

Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the clinkers with about 60% slag and
resembles more or less in properties of Portland cement. It can be used for works
economic considerations is predominant.

8. High Alumina Cement

High alumina cement is obtained by melting mixture of bauxite and lime and grinding
with the clinker. It is a rapid hardening cement with initial and final setting time of
about 3.5 and 5 hours respectively.
High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an aluminium ore)
and ordinary lime with clinker during the manufacture of OPC. In which the total
amount of alumina content should not be lesser than 32% and it should maintain the
ratio by weight of alumina to the lime between 0.85 to 1.30.

Uses of High Alumina Cement

● It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like

workshop, refractory, foundries etc
● It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.

9. White Cement

White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for color. Amounts of
iron oxide and manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is expensive then OPC so
not economical for ordinary work.

Uses of White Cement

● It is usually used in decorative work.

● It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles patching
materials and terrazzo surfaces.

10. Colored cement

To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are grinded with OPC. Types of pigments
are selected according to the desired color.

Uses of Colored Cement

● Colored cement is used for different decorative work

11. Air Entraining Cement

This type of cement is especially suited to improve the workability with smaller water
cement ratio and to improve frost resistance of concrete.

Air-entraining cement is a spatial type of cement which entrains tinny air bubbles in
concrete. When water in concrete get frizzed due to low temperature, it expands. When
air-entraining cement, the air voids in concrete provides space for water to expand
without cracking concrete. But this type cement does not provide high strength in
concrete.

Uses of Air-Entraining Cement

● Spatially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.

● It also resists Sulphate attack.
● It is used where the de-iceing chemical is used.

12. Expansive Cement

Expansive cement expands slightly with time and does not shrink during and after the
time of hardening. This cement is mainly used for grouting anchor bolts and pressurised
concrete ducts.

In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can be possible to
overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.

There are three types of expansive cement:

1. K Type expansive cement

2. M Type expansive cement
3. S Type expansive cement

K Type expansive cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

● Portland cement
● Anhydrous tetracalcium trialuminate sulfate (C4A3S)
● Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
● Lime (CaO).
M Type Expansive Cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

1. Portland cement clinkers

2. Calcium sulphate

S Type Expansive Cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

1. Portland cement clinkers

2. Calcium sulphate (High amount)

● Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) (High amount)

Uses of Expansive cement

● It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.

● It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
● In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is used

13. Hydrophobic cement

Hydrophobic cement is prepared by mixing water repelling chemicals and has high
workability and strength. It has the property of repelling water and is unaffected during
monsoon or rains. Hydrophobic cement is mainly used for the construction of water
structures such dams, water tanks, spillways, water retaining structures etc.

To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are
grinded with water repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid.  These
chemicals form a layer on the cement particle and do not allow water to mix and start
the hydration process. When cement and aggregate are thoroughly mixed in the mixer,
protective layers break and start normal hydration with some air-entrainment which
increase workability.
To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are
grinded with water repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid.  These
chemicals form a layer on the cement particle and do not allow water to mix and start
the hydration process. When cement and aggregate are thoroughly mixed in the mixer,
protective layers break and start normal hydration with some air-entrainment which
increase workability.

EXPIREMENT NO. 12
Determination of Setting Time of Hydraulic Cement
Reference Standard
ASTM C 191-42
AASHTO T 131-93

Introduction:

There are several factors that control the setting time of concrete. These are its
chemical composition the amount of water used to make the concrete and the prevailing
temperature during the mixing process. When cement is hydrated it sets and hardens
gradually until it attains sufficient strength and is able to support pressure.

The Vicat apparatus can be used to determine the rate at which the cement paste
can remain plastic to allow proper placement before it hardens.

The initial set is a stage in the process of hardening. After this stage cracks that
may occur will not reunite. The final stage when concrete has attained sufficient
strength and hardness.

Using the Vicat test. Type I Portland Cement has a standard initial set of not less
than 45 minutes while its standard final set is not less than 37.5 minutes.
Objective:
1. To determine time of set of hydraulic cement using Vicat Apparatus
2. To evaluate the setting of the tested Portland cement based on the
required initial setting time.

Apparatus/Materials:

Portland Cement Sample Balance Sensitive to 0.1 gm

Vicat Apparatus #200 Sieve
Mixing Container Spatula

Procedure:

1. Weight about 300 gm of cement accurately and make a paste 0.85 times
the water required to make pastes of normal consistency.
2. Place the plastic in the rubber mold. Place the paste into the apparatus
then remove the excess paste.

3. Bring the small end of the rod of the vicat apparatus on the surface of the
paste and then quickly release the needle to allow it to penetrate the
paste.

4. Read the penetration of the needle registered on the dials. Removed the
paste and place back into the apparatus. The initial set is said to have
occurred when the needle ceases to pass a point 5 mm above the bottom
of the mold.

5. The time taken from the instant of adding water to the cement up to the
moment when the needle ceases to penetrate a point 5 mm the bottom of
the mold is known as the initial setting time of the cement. For ordinary
Portland cement the initial set should be not less than 30 minutes.
1. Initial set. Occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably.

2. Final set. Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain
some load.

Concrete Mix Proportion

Most Important Requirements of Concrete

⦿ Fresh concrete must be workable which means that it could freely flow to fill all
voids inside the form.

⦿ The hardened concrete must be strong enough to carry the designed load.

⦿ The hardened concrete could withstand the conditions to which it is exposed to

serve.

⦿ Concrete should be economically produced.

Materials:

a. Portland Cement
b. Sand
c. Aggregates (coarse)
d. Water

Concrete is a composite mixture which consists of Cement, Sand and

Aggregate. Concrete mix design is the procedure for finding the right quantities
of these materials to achieve the desired strength. Accurate concrete mix design
makes concrete construction economical.  Large constructions such as Bridges,
dams requires huge amount of concrete, using the right quantity of constituents
make the structure economical.
 In order to calculate or find the right amount of cement, sand and aggregate
required in 1m3 of concrete; you need to know about different grades of
concrete.

Figure 1-1: Concrete Mix Proportion Table

Types of Concrete

1. Nominal Mix Concrete - Generally adopted for small scale constructions. In this
type of mix, the mix ratios and concrete constituent proportions are prefixed and
specified. Eg: M20 (1:1.5:3); the quantity of cement, sand and aggregate is
batched in volume as per the fixed ratio 1:1.5:3.
2. Design Mix Concrete – This type of concretes are adopted for high rise
constructions. In this type of mix, the mix ratios are decided by an Engineer after
analyzing the properties of individual ingredients of concrete. Like, cement is
tested for Fineness Modulus and Specific Gravity of Cement in the lab while
deciding the Design mix ratio. There is No Pre-fixed ratio, and ingredients which
 are batched in weight. From the above table, concrete grades more than M25
falls in Design mix.

Formulas:
a. Volume of Dry Concrete

Vd = (Factor of Safety) x (Volume of Wet Concrete)

b. Volume of Cement

Cement
Vc = [ Cement + Sand+ Aggregate
∙[Vd] ]
No. of Bags

( Vc ) ∙(Weight of Cement per cu . m)

No. of bags = [ 50 kgs ]
c. Volume of Sand

Sand
Vs = [ Cement + Sand+ Aggregate
∙[Vd]]
d. Volume of Aggregate

Aggregate
Va = [ Cement + Sand+ Aggregate
∙[Vd]]
Portland Cement

Reference : AASHTO M 85 (ASTM C 150)

⦿ This is binding material in the form of a finely ground powder, usually gray, that
is manufactured by burning and grinding a mixture of limestone and clay or
limestone and shale.

⦿ The inventor Joseph Aspdin, of England, patented the basic process in 1824,
naming it for the resemblance of the cement when set to Portland stone, a
limestone from the Isle of Portland.

⦿ When mixed with water, the anhydrous calcium silicates and other
constituents in the Portland cement react chemically with the water, combining
with it (hydration) and decomposing in it (hydrolysis) and hardening and
developing strength.

Figure 1-2: Types of Portland Cement

 Hydraulic Cement Concrete

Hydraulic cement is a construction/masonry product which is primarily used to close

cracks and leaks in concrete structures, especially those that have weakened with age,
or structures which are likely to be affected by water. The specialty of this cement is
that is sets and hardens very quickly after it comes in contact with water. Most
construction projects in the modern world use hydraulic cement, because it is durable,
sets fast, is quite cheap, easy to use, will stay strong even when placed in water, besides
many other benefits.

● Hydraulic cement hardens due to hydration, i.e., exposure to water, while non-hydraulic
cement hardens due to carbonation, i.e., exposure to carbon dioxide in the air.
Therefore, hydraulic cements can be used underwater, while non-hydraulic versions
cannot.
● Hydraulic cement is made with limestone, gypsum, and clay, which is burned at high
temperatures. Non-hydraulic cement is made with lime, gypsum, and oxychloride.
● Hydraulic cement dries and hardens in a few minutes, while non-hydraulic versions can
even take a month or more to reach usable conditions.

Types and Uses of Hydraulic Cement 

Various types of hydraulic cements have been created for specific purposes. They are as
follows:

● General-use Hydraulic Cement: This cement is created as a general purpose variant,

which is primarily used in fixing floors, pavements, buildings, bridges, pipes, etc.,
where it works well as a leakage stopper.
● White Hydraulic Cement: The only difference between this and the general-use
hydraulic cement is the color. It is manufactured using minimal amounts of iron and
magnesium, which gives it a white color. It is mainly used in architecture, where white
concrete will look good for decorative purposes.
● Moderate Sulfate Resistant Hydraulic Cement: When water or moist soil come in contact
with concrete, sulfates can react chemically and result in scaling cracking and
 expansion, which ruins the structure. This cement is used in such structures, due to its
partial resistance to sulfates, which it gets due to the chlorides that are mixed with the
raw materials. For this reason, it is mainly used in structures that are exposed to sea
water.
● High Sulfate Resistant Hydraulic Cement: This cement is used in concrete structures
that face a high amount of sulfates on a regular basis. It uses a low water-to-cement
ratio, and hence, gains strength much slower than general-use hydraulic cement. It is
also highly resistant to corrosive materials, such as acids.
● Moderate Heat of Hydration Hydraulic Cement: While general-use hydraulic cement
generates a lot of heat while reacting with water, the moderate heat variant is specially
designed to give out lesser heat. Such cement is commonly used in structures with
huge mass, such as piers, foundations of buildings, and large retaining walls. This
cement will reduce temperature-related cracking, making the structure more durable.
● Low Heat of Hydration Hydraulic Cement: This cement gains strength much slower than
the other types, because it gives out very little heat after mixing with water. It is only
used in the largest of structures, such as dams, where heat minimization is necessary.
This type is only available in large quantities on demand.
● High Early Strength Hydraulic Cement: This cement gains full strength very quickly (in
around a weeks time). It is highly similar to general purpose cement, where the main
difference is that, early strength cement is very finely ground. It is used in places
where the structure has to be used immediately.

How to Apply Hydraulic Cement

● Hydraulic cement has to be applied on a surface that has been cleaned thoroughly.
There should be no sign of grease, oil, dirt, or other contaminants.
● It is highly recommended that one should use hydraulic cement based underlayments in
the areas which the cement will be used.
● It is important that the area is saturated for at least 24 hours, and the hydraulic cement
application temperature should be maintained between 45 - 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
● Hydraulic cement has to be mixed in a machine with rotational blades to get a uniform
mix.
● Mix only small amounts at one time, and follow the manufacturer's instructions to the
letter, to get the best results.
● Use the cement quickly, as it remains in a workable state only for 10 - 15 minutes.

Hydraulic Cement Uses

Hydraulic cement can be used above of below grade, however, it is extremely useful if
used in:

● Swimming Pools
● Drainage systems
● Foundations
● Elevator pits
● Basement walls
● Manholes
● Sealing around concrete and masonry structures
● Marine applications.
● Chimneys
● Cisterns and fountains

Hydraulic Cement Pros and Cons

Hydraulic cement will offer some advantages but it also has some downsides as well.
Some of its advantages are:

● Provide durable repairs that will last for long period of times.
● Sets and hardens fast, normally three minutes after being mixed with water.
● It is a cost-effective solution
● Hydraulic cement is very easy to use
● Hot water will accelerate the setting time and cold water will retard it
● Can be used on vertical applications
● It will maintain its strength even if it's submerged in water
● Will not corrode nor become rusted
● Hydraulic cement will not shrink
● It can fix leaky pipes and basements without having to stop the leaking.

● It can be painted within one hour of it being applied

But it also has some drawbacks:

● Once mixed, the hydraulic cement only remains workable for 10 to 15 minutes.
● Will not work on frozen surfaces or if the temperature will drop dramatically
within 48 hours
● Avoid using it when temperature is below 40 degrees Fahrenheit

If the problem is due to condensation instead of leaking, hydraulic cement will not solve
your problem and you will need to use other solutions.

Hydraulic Cement Health and Safety Precautions

Hydraulic cement must be handled very carefully and you must wear necessary PPE
before applying. We encourage you to:

● Avoid breathing the dust.

● Avoid any contact with eyes or skin.
● Silica inhaling may cause lung problems, although there is no real evidence silica
is a carcinogen.
● The use of protective clothing: gloves or mask is recommended.
Admixtures

Admixtures are defined as the chemical compounds added to the concrete mix
immediately before or during mix other than cement, water, and aggregates to modify
the properties of fresh and hardened concrete.

The properties commonly modified are that the rate of hydration or setting times,
workability, dispersion and air entertainment.

Functions of Admixtures

● To accelerate the initial set of concrete

● To enhance workability
● To reduce the segregation in grout and concrete mixtures
● To reduce heat of hydration
● To produce cellular concrete blocks
● To enhance the bond of concrete to the steel reinforcement
● To increase the strength of concrete by reducing the water content
Classification of Admixtures

A. General Pupose Admixtures

1. Accelerating Admixtures – an admixture used to speed up the initial set of
concrete is called accelerator.
Uses:
a. To increase the rate of hydration of hydraulic cement

b. To shorten setting time

Advantage: Underwater concreting, the basement waterproofing operations

Example: Calcium Formate, NaCl, NaOH, KOH and calcium Chloride

2. Retarding Admixtures – the set retarding admixtures slow down the initial
rate of hydration of cement or prolong the setting time.
Uses:
a. They are used primarily to offset the accelerating and damaging effect of high
temperature and to keep the concrete workable.
b. Also used in grouting oil wells.
Advantage: In ready mix concrete practices retarders are often used.
Example. Sugar, soluble starch, Dextrin, Hydroxides of zinc and lead

3. Air Entertaining Admixtures – air entertaining admixtures helps to

incorporate a controlled amount of air, in the form of millions of minute non-
coalescing bubbles distributed throughout the body of concrete during
mixing.
Uses: entertainment of air into concrete
Advantage: enhanced durability to frost without increasing cement, improvement in
workability and cellular concrete.
Example: hydrogen peroxide
 4. Water Reducing Admixtures
● Plasticizers – are the organic or combination of organic and inorganic
substances which reduces water content for certain degree of
workability, when added in mix.

Plasticizers are mixed form o.1% to 0.04% by weight of cement used

and it reduces 5% to 15% of water with the increment of workability
from 3 to 8cm slump.

Example – carbohydrate derivatives and calcium lignosulphate

● Super Plasticizers are the improvement of plasticizers. In other words,
use of super-plasticizers reduces much more segregations and
bleedings than any normal plasticizers. Hence, super-plasticizers are
most effective mix ingredient for concrete.
Advantage – water reducing admixtures enable a given fresh concrete
mix to highter flow ability without increasing the water content.
Example – sulphonated melamine, Naphthalene sulphonate.

B. Specialty Category Admixtures

1. Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures
2. Shrinkage Admixtures
3. Water or Damp Proofing Admixtures
4. Bonding Admixtures
5. Concrete Surface Hardening Admixtures
6. Colouring Admixtures
7. Fungicidal And Insecticidal Admixtures
Water/Cement Ratio

What is Water/Cement Ratio?

- The ratio of water to the weight of cement.

- Important factor to be consider in concrete mixing

- Directly affect the strength of the concrete

- Can be determine by water/cement test

Role of Water

Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major compound in cement form a

chemical bond with water molecules.

Effects of Too Much Water

-Water leaves voids in concrete

-High shrinkage

-Seepage of water

-Can increase of workability but adversely effect the strength and durability of the
concrete.

Determination of Water/Cement Ratio

-Calculated by dividing the water in one cubic meter of the mix (in kg) by cement
in the mix (in kg)

-Can be determine using water/cement ratio.

Note:

Water/Cement ratio is normally between 0.4-0.6

or 23%-25% of the mass of the cement.

Concrete Slump Test
(ASTM C143)

Purpose:

- To measure the consistency of concrete

- To check the workability of concrete

Workability is the ability of concrete to handle, transport, and placing without any
segregation.

Factors which influence the concrete slump test:

-Material properties like chemistry, fineness, particle size distribution, moisture.

-Content and temperature of cementitious materials. Size, texture, combined

grading, cleanliness and moisture content of the aggregates.

-Chemical admixtures dosage, type, combination, interaction, sequence of

addition and its effectiveness,

-Air content of concrete,

-concrete batching, mixing and transporting methods and equipment,

-Temperature of the concrete,

-Sampling of concrete, slump-testing technique and the condition of test

equipment

-The amount of free water in the concrete, and

-Time since mixing of concrete at the time of testing.

Concrete Slump Test (ASTM C143)

Materials/Equipments:

-metallic cone (30cm height, 20cm bottom diameter, 10cm

top diameter)

-tamping rod is of steel 16 mm diameter and 60cm long and rounded at one end

-non-porous base plate

-measuring scale

Procedure:

-the internal surface of the mould and apply oil.

-Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non- porous base plate.

-Fill the mould with the prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately equal layers.

-Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod in a
uniform manner over -the cross section of the mould. For the subsequent layers,
the tamping should penetrate into the underlying layer.

-Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel.

-Clean away the mortar or water leaked out between the mould and the base
plate.

-Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical direction.

-Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mould and that of
height point of the specimen being tested.

Result of Slump Test on Concrete

True Slump- is the only slump that can be measured in the test
 Zero slump- is the indication of very low water-cement ratio, which results in dry
mixes. These type of concrete is generally used for road construction.

Collapsed Slump- is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high.

Shear Slump- indicates that the result is incomplete, and concrete to be retested.

Test for Concrete

Are the tests performed to measure shear strength, tensile strength,

compressive strength, bend strength of the concrete.

*Test for Concrete Beams

*Test for Concrete Columns

Test For Concrete Beams

(ASTM C78)

- Determines the flexural strength of concrete by the use of a simple beam with
third-point loading.

- we will be able to get the Modulus of Rupture

Modulus of Rupture is a measure of a specimen’s strength before rupture, or simply

bending strength.

Test For Concrete Beams Computation

When;

a>200mm for 150mm

a>130mm for 100mm

Flexural Strength of Rapture

Fb=PL/bd2

a<200mm and a>170mm for 150mm

a<133mm and a>110mm for 100m

Flexural strength or modulus of rupture

Fb=3Pa/bd2

b=width of the beam in millimeters

d=failure point depth in millimeters

L=supported length in millimeters

P=maximum load applied

a=distance between the line of fracture and nearest support

Test For Concrete Columns

Compression Test - a test performed to measure the ability of structure to carry

the load on its surface without any crack or deflection.

-The materials under compression tends to reduce.

Note:
 *Tested after 7 days curing or 28 days curing

* Load shall be applied gradually at rate of 140kg/cm 2 per min

until specimen fails.

Solving for Compressive Strength

Stress=L/A

L=load

A= cross-sectional area

COMPLETED PAVEMENT

What is a pavement?
 - A multi-layer system that distributes the vehicular loads over a larger area
- Pavement is the upper part of roadway, airport or parking area structure
- It includes all layers resting on the original ground
- It consists of all structural elements or layers, including shoulders
- It can also be defined as “structure which separates the tires of vehicles
from the under lying foundation.”

Functions:

- Reduce and distribute the traffic loading

- Provide vehicle access between two points under all-weather conditions
- Provide safe, smooth and comfortable ride to road users without undue
delays and excessive wear & tear
- Meet environmental and aesthetics requirement
- Limited noise and air pollution
- Reasonable economy

Requirements of Pavement structure

- Sufficient thickness to spread loading to a pressure intensity tolerable by

subgrade
- Sufficiently strong to carry imposed stress due to traffic load
- Sufficient thickness to prevent the effect of frost susceptible subgrade
- Pavement material should be impervious to penetration of surface water
which could weaken subgrade and subsequently pavement
- Pavement material should be non-frost susceptible
- Pavement surface should be skid resistant 6

Classification of Pavements
a.) Flexible Pavement
- A flexible pavement is a structure that maintains intimate contact with and
distributes load to the sub grade and depends on aggregate interlock, particle
friction and cohesion for stability” 
- Flexible pavements Three main layers
1. Surface course - This is the top layer and the layer that comes in contact
with traffic
2. Base course - This is the layer directly below the surface course and
generally consists of aggregates (either stabilized or un-stabilized).
3. Sub-base course - This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer. A sub-
base is not always needed.

b. Rigid Pavements

- Rigid pavements are those, which contain sufficient beam strength to be able
to bridge over the localized sub-grade failures and areas of in adequate
support.
- Load is transmitted through beam action of slab in rigid pavements.
- Rigid pavements are those, which reduces the stress concentration and
distributes the reduced stresses uniformly to the area under the slab.
- laid as single layer by ‘concrete paver’ 
 Comparison

Flexible Rigid

◈ Deep foundations / multiple layer ◈ Single layer

construction ◈ Generally last longer
◈ Energy consumption due to ◈ May require asphalt toping due to
transportation of materials noise / comfort issues
◈ Increasing cost of asphalt due to
high oil prices

Types of Pavement Failure

Flexible Rigid

◈ Fatigue Cracking ◈ Fatigue Cracking

◈ Rutting ◈ Pumping or Erosion
◈ Thermal Cracking ◈ Others: Faulting, spalling, joint
deterioration

Thickness Determination

a. Flexible pavement

Initial Structural Number 2.3

Layer thickness determination

Layer 1 thickness, D1 (inch) 2

Layer 2 thickness, D2 (inch) 6

Layer Thickness, D3 (inch) 12

Final Structural Number 2.3

Asphalt concrete

Crusher Run

Ordinary White Sand

2in
4in
12in

b. Rigid pavement
Initial Structural Number 2.3

Layer thickness determination

Layer 1 thickness, D1 (inch) 2

Layer 2 thickness, D2 (inch) 4

Layer 3 thickness, D3 (inch) 12

Final Structural Number 2.5

Asphalt concrete

Cement treated base

Ordinary White Sand

 2in
4in
12in

Formula: