University of Basrah

College of Engineering

Petroleum Engineering Department

3rd year class

Name : ‫محمد كريم زهير‬

No.: (42)

Seismic Stratigraphy
Introduction

History

The concept of sequence stratigraphy was first developed by Peter Vail in the
1960s. While he was a senior scientist at Exxon, he come up with three core
concepts that define sequence stratigraphy. 1) Seismic reflections are generated
by physical bedding surfaces, 2) Seismic reflections create patterns or
sequences that can be used to interpret depositional environment and lithology,
and 3) Unconformities that form sequence boundaries are the same age when
located in multiple basins are located. Vail also believe that eustacy is the main
control on unconformities, sedimentary systems, and system tracts within a
stratigraphic sequence.

Sedimentary rocks normally exist in more-or-Iess parallel layers or strata,

different rock types being distinguished by different physical features. Lyell (in
Principles of Geology (1830), quotes Strabo as writing in Geography about
A.D. 20: It is not, because the lands covered by seas were originally at different
altitudes, that the waters have risen or subsided or receded from some parts and
inundated others. But the reason is, that the same land is sometimes raised up
and sometimes depressed, and the sea also is simultaneously raised and
depressed, so that it either overflows or returns into its own place again. We
must, therefore, ascribe the cause to the ground, either to that ground which is
under the sea or to that which becomes flooded by it, but rather to that which
lies beneath the sea, for this is more movable . . . [and] can be altered with
greater celerity.Determination of relative sea level is one of the features which
seismic stratigraphy seeks to ascertain from seismic data.

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Scientific Background

The American Geologic Institute Glossary of Geology (1972)

defines stratigraphy as:

The branch of geology that deals with the definition and description of

major and minor natural divisions of rocks ... and with the interpretation oftheir
significance in geologic history, specifically the geologic study of the form,
arrangement, geographic distribution, chronologic succession, classification,
and especially correlation and mutual relationships of rock strata ... in terms of
their origin, occurrence, environment, thickness, lithology, composition, fossil
content, age, history, paleogeographic condition, relation to organic evolution,
and relation to other geologic concepts.

Lyell defined strata:

Strata: The term stratum, derived from the Latin verb struo, to strew

or layout, means a bed or mass of matter spread out over a certain surface by the
action of water or in some cases by wind. The deposition of successive layers of
sand and gravel in the bed ofa river or in a canal affords a perfect illustration
both of the form and origin of stratification. A large portion of the masses
constituting the earth's crust are thus stratified, the successive strata of a given
rock preserving a general parallelism to each other, but the planes of
stratification not being perfectly parallel throughout ....

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Seismic Stratigraphy Subdivisions

sections can often be subdivided into units that have common characteristics but
that differ from adjacent units. The separation of seismic data into such units is
the branch of seismic stratigraphy called seismic sequence analysis. Figure 1.12
almost naturally subdivides itself into these separate units. The separate units
are distinguished by different reflection characteristics, that is, different seismic
facies, the indicators of the depositional environment. The belt of oblique
reflection patterns across the center of separates regular, fairly smooth reflection
events above the belt from very irregular reflections below. The velocity of the
sediments that constitute the oblique portion varies appreciably, and the variable
travel time through this unit creates undulations and other irregularities in the
deeper reflections. Higher velocity distinguishes the portions of the oblique
refle-etion that are predominantly carbonate.

Figure 1.12. Changes in reflection pattern allow the seismic section to

be separated into seismic sequence units that differ in reflection
character. (Reprinted by permission of Exxon Production Research
Company and The American Association of Petroleum Geologists)

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Seismic limitation

Improved seismic data quality has made stratigraphic interpretation from

seismic observations possible. However, seismic interpretation is subject to a
number of important limitations. Of special importance are those involving

(1) resolution both vertical and horizontal.

(2) wave length or bandpass.

(3) noise.

(4) out-of-the-plane reflections.

(5) velocity variations.

Stratigraphic Traps

When estimates are made of the oil and gas remaining to be

discovered, that which is trapped stratigraphically (as opposed to structurally)

almost always dominates, although different individuals estimate widely
varying amounts. The early Seismic Stratigraphy Schools included a session
reexamining the case histories of stratigraphic accumulations.

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Processing for Stratigraphic Interpretation
The recent prominence of seismic stratigraphy reflects our ability to obtain
more information from seismic data. This is largely the result of cumulative
improvements in data acquisition and processing techniques. The major
improvements have resulted from:

(1) common-depth-point methods

(2) digital recording
(3) computer processing
(4) display improvements

Processing Objectives
Data processing usually has one of four objectives:
(1) The improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio, either by enhancing the signal
or attenuating the noise. This is the objective of most seismic data processes,
which are generally designed to attenuate specific types of noise.
(2) The repositioning of data elements (migrating). The data on unmigrated
seismic sections are referenced to the locations of the source and receivers,
usually being plotted at the midpoint between them; migration repositions data
to the locations of the reflecting points.
(3) The measurement of "attributes" of the data, including velocity, amplitude,
frequency, polarity, and other measurements.
(4) The display of the data in a manner easily understandable by an interpreter;
display parameters include the use of optimum scale for the particular
interpretation objectives and displays that combine various types of
measurements, such as color displays.

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Conclusion

Recommended Seismic Stratigraphy Workflow

This is a recommended seven step workflow created by Peter Vail on seismic

stratigraphy. For more in-depth information look at external source 5; Seismic
Stratigraphy Interpretation Procedure.

1. Seismic Sequence Analysis: This will define the genetic packages related
to the seismic sequences and system tracts by finding discontinuities.
2. Well-Log Sequence Analysis: Use well log information to try to
determine lithofacies to then estimate where the sequences and system
tracts are located. They are double checked by trying to correlate the
seismic data with global cycle charts.
3. Synthetic Well - to - Seismic Ties: This step is to link seismic data to the
well data depth. This allows for geologists to plot individual wavelets
from each interface.
4. Seismic Facies Analysis: This step determines as many variations within
the individual seismic sequence and system tracts as possible in hopes of
determining lithofacies or fluid changes. This should also located where
discontinuities occur.
5. Interpretation of Depositional Environment and Lithofacies: Use the
seismic data as well as the known geologic information of the area to
determine environment of deposition and lithofacies.
6. Forward Seismic Modeling: This step serves multiple purposes. One is to
interpret stratigraphy and fluid composition near or at the seismic
resolution. Two, is to create a geologic cross section using seismic
information. This shows stratal surfaces and impedence contrasts. Three,
is to create a basin simulation model.
7. Final Interpretation: Using all the information gathered in the past six
steps is to make an interpretation that makes sense.

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References

1. Sheriff, R., 1982. Seismic Stratigraphy

2. https://wiki.seg.org/
3. Berg, O. and Woolverton, D., 1985. Seismic Stratigraphy II. Tulsa, Okla.:
American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

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