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1. Research Methodology
Meaning of Research:
• Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
•Once can also define research as a scientific & systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be
used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at
last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Objectives of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed
as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in
view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies
with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).

Types of Research
1. Descriptive vs Analytical
Descriptive research can be explained as a statement of affairs as they are at present with the researcher having no
control over variable. Descriptive research is “aimed at casting light on current issues or problems through a process
of data collection that enables them to describe the situation more completely than was possible without employing
this method.”
On the other hand, Analytical research is a specific type of research that involves critical thinking skills and the
evaluation of facts and information relative to the research being conducted. A variety of people including students,
doctors and psychologists use analytical research during studies to find the most relevant information. From analytical
research, a person finds out critical details to add new ideas to the material being produced.
2. Applied vs. Fundamental
Applied research is the research which “aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, or an
industrial/business organization”.
Again, Fundamental research, also known as basic research or pure research does not usually generate findings that
have immediate applications in a practical level. Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to expand
knowledge in specific research area. This type of research makes a specific contribution to the academic body of
knowledge in the research area.
Fundamental studies tend to make generalizations about the phenomenon, and the philosophy of this type of studies
can be explained as ‘gathering knowledge for the sake of knowledge’.
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3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be
transformed into usable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables –
and generalize results from a larger sample population.
On the other hand, Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of
underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or
hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical
Conceptual research is defined as a methodology wherein research is conducted by observing and analyzing already
present information on a given topic. Conceptual research doesn’t involve conducting any practical experiments. It
is related to abstract concepts or ideas. Philosophers have long used conceptual research to develop new theories or
interpret existing theories in a different light.
Again, Empirical research is defined as any research where conclusions of the study is strictly drawn from
concretely empirical evidence, and therefore “verifiable” evidence.
5. Some Other Types of Research
One-time research or longitudinal research: In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research: depending upon the environment in which
it is to be carried out.
Clinical or diagnostic research: Such research follows case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic
causal relations.
Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented: While doing conclusion-oriented research, a researcher is free to pick
up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
The exploratory research: The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their
testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be
tested.
Historical research: is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of
the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
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2. Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired
sequencing of these steps.
Steps involved in Research Process in Research Methodology
One should remember that the various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are
separate and distinct.
They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to be constantly anticipating
at each step in the research process the requirements of the subsequent steps. However, the following order concerning
various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states
of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At thievery outset the researcher must single out
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the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he
would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any,
relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working
formulation of the problem can be set up.
2. Extensive literature Review: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is
compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write synopsis of the topic and submit it to
the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake
extensive literature survey connected with the problem.
For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place
to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on
the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its
logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly
important since they provide the focal point for research.
Functions of a Hypothesis
• It guides the direction of the study.
• It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not.
• It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate.
• It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher
will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information.
In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
• Exploration,
• Description,
• Diagnosis, and
• Experimentation.
5. Determining sample design: The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known
as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a
certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-
probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on
simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability
samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real-life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and
hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are sever always of collecting the appropriate
data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
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Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment,
he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in
his hypothesis. In Survey, data can be collected by the following methods: i. Observation ii. Personal Interview iii.
Telephone Interview iv. Mailing Questionnaires v. Through Schedules
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution
of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher
should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means
of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the
possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made
for proper selection and training of the interviewers.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The
analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application
of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data
should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should
classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses,
if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual
question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test,
have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more
of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis -testing will result in either
accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for
the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in
its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions
which in turn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done
by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
The layout of the report should be as follows: The Main Body contains:
• The prefatory part • Introduction
• The Main Body/Text • Summary of Findings
• The Supplemental Part • Main Report
• conclusion
The Prefatory Part contains:
The Supplemental Part contains:
• Title page
• Certification • References, or Bibliography
• Acknowledgments • Appendices
• Preface • Index
• Contents page
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3. Research Method & Research Methodology

Research can be understood as the systematic and rigorous search for appropriate information on a specific
subject. It involves enunciation of the problem, developing a hypothesis, collecting and analysing data and
drawing conclusions, based on the facts and data collected. And to do so, the researcher uses research methods,
during the course of conducting research.
The research methods are often confused with research methodology, which implies the scientific analysis of the
research methods, so as to find a solution to the problem at hand. Hence, it seems apt to clarify the differences
between research method and research methodology at this juncture, have a look.

Comparison Chart

BASIS OF
RESEARCH METHOD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
COMPARISON

Meaning Research Method implies the methods Research methodology signifies way to
employed by the researcher to conduct efficiently solving research problems.
research.

What is it? Behavior and instrument used in the Science of understanding, how research is
selection and construction of the performed methodically.
research technique.

Encompasses Carrying out experiment, test, surveys Study different techniques which can be
and so on. utilized in the performance of experiment,
test, surveys etc.

Comprise of Different investigation techniques. Entire strategy towards achievement of

objective.

Objective To discover solution to research To apply correct procedures so as to

problem. determine solutions.
Definition of Research Method

Research method pertains to all those methods, which a researcher employs to undertake research process, to solve
the given problem. The techniques and procedure, that are applied during the course of studying research problem
are known as the research method. It encompasses both qualitative and quantitative method of performing research
operations, such as survey, case study, interview, questionnaire, observation, etc.

Definition of Research Methodology

Research Methodology, as its name suggest is the study of methods, so as to solve the research problem. It is the
science of learning the way research should be performed systematically. It refers to the rigorous analysis of the
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methods applied in the stream of research, to ensure that the conclusions drawn are valid, reliable and credible too.
Key Differences Between Research Method and Research Methodology
The differences between research method and research methodology can be drawn clearly on the following
grounds:
• The research method is defined as the procedure or technique applied by the researcher to undertake
research. On the other hand, research methodology is a system of methods, used scientifically for solving
the research problem.
• The research method is nothing but the behaviour or tool, employed in selecting and building research
technique. Conversely, research methodology implies the science of analysing, the manner in which
research is conducted appropriately.
• The research method is concerned with carrying out experiment, test, surveys, interviews, etc. As against
this, research methodology is concerned with learning various techniques which can be employed in the
performance of experiment, test or survey.
• Research method covers various investigation techniques. Unlike, research methodology, which consists
of complete approach aligned towards the attainment of purpose.
• Research method intends to discover the solution to the problem at hand. In contrast, research
methodology aspires to apply appropriate procedures, with a view to ascertaining solutions.
Conclusion
The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research method, as the latter is the part of the former.
For understanding the research problem thoroughly, the researcher should know the research methodology along
with the methods.
In a nutshell, research method refers to the technique which can be adopted to explore the nature of the world that
surrounds us. On the contrary, research methodology is the foundation, which helps us to understand the
determinants influencing the effectiveness of the methods applied.
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4. Research Problem
Research problems are the educational issues, controversies, or concerns that guide the need for conducting a
study.
Characteristic of Research Problem
Any research is a difficult task to achieve and research needs to do a great effort. Selection of research topic is the
first step to success.
1. Research topic must be very clear and easy to understand. It should not distract people.
2. If a topic is well defined is the only way to successful research. The topic should not create doubt and double
impression.
3. Easy language is a key to success. Use technical words if necessary, otherwise focus of simplicity.
4. Research title should be according to the rules of titling. There are different rules of titling, a researcher must
aware before writing a research title.
5. While selecting a research topic current importance of a researcher should also be considered. Topic should not
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be obsolete and it should have great importance in the current day.

What are the Elements of a Research Problem?
1. Objective or aim of the problem which is to be investigated. This answers the question “Why?” Why is there a
need for investigation, inquiry or study?
2. The topic or theme which needs to be investigated. This answers the question “What?” What is to be researched
or studied?” For example: What would a rival company do if we decrease our prices by 25%? What would sales
be if prices were Rs. 89? Rs. 99? How would a rival firms action influence our sales and profits? The right question
needs to be addressed if research is to help decision makers. The decision maker can’t acquire all the information,
but it is often feasible to identify the factors that are critical to the existing problem. These factors are then included
in the problem definition.
3. The time dimension of a decision problem is always the future. The period or time of the study when the data
are to be gathered. This answers the question “When?” When is the research to be performed?” Managers
frequently run the risk of making the correct decision at incorrect time. It is essential that the decision maker as
well as the researcher determine the right time reference for-the decision.
4. The area or location in which the study is to be conducted. This answers the question “Where?” Where we need
to conduct the study? The space coordinates give you the geographic boundaries within which the action is to be
taken. In the problem definition, these lines are hardly ever neat political divisions or subdivisions. The universe
of interest should be defined either conceptually or by enumeration.
5. Population or universe from whom the data needs to be gathered. This answers the question “Who?” or “from
whom?” Who are the respondents? From who are the data to be collected?” They may include persons, groups of
persons, business establishments.
Criteria for selection of research problem depends on the following characteristics.
Personal Inclination. The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the personal inclination
of the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he would select that problem for his research
work.
Resources Availability. During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources available. If these resources
like money, time, accommodation and transport are available to the selection place, then the selection of the
problem is easy.
Relative Importance. The importance and the problem also play a vital role in the selection of research problem.
If the problem is relatively important, then the researcher tends towards the selection of the problem.
Researcher Knowledge. The researcher knowledge should play a vital role in the selection of the research
problem. The wisdom and experience of an investigator is required for well collection of the research data. He
can bitterly select a problem.
Practicality: Practicality is also responsible for the selection. The practical usefulness of the problem is the main
motivation for a researcher to attend it.
Time-lines of the Problem. some problems take little time for its solution while others take more time. So, it
depends on the time in which we have to complete his research work.
Data Availability. If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem would be selected.
Urgency. Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research problem. Urgent problem must be given
priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people.
Feasibility. Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the research problem. The researcher
qualification, training and experience should match the problem.
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Area Culture. The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his research is also responsible for the
selection of research problem.
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5. Literature Review
A literature review is a surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of
research, or theory, and by so doing, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works.
A literature review is a description of the literature relevant to a particular field or topic. It gives an overview of
what has been said, who the key writers are, what are the prevailing theories and hypotheses, what questions are
being asked, and what methods and methodologies are appropriate and useful.
A literature review is an objective, thorough summary and critical analysis of the relevant available research and
non-research literature on the topic being studied. Its goal is to bring the reader up-to-date with current literature
on a topic and form the basis for another goal, such as the justification for future research in the area. A good
literature review gathers information about a particular subject from many sources. It is well written and contains
few if any personal biases.
Literature review is different from an academic research paper. The main focus of an academic research paper is
to develop a new argument, and a research paper will contain a literature review as one of its parts. The focus of a
literature review, however, is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others without adding new
contributions.
Systematic Literature Review
The purpose of a systematic literature review is to provide as complete a list as possible of all the published and
unpublished studies relating to a particular subject area.
Criteria of a systematic Literature review:
• Formulate the research question
• Set inclusion or exclusion criteria
• Select and access the literature
• Access the quality of the literature included in the review
• Analyze, synthesize and disseminate the findings
Steps in the Literature Review Process
1. Choosing a review topic
The first task to tackle, often the most difficult, in writing a review of literature is choosing a topic. Often the task
is especially difficult because of a lack of knowledge in the content area. Below are some hints for facilitating
your selection of a topic.
• First, skim through your textbook and identify broad topics in the discipline that interest you.
• Second, read the chapters associated with the topics you pick to develop familiarity with the vocabulary (key
words), primary investigators, and issues or controversies in the area.
• Third, talking to others, such as expert, or reading around a topic can also help to identify what areas of the
subject the reviewer is interested in and may help indicate how much information exists on the topic.
• The next step, after choosing a topic, is to go to the library and search for journal articles published in the area.
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Use key words to find article titles for specific topics; sometimes abstracts are provided for the reader's reference.
Abstracts can be useful, time saving devices because they aid in weeding good, associated literature from
unrelated, peripheral articles.
2. Searching and selecting appropriate articles
The next step after selected a topic is to identify, in a structured way, the appropriate and related information. A
systematic approach is considered most likely to generate a review that will be beneficial in informing practice.
Newell and Burnard (2006) suggest that comprehensiveness and relevance are what reviewers need to consider
and add that the more specific the topic or question being searched is, the more focused the result will be.
The type of articles that are selected for a good review of literature are theoretical presentations, review articles,
and empirical research articles. Choosing the work of a single researcher may be one method for starting a
literature review. Your presentation will be more powerful if conflicting theoretical positions and findings are
presented along with the position or prediction that you support in your paper. You should choose several
researchers' works that have added to the knowledge base in a specific area. Strive to eliminate (or explain away)
articles that have faulty methods or that use faulty reasoning to support their findings.
3. Analysing and synthesizing the literature
After you have collected the articles you intend to use in your literature review, you are ready to analyze each one
and then synthesize the collection of articles. There are a number of tools that can help us analyze and synthesize
our key sources.
4. Organization of writing the review
The main aim in structuring your review of the literature is to lead your reader to understand the need to conduct
precisely the form of literature review or research paper that you propose or have done. The key to a good literature
review or research paper is the ability to present the findings in such a way that it demonstrates your knowledge in
a clear and consistent way.
The introduction and conclusion to your review of the literature should show how your research project will join
the on-going conversation: identify the key terms and concepts and indicate how your research will resolve
unresolved questions in others' work.
Introduction
The introduction should include the purpose of the review and a brief overview of the ‘problem’. It is important
that the literature sources and the key search terms are outlined. The introduction will not only present the main
topic, but will also make a statement about the status of knowledge in this area of research.
Main body
The main body of the report presents and discusses the findings from the literature. There are several ways in
which this can be done. Regardless of the manner in which the main body of the review is framed, there are key
points that must be considered.
• First, Group research studies and other literature according to common denominators such as qualitative or
quantitative approaches, purposes, theories, methodologies, or conclusions.
• Second, summarize individual studies in detail appropriate to its comparative importance in the literature and to
its relevance for your research.
• Third, use figures and/ or tables to present your own synthesis of the original data or to show key data taken
directly from the original papers.
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Conclusion
The conclusion should provide a summary of findings from the literature review. Explain what your analysis of
the material leads you to conclude about the overall state of the literature, what it provides and where it is lacking.
Cronin et al (2008) mention that the review should conclude with a concise summary of the findings that describes
current knowledge and offer a rationale for conducting future research.
References
The literature review should conclude with a full bibliographical list of all the books, journal articles, reports and
other media, which were referred to in the work. Regardless of whether the review is part of a course of study or
for publication, it is an essential part of the process that all sourced material is acknowledged. This means that
every citation in the text must appear in the reference.
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6. Sampling
The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals represent the larger
group from which they were selected is known as sampling.
Types of sampling
There are mainly two types of sampling. They are:
1.Probability Sampling
2.Non probability sampling
1. Probability Sampling
Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are chosen using a method
based on the theory of probability. For a participant to be considered as a probability sample, he/she must be
selected using a random selection.
The most important requirement of probability sampling is that everyone in your population has a known and an
equal chance of getting selected.
Types of Probability Sampling
a. Simple random sampling as the name suggests is a completely random method of selecting the sample. This
sampling method is as easy as assigning numbers to the individuals (sample) and then randomly choosing from
those numbers through an automated process. Finally, the numbers that are chosen are the members that are
included in the sample.
There are two ways in which the samples are chosen in this method of sampling: Lottery system and using number
generating software/ random number table. This sampling technique usually works around large population and
has its fair share of advantages and disadvantages.
b. Stratified Random sampling involves a method where a larger population can be divided into smaller groups,
that usually don’t overlap but represent the entire population together. While sampling these groups can be
organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.
A common method is to arrange or classify by sex, age, ethnicity and similar ways. Splitting subjects into mutually
exclusive groups and then using simple random sampling to choose members from groups.
Members in each of these groups should be distinct so that every member of all groups get equal opportunity to be
selected using simple probability. This sampling method is also called “random quota sampling”
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c. Cluster random sampling is a way to randomly select participants when they are geographically spread out.
For example, if you wanted to choose 100 participants from the entire population of the U.S., it is likely impossible
to get a complete list of everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas (i.e. cities or counties) and
randomly selects from within those boundaries.
Cluster sampling usually analyzes a particular population in which the sample consists of more than a few
elements, for example, city, family, university etc. The clusters are then selected by dividing the greater population
into various smaller sections.
d. Systematic Sampling is when you choose every “nth” individual to be a part of the sample. For example, you
can choose every 5th person to be in the sample. Systematic sampling is an extended implementation of the same
old probability technique in which each member of the group is selected at regular periods to form a sample.
There’s an equal opportunity for every member of a population to be selected using this sampling technique.

Advantages of Probability Sampling

• The absence of systematic error and sampling bias
• Higher level of reliability of research findings
• Increased accuracy of sampling error estimation
• The possibility to make inferences about the population
Disadvantages of Probability Sampling
• Higher complexity compared to non-probability sampling
• More time consuming
• Usually more expensive than non-probability sampling
1. Non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples based on the subjective
judgment of the researcher rather than random selection.
In non-probability sampling, not all members of the population have a chance of participating in the study unlike
probability sampling, where each member of the population has a known chance of being selected.
Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory studies like pilot survey.
Types of non-probability sampling and examples
1. Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are
selected from the population only because they are conveniently available to researcher. These samples are
selected only because they are easy to recruit and researcher did not consider selecting sample that represents the
entire population.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test sample that represents the population. But, in some research, the population
is too large to test and consider the entire population. This is one of the reasons, why researchers rely on
convenience sampling, which is the most common non-probability sampling technique, because of its speed, cost-
effectiveness, and ease of availability of the sample.
An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers known to researcher. Researcher can
send the survey to students and they would act as sample in this situation.
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2. Consecutive Sampling: This non-probability sampling technique is very similar to convenience sampling,
with a slight variation. Here, the researcher picks a single person or a group of samples, conducts research over a
period of time, analyzes the results and then moves on to another subject or group of subject if needed.
Consecutive sampling gives the researcher a chance to work with many subjects and fine tune his/her research by
collecting results that have vital insights.
3. Quota Sampling: Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and female
employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in the organization. These 500 employees are known as
population. In order to understand better about a population, researcher will need only a sample, not the entire
population. Further, researcher is interested in particular strata within the population. Here is where quota
sampling helps in dividing the population into strata or groups.
For studying the career goals of 500 employees, technically the sample selected should have proportionate
numbers of males and females. Which means there should be 250 males and 250 females. Since, this is unlikely,
the groups or strata is selected using quota sampling.
4. Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgmental sampling, the samples are selected based purely on
researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those who he feels are a right fit
(with respect to attributes and representation of a population) to participate in research study.
This is not a scientific method of sampling and the downside to this sampling technique is that the results can be
influenced by the preconceived notions of a researcher. Thus, there is a high amount of ambiguity involved in this
research technique.
For example, this type of sampling method can be used in pilot studies.
5. Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling helps researchers find sample when they are difficult to locate.
Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not easily available. This sampling system works
like the referral program. Once the researchers find suitable subjects, they are asked for assistance to seek similar
subjects to form a considerably good size sample.
For example, this type of sampling can be used to conduct research involving a particular illness in patients or a
rare disease. Researchers can seek help from subjects to refer other subjects suffering from the same ailment to
form a subjective sample to carry out the study.
Advantages of Non-Probability Sampling
• Possibility to reflect the descriptive comments about the sample
• Cost-effectiveness and time-effectiveness compared to probability sampling
• Effective when it is unfeasible or impractical to conduct probability sampling
Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling
• Unknown proportion of the entire population is not included in the sample group i.e. lack of representation of
the entire population
• Lower level of generalization of research findings compared to probability sampling
• Difficulties in estimating sampling variability and identifying possible bias
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7. Variables
A variable is an entity whose value varies. A variable is an essential component of any statistical data. It is a
feature of a member of a given sample or population, which is unique, and can differ in quantity or quantity from
another member of the same sample or population. Example: gender, eye color, motivation etc.

Types of variables
Quantitative variables: varies in amount and degree but not in-kind Example: height, length, interest
Categorical variables: varies only in kind, not in degree or amount (qualitatively different). Example: eye color,
gender, occupation.
1. Independent Variable
An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects
on the dependent variable.
2. Dependent Variable
A variable that changes in direct response to the independent variable is the dependent variable.
For Example: Say there’s an experiment to test whether changing the position of an ice cube affects its ability to
melt. The change in an ice cube's position represents the independent variable. The result of whether the ice cube
melts or not is the dependent variable.
Another example is, you want to see which type of fertilizer helps plants grow fastest, so you add a different brand
of fertilizer to each plant and see how tall they grow.
Independent Variable: Type of fertilizer given to the plant
Dependent Variable: Plant height
3. Intervening and Moderator Variables
Intervening variables link the independent and dependent variables, but as abstract processes, they are not directly
observable during the experiment. For example, if studying the use of a specific teaching technique for its
effectiveness, the technique represents the independent variable, while the completion of the technique's objectives
by the study participants represents the dependent variable, while the actual processes used internally by the
students to learn the subject matter represents the intervening variables.
By modifying the effect of the intervening variables -- the unseen processes -- moderator variables influence the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Researchers measure moderator variables and take
them into consideration during the experiment.
4. Constant or Controllable Variable
Sometimes certain characteristics of the objects under scrutiny are deliberately left unchanged. These are known
as constant or controlled variables. In the ice cube experiment, one constant or controllable variable could be the
size and shape of the cube. By keeping the ice cubes' sizes and shapes the same, it's easier to measure the differences
between the cubes as they melt after shifting their positions, as they all started out as the same size.
More Variable Types
A moderator variable is a secondary independent variable that the researcher selects because he or she thinks it
may affect the relationship between the primary independent variable and the dependent variable.
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A mediator variable is a variable that attempts to Explain the relationship between the 2 variables.
An extraneous variable is an independent variable that may have unintended effect on the dependent variable.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

8. Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the unethical practice of using words or ideas (either planned or accidental) of another author/researcher
or your own previous works without proper acknowledgment. Considered as a serious academic and intellectual
offense, plagiarism can result in highly negative consequences such as paper retractions and loss of author credibility
and reputation.
Reasons of Plagiarism
There are many reasons students choose to plagiarize or cheat. Reasons range from the more genuine lack of
knowledge to outright dishonorable intentions. Collectively, the most frequently stated reasons students choose to
plagiarize or cheat include:
• Desire to get a good grade
• Fear of failing
• Procrastination or poor time management
• Disinterest in the assignment
• Belief they will not get caught
• Confusion about what constitutes plagiarism or current university policies
Types of Plagiarism
With respect to the gravity and frequency of plagiarism, a survey of scientific researchers has produced a ranking of
plagiarism types. While complete plagiarism represents the most serious offense, paraphrasing is the one that is the
most common. It is, thus, very important to consider and understand all the various types of plagiarism and how they
occur.
Complete Plagiarism
Complete plagiarism is the most severe form of plagiarism where a researcher takes a manuscript or study that
someone else created, and submits it under his or her name. It is tantamount to intellectual theft and stealing.
Source-based Plagiarism
Plagiarism may occur because of the different types of sources. For example, when a researcher references a source
that is incorrect or does not exist, it is a misleading citation. Plagiarism also occurs when a researcher uses a secondary
source of data or information, but only cites the primary source of information. Both these types lead to an increase
in the number of references sources. This, in turn, increases the citation number of the references.
Finally, data fabrication and falsification are also forms of plagiarism. Data fabrication is the making up of data and
research findings, while data falsification involves changing or omitting data to give a false impression. The
consequences of this type of plagiarism can be grave, particularly when it comes to medical research, because it can
adversely affect clinical decisions.
Direct Plagiarism
Direct or verbatim plagiarism occurs when an author copies the text of another author, word for word, without the
use of quotation marks or attribution, thus passing it as his or her own. In that way, it is like complete plagiarism, but
 15

it refers to sections (rather than all) of another paper. This type of plagiarism is considered dishonest and it calls for
academic disciplinary actions. It is not as common, but it is a serious infraction of academic rules and ethics.
Self or Auto Plagiarism
Auto-plagiarism, also known as self-plagiarism or duplication, happens when an author reuses significant portions of
his or her previously published work without attribution. Thus, this type of plagiarism is most likely to involve
published researchers, rather than university students. The severity of this kind of infraction is under debate,
depending on the copied content. Many academic journals, however, have strict criteria on the percentage of author’s
work that is reusable. Many journals run manuscripts through a plagiarism-detection software before considering
them for review.
Paraphrasing plagiarism
This is, as published on Wiley, the most common type of plagiarism. It involves the use of someone else’s writing
with some minor changes in the sentences and using it as one’s own. Even if the words differ, the original idea
remains the same and plagiarism occurs. Because students often do not have a clear understanding of what constitutes
plagiarism, there are recommendations for research and writing available to reduce the risk of paraphrasing
plagiarism.
Mosaic Plagiarism
Mosaic plagiarism may be more difficult to detect because it interlays someone else’s phrases or text within its own
research. It is also known as patchwork plagiarism and it is intentional and dishonest.
Accidental Plagiarism
Whether intended or unintended, there is no excuse for plagiarism and the consequences are often the same. However,
plagiarism may be accidental if it occurred because of neglect, mistake, or unintentional paraphrasing. Students are
likely to commit accidental plagiarism, so universities should stress on the importance of education about this form
of plagiarism.
These are some of the different types of plagiarism that are common in the research community.
Consequences of plagiarism include:
Destroyed Student Reputation
Plagiarism allegations can cause a student to be suspended or expelled. Their academic record can reflect the ethics
offense, possibly causing the student to be barred from entering college from high school or another college. Schools,
colleges, and universities take plagiarism very seriously. Most educational institutions have academic integrity
committees who police students. Many schools suspend students for their first violation. Students are usually expelled
for further offences.
Destroyed Professional Reputation
A professional business person, politician, or public figure may find that the damage from plagiarism follows them
for their entire career. Not only will they likely be fired or asked to step down from their present position, but they
will surely find it difficult to obtain another respectable job. Depending on the offense and the plagiarist’s public
stature, his or her name may become ruined, making any kind of meaningful career impossible.
 16

Destroyed Academic Reputation

The consequences of plagiarism have been widely reported in the world of academia. Once scarred with plagiarism
allegations, an academic’s career can be ruined. Publishing is an integral part of a prestigious academic career. To
lose the ability to publish most likely means the end of an academic position and a destroyed reputation.
Legal Repercussions
The legal repercussions of plagiarism can be quite serious. Copyright laws are absolute. One cannot use another
person’s material without citation and reference. An author has the right to sue a plagiarist. Some plagiarism may
also be deemed a criminal offense, possibly leading to a prison sentence. Those who write for a living, such as
journalists or authors, are particularly susceptible to plagiarism issues. Those who write frequently must be ever-
vigilant not to err. Writers are well-aware of copyright laws and ways to avoid plagiarism. As a professional writer,
to plagiarize is a serious ethical and perhaps legal issue.
Monetary Repercussions
Many recent news reports and articles have exposed plagiarism by journalists, authors, public figures, and researchers.
In the case where an author sues a plagiarist, the author may be granted monetary restitution. In the case where a
journalist works for a magazine, newspaper or other publisher, or even if a student is found plagiarizing in school,
the offending plagiarist could have to pay monetary penalties.
The ways of avoiding plagiarism
1. Cite your source
When alluding to an idea or wording that’s not your own, add a citation in your writing that identifies the full name
of the source, the date it was published, and any other citation element that’s required by the style guide you’re
adhering to.
2. Include quotations
If you insert a source’s words into your writing, verbatim, one of the most simple yet obvious ways to avoid plagiarism
is by using quotation marks around the text to denote that the words aren’t your own. A direct quote should also cite
the source so that readers know who the quote is from.
3. Paraphrase
Paraphrasing is rewriting a source’s ideas or information into your own words, without changing its meaning. But be
careful—paraphrasing can slip into plagiarism if done incorrectly.
Successfully paraphrasing without plagiarizing involves a bit of a dance. Reword and format your writing in an
original way, and try to avoid using too many similar words or phrases from the source. The key is to do so without
altering the meaning of the idea itself. Remember, you’re still using another’s idea so you’ll need to include a citation
to the source.
4. Present your own idea
Instead of parroting the source’s ideas or words, explore what you have to say about it. Ask yourself what unique
perspective or point you can contribute in your writing that’s entirely your own. Keep in mind that if you’re alluding
to a source’s ideas or words to frame your own point, you’ll still need to apply the guidelines above to avoid
plagiarizing.
 17

If you’re writing on the same topic for multiple assignments, it can be tempting to recycle some of your previous
words—this is called “self-plagiarism”. The risk involved with self-plagiarism is just as high if the publisher or your
instructor didn’t give you permission to reuse your old work.
5. Use a plagiarism checker
While conducting your research on a topic, some phrases or sentences might stick with you so well that you
inadvertently include them in your writing without a citation. When in doubt, using an online plagiarism checking
tool can help you catch these issues before submitting your work.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Citations
In-text Citation
Type APA MLA
1 Author (Walker, 2000) (Walker 15)
2 Authors (Cheek & Buss, 1981, p. 322) (Cheek and Buss 322)
3-5 Authors (Smith, Xu, Wei, Jones & Rock, 1994) (Lee et al. 110-118)
(Smith et al., 1994)
6+ Authors (Rosslyn et al., 2006)

1. One Author
APA
Last Name, First Initial. (Year). Italicized Title. Place: Publishing House.
Collins, S. (2008). The hunger games. New York: Scholastic.
MLA
Last Name, First Name. Italicized Title. City: Publishing House, Year. Print
Collins, Suzanne. The Hunger Games. New York: Scholastic, 2008. Print.
2. Two Authors
APA
Last Name, First Initial., & Last Name, First Initial. (Year). Italicized Title. Place: Publishing House.
Riegel, R. E., & Atheran, R. G. (1964). America moves west. New York: Holt.
MLA
Last Name, First Name. and First Name Last Name. Italicized Title. City: Publishing House, Year. Print
Riegel, Robert E. and Robert G. Atheran. America Moves West. New York: Holt, 1964. Print.
3. Book with Two Editors and One Author
APA
McLuhan, M. (2003). Understanding Me. (S. McLuhan & D. Stain. Eds.). Ontario, Canada: McClairs Publishing
House.
 18

MLA
McLuhan, Marshal. Understanding Me. Ed. Sherry McLuhan and Dell Stain. Ontario, Canada: McClairs Publishing
House, 2003. Print.

4.1 Magazine Article in Print

APA
Last, F. M. (Year, Month Published). Article title. Magazine Title, volume(issue), pp. Page(s).
Rothbart, D. (2008, October). How I caught up with dad. Men's Health, 108-113.
MLA
Last, First M. “Article Title.” Magazine Title Date Month Year Published: Page(s). Print.
Rothbart, Davy. “How I Caught up with Dad.” Men’s Health Oct. 2008: 108-113. Print.
4.2 Magazine Article in Online
APA
Last, F. M. (Year, Month Date Published). Article title. Magazine Title, Page(s). Retrieved from URL
Rothbart, D. (2008, October). How I caught up with dad. Men's Health, 108-113. Retrieved from
http://books.google.com
MLA
Last, First M. “Article Title.” Magazine Title Date Month Year Published: Page(s). Website Title. Web. Date
Month Year Accessed.
Rothbart, Davy. “How I Caught up with Dad.” Men’s Health Oct. 2008: 108-13. Google Books. Web. 16 Mar.
2013.
5. Online Article
APA
Kushi. M. (n.d). The Effects of Drug. Retrieved from http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/effects.htm
MLA
Kushi, Miara. “The Effects of Drug”. <http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/effects.htm>
6. Chapter in a Book
APA
Golding, W. (2019). The Cave. In Lord of the Flies. (pp. 130-145). Boston: Bedtard/St. Martins
MLA
Goldding, William. “The Cave”. Lord of the Flies. Boston: Bedtard/St. Martins, 2019. Print.
7. Journal Article
APA
Haque, A. (2019). Shari. Prothom Alo, 20(5), 40-50
MLA
Kafka, Ben. “The Demon of Writing”. Representations 98 (2007): 1-24, Print.
8. E-Book
APA
Loury, G.C. (2008). Race, Interaction, and American Values. Retrieved from http://www.xxx.com
 19

MLA
Martinez, Sara. The Chicago Movement. Penguin Books, 2007. American Council. Web. 12 May 2007.

Short Notes
1. ibid
ibid is the abbreviation of ibidem and means 'in the same place'. You use ibid for a reference entry when the citation
is the same as the previous footnote or endnote. If the page number is different, you include the page number of the
new entry after ibid. ibid saves you writing out the full reference again; for example,
1. Y. Anzai and H. A. Simon. The theory of learning by doing. Psychological Review, 86, 124-180, 1979, p. 126
2. ibid.
3. ibid., p.157.
2. op.cit.
op.cit. is an abbreviation of opere citato that means 'in the work cited'. op.cit. is used together with the author’s name
and page number when the full reference has already been cited.
1. Y. Anzai and H. A. Simon. The theory of learning by doing. Psychological Review, 86, 124-180, 1979, p. 126
2. J. R. Anderson. Cognitive psychology and its implications, 2nd edn, Freeman, New York, 1985, p. 234
3. Anzai and Simon, op. cit., p. 157
4. Anderson, op. cit., p. 36
3. Loc. cit.
Loc. cit. (Latin, short for loco citato, meaning "in the place cited") is a footnote or endnote term used to repeat the
title and page number for a given work (and author). Loc. cit. is used in place of ibid. when the reference is not only
to the work immediately preceding, but also refers to the same page. Loc. cit. is also used instead of op. cit. when
reference is made to a work previously cited and to the same page in that work. As such, loc. cit. is never followed
by volume or page numbers.
EXAMPLE:
1. R. Millan, "Art of Latin grammar" (Academic, New York, 1997), p. 23.
2. Loc. cit.
In the above example, the loc. cit. in reference # 2 refers to reference # 1 in its entirety, including page number. Note
that loc. cit. is capitalized in this instance.
4. et al.
Latin phrase et al., an abbreviation meaning “and others”. It is used to shorten lists of authors names in the in-text
citations to make repeated referencing shorter and simpler.
5. viz
"viz" means "videlicet", and is Latin for "you may look at this". In English we use it to mean "to wit" or "namely".
It is most often used when we want to add further clarifying explanation or examples to a statement we have made.
Example: "There are two places you might go to dance in this town, viz. The Roxy and The Rodeo nightclubs."
"Two crimes were committed in that act, viz. a rape and a breaking-and-entering."
 20

6. Sic
Sic is a Latin term meaning “thus.” It is used to indicate that something incorrectly written is intentionally being left
as it was in the original. Sic is usually italicized and always surrounded by brackets to indicate that it was not part of
the original. Place [sic] right after the error.
Example: She wrote, “They made there [sic] beds.”
Note: The correct sentence should have been, “They made their beds.”
7. n.d.
The abbreviation n.d. stands for “no date” in APA style. It is used for a source that does not have copyright or
publication date. APA uses it in the citation.
8. Abstract
An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7
sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:
• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to
read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.
It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to
identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So, what you include in your abstract and in your title are
crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.
9. Footnote and Endnote
A footnote is additional information found at the bottom of the current page in a document. Superscript numbers are
used in both the document and the footnote to help reader match the text to the supplemental information at the
bottom. For example:
Here is an example1 of a footnote.
1
An example to help demonstrate the proper notation and implementation of a footnote.

An endnote is similar, but they are only found at the end of a document and contain reference information about
quoted material.
Here is an example of an endnote which cites Wikipedia as a source.1
1
Donald Trump
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump)
Difference between Endnote and Footnote
The most obvious difference between footnotes and endnotes is the placement of each within a paper. Footnotes are
found at the bottom of a page (i.e. in the footer) and endnotes are located at the end of a complete document, or
sometimes at the end of a chapter or section.
While the content in footnotes and endnotes can look the same, they serve different functions. Footnotes are used as
a citation vehicle for a short citation, while endnotes can contain more text without compromising the format of the
paper. They each also typically use a different numbering system, which allows the reader to determine where they
should look for the additional information (either in the footer of the page, or at the end of the document).
 21

10. Bibliography
A bibliography is a list of works on a subject or by an author that were used or consulted to write a research paper,
book or article. It can also be referred to as a list of works cited. It is usually found at the end of a book, article or
research paper.
Swetnam’s Six Phase Selection Process
• General area of study : Sociology
• Particular Interest : Groups of old people
• More Specially : Community Care
• Especially : In residential homes
• Precisely : In warden-controlled homes
• Draft Title : ‘The management of community care in warden-controlled residential homes’.
Primary and Secondary Sources
A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are
researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.
If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced
at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers).
If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you
collect yourself (e.g. through interviews, surveys, experiments) or sources produced by people directly involved in
the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).
A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from primary sources.
Common examples include:
• Books, articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something
When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments
against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.
Primary and secondary source examples
Primary Source Secondary Source
Novel Article analyzing the novel
Painting Exhibition catalog explaining the painting
Letters and diaries written by a historical figure Biography of the historical figure
Essay by a philosopher Textbook summarizing the philosopher’s ideas
Photographs of a historical event Documentary about the historical event
22