547909

research-article2014
UPDXXX10.1177/8755123314547909UpdateCogdill

Article
Update

Applying Research in Motivation and

2015, Vol. 33(2) 49­–57
© 2014 National Association for
Music Education
Learning to Music Education: What Reprints and permissions:
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the Experts Say DOI: 10.1177/8755123314547909

update.sagepub.com

Susan H. Cogdill1

Abstract
Current research on motivation and learning may assist teachers in identifying strategies to help students be successful
and persevere in the music classroom. Students’ beliefs about their ability to learn, and the impact these beliefs have on
their motivation to learn music, is a large focus of the research presented here. Aspects of music make it unique from
other academic disciplines on student motivation. There are different motivational patterns exhibited at different age
levels. Being aware of these various aspects may help teachers foster positive beliefs among students about their own
music potential. This article presents a review of motivation and learning research literature and provides implications
for today’s music classrooms and teaching profession. Suggestions are provided to change perception of talent, widen
the scope of musical activities in schools, include authentic assessments, and have teachers learn how to increase
student motivation and learning in the music classroom.

Keywords
application, learning, mindset, motivation, music beliefs, strategies

Music teachers see the impact that participating in music successful models, and (e) review current practices that
has on their students. However, some students are persist- can be modified to be more efficient and effective.
ing with music, whereas others are not. There are numer-
ous activities competing for students’ attention in today’s
school, home, and social environments. Unfortunately,
Review of Literature
some teachers may be unaware of the complex frame- Motivation and Learning Theories
work that shapes student motivation and learning. Woody
and McPherson (2010), for example, stated, The perception people have about themselves is called
their self-concept (Greenberg, 1970). A person’s self-con-
It seems a pity that the music education profession is so cept may be stronger in music than in other domains
poorly equipped with knowledge that explains more (Vispoel, 2003). This perception is reinforced by evalua-
precisely how some students become intellectually curious tions received from others, as well as by comparing one’s
and emotionally engaged in the repertoire they are studying, self to others (Bong & Clark, 1999; Greenberg, 1970;
in contrast to others who display neither of these attributes Lamont, 2011). Having a strong music self-concept is a
during their practice. (p. 407) crucial component as to whether or not students will have
the motivation to persist in music. Greenberg (1970)
To address this knowledge gap, current research on noted that children’s music self-concepts begin to shape
motivation and learning will be presented with sug- as soon as they are able to determine how well they per-
gested implications for improving music pedagogy. This formed on a certain task. Marsh, Craven, and Debus
article will (a) identify current research theories and (1991) confirmed that self-concept originates at an early
models most applicable to music teaching and learning,
(b) consider the unique aspects of music and music
teaching that make them different from other school 1 
University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
subjects, (c) discuss the characteristics of children and
Corresponding Author:
adolescents that may account for the different motiva- Susan H. Cogdill, College of Saint Benedict/Saint John’s University, 37
tional patterns they display, (d) provide examples of South College Ave., St. Joseph, MN 56374, USA.
current practices of school music considered to be Email: [email protected]
50 Update 33(2)

age and becomes more personalized as students grow must understand the work that is necessary to do so.
older. Young students who engage in positive music However, students who attribute failure to lack of ability,
experiences are more likely to develop positive beliefs skill, or talent (perceived stable factors) may be left with
about themselves as musicians. feelings of hopelessness and vulnerability (Austin,
People’s beliefs about their abilities have a profound Renwick, & McPherson, 2006; Maehr et al., 2002). It is
impact on the motivation they bring to learning situa- problematic for music education when students assume
tions. Bandura (1995) defined self-efficacy theory as they lack musical skill because they are not talented
“beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the (Asmus, 1986; Lehmann et al., 2007).
courses of action required to produce given attainments” For students to be motivated to participate in an
(p. 2). Stated differently, self-efficacy applies to a certain activity, they must value it and believe they will be suc-
goal and one’s ability to “perform a specific task at a cer- cessful with it in their future. This expectancy–value
tain level of competence” (Maehr, Pintrich, & theory explains why many students both pursue and per-
Linnenbrink, 2002, p. 357). Every educator should strive sist in music, whereas others do not (Eccles & Wigfield,
to foster a positive self-efficacy in students so they can 1995; O’Neill & McPherson, 2002). This insight helps
experience success in certain tasks or specific education teachers predict student participation choices and inter-
areas (Hallam, 2009). Students who do not have a high ests (Lehmann et al., 2007). Students must also truly
self-efficacy struggle with internal dialogues reminding enjoy the music activity to continue with it (Wigfield &
them of feelings of ineptness at certain tasks and abilities. Eccles, 2000). This motivational framework consists of
This reinforcement of self-doubt can result in a student four parts of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in
not trying or giving up altogether (Bandura, 1993). how much a student will (a) value being successful in a
Self-efficacy in the music classroom describes the music activity, (b) predict that it will be an enjoyable or
“beliefs about one’s ability to accomplish musical goals” rewarding experience, (c) foresee that the music activity
(Woody, 2004, p. 12). Ritchie and Williamon (2011) con- will be valuable in meeting future results, and (d) value
cluded that prior music experiences and participation are the music activity so as to make that the amount of time
the highest predictors of music self-efficacy for learning. spent practicing and participating worthwhile (Lehmann
Therefore, having positive music experiences at a young et al., 2007).
age is extremely important for providing a foundation for As young musicians develop their skills, they pass
learning. Hallam (2009) agreed that early music experi- through various stages of intrinsic and extrinsic motiva-
ences greatly reinforce music self-concept, as students tion. The intrinsic motivation in self-determination the-
become more aware of their abilities in comparison with ory focuses on what learning conditions are necessary to
their peers and continually interpret feedback on their “elicit and sustain, versus subdue and diminish, this
musical abilities. innate propensity” to learn (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 70).
However, it is not enough that students think of them- This research has identified three psychological needs for
selves as good musicians. Having a high music self-effi- sustaining self-motivation in learning: competence,
cacy suggests that they must also have the knowledge and autonomy, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). For stu-
proficient skill level to perform well (Lehmann, Sloboda, dents to participate in higher level music activities, they
& Woody, 2007). When students have this skill and must feel they are competent in their musical skill and
knowledge level, they will persist when encountering knowledge, have power over their own choices in learn-
certain challenges, whereas students with a low self-effi- ing and how they choose to participate in music activities,
cacy may resort to giving up (Maehr et al., 2002). and have the need to belong or feel connected to other
Key to understanding motivation to participate in people fulfilled, thus creating a warm and inviting atmo-
music is attribution theory, which focuses on how people sphere (Woody & McPherson, 2010).
make sense of what they experience. How students Another perspective of intrinsic motivation looks into
explain their successes or failures can be a key insight greater depths of music involvement. Participating in a
into how they will interact with the task in the future particular task where a person (a) becomes completely
(Weiner, 1974). The answer to why a student did poorly absorbed and loses track of time, (b) is unaware of growing
or performed well is the focus of attribution theory tired, and (c) does not pay attention to anything outside of
(Maehr et al., 2002). Weiner (1985) identified that ability the present activity leads to flow, described by flow theory
and effort were the most common attributions given for (Csikszentmihalyi, Abuhamdeh, & Nakamura, 2005). For
success, whereas attributes for failure were little ability flow to occur, there must be a balance between the activity
and lack of effort. Students who attribute failure to lack of and the individual’s ability to be successful. If the music
effort can choose to exert more effort in future tasks. This activity is too challenging for the current musical skill, stu-
gives them power of choice in their academic pursuits. If dents may “experience anxiety and diminished motivation
young musicians want to increase their knowledge, they for learning” (Austin et al., 2006). If students’ skills are at
Cogdill 51

a higher level than the task that is asked of them, they may of their time” and prefer instead to be challenged (Dweck,
feel frustrated they are not being challenged. However, 2000, p. 4). The growth mindset does not ignore the dif-
when the challenge or skills required in certain activities ferences in what students know nor the rate at which they
match their current skill level, flow is likely to occur learn. Instead the focus is that each person can improve
(Maher et al., 2002). his or her learning with the right effort and direction
(Mueller & Dweck, 1997).
Mindsets are shaped by the feedback students receive
Mindset
throughout their life and specifically in their academic
The above theories have provided a richer understanding training. Feedback can reinforce a fixed mindset or foster
of human behavior related to motivation and learning a growth mindset (Dweck, 2007). Muller and Dweck
particular to music education. Although they provide (1998) reported that students who received positive feed-
helpful understanding of the general population, they fail back on their intelligence experience a momentary sense
to provide insight on the unique development of the indi- of pride, but this was nonlasting and began to deteriorate,
vidual person (Molden & Dweck, 2006). When looking without moving the children forward in their learning.
at the individual, one must consider that all students are Those students receiving praise on the effort they demon-
unique in how they experience the world and interpret strated encouraged a growth mindset. Unfortunately, the
and make sense of these experiences (Chi-yue, Hong, & group who had been praised initially on their intelligence,
Dweck, 1997). They establish beliefs about themselves on how smart they were, adopted a fixed mindset. They
and establish their implicit theories, which profoundly were unable to recover from a previous failure even
affect how they interact with the world and with others though they had a chance to answer questions that were
and behave in learning situations. “Although a single modified to ensure they would answer them successfully.
belief about intelligence may seem like a small thing, Some students even resorted to cheating rather than tak-
each of these beliefs creates a whole motivational frame- ing a chance at failing for a second time. Fortunately,
work” (Dweck & Master, 2009, p. 123). These beliefs are other studies show that students can actually increase
“domain-specific,” meaning that the concept of intelli- their motivation to learn simply by being informed about
gence for this conversation will mean one’s musical abil- the two mindsets, as well as about how their brain learns
ity (Dweck, 2000, p. 175). (Dweck, 2007).
These self-beliefs, or mindsets, present two distinct These theories are not meant to impose a right or
and separate views of intelligence: fixed mindset and wrong view about mindset; they are meant to provide a
growth mindset. Those with a fixed mindset believe the way of understanding how people perceive their world
intelligence they have was fully formed by birth, is innate, and at what cost or gain (Dweck et al., 1995). Giving stu-
and is a fixed trait (Dweck, 2006). People with this dents the right strategies necessary to help them move
mindset believe that although people can learn new forward will provide them with a clearer choice in creat-
things, the core of their intelligence cannot be changed ing their own success. “Children’s beliefs become the
(Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, 1995). Children with a fixed mental baggage they bring to the achievement situation”
mindset feel compelled to protect their intelligence, at all (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007, p. 259).
costs, and are focused on how smart they appear to others
(Dweck, 2000). The consequence of this mindset is that
students will avoid challenges or participating in activi-
Brain and Memory
ties in which they predict they may fail. They perceive The explosion of brain research is changing current per-
that if one were smart at something, then the task or learn- ceptions of teaching and learning. The brain was once
ing would come easily. Having to exert effort would thought to be unchanging: The number of cells present at
announce to others that they were inadequate. Students birth was the same at death. Early research by Bennet,
can be very creative in distracting peers and teachers to Diamond, Krech, and Rosenzweig (1964) found instead
avoid being viewed as inadequate (Diener & Dweck, that the brain was capable of growing and making new
1978). Even more devastating for students with a fixed connections, a function called plasticity, when experienc-
mindset is they are not likely to rebound after encounter- ing an enriched environment. For the brain to adapt, it
ing failure, for their belief that they cannot is so overpow- requires that it be used efficiently, thus supporting the
ering (Dweck, 2006). capacity for lifelong learning (Blakemore & Frith, 2005).
In contrast, growth mindset is the belief that intelli- Researchers liken the brain to any muscle in the body; it
gence can be both developed and improved with effort can adapt and strengthen as one learns (National
and specific strategies (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Students Association of Independent Schools, n.d.). This has many
with this mindset view both challenges and failures as implications for music educators, such as reinforcing the
opportunities to learn. They view easy tasks as a “waste desire to be a lifelong learner of music in students, as well
52 Update 33(2)

as strengthening the perception that effort is the key related to musical role dissimilarity, we are faced with
ingredient necessary in developing musical skills rather scientific evidence of our need to rethink much of what
than the notion of innate talent. we do and how we do it” (Reimer, 2004, p. 16). He con-
“Educators need to build an adequate structure cluded his article describing that brain research has rein-
grounded upon the principles of education, psychology, forced a favorite adage of his, “music education is the
biology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and pedagogy education of feeling” in that it affirms what musicians
to bridge the gap from the outdated Industrial Era model and music educators have been committed to for centu-
of schooling to the Information Era model” (Radin, 2009, ries (Reimer, 2004, p. 23).
p. 41). Unfortunately, these exciting findings by present New light on the brain’s amazing abilities reinforces
researchers may not make it to the populations that could the notion that there are actions within students’ control if
truly benefit from the information: public school teachers they desire to increase their musical ability. Fields (2008)
and their students. When a panel of brain theorists was highlights the role that myelin, a white matter that coats
asked to describe what brain-compatible instruction axons in the brain, plays in aiding the ability of neurons
should look like in a classroom, there was agreement that to send messages to different parts of the brain: The
having an enriched environment was crucial. This thicker the myelin coating, the faster its ability to com-
included (a) students and teachers who were emotionally municate. When one practices a musical skill, it causes
connected to the instruction; (b) an accessible physical the myelin to thicken. Therefore, the more students prac-
layout of the classroom and inviting atmosphere; (c) feel- tice, the more automatic their ability becomes to perform
ings of low stress and threat levels; (d) opportunities for a specific skill since their neurons are receiving the mes-
students to experience trial and error, explore, practice, sage at a faster rate.
create, and think critically; and (e) ways students would
be challenged, encouraged to problem-solve, and com- Practice
plete their own work (Radin, 2009). In addition, knowl-
edge of the brain could assist music education and Ericsson (2006) supported this scientific conclusion of
learning for all children. practicing to increase musical skill. He suggested that
students must practice deliberately with a specific goal in
At the same time, many students with learning differences mind as they concentrate on a specific task. Students can-
[normal variations] or learning disabilities [atypical not simply want to improve. They must design a plan as
variations] have not had their education needs met. If more to how they will improve by exerting specific effort.
teachers had greater understanding of the brain, we might be Research identified that musicians, who at age 20 were
able to optimize the learning for all students. (Radin, 2009, considered top performers in their area, all shared in com-
p. 48) mon their diligence in practicing for more than 10,000
hours (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993). This
It is the goal of most teachers that students learn the confirmed that it matters not how talented a student is;
information that is presented to them, in hopes of prepar- instead, committing to deliberate practice is what is nec-
ing them for success in their future. Researchers have essary for musical skill development (Ericcson, 2006).
established that for information to be committed into Because many students do not view practice as an enjoy-
long-term memory, it must first be rehearsed in one’s able activity, teachers must understand the significance of
working memory sufficiently to then be transferred to motivation in skill development (Woody, 2004).
long-term memory (Banikowski & Mehring, 1999). Music teachers have known for quite some time that
Teachers need to be aware of and master strategies to practice is necessary to strengthen musical skill. With the
enhance long-term memory: capturing, holding, and emergence of current research, educators may now
focusing students’ attention, connecting students emo- explain to their students the reason why. Teachers can
tionally to the learning, making the learning meaningful educate their students on how the brain works, which can
to students, helping students organize their learning, and provide them with tools necessary if they desire to be a
connecting new knowledge to students’ prior experiences skilled musician. This knowledge can help students in
(Banikowski & Mehring, 1999). Teachers who use these becoming responsible for their own learning. Students
strategies can make the learning environment more pur- can now strategize toward engaging in tasks that will
poseful and efficient, likely resulting in a more engaging strengthen their musical skill and knowledge.
and enjoyable classroom. Many discount the hours of practice necessary to
Bennett Reimer, a music education philosopher, develop musical skills, believing instead that people are
reflected on the emergence of brain research and its born with musical ability. This perception of innate talent
implications on music education. He stated, “Because of is a viewpoint of “folk psychology” that is reinforced
our growing understandings of brain dissimilarity as within certain cultures (Sloboda, Davidson, & Howe,
Cogdill 53

1994, p. 349). McPherson and Williamon (2006) music quality is what makes music (and teaching of
explained the inaccuracy in the “folklore” of “giftedness” music) profoundly different from other school subjects.
and “talent” (p. 239). They argued that Mozart, widely Music is a means of self-expression that is unique to its
viewed as a child prodigy, benefited instead from great own self.
support, training, experiences, and countless hours of Unfortunately, Western society has come to view
practice. Students who come to believe that innate ability music as less important than perceived “elite core” sub-
is required to be successful in music may not have the jects in schools (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2010, p. 7).
motivation to persist or even begin a music journey This is apparent in elementary students often seeing their
(Austin et al., 2006; Sloboda, Wise, & Peretz, 2005). general music teachers once a week, which is clearly not
Unfortunately, too many students are labeled early in enough time to build a rich music knowledge and experi-
their academic life as being innately talented, whereas ence base. A large percentage of schools do not expose
other children perceive this to mean they are not. their students to instrumental music until late elementary
Somehow, this method of categorizing students is still school. By this time, children’s competence beliefs about
pervasive among schools, an inequality that is “discrimi- their musical ability “may be in a state of decline before
natory” (Howe, Davidson & Sloboda, 1998, p. 407). they ever have a chance of receiving instruction” (Austin
In reviewing this literature, several broad principals et al., 2006, p. 223). As students approach middle school
emerged. First, the belief in innate talent may not serve the and high school, they can choose to simply withdraw if
profession of music education and, even more important, they do not do well in music or do not like the subject, an
may not serve students. This belief limits, and perhaps action that would never be allowed in core subjects like
even extinguishes, the music potential in students. Second, math (Smith, 2006). Motivating students to participate in
there is greater complexity involved in teaching the whole music activities cannot happen if there is no music class
learner than simply the pedagogy of teaching music. to teach. Some schools have resorted to having music
Teachers may be unaware of the impact motivation may ensembles rehearse before and after school, putting music
have on students’ abilities to learn and participate in music education “in jeopardy of being relegated to extracurricu-
activities. Each of these theories and models shine light on lar status” when it fails (or is forced) to function as core
the multidimensions of who each student is as a learner. subjects do (Woody, 2011, para. 4). In addition, music
Teachers, and ultimately students, would greatly benefit by teachers have to actively recruit in order to motivate stu-
the inclusion of these motivation and learning theories and dents to enroll in music courses, whereas required content
models in teacher training and ongoing professional devel- classes have access to teach every child every day.
opment. Third, the music educator plays a crucial role in Today’s students are more likely to spend more time
creating a strong motivational foundation on the fragile watching (and being influenced by) popular television
balancing beam that students walk on as they engage in shows like American Idol and The Voice than participat-
music learning. Even the simple feedback a teacher gives ing in public school music classes. The perceptions about
to a student can have life-altering consequences if a student music and “talent” gleaned from these shows provide an
interprets it incorrectly and chooses to drop out of music. inequitable challenge for music educators to overcome
Finally, students can be powerful in their own learning and when competing with “the addictive nature of passive
skill development. “Students are rarely instructed how to entertainment” (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 2005, p. 606).
learn,” yet everyday are met with high expectations to do McPherson and O’Neill (2010) summarized the complex
so (Kiewra, 2002, p. 71). The adage “knowledge is power” framework influencing motivation and music participa-
is applicable to these principles, especially in this music tion for young people by stating,
educational setting.
Across all school grades, motivational constructs for a
subject are dependent on the interplay between external
Uniqueness of Music From Other factors such as the home environment, parental influences,
society and peers, and internal personal factors such as
Subjects interest, self-esteem, self-determination and personal goals
There are aspects of music (and the teaching of music) for achievement. (p. 103)
that make it different from other school subjects. First,
music is a uniquely “human phenomenon” (Campbell & Different Motivational Patterns for
Scott-Kassner, 2010, p. 6). “Musical capacity is a univer-
sal inherent human capacity: It is part of what it means to
Different Ages
be human” (Lehmann et al., 2007, p. 30). Newborn babies There are certain differences that shape motivation and
have been found to exhibit very sophisticated musical learning music among children and adolescents. Both
skills and aptitudes (Lehmann et al., 2007). This inherent are influenced by their beliefs about their ability and
54 Update 33(2)

by their interest in and valuing of different subjects learning. The professional conduct of teachers demon-
(McPherson & O’Neill, 2010). However, as a child strates one such practice. Many teachers are conscious of
ages these beliefs tend to change. Younger students are reflecting on their teaching pedagogy and developing strat-
more optimistic in their achievement beliefs. As they egies to continually improve. They value staff develop-
grow older, these beliefs about their music competence ment opportunities and are lifelong learners. Many teachers
become more realistic (Wigfield et al., 1997). This understand that as students and society change, they too
occurs as students become aware of their abilities and must adapt to these changing needs. They provide a safe,
begin comparing them to the abilities of their peers and welcoming, and engaging learning environment. Investing
listening to feedback they receive from others (Hallam, their time and energy to know students’ backgrounds helps
2009). Students will not continue with an activity if teachers connect with their students, demonstrating to stu-
they do not feel confident in it or they perceive that it dents that the teachers value them. These processes also
will not be useful in their future (Wigfield et al., 1997). help teachers understand the different learning needs of
Thus, younger students are more open to their poten- their students. In addition, teachers choose music literature
tial, whereas adolescents have begun to close them- and activities that are ability and interest appropriate to fos-
selves off. ter motivation and engage learning.
Children’s self-concept about music and the value Educators are encouraged to provide enrichment activ-
they have for it tends to decrease as they age (Wigfield ities for students who have mastered the current lesson to
et al., 1997). Their attribution beliefs become “differenti- enhance their creativity, as well as apply their learning.
ated with increasing age” and shift from the view that an Music teachers have been consistent in creating these
amount of effort is required to be successful at a task to opportunities in various ways such as having students
the adolescent’s view that they must lack ability when compose, perform original or others’ compositions, work
they do not succeed (Austin et al., 2006, p. 229). These on solo and ensemble literature, form vernacular music
beliefs unfortunately often result in their dropping out of groups, and present to their class an aspect of personal
music. However, this is not true for teenagers who con- music interest. These additional activities have been well-
tinue to play into their adolescence (Hallam, 2009). known methods of motivating students in the past.
The adolescent age is a tentative motivational period Music teachers are a credit to their profession as they
in determining whether or not students will continue with give their time, both before and after school, to work with
music. Peers begin to have a great influence on students’ individuals to assist them in playing or learning content.
motivation to persist in music learning (Lehmann et al., This provides one-on-one or small group differentiated
2007). Adolescents tend to form peer groups based on instruction that can be organized around the specific
their music preferences: their “badge of identity” (North needs of the learners. Also, music students use many of
& Hargreaves, 1999, p. 75). Educators should also take their modalities each day in the music room, which con-
into account that students are also motivated to partici- nects their learning in kinesthetic, auditory, and visual
pate in music ensembles because of many nonmusic fac- ways that improve long-term memory.
tors such as social, academic, and family reasons
(Adderley, Kennedy, & Berz, 2003) and to be part of a
In Need of Maintenance
team or music family (Parker, 2009).
Children and adolescents also differ in how their bod- Although these successful practices do exist in today’s
ies (brain included!) grow and develop at each of these music classrooms, the lack of knowledge that teachers
stages, which may affect their learning. Information on have about current motivation and learning theories may
the brain shows that there is a period of time when ado- have large unintended consequences for students. As
lescents may have areas of poor cognitive performance music educators continue their way through the
due to changes in the brain’s communication network Information Age, it might be time to adapt current prac-
(Blakemore & Frith, 2005). This gradually improves with tices. Students may benefit from teacher reinforcement
age, but teachers should still be aware of this as they work fostering beliefs that they can learn and be musical, as
with this population. Another aspect of brain develop- well as appropriate motivation and learning tools to be
ment that affects adolescents is the brain’s need for ade- successful. The following are suggestions to upgrading
quate sleep for it to work correctly in learning situations current practices in order to increase student motivation
(Blakemore & Frith, 2005). and learning in music.

Current Models of Success Reinforce Effort

There are current practices of school music teaching or Teachers should provide an alternative to the notion of
instruction that are successful models of motivation and innate talent as a prerequisite to becoming a musician and
Cogdill 55

reinforce this with students. Teachers are encouraged to are only graded on their attendance. Not only does this
provide student feedback related to student persistence and cheapen the argument that music should be a core disci-
effort demonstrated. A growth mindset on musical ability pline but it also does not help students interpret any of
should also be fostered in music classrooms. Because their prior effort. Many choral students graduate high
music is inherently human, the opportunity for all people school learning only 16 music selections on their indi-
to participate and enjoy music throughout their lifetime vidual part, never receiving specific feedback that could
should be emphasized throughout the school culture. have motivated them to practice or seek new learning.
Assessment that is accurate and meaningful can provide
many motivational benefits to students.
Broaden Scope of Music in Schools
Shifting from current methods of assessing musical
Students who do not participate in school music are skill and understanding is necessary to improve student
actively involved with music outside of school, especially learning (Dweck, 2000). Today’s educators are greatly
in how much music they listen to. The traditional class- focused on the end results of education, and appropriately
room, ensembles, and literature may not be the most so. Although measuring student progress at the end of a
effective way to connect with this current generation, particular task or learning is important, students might
especially when students can easily access anything of benefit from greater focus at the beginning of skill devel-
music interest on their phone or computer. Music ensem- opment. Greater attention to providing early, positive
bles, particularly in secondary schools, can be limiting if music experiences that provides the foundation for stu-
they motivate only certain types of students with specific dent learning could be a proactive strategy in order to
music interests. Instead, the profession could serve a improve assessment.
larger population of students by offering other classes to
learn about and experience music, such as creative music- Know Your Individual Learners
ing, science of music, songwriting, sound mixing, music
as therapy, and bluegrass technique. The profession can Teachers will benefit by knowing the academic needs of
better motivate students to engage in music activities if their individual students. Each student learns differently
those experiences are meaningful and perceived to bene- and is motivated to participate in music for a variety of
fit them in their future. reasons. Teachers who explore these differences will be
In addition, the perception of who should participate able identify the appropriate strategies to help students
in music as a result of auditioned music ensembles may be successful in the music classroom. Research that
perpetuate the belief that music exists only for the top focused on motivating high school choir students identi-
students. How students interpret not making these ensem- fied that having a teacher who paid attention to the “per-
bles should be a concern among the profession. sonal and musical development of their students”
created a welcoming and encouraging environment
(Stamer, 1999, p. 26). The other top aspects included
Assess Music Beliefs providing feedback, interesting repertoire, and achiev-
Nowhere in the national standards is the assessment of able challenges.
student beliefs on learning encouraged. Because beliefs If the profession believes in music for every student,
play such a pivotal role in predicting a child’s academic then it must be ready to take in all factors that shape the
success and provide great insight into their experience as learner. Perhaps more focus could be placed on the
a learner, the music education profession would benefit learner when learning music, an element that should be a
from adopting this intervention. Once students make the large component of music teacher-training programs
judgment that they cannot with music, a teacher may everywhere. Only with this awareness of these greater
never have another opportunity to reach them. This limit- dimensions of students can teachers truly successfully
ing belief robs them of a lifetime of music enjoyment. motivate students to persist and engage in music activi-
Fostering a growth mindset about music ability, particu- ties throughout their lifetime.
larly in the younger grades, would help students have the
motivation necessary to persist in music learning. Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
Engage in Meaningful Assessments article.
The fourth suggestion for improvement encourages
teachers to provide meaningful and authentic assessments Funding
in order to inform students of where they are and what The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
strategies they need to improve. In some cases, students authorship, and/or publication of this article.
56 Update 33(2)

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