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STA301 IMP notes Headings and

Some Questions Answers
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Pie Chart : Pie Chart consists of a circle which is divided into two or more mars in
accordance with the number of distinct classes that we have in our data.
Statistical Statistical Inference is an estimate or prediction or some other

Inference : generalization about a Population based on information contained in a
sample.
Statistics : Statistics is that science which enables to draw conclustions about various
phenomena one the basis of real data collected on sample basis.
Sample : Sample is that part of the Population from which information is collected.
What is Order: Arrangement of objects in ascending or descending way is known

meant by as order.
order?. :
Population The collection of all individuals,items or data under consideration in

: statistical study is called Population.
Nominal The classification or grouping of observatoins into mutually exclusive

Scale : qualitative categories is said to constitute a nominal scale e.g students are
classified as male and female.
Ordinal It includes the characteristic of a nominal scale and in addition has the
Scale : property of ordering or ranking of measurments e.g the performance of
students can be rated as excellent,good or poor.
Interval A measurment scale possessing a constant interval size but not true zero
Scale : point is called an Interval Scale.
Ratio Scale It is a special kind of an interval scale in which the scale of measurment
: has a true zero point as its origin.
Median : Median of a set of values arranged in ascending or descending order of

magnitude is defined as middle value if the number of values is odd and
mean of two middle values if the number of values is even.Median is a
value at or below which 50% of data lie.
Average : A single value which intended to represent a distribution or a set of data

as a whole is called an average. It is more or less a central value around

which the observations tend to cluster so it is called measure of central
tendency. Since measure of central tendency indicate the location of the
distribution on X axis so it is also called measure of location.
Mean The mean deviation is defined as the arithmetic mean of the deviations
Deviation : measured either from the mean or from the median, all deviations being
counted as positive.
Chebshev's Chebshev's Theorem states that "For any number K greater than one at
Theorm : least 1-1/k2 of the data values fall with in K standard deviations of the
mean i.e. within the interval.
Moments : Moments are the arithmetic means of the powers to which the deviations
are raised.
Kurtosis : kurtosis is the degree of peakness of a distribution usually taken relative

to a normal distribution.
Correlation Correlation is a measure of the strength or the degree of relationship

: between two random variables. OR Interdependence of two variables is
called correlation.
Venn A diagram that is understood to represent sets by circular regions, parts of

Diagram : circular regions or their complements with respect to a rectangle
representing the space S is called a Venn diagram. The Venn diagrams
are used to represent sets and subsets in a pictorial way and to verify the
relationship among sets and subsets.
Mutually Two events are said to be mutually exclusive events if and only if they
Exclusive can not both occur together at the same time. OR Two events are said to
Event : be mutually exclusive events if the occurrence of one event discard the
occurrence of other event.
Independent Two events A and B in the same sample space S, are defined to be
events : independent (or statistically independent) if the probability that one event
occurs, is not affected by whether the other event has or has not occured.
Random A numerical quantity whose value is determined by the outcome of a

variable : random experiment is called a random variable.
Distribution The function which gives the probability of the event that X takes a value
Function : less than or equal TO a specified value x is called a distribution function
and is also called the cumulative distribution function.
Cumulative The function which gives the probability of the event that X takes a value
Distribution less than or equal TO a specified value x is called a cumulative

Function : distribution function and is also called the distribution function.
Sampling A sampling frame is a complete list of all the elements in the population.
Frame :
Sampling The sampling error is the difference between the the sample statistic and
Error : the population parameter.
Probability Probability samples are those in which following the sampling plan each
Samples : unit in the poplation has a known probability of being included in the
sample.
Non Non probability samples are those in which the sample elements are the
probability arbitrarily selected by the sampler because in this judgment the elements
samples : thus chosen will most effectively represent the Population.
Frequency A frequency polygon is obtained by plotting the class frequencies against

Polygon : the mid-points of the classes, and connecting the points so obtained by
straight line segments.
Variable : A measurable quantity which can vary from one individual or object to
another is called a variable.
Constant : A quantity which can assume only one value is called a constant
Event. : the possible outcomes of an experiment is known as event.
Data. : A well defined collection of objects is known as data.
Mode : The mode is a value which occures most frequently in a set of data i.e. it
indicates the most common result
Box and A Box and Whisker plot provides a graphical representation of data
Whisker through its five number summary.
plot :
The five A five number summary consists of X0, Q1, median, Q3, and Xm. It
number enables us to find the shape of the distribution without drawing a graph.
summary :
EXHAUSTIVE Two or more than two mutually exclusive events are said to be
EVENTS : exhaustive events when their union constitute the entire sample space
Equally Two events A and B are said to be equally likely when one event is as
likely likely to occur as other

events :
Probability Probability is defined as the ratio of favorable cases over equally likely
: cases.
Table : Table is a systematic arrangement of data into vertical columns and

horizontal rows.
Tabulation The process of arranging data into rows and columns is called tabulation.
:
Classification The process of arranging data in classes or categories according to

: some common characteristics present in the data is called classification.
Class Mark The class mark or mid point is that value which divides a class into two
or Mid equall parts.
Point :
Mid Poin The mid point or class mark is that value which divides a class into two
or Class equal parts.
Mark :
Measure of A single value which intended to represent a distribution or a set of data

location : as a whole is called an average. It is more or less a central value around
which the observations tend to cluster so it is called measure of central
tendency. Since measure of central tendency indicate the location of the
distribution on X axis so it is also called measure of location.
The Semi- The quartile deviation or the Semi-interquartile Range is defined as half
interquartile of the difference between the first and third quartiles.
Range :
The The coefficient of variation expresses the standard deviation as the

coefficient percentage of the arithmetic mean.
of variation
:
Disjoint Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint Sets if they have no elements in
Set : common.
DISTRIBUTION The distribution function of a random variable X, denoted by F(x),

FUNCTION: : is defined by F(x) = P(X < x). The function F(x) gives the
probability of the event that X takes a value LESS THAN OR
EQUAL TO a specified value x. The distribution function is
abbreviated to d.f. and is also called the cumulative distribution
function (cdf) as it is the cumulative probability function of the

random variable X from the smallest value up to a specific value x.
Experimental An experimental design is a set of rules or a plan to collect the data

design: : relevant to the problem under investigation in such a way as to provide
the basis for valid and objective inferences about the stated problem.
The plan usually consists of collection of the treatments, specification
of experimental layout, allocation of treatments.
Experimental An experimental unit is the basic unit to which the experiment is

Unit: : performed. It is the basic unit to which the treatment is applied and in
which the variable under investigation is measured and analyzed.
Randomized These designs are those in which treatments are applied to experimental
Deigns; : units randomly and conclusions are supported by the statistical results.
Basic Randomization Replication Local Control

Randomized
Designs: :
Randomization: It is a random process of assigning treatments to the experimental

: unit. The random process implies that every possible allocation of
treatments has the same probability.
Replication: The second principle of an experimental design is replication which is

: the repetition of the basic experiment. It is a complete run of all the
treatments to be tested in the experiment.
Local It is used to bring all extraneous sources of variations under control. For
Control: : this purpose we use Local Control, a term referring to the amount of
balancing, blocking and grouping of the experimental units.
Complete In this design treatments are applied to the experimental units

Randomized completely at random, that is randomization is done without any
Designs : restrictions. Design is completely flexible, any number of treatments and
any number of units per treatments can be applied.
ANOVA : Analysis of variance is defined as the procedure by means of which the

total variability of the set of data measured by total sum of square is
partitioned into components that measure different sources of variations.
The procedure thus permits the decomposition of the total SS into to the
component SS which are corresponding to the real and suspected sources
of variations.
Randomized Randomized complete block Design (RCB) is a design in which •

complete Experimental material is divided into groups or blocks in such a manner
block that experimental units within a particular block are relatively

Design homogeneous. • Each block contains complete set of treatments i.e. it
(RCB): : constitutes a replication of treatments. • Treatments are assigned at
random to the experimental units with in each block which means the
randomization is restricted with blocks.
Latin LS design is an arrangement of k treatments in a k*k square, where the

Square treatments are grouped in blocks in two directions, the direction being
Design: : orthogonal to each other and to the treatments, and where the treatments
appear once and only once in each in each direction. It should be noted
that in Latin square design, the number of rows, the number of columns
and number of treatments must be equal
Critical The value that separates the critical region from the acceptance region, is
Value : called the critical value(s).
Level of Level of significance of a test is the probability used as a standard for

significance rejecting null hypothesis Ho when Ho is assumed to be true. The level of
: significance acts as a basis for determining the critical region of the test.
statistics 2 Statistics is a science of facts and figures.

:
Deciles : Deciles are those nine quantities that divide the distribution into ten
equall parts.
Percentiles Percentiles are those ninety nine quantities that divide the distribution
: into hundred equall parts
Arithmetic Arithmetic Mean is a value obtained by dividing the sum of the

Mean : observations by their numbers.
Geometric The Geometric Mean G, of a set of n positive values is defined as the

Mean : positive nth root of their product.
Absolute An absolute measure of dispersion is one that measures the dispersion in

Measure of terms of the same units, or in the square of units as the units of the data.
Dispersion
:
Dispersion The variability that exists between data set.

:
Relative A Relative Measure of Dispersion is one that measures the dispersion in

Measure of terms of a ratio, coefficient or percentage and is independent of the units
Dispersion of measurement.
Range : The range is defined as the difference between the maximum and
minimum values of a data set.
Quartile The quartile deviation is defined as half of the difference between the
Deviation : first and third quartiles.
Set : A set is any well defined collection or list of distinct objects.
standard The degree of scatter of the observed values about the regression line
error of measured by what is called standard deviation of regression or standard
estimate : error of estimate.
Class of A set of sets is called a class.

Sets :
Primary The data published or used by an organization which originally collected

Data : them are called primary data thus the primary data are thr first hand
information collected, complied, and published by an organization for a
certain purpose.
Secondary The data published or used by an organization other than the one which
Data : origninally collected them are known as secondary data.
Harmonic Harmonic mean is defined as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the
Mean : reciprocals of the values.
Quartiles : Quartiles are those three quantities that divide the distribution into four
equal parts.
Quantiles : Collectively the quartiles, the deciles,percentiles and other values

obtained by equall sub-division of the data are called quantiles.
Index An Index Number is a statistical measure which shows changes in a

Number : variable or group of related variables with respect to time, geographic
location or other characteristics such as income, profession etc.
Standard Standard Deviation is defined as the positive square root of the mean of
Deviation : the squared deviations of the values from their mean.
Variance : Variance is defined as the square of the standard deviation.
Regression Dependence of one variable on the other variable is called regression. OR

: Estimation or prediction of one variable on the basis of other variable is
called regression.
Random An experiment which produces different results even though it is repeated

Experiment a large number of times under essentially similar conditions is called a
: random experiment.
Sub Set : A set that consists of some elements of an other set is called a subset of
that set.
Non- Such errors which are not attributable to sampling but arise in the process
Sampling of data collection even if a complete count is carried out.
Error :
Skewness : Skewness is the lack of symmetry in a distribution around some central

value (mean,median or mode).It is thus the degree of a symmetry.
Permutation an arrangement of all or some of a set of objects in a definite order is

: called permutation.
Universal All sets are subsets of one particular set called universal set.
Set :
Sample The set or collection of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called

Space : the sample space.
Conditional The probability of the occurence of an event A when it is known that

Probability some other event B has already occured is called the conditional
: probability.
Degrees of Degrees of freedom can be defined as the number of observations in the

freedom : sample minus the number of population parameters that are estimated
from the sample data (from those observations
P value : The p-value is a property of the data, and it indicates “how improbable”
the obtained result really is.
Test A statistic (i.e. a function of sample data not containing any parameter),
Statistic : which provides a basis for testing a null hypothesis, is called a test
statistics.
Addition A probability law used to compute the probability of a union of two

law : events, denoted A and B. It is P(AÈB)=P(A)+P(B)-P(AÇB). For mutually
exclusive events, because P(AÇB)=0, it reduces to P(AÈB)=P(A)+P(B).
Alternative The hypothesis concluded to be true if the null hypothesis is rejected.

hypothesis
ANOVA A table used to summarize the analysis of variance computations and

table : results. It contains columns showing the source of variation, the sum of
squares, the degrees of freedom, the mean square, and the F values.
Bayes' A method used to compute posterior probabilities.

theorem :
Binomial A probability distribution showing the probability of x successes in n

probability trials of a binomial experiment.
distribution
:
Binomial The function used to compute probabilities in a binomial experiment.

probability
function :
Blocking : The process of using the same or similar experimental units for all
treatments. The purpose of blocking is to remove a source of variation
from the error term and hence provide a more powerful test for a
difference in population or treatment means.
Box plot : A graphical summary of data. A box, drawn from the first to the third
quartiles, shows the location of the middle 50% of the data. Dashed lines,
called whiskers, extending from the ends of the box show the location of
data values greater than the third quartile and data values less than the
first quartile. The locations of any outliers are also noted.
Central A theorem that enables one to use the normal probability distribution to
limit approximate the sampling distribution of the sample mean and sample
theorem : proportion whenever the sample size is large.
Consistency A property of a point estimator that is present whenever larger sample

: sizes tend to provide point estimates closer to the population parameter
Histogram A graphical presentation of a frequency distribution, relative frequency

: distribution, or percent frequency distribution of quantitative data
constructed by placing the class intervals on the horizontal axis and the
frequencies on the vertical axis.
Null The hypothesis tentatively assumed true in the hypothesis testing

hypothesis procedure. or A null hypothesis, generally denoted by the symbol H0, is
: any hypothesis which is to be tested for possible rejection or nullification
under the assumption that it is true.
Normal A continuous probability distribution. Its probability density function is

probability bell shaped and determined by its mean m and standard deviation s.
distribution
:
Observation The set of measurements obtained for a single element.

:
Ogive : A graph of a cumulative distribution.
One-tailed A hypothesis test in which rejection of the null hypothesis occurs for
test : values of the test statistic in one tail of the sampling distribution. or The
entire rejection region lies in only one of the two tails, either in the right
tail or in the left tai, of the sampling distribution of the test-statistic, is
called a one-tailed test or one-sided test.
Parameter : numerical characteristic of a population, such as a population mean, a

population standard deviation, a population proportion, and so on.
Point A single numerical value used as an estimate of a population parameter.

estimate :
Point The sample statistic that provides the point estimate of the population
estimator : parameter.
Poisson A probability distribution showing the probability of x occurrences of an

probability event over a specified interval of time or space.
distribution
:
Poisson The function used to compute Poisson probabilities.

probability
function :
Population A numerical value used as a summary measure for a population of data

parameter : (e.g., the population mean, the population variance, and the population
standard deviation).
Posterior Revised probabilities of events based on additional information.

probabilities
:
Power A graph of the probability of rejecting H0 for all possible values of the
curve : population parameter not satisfying the null hypothesis. The power curve
provides the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis.
Power : The probability of correctly rejecting H0 when it is false.
Probability A function used to compute probabilities for a continuous random

density variable. The area under the graph of a probability density function over
function : an interval represents probability.
Probability A function, denoted by f(x), that provides the probability that x assumes a
function : particular value for a discrete random variable.
Qualitative Data that are labels or names used to identify an attribute of each
data : element. Qualitative data may be nonnumeric or numeric.
Qualitative A variable with qualitative data.

variable :
Quantitative Data that indicate how much or how many of something. Quantitative
data : data are always numeric.
t A family of probability distributions that can be used to develop interval

Distribution estimates of a population mean whenever the population standard
: deviation is unknown and the population has a normal or near-normal
probability distribution.
Target The population about which inferences are made.

population
:
Treatment : Different levels of a factor.
Tree A graphical representation helpful in identifying the sample points of an

diagram : experiment involving multiple steps.
Two-tailed A hypothesis test in which rejection of the null hypothesis occurs for
test : values of the test statistic in either tail of the sampling distribution.
Type I The error of rejecting H0 when it is true.

error :
Type II The error of accepting H0 when it is false.

error - :
Unbiasedness A property of a point estimator when the expected value of the point
: estimator is equal to the population parameter it estimates.
Union of The event containing all sample points that are in A, in B, or in both. The
events A union is denoted AÈB.

and B :
Types of Systematic Designs Randomized design

Experimental
Designs: :
Systematic These designs are those in which treatments are applied to the
Designs: : experimental units by some systematic manner that is choice of the
experimenter
Acceptance All possible values which a test-statistic may assume can be divided into
and two mutually exclusive groups: One group consisting of values which
rejection appear to be consistent with the null hypothesis (i.e. values which appear
region: : to support the null hypothesis), and the other having values which lead to
the rejection of the null hypothesis. The first group is called the
acceptance region and the second set of values is known as the rejection
region for a test
Type I When we perform a hypothesis test, we derive evidence from the sample
error: : in the form of a test statistics. There is a possibility that sample may lead
us to make a wrong decision. We may reject the hypothesis when it is in
fact true. This type of error is called an error of first kind or type I-error.
The probability of committing a type I error is denoted by α. Thus α is the
probability of rejecting null hypothesis Ho when Ho true.
Type II When we perform a hypothesis test, we derive evidence from the sample
error: : in the form of a test statistics. There is a possibility that sample may lead
us to make a wrong decision. We may accept the hypothesis when it is in
fact false. This type of error is called an error of second kind or a Type II
error. The probability of committing a type II error is denoted by β. Thus
β is the probability of accepting null hypothesis Ho when Ho false.
Class The point in each class that is halfway between the lower and upper class
midpoint : limits.
Complement The event consisting of all sample points that are not in A.
of event A :
Dependent The variable that is being predicted or explained. It is denoted by y.

variable :
Descriptive Tabular, graphical, and numerical methods used to summarize data.

statistics :
Dot plot : A simple graphical summary of data with each observation represented
by a dot placed above a horizontal axis that shows the range of values for
the observations.
Discrete A random variable that may assume either a finite number of values or an
random infinite sequence of values.
variable :
Empirical A rule that states the percentages of items that are within one, two, and
rule : three standard deviations from the mean for mound-shaped, or bell-
shaped, distributions.
Experiment A process that generates well-defined outcomes.

:
Binomial A probability experiment having the following four properties: consists of

experiment n identical trials, two outcomes (success and failure) are possible on each
: trial, probability of success does not change from trial to trail, and the
trials are independent.
Factorial An experimental design that allows statistical conclusions about two or

experiment more factors.
:
Five- An exploratory data analysis technique that uses the following five
number numbers to summarize the data set: smallest value, first quartile, median,
summary : third quartile, and largest value.
Frame : A list of the sampling units for a study. The sample is drawn by selecting
units from the frame.
Frequency A tabular summary of data showing the number (or frequency) of items
distribution in each of several non-overlapping classes.
:
Grouped Data available in class intervals as summarized by a frequency

data : distribution. Individual values of the original data are not available.
Independent The variable that is doing the predicting or explaining. It is denoted by x.

variable :
Intersection The event containing all sample points that are in both A and B. The
of A and B intersection is denoted AÇB.
:
Joint The probability of two events both occurring; that is, the probability of
probability the intersection of two events.
Judgment A nonprobabilistic method of sampling whereby element selection is

sampling : based on the judgment of the person doing the study.
Interquartile A measure of variability, defined to be the difference between the third

range (IQR) and first quartiles.
:
Least The method used to develop the estimated regression equation. It

squares minimizes the sum of squared residuals (the deviations between the
method : observed values of the dependent variable, yi, and the estimated values of
the dependent variable, yi)
Regression The equation that describes how the mean or expected value of the
equation : dependent variable is related to the independent variable.
Rejection The range of values that will lead to the rejection of a null hypothesis.
region :
Replication The number of times each experimental condition is repeated in an

: experiment.
Residual : The difference between the observed value of the dependent variable and
the value predicted using the estimated regression equation.
Sample An element of the sample space. A sample point represents an

point : experimental outcome.
Sample A numerical value used as a summary measure for a sample (e.g., the
statistic : sample mean, the sample variance, and the sample standard deviation).
The value of the sample statistic is used to estimate the value of the
population parameter.
Sampled The population from which the sample is taken.

population
:
Sampling The units selected for sampling. A sampling unit may include several
unit : elements.
Sampling Once an element has been included in the sample, it is returned to the
with population. A previously selected element can be selected again and
replacement therefore may appear in the sample more than once.
:
Sampling Once an element has been included in the sample, it is removed from the
without population and cannot be selected a second time.
replacement
:
Scatter A graph of bivariate data in which the independent variable is on the

diagram : horizontal axis and the dependent variable is on the vertical axis.
Simple Regression analysis involving one independent variable and one

linear dependent variable in which the relationship between the variables is
regression : approximated by a straight line.
Simple Finite population: a sample selected such that each possible sample of
random size n has the same probability of being selected. Infinite population: a
sampling : sample selected such that each element comes from the same population
and the elements are selected independently.
Standard The standard deviation of a point estimator.

error :
Stem-and- An exploratory data analysis technique that simultaneously rank orders

leaf display quantitative data and provides insight about the shape of the distribution.
:
Stratified A probability sampling method in which the population is first divided

random into strata and a simple random sample is then taken from each stratum.
sampling :
Hypergeometric The function used to compute the probability of x successes in n

probability trials when the trials are dependent.
function :
Multiplication A probability law used to compute the probability of an intersection of

law : two events, denoted A and B. It is P(AÇB)=P(A)P(B|A) or P(AÇB)=
P(B)P(A|B). For independent events it reduces to P(AÇB)=P(A)P(B).
Goodness A statistical test conducted to determine whether to reject a hypothesized

of fit test : probability distribution for a population.
Sampling A probability distribution consisting of all possible values of a sample

distribution statistic.
:
Question: What is the difference between cumulative frequency distribution and

Cumulative Frequency Polygon?.

Answer: There is no difference between cumulative frequency distribution &
Cumulative Frequency Polygon,because the graph of cummulative
frequency distrbution is known as Cumulative Frequency Polygon/ogive.
Question: What is Frequency? What are the steps for making frequency
distribution?
Answer: Frequency:
It is a record of how often each value (or set of values) of the variable in
question occurs. It may be enhanced by the addition of percentages that fall into
each category
Steps in Frequency Distribution:
Following are the basic rules to construct frequency distribution:
1. Decide the number of classes into which the data are to be grouped
& it depends upon the size of data.
2. Determine the RANGE (difference between the smallest &largest
values in data) data.
3. Decide where to locate the class limit (numbers typically use to
identify the classes).
4. Determine the reaming class limits by adding the class interval
repeatedly.
5. Distribute the data into classes by using tally marks and sum it in
frequency column. Finally, total the frequency column to see that all data have
been accounted for.
Question: What is Box & Whisker Plot?

Answer: Box and Whisker Plot (or Box plot):
A box and whisker plot is a way of summarizing a set of data measured
on an interval scale. It is often used in exploratory data analysis. It is a type of
graph which is used to show the shape of the distribution, its central value, and
variability. The picture produced consists of the most extreme values in the data
set (maximum and minimum values), the lower and upper quartiles, and the
median.
A box plot (as it is often called) is especially helpful for indicating whether a
distribution is skewed and whether there are any unusual observations (outliers)
in the data set.
Box and whisker plots are also very useful when large numbers of observations
are involved and when two or more data sets are being compared.
Question: What is Mean, Median & Mode?

Answer: Mean:
The arithmetic mean is the statistician’s term for what the layman knows as the
average. The arithmetic mean or simply the mean is a value obtained by
dividing the sum of all the observations by their number.
THE MEDIAN:
The median is the middle value of the series when the variable values are
placed in order of magnitude.
THE MODE:
The mode is defined as that value which occurs most frequently in a set
of data i.e. it indicates the most common result.
The median indicates the middle position while the mode provides
information about the most frequent value in the distribution or the set of data.
Both median & mode are different methods of calculating the average value of
data and they have their advantages & disadvantages .They are used by the
statisticians according to their requirement.
Question: What is meant by Dispersion?

Answer: Dispersion means the extent to which the data/values are spread out from
the average.
Example:
There are many situations in which two different data having the
same average e.g.
Data 1:5, 5,5,5,5 having mean=5
Data 2:1, 5,6,6,7 having mean=5
Hence in such a situation we, need a measure which tell us how
dispersed the data are. The measure used for this purpose is called
measure of dispersion.
Question: What is the relation between these two Moments & Moment Ratios . ?
Answer: Moments: A moment designates the power to which deviations are raised
before averaging them. Moment ratio: These are certain ratios in which
both numerators and the denominators are moments.
Question: What is the difference between frequency and frequency distribution.?

Answer: Frequency:
The number of observations falling in a particular class is
known as class frequency or simply frequency.
Frequency distribution.
When we arrange the frequencies in a form of table then it is
known as Frequency distribution.
Question: What is meant by standard deviation?.

Answer: Standard deviation tells how tightly a set of values is clustered around the
average of those same values.
Question: What is the difference between these two limits when we are dealing with
continuous random variable: 0<5 and 0 ≤ x ≤5 .
Answer: In case ofcontinuous random variable there is no differecce both are
discribing the same thing either we mention the equal sign or not that is
,the random variable ranging from 0 to 5.
Question: What is the difference between the Poisson distribution and the normal
distribution?
Answer: Poisson distribution. The Poisson distribution is referred to as the
distribution of rare events. Examples of Poisson distributed variables are
number of accidents per person, number of sweepstakes won per person,
or the number of catastrophic defects found in a production process.
While: Normal Distribution. The normal distribution (the "bell-shaped
curve" which is symmetrical about the mean) is a theoretical function
commonly used in inferential statistics as an approximation to sampling
distributions. In general, the normal distribution provides a good model

for a random variable, when: There is a strong tendency for the variable
to take a central value; Positive and negative deviations from this central
value are equally likely; The frequency of deviations falls off rapidly as
the deviations become larger.
Question: What is the difference between type-I error and type -II error ?.
Answer: Type-I error:
In a hypothesis test, a type I error occurs when the null

hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact true; that is, H0 is
wrongly rejected. For example, suppose that an accused is,
in fact, innocent (i-e Ho is true) but the finding of the judge
is guilty. The judge has rejected the true null hypothesis
and is so doing ,has made a type-I error.
Type-II error:
In a hypothesis test, a type II error occurs when the null
hypothesis H0, is not rejected when it is in fact false. For
example if the accused is, in fact, guilty (i-e Ho is false) and
the finding of the judge is innocent, the judge has accepted
the false null hypothesis and by accepting the false null
hypothesis he has committed a type –II error.
Question: What is the difference between permutation and combination.

Answer: Permutations:
When our purpose is to arrange the objects with respect to order
out of" n" then we use permutations.
Combinations:
When we select our objects out of "n" with out considering order
then we apply combination.
Question: what is meant by marginal probability function?.

Answer: The individual probability function of the random variables,from the joint
probability function,is known as marginal probability function.
Question: What is ORDINAL or RANKING SCALE.

Answer: Where nominal scales don't allow comparisons in degree, this is possible
with ordinal scales. Say you think it is better to live in Karachi than in
Lahore but you don't know by how much. Example: 1-People or objects
with a higher scale value have more of some attribute. 2-The intervals
between adjacent scale values are indeterminate. 3-Scale assignment is by
the property of "greater than," "equal to," or "less than."
Question: What is the descriptive and inferential Statistics.

Answer: Descriptive Statistics uses graphical and numerical techniques to
summarize and display the information contained in a data set. Inferential
Statistics uses sample data to make decisions or predictions about a larger
population of data.
Question: What is Skewness?

Answer: Skewness is defined as asymmetry in the distribution of the sample data values.
Values on one side of the distribution tend to be further from the 'middle' than
values on the other side.
For skewed data, the usual measures of location will give different values, for
example, mode<median<mean would indicate positive (or right) skewness.
Positive (or right) skewness is more common than negative (or left) skewness.
If there is evidence of skewness in the data, we can apply transformations, for
example, taking logarithms of positive skew data.
Question: Define Variable,Discrete Variable and continuous Variable.

Answer: Variable is a characteristic under study that assumes different values for
different elements. For example, Height of students in a class, No. of
rooms in a house Discrete Variable: A DISCRETE variable is one which
may take on only a countable number of distinct values such as 0, 1, 2, 3,
4,......... Discrete variables are usually (but not necessarily) counts. If a
variable can take only a finite number of distinct values, then it must be
discrete. Examples of discrete variables include the number of children in
a family, the Friday night attendance at a cinema, the number of patients
in a doctor's surgery, the number of defective light bulbs in a box of ten.
Continuous Variable: A CONTINUOUS variable is one which takes an
infinite number of possible values. Continuous variables are usually
measurements. Examples include height, weight, the amount of sugar in
an orange, the time required to run a mile.
Question: What is correletion coefficient?

Answer: Correlation Coefficient: A correlation coefficient is a number between -1
and 1 which measures the degree to which two variables are linearly
related. If there is perfect linear relationship with positive slope between
the two variables, we have a correlation coefficient of 1; if there is
positive correlation, whenever one variable has a high (low) value, so
does the other. If there is a perfect linear relationship with negative slope
between the two variables, we have a correlation coefficient of -1; if there
is negative correlation, whenever one variable has a high (low) value; the
other has a low (high) value. A correlation coefficient of 0 means that
there is no linear relationship between the variables.
Question: what is ment by percentile coefficient of kurtosis?

Answer: Kurtosis: Karl Pearson introduced the term Kurtosis for the degree of
peakedness or flatness of a unimodal frequency curve. Percentile Co-
efficient of Kurtosis is another measure of kurtosis which is not widely
used. it is given by K=Q.D/ P90 –P10 Where Q.D is the semi inter
quartile range & P’s are the percentiles. It has been shown that K for a
normal distribution is .263 and it lies between 0 and 0.50.
Question: Explain Conditional Probability, Marginal Probability and Joint

Probability.
Answer: Conditional probability is the probability of some event A, assuming
event B. Conditional probability is written P(A|B), and is read "the
probability of A, given B". Joint probability is the probability of two
events in conjunction. That is, it is the probability of both events together.
The joint probability of A and B is written as P(AÇB) or P(A,B) or
P(AB). Marginal probability is the probability of one event, ignoring any
information about the other event. Marginal probability is obtained by
summing (or integrating, more generally) the joint probability over the
ignored event. The marginal probability of A is written P(A), and the
marginal probability of B is written P(B).
Question: what is Random Variable?

Answer: Random Variable: A random variable is a rule that assigns a value to each
possible outcome of an experiment. For example, if an experiment
involves measuring the height of people, then each person who could be a
subject of the experiment has associated value, his or her height. A
random variable may be discrete (the possible outcomes are finite, as in
tossing a coin) or continuous (the values can take any possible value
along a range, as in height measurements).
Question: Explain the Concept of "Continous Random Variable"

Answer: Continuous random variable: A continuous random variable is one which
takes an infinite number of possible values. Continuous random variables
are usually measurements. Examples include height, weight, the amount
of sugar in an orange, the time required to run a mile.
Question: Explain the concept of inferential statisticts.

Answer: Inferential statistics: In Inferential Statistics we try to get an idea about
population parameters using sample data because it is not possible, in
many situations, for us to study the whole of population. We therefore
resort ourselves to the sample estimates. In drawing conclusion, the
decision maker makes use of probability theory
Question: What is continuity correction?

Answer: Continuity Correction Factor A value of .5 that is added to and/or
subtracted from a value of a Binomial random variable X when the
continuous normal probability distribution is used to approximate the
discrete binomial probability distribution
Question: what is hypereomatric distribution.

Answer: Hypergeometric Distribution: In probability theory and statistics, the
hypergeometric distribution is a discrete probability distribution that
describes the number of successes in a sequence of n draws from a finite

population without replacement.
Question: What is probablity density function and what is it's significance.

Answer: Dear Student, Probability density function (pdf) is a mathematical
expression or formula which gives probabilities for a range of values of a
continuous random variable. It is denoted by f(x). It has certain very
important properties which we have sent you by email. Probability
density functions are of great significance in Statistics. In fact all the
conclusions that are made in Inferencial Statistics are due to using
appropriate probability density function. Most important probability
distributions which are used in Inferencial Statistics are normal
distribution, t-distribution, F distribution and chi-square distribution.
Question: What is random variable and how the fdp is related to it?
Answer: RANDOM VARIABLE: Such a numerical quantity whose value is
determined by the outcome of a random experiment is called a random
variable. For example, no. of children in a family, daily income of a
medical store etc. It is of two types (i) Discrete random variable (ii)
Continuous random variable Probability density function (pdf) is the
expression or formula which gives us the probability for given range of
values of the continuous random variable.
Question: What is the concept of normal distribution.

Answer: Gaussian (Normal) Distribution The Normal or Gaussian distribution
plays a central role in statistics and has been found to be a very good
model for many continuous distributions that occur in real situations. The
function is symmetric about the mean, it gains its maximum value at the
mean, the minimum value is at plus and minus infinity. The distribution
is often referred to as "bell shaped".
Question: Define Hypothetical population and non random sampling.

Answer: Hypothetical population: A population is not necessarily real; it may be
hypothetical or imaginary. For example, outcomes of an experiment, that
is carried out infinitely, make a hypothetical population. It consists of all
conceivable ways in which an event can occur, e.g. all possible throws of
a die. Such a population does not exist in an actual manner but is only to
be thought of. Non-random Sampling: ‘Nonrandom sampling’ implies
that kind of sampling in which the population units are drawn into the
sample by using one’s personal judgment. In this sampling personal
judgment (of an every person) decide that which sampling unit (of
population) should be selected for the sample.
Question: what are the main and detailable concept of dispersion

Answer: Dispersion means the extent to which the data/values are spread out from
the average. Example: There are many situations in which two different
data having the same average e.g. Data 1:5, 5,5,5,5 having mean=5 Data
2:1, 5,6,6,7 having mean=5 Hence in such a situation we, need a measure
which tell us how dispersed the data are. The measure used for this
purpose is called measure of dispersion.
Question: if X1=20.7% and X2=14.56% then which is more variant? Explain

relative measure of dispersion?
Answer: Suppose we have two distributions having coefficient of variations:
CV(X1) =20.7% CV(X2) =14.56% Than the first distribution has more
variation as compare to second as: CV(X1)> CV(X2) Relative measure of
dispersion is one that is expressed in the form of a ratio, co-efficient of
percentage and is independent of the units of measurement. A relative
measure of dispersion is useful for comparison of data of different nature.
A measure of central tendency together with a measure of dispersion
gives an adequate description of data. We will be discussing FOUR
measures of dispersion i.e. the range, the quartile deviation, the mean
deviation, and the standard deviation.
Question: what is difference beween correlation and regression.

Answer: Correlation: Correlation is a measure of the strength or the degree of
relationship between two random variables. Or Interdependence of two
variables is called correlation. Regression: Dependence of one variable
on the other variable is called regression. Or Estimation or prediction of
one variable on the basis of other variable is called regression.
Question: What is population?

Answer: A population is consist of the totality of the observation with which we re
concerned.
Question: What is a Sample?

Answer: A sample is a group of units selected from a larger group (the population). By
studying the sample it is hoped to draw valid conclusions about the larger group.
A sample is generally selected for study because the population is too large to
study in its entirety. The sample should be representative of the general
population. This is often best achieved by random sampling. Also, before
collecting the sample, it is important that the researcher carefully and completely
defines the population, including a description of the members to be included.
Example:
The population for a study of infant health might be all children born in the
Pakistan in the 1980's. The sample might be all babies born on 7th May in any
of the years.
Question: What is Statistic?

Answer: A statistic is a quantity that is calculated from a sample of data.
Question: In which distributions we used empirical rule & chebychev rule?.

Answer: Empirical rule is applicable to the mound- shape, symmetrical and
unimodle (bell shaped)distributions while chebychev apply to any
distribution regardless of the shape of the frequency distribution of the

data.
Question: What are the different ways of representing the frequency distribution
graphically?
Answer: There are three ways of graphical representation of frequency distribution.
HISTOGRAM:
A histogram consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases
are marked off by class boundaries along the X-axis, and whose heights are
proportional to the frequencies associated with the respective classes.
FREQUENCY POLYGON:
A frequency polygon is obtained by plotting the class frequencies
against the mid-points of the classes, and connecting the points so obtained by
straight line segments.
FREQUENCY CURVE:
When the frequency polygon constructed over class intervals
made sufficiently small for a large number observation, is smoothed, it
approaches a continuous curve, such a curve is called Frequency Curve.
Types of Frequency Curves:
The frequency distribution occurring in practice, usually belong to one of the
following four types. You will study about them in your next lecture.
1. The Symmetrical Distribution.
2. Moderately Skewed Distribution.
3. Extremely Skewed or J-shaped Distribution
4. U-Shaped Distribution
Question: What is meant by 5-Number Summary?

Answer: 5-Number Summary:
A 5-number summary is especially useful when we have so many data
that it is sufficient to present a summary of the data rather than the whole data
set. It consists of 5 values: the most extreme values in the data set (maximum
and minimum values), the lower and upper quartiles, and the median.
A 5-number summary can be represented in a diagram known as a box and
whisker plot. In cases where we have more than one data set to analyze, a 5-
number summary is constructed for each, with corresponding multiple box and
whisker plots.
Question: What is meant by mid-rang and mid-quartile range and what is the
difference between these two ranges.?
Answer: MID-RANGE: If there are n observations with x0 and xm as their
smallest and largest observations respectively, then their mid-range is
defined as Mid range=X0+Xm/2. It is obvious that if we add the smallest
value with the largest, and divide by 2, we will get a value which is more
or less in the middle of the data-set. MID-QUARTILE RANGE: If x1,
x2… xn are n observations with Q1andQ3 as their first and third quartiles
respectively, then their mid-quartile range is defined as Mid Quartile
range= Q1+Q3 /2. Difference: They both used as measures of central
tendency because they both provide us with more or less the middle value
of data. The difference is that the mid-quartile range is an attempt to
address the problem of the range being heavily dependent on extreme
scores. An mid-quartile range represents the middle 50% of the scores in
the distribution.
Question: What is meant by Loaded die?.

Answer: A biased die is known as Loaded die.
Question: What is the difference between Probability distribution and sampling

distribution?.
Answer: The probability distribution of any statistic (such as the mean, the
standard deviation, the proportion of successes in a sample, etc.) is
known as its sampling distribution.
Question: DISCUSS STATUS,STATISTICS AND STATISTIC.

Answer: Latin words status, meaning a political state is believed to be the origin of
the word “statistics” Statistics: Today the word statistics is used in three
different meanings. Firstly, it is used in the sense of data for example
price statistics, death statistics etc Secondly, it is used as the plural of the
word “statistic” meaning the information obtained from the sample data.
Thirdly, it means the science of collecting, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting the numerical facts obtained as a result of a survey.
Question: Define the error of instrument in respect of the ratio measurment?

Answer: Error of Instrument arises when we are measuring any quantity because
of the fault in the measuring instrument. For ratio scale we can use the
following example. If a student’s weight is recorded as 60 kg (correct to
the nearest kilogram), his true weight in fact lies between 59.5 kg and
60.5 kg, whereas a weight recorded as 60.00 kg means the true weight is
known to lie between 59.995 and 60.005 kg. Thus there is a difference,
however small it may be between the measured value and the true value.
This sort of departure from the true value is technically known as the
error of measurement.
Question: what is difference between raw data and grouped data,please explain it
with some example.
Answer: Raw data Data that have not been processed in any manner is called raw
data. It often refers to uncompressed text that is not stored in any priority
format. It may also refer to recently captured data that may have been
placed into a database structure, but not yet processed. Grouped data The
data presented in the form of frequency distribution is also known as
grouped data.
Question: Explain the Term hypothesis.

Answer: Dear Student, The term Hypothesis is also called Statistical Hypothesis
and it is defined as: “An assumption or statement about the value of
unknown population parameter which may or may not be true is called
Statistical hypothesis.” It is of two types: 1. Null Hypothesis 2.
Alternative Hypothesis Null Hypothesis: Any hypothesis which is to be
tested for possible rejection under the assumption that it is true is called
Null Hypothesis. It is generally denoted by Ho. The hypothesis is usually
assigned a numerical value. For example, suppose we think that the

average height of students in all colleges is 62 inches. This statement is
taken as null hypothesis and is written symbolically as Ho: µ = 62.
Alternative Hypothesis: “Any other hypothesis which we accept when the
null hypothesis is rejected is called Alternative hypothesis” It is generally
denoted by H1 or HA. A null hypothesis is thus tested against an
alternative hypothesis H1. For example, if our null hypothesis is Ho: µ =
62, then our alternative hypothesis my be H1: µ ≠ 62 or H1: µ > 62 or
H1: µ < 62.
Question: Explain relative measure of dispersion

Answer: Relative measure of dispersion is one that is expressed in the form of a
ratio, co-efficient of percentage and is independent of the units of
measurement. A relative measure of dispersion is useful for comparison
of data of different nature. A measure of central tendency together with a
measure of dispersion gives an adequate description of data. We will be
discussing four measures of dispersion i.e. the range, the quartile
deviation, the mean deviation, and the standard deviation.
Question: WHAT IS MOMENTS

Answer: Moments are the arithmetic means of the powers to which the deviations
are raised. Thus the mean of the first power of the deviations from mean
is the first moment about the mean; the mean of the second power of the
deviations from mean is the second moment about the mean and so on.
First four moments about mean are defined as: m1 = (X – Xbar)/n m2 =
(X – Xbar)2/n m3 = (X – Xbar)3/n m4 = (X – Xbar)4/n
Question: What is difference between independent and independence variable.

Answer: Two events A and B in the same sample space S, are defined to be
independent if the probability that one event occurs, is not affected by
whether the other event has or has not occurred. Two events A and B in
the same sample space S, are defined to be Dependent if the probability
that one event occurs, is affected by whether the other event has or has
not occurred.
Question: Explain the Condititional Probability with the help of example.

Answer: In conditional probability we are dealing with two events .One event is
that for which we have to find the probability and about 2nd event we
have some priori information.To illustrate the concept of conditional
probability let us consider an example. Let a die is rolled. S={1,2,3,4,5,6}
A is the event of getting a" 5" & a prior information is given that on a
particular throw of a die ,the outcome is an odd number (event B) .Hence
B={1,3,5}now the probability of getting a "5" in this reduce sample space
is 1/3 which is known as conditional probability of event "A". Note.
Priori means already known information before starting the experiment
Question: what is loaded die?

Answer: We can say that, a biased unfair die is a loaded die
Question: Explain Nominal and ordinal levels of measurement and also tell me what
is EPAmileage rating.
Answer: Nominal Scales When measuring using a nominal scale, one simply
names or categorizes responses. The essential point about nominal scales
is that they do not imply any ordering. Nominal scales embody the lowest
level of measurement. It is used for identifying individuals, groups or
regions. Ordinal Scales Where nominal scales don't allow comparisons in
degree, this is possible with ordinal scales. Say you think it is better to
live in Karachi than in Lahore but you don't know by how much. EPA
means Environmental Protection Agency US government agency for the
protection of the environment which ranks the most fuel-efficient vehicle.
Question: Explain bivarite.

Answer: Bivariate Data Before we looked at one measurement on an observation
(or individual), say X is height. Now we're interested in more than one
measurement per observation (individual), say X is height and Y is
weight. Let's say we have n individuals we're taking the measurements
on. Then our data would be as follows (X1,Y1), (X2, Y2).....(Xn, Yn)
Question: What is meadian

Answer: abc
Question: Quartiles & their Uses.

Answer: Quartile: The values which divide the distribution into four equal parts
are called quartiles. Quartiles divide the data into four equal-sized and
non-overlapping parts. One fourth of the data lies below the Q1 (first
quartile). Half of the data lies below Q2 (second quartile) similarly, three
quarters of the data lies below Q3 (third quartile) Q2 (second quartile) is
also known as median. Use of quartiles: In order to describe a data set
without listing all the data, we have measures of location such as the
mean and median, measures of spread such as the range and standard
deviation. Quartiles are also used to describe the data in combination with
other measures. For example they are used in five number summary of
the data. The five number summary, i.e., the minimum, Q1, Q2 (median),
Q3, and maximum, give a good indication of where data lie. The five
number summary is sometimes represented graphically as a (box-and-
)whisker plot.
Question: ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION REGIONS.

Answer: ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION REGIONS: All possible values
which a test-statistic may assume can be divided into two mutually
exclusive groups: One group consisting of values which appear to be
consistent with the null hypothesis (i.e. values which appear to support
the null hypothesis), and the other having values which lead to the
rejection of the null hypothesis The first group is called the acceptance
region and the second set of values is known as the rejection region for a
test. The rejection region is also called the critical region.
Question: Explain the concept of Cumulative Frequency.

Answer: Cumulative frequency is used to determine the number of observations
that lie above (or below) a particular value in a data set. The cumulative
frequency is calculated using a frequency distribution table. The
cumulative frequency is determined by adding each frequency from a
frequency distribution table to the sum of its predecessors. The last value
will always be equal to the total for all observations.
Question: Difference between Skewed and symmetrical distribution.

Answer: A frequency distribution or curve is said to be skewed when it departs
from symmetry. If the right tail is longer the distribution is positively
skewed and if the left tail of the distribution is longer, the distribution is
said to be negatively skewed. A frequency distribution or curve is said to
be symmetrical if values equidistant from a central maximum have the
same frequencies.
Question: Explain the use of word STATISTICS in singula & plural sense.
Answer: Latin words status, meaning a political state is believed to be the origin of
the word “statistics” Statistics: Today the word statistics is used in three
different meaning. Firstly, it is used in the sense of data for example price
statistics, death statistics etc Secondly, it is used as the plural of the word
“statistic” meaning the information obtained from the sample data.
Thirdly, it means the science of collecting, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting the numerical facts obtained as a result of a survey.
Question: State about the types of statistics ?

Answer: Statistics as a subject is divided into descriptive and inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics uses graphical and numerical techniques to
summarize and display the information contained in a data set. Inferential
Statistics uses sample data to make decisions or predictions about a larger
population of data.
Question: What is bais and how it is differnt from random error?

Answer: A systematic error which deprive our resluts from there
representativeness. Biase id different from random error in the sence that
random error balance out in the long run while biase is cumulative
(addition of error) and does not become balance out in long the run.
Question: what is Point Estimation.

Answer: Point estimation of a population parameter provides, as an estimate, a
single value calculated from the sample that is likely to be close in value
to the unknown parameter. For example the value of the statistic (Xbar)
computed from a sample of size n, is a point estimate of the population
parameter (u)
Question: state what is Grouped and Row data?

Answer: Grouped data The data presented in the form of frequency distribution is
also known as grouped data. Raw data Data that have not been processed
in any manner. It often refers to uncompressed text that is not stored in
any priority format. It may also refer to recently captured data that may
have been placed into a database structure, but not yet processed.
Question: define theMean Deviation.

Answer: The mean deviation is used to characterize the dispersion among the
measures in a given population. To calculate the mean deviation of a set
of scores it is first necessary to compute their average (mean or median)
and then specify the distance between each score and that mean without
regard to whether the score is above or below( negative and positive) the
mean. The mean deviation is defined as the mean of these absolute
values.
Question: What is meant by variability?

Answer: Variability is the spread or dispersion in a set of data. Consider the
following sets of data. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 10, 6, 2, 8, 4, 14, 16, 12
13, 10, 7, 6, 21, 3, 7, 5 All these three sets of data have same mean ( 9 )
but they are different in variability. First set of values has no dispersion
and there is greater variability is third data set as compared to second set
of data as its values are more spread away as compared to the values of
second set of data.
Question: What is EQUALLY LIKELY EVENTS?

Answer: The two events are said to be equally likely if they have the same chance
of occurring. For example, in our coin-tossing experiment, the two
events, heads and tails, are equally likely. Both have the same chances of
occurring. There is 50% chance for occurring both events.
Question: What is meant by Transformation?

Answer: If we change one variable into another variable, this is called
transformation. For example, If we have values of variable X, then we
can find the values of other variables using transformations like Y = X +
3 or Z = 2X - 5
Question: Explain Primary and Secondary data.

Answer: Primary and Secondary data: When people think of market research, they
tend to think of collecting data directly from customers, prospects, or
other stake holders (this is called primary data collection). However,
secondary data can also provide a rich source of information. Secondary
data are data that already exist in industry-specific reports, previous
research on the topic of interest, or data from an organization’s own data
base. Qualitative sources of secondary data include magazine and
newspaper articles and annual reports of industry participants.
Question: What is Average?

Answer: A single value used to represent the distribution is called average. Most
commonly used averages are Mean, Median and Mode.
Question: What is Ogive and polygon.

Answer: In statistics, an ogive is the curve of a cumulative distribution function.
polygon and ogive are same.
Question: What is simple random and stratified sampling.

Answer: Simple random sampling: With simple random sampling, each item in a
population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. Stratified
sampling: In stratified sampling, the population is divided into groups
called strata. A sample is then drawn from within these strata. Some
examples of strata commonly used by the ABS are States, Age and Sex.
Other strata may be religion, academic ability or marital status.
Question: Define cluster sampling.

Answer: Cluster sampling divides the population into groups, or clusters. A
number of clusters are selected randomly to represent the population, and
then all units within selected clusters are included in the sample.
Question: why we construct chart in Statistics?

Answer: Charts are used to illustrate quantitative relationships between the
variables.
Question: define the Distribution function.

Answer: Distribution Function: The distribution function D(x) (also called the
cumulative density function (CDF) or probability distribution function),
describes the probability that a variate /variable X takes on a value less
than or equal to a number x. The distribution function is sometimes also
denoted by F(x) .The function F(x) gives the probability of the event that
X takes a value less than or equal to a specified value x.
Question: How we calculate the boundries?

Answer: CLASS BOUNDARIES The true class limits of a class are known as its
class boundaries.It should be noted that the difference between the upper
class boundary and the lower class boundary of any class is equal to the
class interval.
Question: what is value of central tendecy? and why weapply it ?and how many
types of centeral tendency
Answer: Central Tendency means the tendency of the data to gather around some
central value and the value around which all the observations tend to
gather is called measure of central tendency. Measures of central
tendency of central tendency are generally known as Averages. The most
common types of averages are: i) The arithmetic mean ii) Geometric

Mean iii) Harmonic Mean iv) Median v) Mode
Question: How we find mediam from the data?

Answer: In order to find Median, we following the steps: i) Arrange the values in
increasing order. ii) Count the number of values. iii) a. If the no. of values
is odd then Median is (n+1)/2 th value. b. If the no. of values is even then
Median is the average of n/2 th and [(n/2) +1] th observations.
Question: What is the relation between these two Moments & Moment Ratios?
Answer: Moments: A moment designates the power to which deviations are raised
before averaging them. Moment ratio: These are certain ratios in which
both numerators and the denominators are moments.
Question: what is difference between arbitrary form and dispersion?

Answer: Arbitrary form: We find the moment form any value other than the mean
that is called the moments about the arbitrary form. Dispersion: By which
we mean the extent the observation in a sample or population are spread
out. And the second moment about the mean is exactly the same thing as
the variance, the positive square root of which is the standard deviation,
the most important measure of dispersion?
Question: what is the conditinal and un conditinal probability?

Answer: In many situations, once more information becomes available, we are
able to revise our estimates for the probability of further outcomes or
events happening. For example, suppose you go out for lunch at the same
place and time every Friday and you are served lunch within 15 minutes
with probability 0.9. However, given that you notice that the restaurant is
exceptionally busy, the probability of being served lunch within 15
minutes may reduce to 0.7. This is the conditional probability of being
served lunch within 15 minutes given that the restaurant is exceptionally
busy
Question: explain What is Moment ratios?

Answer: Moment ratios are certain ratios in which both the numerator and the
denominator are moments. The most common of these moment-ratios are
denoted by b1 and b2 and defined by the relations: i) b1 = (m3)2 / (m2)3
ii) b2 = m4 / (m2)2 These are independent of origin and units of
measurement, i.e. they are pure numbers. b1 is used to measure the
Skewness of distribution, and b2 is used to measure the kurtosis of the
distribution.
Question: Why the significance level is consider 0.05?

Answer: By a = 5%, we mean that there are about 5 chances in 100 of incorrectly
rejecting a true null hypothesis. That is, we want to make the significance
level as small as possible in order to protect the null hypothesis and to
prevent, as far as possible, the investigator from inadvertently making
false claims.
Question: What is the difference between p(type 1 error) and p(type2 error)?
Answer: Type I error: On the basis of sample information, we may reject the null
hypothesis H0, when it is, in fact true. This type of error is called the type
I error. Type II error: On the basis of sample information we may accept
the null hypothesis H0, when it is actually false. This type of error is
called the type II error.
Question: write down the LAW OF COMPLEMENTATION and ADDITION

LAW.
Answer: LAW OF COMPLEMENTATION: If A is the complement of an event A
relative to the sample space S, then P (A) = 1 – P (A) Complementary
probabilities are very useful when we want to solve questions of the type
‘What is the probability that, in tossing two fair dice, at least one even
number will appear?’ ADDITION LAW If A and B are any two events
defined in a sample space S, then P (AÈB) = P (A) + P (B) – P (AÇB)
Question: Define Multiplication theorem of probability for independent events.

what is marginal probability.
Answer: Multiplication theorem of probability for independent events is as
follows: P(A Ç B) = P(A) P(B) Here A and B are independents events.
P(A) and P(B) are called marginal probabilities whereas, P(A Ç B) is
called joint probability of A and B.
Question: define sampling with replacement and sampling without replacement.

Answer: In sampling with replacement, the units are replaced back before the next
unit is selected. In this sampling procedure, number of units in population
remains same for all selections. Let ‘N’ be the population size and ‘n’ be
the sample size then number of possible samples that can be drawn with
replacement are Nn. In sampling without replacement, the units are not
replaced back before the next unit is selected. In this sampling procedure,
number of units in population is reduced after each unit. Let ‘N’ be the
population size and ‘n’ be the sample size then number of possible
samples that can be drawn with replacement are NCn .
Question: explain Point Estimator and what does it mean by a good point estimator.
Answer: Point Estimator: A single value calculated from the sample that is likely
to be close in value to the unknown parameter. It is to be noted that a
point estimate will not, in general, be equal to the population parameter
as the random sample used is one of the many possible samples which
could be chosen from the population. Good Point Estimator: A point
estimator is considered a good estimator if it satisfies various criteria.
Four of these criteria are: (i) Unbiasedness (ii) Consistency (iii)
Efficiency (iv) Sufficiency
Question: what is one Tailed and two Tailed

Answer: ONE-TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TESTS: A test, for which the entire
rejection region lies in only one of the two tails – either in the right tail or
in the left tail – of the sampling distribution of the test-statistic, is called a
one-tailed test or one-sided test. If, on the other hand, the rejection region
is divided equally between the two tails of the sampling distribution of
the test-statistic, the test is referred to as a two-tailed test or two-sided
test.
Question: What are the application of the and in which conditions for the use of
following tests? F-test chi square test z-test and t-test are not fulfilling
need
Answer: (i) F-test is used to compare the variances of two populations. (ii) Chi-
square test is used to test a specific value of population variance. (iii) Z-
test is used to test the mean of a population or equality of two population
means when population variance is known or sample size is greater than
30. (iv) t-test is used to test the mean of a population or equality of two
population means when population variance is unknown or sample size is
less than 30.
Question: what is the difference between f-distribution , chi-square distribution t-

distribution?
Answer: These distributions have their own applications and these are used in
separate situations.
(i) f-distribution is used to test the equality of two populations
variances. It is also used to test the equality of population
means when we have more than two populations.
(ii) t-distribution is used to test the mean of a population and
equality of two population means in case of small sample size.
(iii) Chi-square distribution is used to test the variance of a
population. It is also used to test the association of attributes.

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Statistical Statistical Inference is an estimate or prediction or some other

What is Order: Arrangement of objects in ascending or descending way is known

Population The collection of all individuals,items or data under consideration in

Nominal The classification or grouping of observatoins into mutually exclusive

Median : Median of a set of values arranged in ascending or descending order of

Average : A single value which intended to represent a distribution or a set of data

as a whole is called an average. It is more or less a central value around

Kurtosis : kurtosis is the degree of peakness of a distribution usually taken relative

Correlation Correlation is a measure of the strength or the degree of relationship

Venn A diagram that is understood to represent sets by circular regions, parts of

Random A numerical quantity whose value is determined by the outcome of a

Distribution less than or equal TO a specified value x is called a cumulative

Frequency A frequency polygon is obtained by plotting the class frequencies against

Event. : the possible outcomes of an experiment is known as event.

Data. : A well defined collection of objects is known as data.

likely likely to occur as other

Table : Table is a systematic arrangement of data into vertical columns and

Classification The process of arranging data in classes or categories according to

Measure of A single value which intended to represent a distribution or a set of data

The The coefficient of variation expresses the standard deviation as the

DISTRIBUTION The distribution function of a random variable X, denoted by F(x),

function (cdf) as it is the cumulative probability function of the

Experimental An experimental design is a set of rules or a plan to collect the data

Experimental An experimental unit is the basic unit to which the experiment is

Basic Randomization Replication Local Control

Randomization: It is a random process of assigning treatments to the experimental

Replication: The second principle of an experimental design is replication which is

Complete In this design treatments are applied to the experimental units

ANOVA : Analysis of variance is defined as the procedure by means of which the

Randomized Randomized complete block Design (RCB) is a design in which •

block that experimental units within a particular block are relatively

Latin LS design is an arrangement of k treatments in a k*k square, where the

Level of Level of significance of a test is the probability used as a standard for

statistics 2 Statistics is a science of facts and figures.

Arithmetic Arithmetic Mean is a value obtained by dividing the sum of the

Geometric The Geometric Mean G, of a set of n positive values is defined as the

Absolute An absolute measure of dispersion is one that measures the dispersion in

Dispersion The variability that exists between data set.

Relative A Relative Measure of Dispersion is one that measures the dispersion in

Set : A set is any well defined collection or list of distinct objects.

Class of A set of sets is called a class.

Primary The data published or used by an organization which originally collected

Quantiles : Collectively the quartiles, the deciles,percentiles and other values

Index An Index Number is a statistical measure which shows changes in a

Variance : Variance is defined as the square of the standard deviation.

Regression Dependence of one variable on the other variable is called regression. OR

Random An experiment which produces different results even though it is repeated

Skewness : Skewness is the lack of symmetry in a distribution around some central

Permutation an arrangement of all or some of a set of objects in a definite order is

Sample The set or collection of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called

Conditional The probability of the occurence of an event A when it is known that

Degrees of Degrees of freedom can be defined as the number of observations in the

Addition A probability law used to compute the probability of a union of two

Alternative The hypothesis concluded to be true if the null hypothesis is rejected.

ANOVA A table used to summarize the analysis of variance computations and

Bayes' A method used to compute posterior probabilities.